20170141

Modern Material Culture Studies
Author(s): William L. Rathje

Source: Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory, Vol. 2 (1979), pp. 1-37
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20170141
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MODERN MATERIALCULTURE STUDIES
Modern Material Culture Studies

WILLIAM L. RATHJE
AN ARCHAEOLOGICALINTRODUCTION
TO MODERN
MATERIALCULTURE
are
I run across an article relating how archaeologists
"Everytime
a
new
I
and
can't
but
wonder
what
would
excavating
interpreting
dig,
help
should our civilization
be abruptly
Thus wrote
happen
extinguished."
a
in
Stahl
UPS
article
which
concluded
that ar
Nancy
(Stahl 1975),
a.D.
in
reconstruct
on the
3075
would
1975
"based
chaeologists
society
contents
of our basements."
boxes
Upon finding empty
"archaeologists
that we were a race of box
undoubtedly
jump to the conclusion
costumes
Halloween
would
"sacred
become
worshippers."
garments"
and a wedding
dress a "sacrificial
both
in
used
If
robe,"
"pagan rituals."
as
chose
their
excavation
archaeologists
site,
"inadvertently"
Disneyland
that we were a "race of giant threefingered mice."
they would conclude
This amazing article is only one of many
that pit archaeologists
against
from
to
Ebbet's
laundromats
Field
[The Weans
(Nathan 1960),
everything
Tell-el-New
York III (Greenberg
1953), Report on Grand Central Termi
nal (Szilard
and
the
1961),
Archaeologicus
segment of Saturday Night
Live (NBC-TV, April
This
of
asks
15, 1978)].
genre
popular archaeology
the question?what
if archaeologists
studied us? The answer
is almost
the same?they
would be unabashedly
moronic.
always
This
is a dismal prospect.
most
of
the descriptions
of ar
Luckily,
are
on
are
in
the
future
based
distorted
views
of
how
sites
chaeology
(a)
nature of archaeological
formed and the selective
how
(b)
preservation,
would
1
ADVANCES INARCHAEOLOGICALMETHOD AND THEORY, VOL. 2
Copyright ? 1979 by Academic Press, Inc.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
ISBN 0-12-003102-7
WILLIAM
L. RATHJE
choose
sites for excavation,
and (c) the nature of ar
archaeologists
and hypothesis
chaeological
interpretation
testing. Luckily also, this mis
has not robbed archaeologists
of their sense of humor nor
understanding
their curiosity.
repressed
Most of us have played the game, what will an archaeologist
learn about
us in 1000 years? A few archaeologists
not to wait a mil
have decided
now. Some
lenium for the answer and are taking the question
seriously
are working
on salvage operations
to preserve
data on the social context
of our material
culture. Others are recording
similar data to test theories
about the relation between
human behavior
and material
culture.
Still
others are studying modern
settings to evaluate and expand the repertoire
of method
and theory used to reconstruct
The implica
past societies.
are now doing the archaeol
tion of these activities
is clear. Archaeologists
ogy of us.
The first part of this chapter will describe
the kinds of studies of modern
are doing and their reasons for doing
material
culture that archaeologists
them. There
is little published
literature at present,
and many
research
term papers with their attendant weaknesses.
reports are undergraduate
not a critical
this first section of the chapter is an overview,
Therefore,
review,
second
modern
of the dealings of archaeologists

