SHORT DISCRETE SYNTHETIC FIBERS FOR PAVEMENTS AND BRIDGE

DECK APPLICATIONS A state of art review

Shuaib Ahmad1, Sofia Faraz2 and Shehnila Fatima3
1
2
3

Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Sir Syed University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi
Research Assistant, Department of Civil Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, Karachi

Abstract
Synthetic fibers are manufactured from materials such as acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon,
polyester, polyethylene, or polypropylene. Traditionally short discrete synthetic fibers have been used
in cementitious composites to inhibit plastic shrinkage and drying shrinkage. The use of synthetic fibers
has been increasing at a steady rate in the past couple of decades. Fibers also reduce the permeability in
concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water in cementitious composites.
One of the promising synthetic fibers is polypropylene fiber (PPF) which is gaining wider
acceptance for variety of civil infrastructure applications including highway pavements and bridge deck
applications. The PPF fibers are predominately used for inhibiting early age shrinkage and crack
arresting capability. Usually, PPF fibers are used in volume fractions (Vf) of up to 0.5% and recently
there is interest in characterizing the properties of PPF reinforced concretes with higher volumes of PPF
with indented applications in pavements and bridge decks. Recent studies show that adding PPF
inhibited cracking in pavements and bridge decks and provided residual strength which is directly
proportional to the fiber content.
This paper presents an overview of the effects of polypropylene fibers (PPF) on various
properties of concrete in fresh (plastic) state such as workability and in hardened state such as
compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, bond strength, fracture properties, creep strain,
impact and chloride penetration with focus on work accomplished in the last decade (2000 -2011). The
paper also documents the some applications of PPF reinforced cementitious composites for
highway/airfield pavements and bridge decks.
Key words: Polypropylene fibers, short discrete, mechanical properties, pavements, bridge decks

1.

INTRODUCTION

Synthetic fibers are manufactured from materials such as acrylic, aramid, carbon, nylon,
polyester, polyethylene, or polypropylene. Polypropylene fibers (PPF) were first suggested as an
admixture to concrete in mid 1960s for the construction of blast resistant buildings for the US Corps of
Engineers. Subsequently, the fiber manufacturing has seen continuous improvement and today, PPF is
used either as short discontinuous fibrillated material for production of fiber reinforced concrete (FRC)
or a continuous mat for production of thin sheet components.
The use of PPF in civil infrastructure has increased tremendously increased, because addition of
fibers in concrete improves the toughness, flexural strength, tensile strength and impact strength as well
as failure mode of concrete [Zia et.al., 1997]. Polypropylene twine is relatively inexpensive, abundantly
available, and like all manmade fibers of a consistent quality. Nevertheless, PPF also have some

disadvantages including poor fire resistance, sensitivity to sunlight and oxygen, a low modulus of
elasticity, and poor bonding with the concrete matrix [Kurtz, 2000, Deng, 2006].
This paper presents an overview of the effects of polypropylene fibers (PPF) on various
properties of concrete in fresh (plastic) state such as workability and in hardened state such as
compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, bond strength, fracture properties, creep strain,
impact and chloride penetration with focus on work accomplished in the last decade (2000 - 2011). The
paper also documents the some applications of PPF reinforced cementitious composites for highway
pavements and bridge decks.
1.1

Polypropylene Fibers Properties

The raw material of polypropylene is derived from monomeric C3H6 which is purely
hydrocarbon and are manufactured either by the pulling wire procedure with circular cross section or by
extruding the plastic film with rectangular cross-section. They appear either as fibrillated bundles, mono
filament or microfilaments as shown in Figures 1 & 2.

Figure 1: Fibrillated fiber

Figure 2: Monofilament fiber

Typical mechanical properties provided by ACI 544 [ACI 544.5R-10, 2010] are as follows:
equivalent diameter (0.02 to 1.00 mm), Specific gravity (900 - 950, kg/m3, Tensile strength (200-760
MPa), Youngs modulus (3.5 to 15 GPa), Ultimate elongation (5-25%). The properties of
monofilament, microfilament and fibrillated propylene fibers (PP) fibers are given in Table 1 [Deng,
2007].
Table 1. Properties of various types of polypropylene fibers
Fiber type

Length
(mm)

Diameter
(mm)

Modulus of
elasticity (GPa)

0.30-0.35

Tensile
strength
(MPa)
547-658

Monofilament

30-50

Microfilament
Fibrillated

Density
(kg/cm3)

