Major Evaluating Report for batteries of Radioactive Kind

1. Introduction
The search for alternative energy sources has led to research in many different
fields. One of the modern concepts is the idea of a battery that, instead of uti
lizing the energy in a chemical gradient like a dry cell battery, uses the energ
y given off by natural radioactive decay of an isotope to create an electric cur
rent. This type of cell is called a nuclear battery.
In order for a nuclear battery to function, the power source has to be a radioac
tive isotope. An isotope is a nuclide of an element with a different mass due to
a different number of neutrons. The decay of a nucleus to form other nuclides b
y emitting different types of particles, electromagnetic radiation, as well as h
eat, is known as radioactivity. The stability of an isotope depends on the ratio
of protons to neutrons and a Line of Stability that describes the radioactivity
of isotopes. The time scale for radioactivity to occur is different among isoto
pes and their decay can be measured in terms of how long it takes for half of th
e original element to decay to another element. This value is known as the halflife or t1/2.
decay is a type of process that certain elements may go through depending on the
ratio of protons to neutrons inside the nucleus.
Neutron
Proton + electron (En
ergy)
The mass of the particles in this equation is conserved. When this reaction occu
rs, the product electron is ejected with some kinetic energy from the nucleus an
d is known as a particle.
This idea becomes vital for the function of the modular nuclear battery because
the natural decay of a - emitting particle is the primary source of energy. This
electron can be used to cause a type of chain reaction, or flow of other electro
ns, that can be harnessed as electrical energy. The rate of flow of electrons th
rough a medium is known as a current.
The most important type of material relative to the function of a nuclear batter
y is the semiconductor. The special properties of semiconductors allow the harne
ssing of radioactive energy from the decay of radioisotopes that release of part
icles. Semiconductors are materials that contain properties that fall in between
conductors and insulators. Conduction in semiconductors can occur in multiple w
ays.
2. History
Henry Mosley, in 1912 attempted to use high positive voltages to pull beta parti
cles (high energy electrons) back into their radioactive source. The positive ch
arge on radium increases when it loses negative charges by beta-particle emissio
n.
The lack of perfect insulation then limited the generated potential to 150,000V.
Moseley actually created the world s first atomic battery
a beta cell. He called
it a radium battery. Such a battery relied on using the charge on beta or alpha
particles to directly derive a current. This was done by collecting the charges
of radioactive decay on a metal and using a capacitive structure to drive a curr
ent.
3. Classification
Currently, nuclear batteries can be separated into two main categories: Non-ther
mal Converting Batteries and Thermal Converting Batteries.
3.1. Thermal Converting Battery
An example of thermal converting battery is Radioisotope Thermo-electric Generat
or (RTG). RTGs, like other nuclear batteries, essentially have no moving parts.
They generate electricity by utilizing the heat released from radioactive decay.
Heat from decay is generated by many unstable isotopes, including byproducts of
nuclear fission capable of radiating heat for decades. This heat source conduct
s onto a thermo-electric generator. The heat-to-electricity conversion occurs wh
en two different conducting metals are joined together to create a closed circui

t and the two junctions are kept at different temperatures. The temperature diff
erential is brought about by utilizing the radioisotope to transfer more heat to
one metal conductor while the other is less hot. (Barnov, 2011)
3.2. Non Thermal Converting Battery
Non-thermal Converting Batteries extract incident energy of radioactive decay an
d does not depend on a temperature differential. There are three existing types
of non-thermal converting atomic batteries that have been developed.
3.2.1. Optoelectric Battery
The first type is the Optoelectric Battery, which involves turning the beta deca
y of radionuclides to light and then the conversion of light into electrical ene
rgy (photovoltaics). Isotopes are suspended in gas that is capable of being exci
ted by emitted electrons. The chosen gases then emit light that is of certain wa
velength, which is then used to excite a PN-junction in a photovoltaic cell to p
roduce an electric current. Technetium-99 and Strontium-90 have both been used a
s the radioisotope and the gases used may be a mixture of argon, xenon, and kryp
ton for the production of this type of battery (Lao, 2011)
3.2.2. Radioisotope Piezoelectric Battery
The second type is the Radioisotope Piezoelectric Battery (RPB). Piezoelectricit
y is the linear accumulation of electric charge due to mechanical stress or pres
sure directly due to the Piezoelectric Effect. The reverse Piezoelectric Effect
is what drives the RPB, using an electric field and mechanical energy to produce
a current. Nickel-63 is usually used for this process. . This isotope emits be
ta particles towards the cantilever, which gradually builds an electric charge.
At the same time, the film of nickel isotope builds a positive charge. With buil
ding potential cantilever and film come in contact and a flow of current is esta
blished. (Li H., 2002)
3.2.3. Betavoltaic Cell
The third kind of Non-thermal Converting Nuclear Battery is the betavoltaic cell
. Analogous to a photovoltaic cell, the betavoltaic cell operates on the same pr
inciple, but generates energy from a beta-emitting radioisotope instead of light
. When the isotope radiates toward a PN-junction, it creates holes pairs in the
semiconductor material, which in turn generates a current due to the voltaic eff
ect.
Recent research in betavoltaics has also increased the efficiency of the convers
ion system. Modern technology allowed to increase the surface area of semiconduc
tor material to absorb particles, this increase resulting in higher efficiency.
(Lao, 2011)
4. Drawbacks
High price, low conversion efficiency, Disposal and harmful effects of radioacti
ve substance weighs in heavily on public and hence it is first essential for the
new technology to gain social acceptance which is can do so by demonstrating it
s benefits and safe operations of the batteries.
5. Applications
Nuclear batteries find many fold applications due to its long life and improved
reliability. Space, medical, underwater exploration are the filled which will be
greatly benefitted by advancements in nuclear battery technology. In space appl
ications, nuclear power units offer advantages over solar cells, fuel cells and
ordinary batteries as they provide high power, a high life time, a compact desig
n and are independent of atmospheric conditions. The medical field finds a lot o
f applications with the nuclear battery due to their increased longevity and bet
ter reliability. Nuclear batteries may slowly replacing the conventional batteri
es and adaptors. Since these batteries are geared towards applications where po
wer is needed in inaccessible places or under extreme conditions, researchers en
vision its use as deep-sea probes and sensors.
6. Conclusion
As the world grows, the need for more power and heat will undoubtedly grow along
with it. Clearly the current research of nuclear batteries shows promise in fut
ure applications for sure. With implementation of this new technology credibilit
y and feasibility of the device will be heightened. The principal concern of nuc

lear batteries comes from the fact that it involves the use of radioactive mater
ials. This means throughout the process of making a nuclear battery to final dis
posal, all radiation protection standards must be met. The economic feasibility
of the nuclear batteries will be determined by its applications and advantages.
With several features being added, nuclear cells are going to be the next best t
hing ever invented in human history.
7. Bibliography
A, T. (1999). Nuclear Batteries: Types and Possible Uses. Nucleonics, 129-133.
Barnov, V. (2011). Super Compact Radio Nuclide. Vancouver.
Blanchard, J. (2005). Radioisotope Batteries for MEMS. Wisconsin.
Lao, R. (2011). A Modular Design for Nuclear Battery Technology. San Luis.
Li H., L. A. (2002). Self-reciprocating Radioisotope-Powered Cantilever. Wisconc
in: J. Appl. Phys.