with our material
culture. The
this chapter describes
the broader context of studies of
in current behavioral
culture
science
research.
part of
material
THE ROLE OF MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE STUDIES
IN
ARCHAEOLOGY
The archaeological
culture traces its theoreti
study of modern material
to recent changes
as their
cal foundation
in what archaeologists
perceive
research domain. During the last decade, a number of archaeologists
have
two traditional
of the definition
of ar
aspects
independently
rejected
must dig for their data, and (b) that
(a) that archaeologists
chaeology:
data must be old (Fontana
1970; Deetz
1970, 1977a,b;
archaeological
Salwen
1973; Leone
1973; Ascher
1974; Reid et al. 1974; Ferguson
1977;
and others).
This bold action
left archaeology
with a single defining
a focus
on the interaction
characteristic:
between material
culture and
and ideas, regardless
of time or space.
runs to the roots of the
of this view of archaeology
as
the
behavioral
science of the past.
discipline.
Archaeology
developed
Because
informant
interviews
and documentary
data were usually un
as a source of
had to examine physical
evidence
available,
archaeologists
information
about related human behavior.
As a result, archaeologists
human
The
behavior
bulwark
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
a unique appreciation
culture plays
for the critical role material
of
It is this insight that is the organizing
behavior.
principle
It is also this insight that has led to a series of recent
archaeology.
ex
research. Archaeological
in the domain of archaeological
expansions
made
of documents
and investigations
cavations
important contributions
and
to knowledge
of our recent past, and historic-sites
archaeology
were given their pedigrees.
Other archaeologists
industrial archaeology
developed
in social
it
culture to reconstruct
found that in order to use material
past behavior,
culture today, and
was helpful
to observe
the way people use material
and experimental
became
legitimate off
archaeology
ethnoarchaeology
the subject matter of archaeology
this expansion
process,
spring. Through
level.
has grown to include artifacts both below and above ground
are
In the latest phase of this developmental
process,
archaeologists
within
the
now studying modern America.
They are seeking recognition
to the process
of
contributions
of archaeology
domain
by (a) making
the insights
tools, and (b) providing
conceptual
building archaeology's
that are unique to an
into our society and our relation to past societies
is material
Their basic subject matter
culture,
archaeological
perspective.
but
usually defined broadly enough to include not only typical "artifacts"
also plowed fields, polluted rivers, and other physical entities modified
by
record and
human behavior
1977a,b). Their studies quantitatively
(Deetz
culture and human behaviors
between material
the relationship
analyze
in a modern
industrial setting, and include studies that com
and beliefs
pare the past to the present within a long-term perspective.
en
cultural and urban geography,
Cultural
anthropology,
sociology,
a
sciences
and
vironmental
study
variety of other behavioral
psychology,
few record the same kinds of
recent and contemporary
society. However,
on the social context
of material
would
collect
data an archaeologist
not
culture studies are designed
modern material
culture. Archaeological
Ar
to
them.
but
to replace
the work of other disciplines,
supplement
with
its own particular
science
is a behavioral
methods,
chaeology
and
theories,
viewpoints.
of modern data does have precedents.

exploitation
of the town dump of
excavation
is A. V. Kidder's
in the 1920s. This research
is preserved
Massachusetts,
Andover,
only in
were
never
too
All
this
often
the results
folklore;
reported.
archaeological
our
of
studies
has been the fate of similar studies. Nevertheless,
enough
to
have been formally and informally reported
society by archaeologists
The archaeologist's
The most
legendary
I have gathered
research avenues
they are pioneering.
culture into four catagories
studies of modern material
the archaeological
to archaeology:
contributions
based on their rationales and potential
(a)
outline
the general
teaching
archaeological
principles,
(b) testing
archaeological
principles,
WILLIAM
(c) doing
L. RATHJE
the archaeology
of today,
(d) relating
our society
to those of the
past.
Contribution
1 :Teaching
Archaeological
Principles
The most obvious

characteristic
of modern material
culture studies is
in teaching archaeology.
their usefulness
studies can be valu
Completed
a typological
able learning aids. Gilborn
(1968), for example,
designed
seriation. Rather
analysis of Coke bottles primarily as a tool for explaining
than read the reports of others, however,
the main advantage
of studies of
is that students can be asked to do their own.
modern material
culture
as archaeological
of their own
undergraduates
Involving
investigators
a
of an
{a) an analytical perspective
society has
variety of useful benefits:
students aware of the systematic
relation between
ongoing
society makes
can most
material
culture and behavior;
learn the
(b) students
easily
and weaknesses
of archaeological
and theories
methods
strengths
by
them in a familiar setting; (c) data for study are available
applying
locally
in an unending
of older, scarcer sites;
supply, and there is no destruction
(d) during their studies of material
culture, undergraduates
gain practical
in the research process,
experience
including project design, data record
a great deal of
and reporting;
(e) this approach
generates
ing, analysis,
not
enthusiasm
be overlooked
in an era
among students, which will surely
of declining
enrollments.
anthropology
from
have benefited
students at a number of universities
Archaeology
a
are
few published
there
these advantages.
Nevertheless,
reports on
only
our
culture
material
of studies of
the instructional
(McVicker
implications
1978;
1974; Kavanaugh
1973; Ascher
1974; Rathje
1972, 1973; Salwen
Wilk and Schiffer
1978, n.d.). To illustrate the extent of the unreported
use of student projects,
I shall draw upon experience
in the department
I
teach.
where
in archae
culture
material
Students
began doing studies of modern
At
in
that
at
of
Arizona
1971.
the University
time, the
ology classes
were
tests
of archaeology's
basic
of projects
straightforward
majority
in a systematic
and material
culture are related
that behavior
premise:
the assumption,
based on personal
These
papers begin with
a
our
is known.
in
that
society,
specific pattern of behaviors
experience
culture are then
in the use and disposal
of material
Associated
patterns
to determine whether
loci are checked
postulated;
finally, actual activity
use
and
of
reflect expectations
observed
deposition.
patterns
at iso
selected as his topic behaviors
John Hohman
(1975), for example,
at
the
ends
of
surface
remains
the
recorded
lated road ends and carefully
two dirt roads in the Tucson desert. The resulting maps show two concen
manner.
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
to the road was