3.50-7.50

Specific
surface
(kg/m3)
91

12-20

0.05-0.20

330-414

3.70-5.50

225

0.91

19-40

0.20-0.30

500-750

5.00-10.00

58

0.95

0.9

1.2

Addition and mixing, placing, finishing and curing

Numbers of variables that effect the quality of manufacturing of ready mixed polypropylene
fiber reinforced concrete (PPFRC) include the agitating speed (mixing speed), angle of agitating drum,
agitating time after adding PPF, and viscosity of plain concrete [Akoi, 2000]. For recommended low
dosage of approximately 0.90kg/m3, 0.1% by volume, mixing techniques requires little or no
modification from normal practice. The PPF may be added at either a conventional batching/mixing
plant or by hand to the ready mix truck on site.
Concrete mixes containing PPF can be transported by normal methods and flow easily from the
hopper outlet. No special precautions are necessary. Conventional means of tamping or vibration to
provide the necessary compaction can be used. Curing procedures similar to those specified for
conventional concrete should be strictly undertaken. While placed fiber-dosed mixes may be floated
and trowelled using all normal hand and poor tools.
2.

FRESH (PLASTIC) CONCRETE

The manufacturing process has effect on the properties of fresh (plastic) concrete which
ultimately effect the properties and quality of in-place hardened PPFRC. At placement, workability is
important and immediately after placement, the early age deterioration of concrete is a persistent issue
that arises from rapid complex volume changes such as plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage and
autogenous shrinkage, thermal deformations such as early age creep and deformations. These volume
changes with time cause tensile stresses in the material when strength is relatively low at early ages
which have the potential for premature deterioration. The induced stresses may cause immediate
cracking or linger as residual stresses that serve to limit capacity of the concrete material. Such
premature deterioration affects integrity, durability, and long-term service life of concrete structures.
2.1

Workability

Workability is the measure of the ability of concrete to be mixed, handled, transported, placed,
and consolidated. It is generally recognized that slump decreases with the addition of short discrete PPF
to the cementitious matrix.
Fresh concrete properties, workability (flowability, passing ability and segregation resistance)
determined by different methods have been reported [Abdulkadir, 2007, Jinqi Li, 2011] for collated
fibrillated PPFRC having different fiber content (% by volume). At lower volume percentages of fibers
(< 0.5%), no additional addition of water is recommended as concrete will have sufficient workability.
At higher fiber content (>= 0.5%), water reducing agent or a change in the concrete mixture proportions
is required [Nagabhushanam, 1998]. Fresh concrete with fibrillated fibers has no surface bleeding or
segregation.
2.2

Plastic Shrinkage

It initiates upon the placement of concrete and effects the early age shrinkage cracking behavior
of cementitious composites [Tarek, 2010]. It was found that increased dosage of PPF tend to reduce
plastic shrinkage. Crimped and fibrillated PPF also reduce plastic shrinkage [Voigt, 2004].
3

Volume fraction (Vf) and diameter of fiber reinforcement are the two most influential parameters
in controlling plastic shrinkage cracking of concrete [Namaan, 2005]. For a given volume fraction of
fibers, changing the fiber length or aspect ratio does not have a noticeable effect on plastic shrinkage
cracking. Decreasing the fiber diameter or equivalently increasing the number of fibers crossing a unit
area, however, does significantly improve the control of plastic shrinkage cracking. At a volume
fraction (Vf) of 0.2%, most fine-diameter polymeric fibers tested provided a reasonable control of plastic
shrinkage cracking, reducing it to approximately 10% of control [Namaan, 2005]. The presence of
fibers do reduce the free shrinkage strains, however the elastic modulus, aspect ratio of the fibers and
bond of the fibers with matrix do not effect free shrinkage within age of 24 hours [Wongtanakitcharoen,
2007].
Using the image analysis to quantify plastic shrinkage crack patterns, it was found that increased
volume fraction (Vf) decreases crack widths and that for the same volume fraction (Vf) of fibers, well
distributed finer fibers are more efficient than coarse fibers in controlling the plastic shrinkage [Qi,
2003].
2.3

Drying Shrinkage

The drying shrinkage of concrete is initiated when it is subjected to drying conditions. Drying
shrinkage of high performance concrete reinforced using PPF is lower than that of the comparable high
performance concrete without fibers [Saje, 2011]. The reduction in shrinkage depends primarily on the
volumetric content of the fibers used, and on their previous moistening. The drying shrinkage of high
performance composites containing previously moistened PPF is greater, by a factor 2 to 3 than the
drying shrinkage of the comparable composite containing dry polypropylene fibers. When considering
the shrinkage and workability of high performance fiber reinforced concrete simultaneously, the
optimum volumetric content of polypropylene fibers ranges between 0.25% and 0.50% [Saje, 2011].
It has been reported that increased dosages of PP fibers in concrete caused small but consistent
increase of the overall total shrinkage strain of concrete [Aly, 2008]. It was also observed that addition
of PP fibers increases the nano-porosity and provided a more refined micro-pore-structure that is more
influential on the rate of drying shrinkage. The high porosity is likely due to the increase in mesopores
zone at the vicinity of PP fibers.
2.4

Autogenous Shrinkage

In a conservative system i.e. where no moisture movement to or from the paste is permitted,
when temperature is constant some shrinkage may occur. The shrinkage of such a conservative system
is known as autogeneous shrinkage. The autogenous and drying shrinkage of high performance concrete
reinforced by polypropylene fibres is lower than that of the comparable high performance concrete
without fibers [Saje, 2011].
2.5

Early-age cracking, Creep and Shrinkage

Due to the low tensile strength and fracture toughness of cementitious materials, fiber
reinforcement is an effective method to mitigate early-age cracking in concrete [Shah et al., 2004].
PPFRC exhibits reduced early age shrinkage cracking (Balzs, Lubly, 2007). Fibers increase the
4

toughness of concrete [Gopalaratnam et al., 1991] which manifests itself in a reduction in the crack
width in restrained concrete. Higher volumes of fibers have been shown to be particularly useful in
delaying the time to cracking, transferring stress across a crack, and reducing the crack widths [Shah et
al., 2000; Shah et al., 2004].
Shrinkage of concrete causes stresses in the material whereas tensile creep counteracts the
shrinkage as a stress relaxation mechanism. When considering cracking, tensile creep characteristics are
significant, however, only a few studies on early age tensile creep are available in the literature [Kovler .
1999, Umehara H. 1994, Gutsch A, 1994].
The crack tendency of FRCs, using the restrained ring test method, was investigated [Shah,
Weiss, 2006, Aly, Sanjayan and Collins, 2008 and Aly and Sanjayan, 2009] and restrained shrinkage
was also studied [Salah Altoubat and David A. Lange, 2001]. The effect of amount of fibers (0.5 % by
volume) on early age creep and shrinkage of concrete was to reduce slightly the total tensile early age
shrinkage and creep [Salah Altoubat and David A. Lange, 2001].
3.

HARDENED CONCRETE

The properties of hardened concrete that are important for pavement and bridge deck
applications include compressive strength, tensile (flexural) strength, impact and fatigue properties.
3.1

Compressive Strength

The effect of PPF on the compressive strength is negligible for Vf ranging from 0.1 - 2%. The
information is conflicting with some authors indicating a slight increase [Singh, 2010, Banthia, 2005,
Collins, 2001], while others indicating a slight decrease. This could be attributed to the different aspect
ratios (l/d) of fibers used by different researchers [Colin, 2001] and also due to the variability in the
mixing and consolidation of concrete.
For a specific PPFRC with Vf > 2%, there is bleeding and segregation, high entrapped air and
lower unit weight. This results in a decrease of compressive strength [Colin, 2001]. Therefore,
aggregates proportion needs to be adjusted when using high volume of fibers.
The mode of failure for PPFRC is different (cracks are more well distributed) as compared to the
plain concrete [Vondran, 1990, Colin, 2001,]. Due to the crack arresting capability of the short discrete
fibers, the cracking pattern is also different for PPFRC as compared to plain concrete.
3.2

Tensile Strength (Flexural Strength)

The flexural strength, shear strength, and the splitting tensile strength are not effected due to the
addition of PPF irrespective of the Vf. The is reduction in the stiffness decrease after cracking and an
improvement in the toughness and the deformation capacity with the increase in Vf [Yu Zhou, ShanTung Tu and Xishan Xie, 2007]. Addition of synthetic structural fiber to plain concrete beams has
shown similar equivalent flexural strength values to steel fiber reinforced concrete [Altoubat et al.
2004].
The improvement of the load carrying capacity of 2.2x2.2 m and 127 mm thick slabs, due the
addition of synthetic fibers (newly developed synthetic macro-fiber) and steel fibers is shown in
5

Figure 3. The collapse load of a plain concrete slab under center loading increased 20 and 34 percent
with the addition of 0.32 and 0.48 percent by volume of synthetic fibers, respectively [Roesler, 2006].