at both road ends. The ring closest
trie rings of materials
of beer cans,
the
consisted
of
broken
beer
bottles;
larger ring
composed
areas
In
than
rather
from the
tossed
secluded
away
dropped.
presumably
a
were
encoun
number
of
sex-related
items
of
cars,
lights
approaching
that
tered. Thus, the material
remains at both road ends showed patterns
to occur
to the activities
that were assumed
conformed
so many modern material
culture studies do, this project
at road ends. As
an
also produced
Behind each road end were dumps for stolen cars

discovery.
unexpected
and property,
correlate
of road end
such as wallets?an
unanticipated
behavior.
Over the past five years, the direction of student projects has expanded
to include tests of a variety of specific
from tests of general premises
in method
At present,
and
and principles.
undergraduates
techniques
courses
that
in
culture
class
modern
exercises
material
theory
participate
use-wear
soil
involve students in seriation, chronology
building,
analysis,
in the behavioral
and natural factors
of patterning
identification
analysis,
that affect
Schiffer
Students
site formation,
1978, n.d.).
have also
and
begun
the field
testing
of hypotheses
to examine more
complex
term papers. Many
studies
have centered on traditional
in their independent
problems
as elsewhere,
sity of Arizona,
concerns with burial ritual and cemeteries
(Wilk and
archaeological
at the Univer
archaeological
1972 for a
(see also McVicker
a few
students in Chicago);
of similar studies done by Loyola
description
value of these student studies.
examples will illustrate the potential
the relation between
students have examined
Several
grave markers
One compared
the size and decoration
and socioeconomic
stratification.
on gravestones
at cemeteries
in Philadelphia
and
and females
of males
showed no difference
between
Tucson over the last thirty years. Results
on the East Coast, but larger gravestones
in
for males
student
for
identified a clear tendency
1977). Another
(Franey
in a cemetery
of similar sizes to cluster
1975). The
(Fahey
the clustering
of burials of indi
that this pattern represented
possibility
status was tested by a particularly
viduals of similar socioeconomic
indus
trious student. Goodoff
searched for
(1972) recorded a sample of markers,
males
and females
Tucson
markers
and found a correlation

between
obituaries,
job and general pay
size and form of grave marker.
to the common
This result lends credence
archaeological
assumption
that the energy invested in grave goods, grave construction,
and the act of
with the deceased's
interment is usually commensurate
position within a
relevant
scale
and
community
rule, some
mortuary
this assumption
may be valid as a
1978). Although
(Tainter
to
have
One study of a
papers
begun
explore
exceptions.
that served Mexican-American
families concluded
that in cer
WILLIAM
L. RATHJE
as the major
cause of death overrides
socioeconomic
position
influence on funeral expenditures
1975). In the case of breast
(Moosman
cancer deaths, networks
of relatives mobilize
well beyond normal bounds
tain cases
to finance
of family status, little

Regardless
is
for
vic
drug overdose
beyond
necessity
provided
expenditure
tims. Because
of a small sample size, the distortions
these
represented
by
have not yet been evaluated.
types of exceptions
studies have
Some cemetery
for the archaeological
in
implications
a
in
of
and
economic
internal
terpretation
changes
society's
viability
extremely
elaborate
funerals.
basic
social
structure.
Bartholomeu
that local fluctuations

in
(1977) proposed
in
fluctuations
Test
funerary equipment may
regional economics.
data indicated that as personal
income in the United
States rose and fell,
on grave markers
so did expenditures
in Tucson.
Goldman
(1972) ex
to find that during periods
and political
stress the
of economic
pected
on grave markers would
recording of family ties and religious affiliation
a marked
in Tucson
increase. Data from the last fifty years
indicated
War
II.
increase in both types of inscriptions
World
As
these
types
during
are further expanded,
tested and analyses
of findings are rigorously
they
reflect
may have
studies.
important
implications
for
traditional
archaeological
burial
the student papers I have mentioned

and hundreds
like them
Although
are all interesting,
none of these reports are published.
This is a pattern
the University
of Arizona
shares with other anthropology
departments
that emphasize
student analyses
of modern
material
culture
(Salwen
term papers in undergraduate
classes
lack
1973:162). It is partly because
to be considered
the energy investment
and concern for detail necessary
It is also partly because
for journal publication.
there are few clear
more
As
publishing
opportunities.
professional
archaeologists
publish
their modern material
culture studies, more students will find the motiva
to follow suit.
outlets
tion and the publication
are an
In the meantime,
the student papers
that have been written
invaluable
and development
reservoir
research
of ideas for large-scale
an archaeological
Le Projet du Garbage,
Arizona's
projects.
study of
as
in
term
household
1971
modern
papers
garbage, began
undergraduate
Reuse Project,
concerned
(1971). Arizona's
(1971) and Araiza
by Allen
with the acquisition
and disposal
furniture and appliances,
of household
drew upon a number of student papers in its development
process
(Schif
fer and McCarthy
1978).
are them
The students who have done modern
archaeology
projects
resource
an even more
than their papers
valuable
selves
(S. South,
communication
personal
no rules or traditional
1978). The archaeology