Figure 3 Monotonic load versus center slab deflection of plain and synthetic macro fiber
reinforced 2.2x2.2 m and 127 mm thick slab [Roesler, 2006].
3.3

Impact
Resistance to impact load is one of the important properties of concrete used for structural
applications in pavements and bridge decks. Synthetic fibers have shown to improve impact resistance
[Berke and Dallaire 1994], exhibits increase in toughness especially when Vf > 1% and also increases
water tightness of concrete structures [Mindess et al. 2003].
The impact resistance of PPFRC is 10% higher in first-crack strength and 20% higher in failure
strength as compared to plain concrete. The behavior of the PPFRC after the first crack is better and the
post cracking number of blows was 2 times higher than plain concrete [Shin Hwang 2003].
3.4

Fatigue
The fatigue properties are important for pavement and bridge deck applications. The flexural
fatigue strength performance of concrete reinforced with collated fibrillated polypropylene fibers
improved with the addition of fibers, the ductility and the post-crack energy absorption capacity also
increased [Ramakrishnan, 1987, 1989]. There was a slight increase in the static flexural strength and a
moderate increase in the flexural fatigue strength. When compared to plain concrete, there was a
positive improvement in the endurance limit for 2 million cycles.

The results of another study [Yu Zhou et.al.2007], showed that PPF improve the fatigue life and
fatigue strength of PPFRC. Furthermore under the flexural fatigue loading, the PPFRC had better
fatigue performance in the lower load range, but fatigue failure occurred in the higher load stress range.
4.

PAVEMENT AND BRIDGE DECK APPLICATIONS

Although there are number of areas in civil infrastructure where PPFRC has been used, this
paper mentions only selected highway pavements/air field and bridge decks applications. The benefits
of polypropylene fibers include reduced plastic shrinkage and subsidence cracking, as well as increased
toughness or post-crack integrity. In fresh concrete, polypropylene fibers also reduce the settlement of
aggregate particles from the pavement surface, resulting in a less permeable and more durable, skid
resistant pavements.
4.1

Pavements

The use of discrete fibers in concrete slabs on ground (or concrete pavement) application has
been reported in the literature for over 40 years [AASHTO 2001]. It has been reported that 60 percent
of fiber applications are for concrete slabs on ground for which they have been used as secondary
reinforcement [Mindess et. al. 2003]. FRC pavements have been successfully designed and constructed
with also some premature failures as reported in the literature. Overall, the failures of FRC pavement
were related to insufficient thickness design especially for overlays and/or the use of large joint spacing
(> 9 m.). Furthermore, the early concrete paving projects used high volume fractions (1 to 2%).
Hindsight has shown that the selection of certain design features (such as ultra-thin overlays with large
slab sizes) when using FRC can result in early-age corner breaks, wide crack openings, and excessive
joint spalling.
The primary use of PPFRC in concrete pavements to date has been in ultra-thin white topping,
where 50 to 100 mm of concrete is bonded to an existing asphalt pavement to form a composite
pavement. The most commonly used synthetic fibers in concrete pavements are made of fibrillated
polypropylene. They are normally used in concrete at a rate of at least 0.1% by volume. Ultra-thin
white topping typically utilizes 3 lb/yd3 (1.80 kg/m3) of polypropylene (or polyolefin) fibers.
Fiber reinforced concrete mixes with steel fibers and polymesh fibers have been successfully
used in the Chicago OHare Airport and St Louis Lambert Airport, respectively [Table 2].
Table 2. Steel fibers and polymesh fibers reinforced mix design for airport pavements.
Water

Cement
type I
(lbs)

Fly
ash
C
(lbs)

Coarse
aggregate
(lbs)

Fine
aggregate
(lbs)

Water
Reducer
(oz)

AE
Admix
. (oz)

Fibers
(lb)

Fibers
type

fr 28
(psi)

Airport

262

588

130

1800

1100

29

8.5

Steel

750

OHare

258

535

80

1834

1220

14.2

5.6

Polymesh

905

Lambert

In Pakistan, PPF (Duracrete) have been used in number of projects including concrete runway
pavement at Faisal Base (of Pakistan Air Force), Karachi, concrete runway, Pasni base (of Pakistan Air
Force), Baluchistan, concrete rigid pavement (of NHA) near Sibbi toll plaza, Baluchistan. These
7