of doing
ways
things.
of modern
settings has
The field is open. The
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
stu
In the process,
is to give it form and substance.
creative
challenge
and attitudes.
innovative
Students
dents are free to develop
approaches
are likely to ap
culture projects
fresh from their own modern material
new
data
from
directions.
Some of these
traditional
productive
proach
culture to develop
include using modern material
directions will probably
enter
and theory components
of the discipline
of archaeology;
the method
2.
contribution
Contribution
2: Testing
Archaeological
Principles
The potential of modern material culture studies to develop and validate

ethnoar
the rationale
for current
archaeological
principles
provides
in
societies
of
small
nonindustrial
communities
chaeological
analyses
in interpreting
hunter
these studies are useful
(Gould 1978). Although
and farming villages,
both Salwen
(1973) and Ascher
gatherer campsites
excavate
(1974) point out that archaeologists
large urban centers as well.
Modern
cities are the progeny of ancient urban centers,
just as modern
are descended
set
of the past. Neither
from hunter-gatherers
bushmen
and be
pure, untainted
technologies
ting can be considered
by modern
nature of the present global economy,
liefs. Because
of the monolithic
are related
industrial and nonindustrial
communities
through multina
tional production-distribution
tourism, and aid in health, edu
systems,
in Australia
Thus, modern hunter-gatherers
cation, and "development."
in
hunt with shotguns from the deck of pickup trucks, and rural farmers
on transistor
and listen to Linda Ronstadt
Buganda wear wristwatches
radios. Given the industrial impurities in all modern
settings, assumptions
tested inmodern
about ancient urban societies may be more appropriately
urban centers
than in rural areas of the third world.
areas where
Salwen
several research
studies of
(1973) has proposed
to the archaeology
modern material
culture could make contributions
of
as a process
ancient
urban centers,
vandalism
(a) analyzing
including
of site formation
and an indicator of social values,
the
(b) determining
material
correlates
of ethnic differentiation
through the use of archaeolog
ical typologies,
and (c) identifying
of the use of space within
patterns
buildings and generally within cities. In a recent paper on this latter topic,
Wilk
and Schiffer
in behavior
and
(n.d.) have identified several patterns
remains associated
with vacant
lots in Tucson.
these
Testing
in traditional archaeological
sites may lead to new interpretations
patterns
of the functions
of the "vacant"
of ancient cities.
portions
in archaeological
those locations
sites used for periodic
Identifying
markets
is a major theoretical
and practical concern of the archaeologists
of complex
East and Mesoamerica.
in the Near
societies,
especially
material
WILLIAM
L. RATHJE
has been made.

in this direction
Schiffer
little progress
a
new
are
from
the
perspec
(n.d.)
attacking
problem
and modern
data on
tive with (a) a cross-cultural
survey of ethnohistoric
a
meets
and
and
detailed
of
markets
their
swap
(b)
periodic
analysis
so
in
As
the
Tucson.
do
correlates
correlates
material
the
accumulate,
will have a major practical
behaviors
that this study of modern
chances
Nevertheless,
and Schaefer
impact
In a similar study, Morenon

(1978) is
archaeology.
of the link between
correlates
the material
organizational
task specialization
in auto service garages
and increasing
in
on traditional
investigating
complexity
New Mexico.
Portales,
At least one new archaeological
ern material
culture data. Historic
has been tested using mod

technique
sites often produce numbers of rusted
their original contents. McCarthy
has
tin cans devoid of labels identifying

a technique
that uses can sizes, the historic records of national
developed
to assign food types and
and a Monte
Carlo simulation
food packers,
nutritive values to old cans. As a test, McCarthy's
technique was tried out
on
can
in Tucson.
the Garbage
When
Project
can
to
the
known
match
contents,
compared
a
as
new
to
the
added considerable
tool
of
historic
technique
credibility
sites archaeology
1977).
(Rathje and McCarthy
and principles
tested in modern
Many
settings are not lim
techniques
or urban sites. Time depth and cultural
to historic
ited in application
are keystone
of archaeological
characteristics
data. A large
diversity
and models
used
in archaeological
number
of methods
interpretation
cross-cut
and must therefore be based on general prin
these dimensions
and ideas to material
culture.
for
Seriation,
ciples that relate behavior
on
about behavior
in the
is based
patterns
example,
general propositions
and discard
of material
invention,
distribution,
production,
adoption,
of behavior-material
culture. Often
models
archaeological
change are
move
on
form
based
about the way people
goods,
simulated
size data collected

can contents were
by
or respond to economic
bureaucracies,
can be applied and tested
cal principles
was amply justified
in
This assertion
and Deetz
Dethlefsen
(1966; Dethlefsen
stress. Such general archaeologi

in any society,
including our own.
and
the mid-1960s,
when Deetz
1967) began to explore the princi
from Boston and vicinity.

ples behind seriation, using historic gravestones
Not only did these data provide eloquent
confirmation
of the basic accu
to
but
of the technique
of
the
led
further
refinement
racy
they
technique,
and
Dethlefsen
the
effect"
1965). In
(Deetz
by introducing
"Doppler
an
of
and
Dethlefsen
documented
model
Deetz
addition,
(1966)
interesting
and
material
culture
that tied together
cultural
innovation
(see
ideology
also Eighmy
1977).
One University
of Arizona
student
paper
that applied
seriation
in a
MODERN
is an interesting
modern
of the Deetz
and Dethlefsen
setting
offspring
a
research. Feldman
and Hughes
selected
100 cars from
of
(1972)
sample
a used car lot. A set of ten stylistic and ten functional
attributes were
recorded for each. First the cars were seriated on the basis of style alone,
Ar
then just on the basis of function.
The results were
surprising.
assume
are
se
that
attributes
the
best
for
chaeologists
usually
stylistic
at
riations. Modern
show considerable
cars, however,
stylistic variability
a
a
one
or
a
with
Datsun
time
Cadillac
any
240z). In
(compare
Volkswagen
as
turn
seat
functional
such
amber
contrast,
attributes,
belts, and
signals,
are
more
or
at
all
manufacturers
less the
ignition locks,
usually adopted by
same time. Thus
in this one test case, functional
attributes
served as
a more accurate
useful horizon markers
and produced
seriation than did
the stylistic
A number
to evaluate
attributes.
of other student
papers
have used modern
data from Tucson
relevance
of archaeological
(see also
a
Schiffer
1978
for
of
additional
student
1976,
papers of this
description
an
states
that
the
distance
be moved
for
One
may
sort).
hypothesis
object
a
a
in
is
function
of
size
and
such
items
the
the
number
of
repair
object's
test was obtained using clock repair data (Net
given vicinity. A positive
an object's use area
that the distance between
tles 1972). The proposition
use
and storage area is directly
related to the frequency
of the object's
was studied and tentatively
inmodern kitchens
confirmed
1972).
(Hughes
and other appliances
Another
study used sales data on washing machines
to derive a model of status symbol replacement
in
which related changes
an item's status value to changes
costs and the quantity
in
in replacement
circulation
(Swan 1972).
The general
cross-cultural
and cross-temporal
of some
applicability
now
is
with
modern
material
evaluated
archaeological
being
principles
is Ascher's
culture from our society as one of the test cases. One example
includes data
of archaeological
site formation which
(1968) description
in
from an auto junk yard in Ithaca, New York, and a Seri Indian village
Mexico.
with
and cross
cross-cultural
proposition
on litter on
offered
McKellar's
(1973)
paper
temporal
by
that there was a
the University
of Arizona
which
indicated
campus,
Items above 4 inches (about 9
critical size factor in litter disposal patterns.
found in trash cans; objects
smaller than 4
cm) in size were consistently
was
inches were
left behind as litter. A world
Jim O'Connell
away,
Another
archaeological
implications was
processes
among modern Australian
studying site formation
His research
showed
that when regular activity areas were
the size of the leftovers was 9 cm or less. After
swept,
McKellar's
research,
O'Connell
is intrigued
by the possibility
Aborigines.
cleared and
considering
of a general
10
WILLIAM
L. RATHJE
of disposal,
with obvious
for both past
implications
Principle
communication
and present
1977).
(J. O'Connell,
personal
to test and as a donor of new and tested
As a recipient of old principles
culture studies are likely to develop
modern material
in tandem
principles,
and theory. In addition,
with the pulse of archaeological
method
it is clear
as a place
to apply archaeological
that the more we use our society
McKellar
the more information we shall retrieve about our own

techniques,
enter contribution
3.
from archaeology's
unique perspective;
Contribution 3: Recording
the Archaeology
society
of Today
we must feel that things will

are immensely
Somehow
egotistical.
we
as
are.
same
the
would
realize that what future
Otherwise
stay
they
us
a
not
is
will
about
game. Continual
say
really
change is
archaeologists
one of the defining characteristics
of modern
Decades
civilization.
from
now historians
and archaeologists
will be trying to reconstruct
the culture
from now relevant archaeolog
history and lifestyles of the 1970s. Decades
We
ical data will not be easy to find.