applications have not been monitored and thus information on the improvement in performance due to
use of PPFRC is not available.
4.2
Bridge Decks
In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of cracking in bridge decks. Bridge deck
cracking has been recognized as a major and costly problem for highway structures in that it often
accelerates corrosion, increases maintenance costs, and shortens the service life of the deck. Several
factors are known to affect deck cracking including bridge design, concrete mixture design, mixture
materials, and placing, finishing and curing practices. Studies have shown that the primary source of
deck cracking is attributed to a combination of shrinkage (plastic, autogenous, and drying) and thermal
stresses, which are influenced by such factors as bridge design, concrete mixture design, material
properties, environmental conditions, and construction practices [TRB, 2006].
In terms of material properties, the materials selection and proportioning is critical and the role
of fiber reinforcement in reducing the bridge deck cracking is recognized [TRB, 2006]. In 1997 ODOT
overlaid the Link River Bridge with micro-silica concrete, reinforced with polypropylene fibers. The
bridge deck was evaluated after 2 years of service life. Cracking resistance was found to be no better in
the northbound lane with fibers, compared to the southbound lane without fibers. Cracking was also
observed in both lanes two years after construction. Thus the vendors claim of reducing cracking on
both the short term and long term was not supported.
In Pakistan, in 2008, hybrid synthetic fibers of lengths 13mm and 25mm have been used in
Milenium Bridge and Johar Morr Bridge, in Karachi. Condition survey after one year revealed that
expansion joint of Johar Morr Bridge with fibers had shown excellent impact resistance and a high
degree of crack control as compared to expansion joint in Milenium Bridge without fibers [Figure 4].

(a) Millennium Bridge without Fibres

(b) Johar Morr Bridge with PP Fibres

Figure 4 Expansion Joint of Millennium Bridge (a) without Fibers and (b) with PP Fibres.
5.

New Developments in Fiber Reinforcing

Most of the research to date on fibrous concrete has involved either steel fibers for structural
enhancement, or synthetic fibers for enhanced pavement performance, by decreasing permeability and
giving the concrete residual strength after cracking occurs. However, recent research and development

initiatives in the fiber industry have resulted in improvements and technology enhancements. Two of
these improvements are structural synthetic fibers, and steel/synthetic blends.
Micro-synthetic fibers (typically 12 mm by 18 micro meter diameters), based on 100%
polypropylene are being extensively used in ground-supported slabs for the purpose of reducing, plastic
shrinkage cracking and plastic settlement cracking [Perry, 2003].
Structural synthetic (macro-synthetic) fibers are high strength, high modulus fiber reinforcement
that is designed to structurally reinforce a concrete slab in place of steel rebar or steel fibers. To achieve
the structural enhancement, addition rates are typically greater than standard polypropylene fibers, often
up to 5.93 kg/m3 (10 lb/yd3). The benefits of synthetic structural fibers include tight crack control, easy
use and handling, scheduling advances, and no corrosion. Residual strengths after cracking are
generally in the range of 0.69 1.90 MPa (100 - 275 psi) flexural, while most synthetic fibers
demonstrate 0.55 0.69 MPa (80 - 100 psi) residual strength.
Structural synthetic (macro-synthetic) fibers have the potential to provide ductility as a result are
being used in slabs and concrete floors to control cracking and long term drying long term drying
shrinkage [Concrete Society, 2003]. These are significantly larger-typically 40-50 mm long and 1 to 1.5
mm wide and used in significantly higher dosage than polypropylene micro-synthetic fibers. Structural
synthetic (macro-synthetic) fibers provide significant level of post crack control in the same way as that
achieved by steel fabric and steel fibers [Clements, 2002].
Steel/synthetic fiber blends combine the benefits of both types of fibers. The steel fibers give the
concrete increased strength, and the synthetic fibers give the concrete increased durability and
toughness. Typical dosage rates of blended fibers are 14.24 kg/m3 (24 lb/yd3), with the majority of the
weight coming from the steel fibers. Test results have shown increased residual strength (after cracking)
of up to 0.62 MPa (90 psi) flexural, compared to 14.24 kg/m3 (24 lb/yd3)of straight steel fibers.
6.

SUMMARY

In this paper an overview of the effects of polypropylene fibers (PPF) on various properties of
concrete in fresh (plastic) state and in hardened state is presented. The fresh (plastic) properties of
PPFRC include workability, plastic shrinkage, drying shrinkage, early age creep and shrinkage
characteristics. The properties of hardened PPFRC include compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength, fracture properties, creep strain, impact and fatigue characteristics. The paper also
documents the some applications of PPF reinforced cementitious composites for highway pavements
and bridge decks. Some new developments in PPF reinforcing are also summarized.
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