is Tell-el-New
III
One of the classic
folktales
of archaeology
York
an
an
to interpret
account
of
1953),
attempt
archaeologist's
(Greenberg
It is
the ruins of Ebbets Field, the home stadium of the Brooklyn Dodgers.
more than ironic that the Dodgers
are now in Los Angeles
and that in the
mid-1960s
Ebbets Field was completely
razed and replaced by an apart
ment
The material
remains
of the stadium were
sold to
complex.
reused in other old buildings,
memorabilia
into new
collectors,
recycled
or dumped
in various New York
landfills.
contexts
of these and a myriad
other data we take for
behavioral
This is an important
theme for justifying
granted are being discarded.
a
Without
modern material
culture studies in archaeology.
such research,
lost?lost
of our cultural
heritage will be irretrievably
major
portion
or lost because
no
in recording and preservation
methods
through biases
items,
The
to record or preserve
it at all.
is made
attempt
have noted that the
Scholars who deal with ancient literate civilizations
in its picture of
printed work often lies about events and is incomplete
individuals.
human behaviors,
focusing mainly on the doings of powerful
but for some reason
such com
echo these sentiments,
Archaeologists
our
own
and
in
where
distortions
been
raised
have
society,
rarely
plaints
our
in
the
written
of
exist
records
behavior
1977;
gaps
(Glassie
clearly
Carson
1978).
are the product of human bias in the data on behavior
Most distortions
or government
scientists
that enter written
records. First, few behavioral
culture in
record keepers collect data on the social context of our material
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
11
Second, when they do, their "objec

any systematic,
quantitative manner.
tive" data are usually collected by using methods with built-in biases. For
the majority
of their data are obtained
informants
example,
by asking
to
or
to describe
their behavior.
Informants
responding
questionnaires
as
such
may
behaviors,
intentionally
misrepresent
interview-surveys
or negative
cultural connotations.
beer drinking, which
have positive
in informant accounts
also arise
Unintentional
inaccuracies
of behaviors
data
of problems
of recalling detailed quantitative
1966; Adams
1973; Brittin and Zinn 1977).
in which
Most gaps
in written
records are due to biases
because
(Webb
records
et al.
are
and historians
for study. As historic-sites
of
archaeologists
have found from experience,
of
owing to a narrow conception
technology
our lifestyles
to understanding
are not ac
history, many data relevant
are hard to locate,
quired by libraries. Old Sears and Roebuck
catalogues
the daily lives of
yet they hold important data on items that touched
preserved
on our material
In fact, the basic documents
in America.
everyone
are not
the patents,
and
mail
culture,
advertisements,
repair manuals,
even valued
Gideon
1968;
(Fontana
1948).
literature and printed matter
is a paucity
Equal to the failure to preserve
of artifacts
saved from daily life. Because
of the way we value material
some items are
and the role of antiques
in our society,
possessions
as
Just
seek
libraries
preserved.
usually
pieces of literature,
outstanding
almost
status
"old"
items are often considered
of "antique"
however,
worthy
seems that the
In fact, it sometimes
because
they possess unique features.
more abundant and persistent
an item is during its period of use, the fewer
are intentionally
B. Schiffer,
(Michael
preserved
examples
personal
communication
1976).
The preservation
of common artifacts has fallen to enthusiastic
private
collectors
of memorabilia,
such as the members
of London's
Ephemera
to saving anything printed or written
is devoted
that was
Society, which
use:
for purely
intended
short-term
timetables,
lists,
railway
laundry
school
cards. The fad of collecting

report cards, and Christmas
today
almost every kind of common
artifact?beer
cans, can openers,
box tops, hub caps. This type of acquisition
has been institutionalized
in
the form of curators of modern material
culture at some museums
and a
over what
in concern
increase
should be collected
and how it
general
includes
should be
Stramstad
documented
and displayed
(Sturtevant
1969; Harris
1978;
1978, Palmer
1978).
To archaeologists
of the future, private collections
will most
closely
resemble
those of today's looters, which are a series of items ripped out of
context and devoid of behavioral meaning.
Actual
contextual
analyses of
our material products will be extremely
difficult for future archaeologists.
WILLIAM
12
flow
L. RATHJE
context
to context
has become
second-hand
garage
rapid through recycling,
increasingly
organizations,
and other forms of reuse (Schiffer
sales, swap meets,
1976). In addition,
our society takes pains to destroy
the past context of materials,
which are
For example,
discarded.
almost
site in urban
every
finally
disposal
America
has a bulldozer
that spends
its day running back and forth
The
of goods
and materials
from
through newly dumped debris and thoroughly mixing

garbage collection
units together.
success
at eradicating
Our unparalleled
archaeological
contexts
is an example
of what seems to be a general rule: as societies
in complexity,
more
becomes
and
develop
garbage disposal
systematic
compactors,
energy-intensive?trash
regular garbage collection,
special
resource
ized demolition
recovery,
organizations,
specialized
recycling,
and disposal
sites.
or more accurately
On the basis of these patterns of preservation,
the
Fontana
lack of preservation,
(1968), Ascher
(1974), Glassie
(1977), and
a
for
of
have
all
material
contemporary
(1978:27)
argued
study
in use in our everyday
their
of
culture
life. Common
artifacts,
patterns
our
on
and
and
their effects
use,
social, economic,
political
religious,
are as important to American
of the
behaviors
history as the transcripts
Hume
hearings.
a contribution
to our
of the studies
that intentionally
make
Many
culture history focus on material
in
culture as an important component
our belief
has carried
this aspect of modern
Leone
material
systems.
form in (a) analyzing
the role of
culture studies to its most
sophisticated
Watergate
the implications
of
life (Leone 1973) and (b) discussing
fences inMormon
in Washington
and the
the differences
between
the Mormon
Temple
Catholic
and the Episcopal
National
Cathedrals
(Leone
1977).
and culture
Another
type of study that records our current
lifestyles
is an
The Garbage
Project
history does so in a context of "relevance."
for archaeology
in 1972 as a training exercise
students,
example.
Begun
data record of the contents
of
the project soon found that its quantitative
to a variety of scholars and
modern
household
garbage cans was useful
refuse data on beer consumption
government
Specifically,
policymakers.
informant interview data and (b) define
have been used to (a) supplement
can be
so that correction
in reporting
factors
of biases
the direction
1977).
(Rathje 1978; Rathje and McCarthy
applied to informant responses
corre
Other Garbage Project studies have focused on (a) the behavioral
level (Harrison et al. 1975; Harrison
lates of food waste at the household
and
and
1976; Rathje
1977)
(b) the effects of inflation on the food
Hughes
of
low
segments,
specific population
strategies
especially
purchasing
income households
(Rathje and Harrison
work
for the Environmental
Protection
1978). Current research

on identifying
Agency
includes
the re
MODERN
13
a year of specific population

to ads promoting
segments
a
inMilwaukee
to
second
endeavor
is
pilot Garbage Project
recycling.
as
as
consumer
well
dissimilar
the
behaviors
of
matched
compare
popula
and Tucson.
Based on this background,
tion groups between Milwaukee
an archaeological
to data
contribution
the Garbage
represents
Project
sponses
over
A
and others study

scientists
by behavioral
gathering
techniques
employed
our
and
1975).
ing
society
(Rathje
Hughes
done
culture, whether
Every archaeological
study of modern material
or cognitive
in the name of teaching or testing or relevance
studies,
of our society. These
preserves
important data on the current conditions
of our society are important for under
behavior-material
descriptions
standing ourselves
4.
contribution
Contribution
today
4: Relating
in addition,
and,
Our
Society
our relation
to Past
to the past;
enter
Societies
of today is that it provides an

for doing the archaeology
more traditional archaeol
of
for
the
results
opportunity
communicating
us
to
to
For
how we are similar to, or
the
understand
ogy
really
public.
we
our
must
to look at ourselves
in
be
able
different
ancestors,
from,
we
are
at
to
the
Material
that
the
look
culture
ways
way
past.
comparable
an unbroken
tool to
record that reaches from the first discarded
provides
culture has yet to be
the contents of our garbage cans. Although material
are
some archaeologists
as a link from past to present,
fully exploited
A final rationale
being drawn in this direction.

such as South (1978), Schuyler
Historic-sites
(1977), and
archaeologists
are
and
data
Hume
their
(1978), among others,
figuratively
finding
literally
In addition, many cultural resource
lying closer and closer to the present.
are
in urban centers,
(CRM) archaeologists,
management
especially
own
sur
and
their
themselves
living
finding
surveying
digging through
the CRM
and Bowen
1978a). The law, in fact, requires
an
area.
resources
to
in
all
cultural
evaluate
CRM,
archaeologist
impact
a special impetus for long-term studies that relate us
therefore,
provides
to our ancestors
leads
(Cotter 1974; Hosmer
1978). Often this opportunity
faces
(Dickins
to the construction
that connect
of chronologies
past and present. One
Ellis
and
the
used
is
(1978), which
Grange
glass chronology
by
example
extends from early Egypt to the Alcoa
of
but
1976:
lip
potential contribu
record
tions extend beyond
histories
of technology.
The archaeological
can be used as an "explanatory
and
present
past
connecting
bridge"
1978).
(Carson
One example of an attempt
an archaeological
perspective
to relate historic sites to the present

is Daniel
investigations
Ingersoll's
through
at the
WILLIAM
14
L. RATHJE
New Hampshire.
Bank Site, located in the city of Portsmouth,
Strawberry
and
centered on Puddle Dock, a filled waterway
The physical
excavations
the archaeological
1830 and 1840. Besides
wharf structure built between
sources. The
material
retrieved,
Ingersoll used a wide range of historic
cities: solid
of modern
all related to the genesis
investigated
problems
and
use
slum
waste
land
development,
patterns,
immigration,
disposal,
most
the
landlordism
absentee
1971:67).
significant
Perhaps
(Ingersoll
resulted from the dock fill data:
bridge to the present
The
industrial
able
containers
revolution
. . .was
and materials
by
the consumer
supplying
the end of the nineteenth
in the upper portion

25,000 cubic yards of fill deposited
world
of the throw-away
began not in the twentieth
age
[ingersoll
of dispos
hundreds
The estimated
century.
show that the
of Puddle Dock
with
century
but
during
the
19th
1971:70].
A second
includes work with James Deetz.
background
Ingersoll's
Deetz.
the last
from
derived
also
During
past-present
study
inspiration
have been doing the ethnoar
and colleagues
five years, W. H. Adams
of a rural American
Silcott, Washington
(1900
community,
chaeology
soon
behind
the
town
reservoir
will
be
buried
the
The
remains
of
1930).
by
the archaeology
Lower Granite Dam. In a major step toward legitimizing
of the Alpawa
of our recent past, this study is a "salvage"
component
a
historic
of
wide
like
sources;
range
Adams,
Ingersoll,
exploits
Project.
added an archivist/ethnographer,
but Adams went one step further?he
of
to talk to individuals who had once lived in Silcott. Because
that
and
Adams
believes
historic
in
records
deficiencies
materials,
major
at Silcott
is a significant
his combination
of ethnography
and archaeology
to the accurate
of a rural American
reconstruction
contribution
lifestyle.
Adams
because
This contribution
is especially
1975)
(1973,
important
that
data are so different
that the recorded behavior-material
maintains
a culture totally
the Silcott of only one or two generations
ago represents
in part
from that of modern America.

line
the dividing
and similar studies all point toward erasing
in
is
this
line
still
As
and
between
however,
yet,
place,
past
present.
themselves.
to some degree by archaeologists
maintained
They have often
in
modern
in
historic
sites
raised
failed to explore
society.
questions
cen
in
the
nineteenth
that
the
says
age"
"throw-away
Ingersoll
began
different
These
solid wastes
between modern
tury. But what are the actual differences
in the mid-1800s?
For this comparison,
and those discarded
Ingersoll
seems to rely on his stereotype
that
refuse. Adams maintains
of modern
the material
inventory of Silcott is vastly different from that of today; but
ar
are those differences
In these and other cases,
where
quantified?
that are the
commodities
draw a line between
the material
chaeologists
culture that shapes
and the material
traditional domain of their discipline
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
15
day of their lives. As a result of this dividing line, most studies have
a quantitative
short of realizing
view of the major
in
changes
us from a folk to a truly urban society within
America which
transformed
the last 50 years (Dickens and Bowen
the feasibility
1978b). Nevertheless,
of such studies
is illustrated by one of the first modern material
culture
in anthropology,
studies
which
is still one of the best (Richardson
and
every
fallen
Kroeber
and A. L. Kroeber
six stylistic
recorded
1940). Jane Richardson
attributes of formal dresses pictured
in a sample of fashion journals from
1787 to 1936 (their present). Analyses
demonstrated
that fashion was not
but
that
each
the
six
of
attributes
followed
capricious,
cycles of 70 to 100
years' periodicity.
We are always
in the process of becoming

the past. In fact, we can often
in the act of continuing
the long-term
trends that ar
chaeologists
identify in their studies of change. The linking of past to
in an archaeological
is a natural by-product
of using
present
perspective
modern material
to test
culture studies to teach archaeological
principles,
and to record our current culture history. Each
archaeological
principles,
catch
ourselves
to the preservation
such study contributes
of archaeological
data that will
otherwise
be lost. Each study, therefore,
has relevance
for
potentially
new dimensions
to
comparing our society to past societies and contributes
the archaeology
of us.
Contributions:
Potentials
and
Realities
Few comprehensive
studies of modern material
culture
archaeological
and published.
have yet to be undertaken
This is largely because
their
to traditional
contribution
has yet to be de
interests
archaeological
The value of the archaeology
of our society
has yet tobe
monstrated.
because of the tempting sirens archaeologists
find waiting
in
demonstrated
modern
settings to lure them into other pursuits.
The first bait that subverts archaeologists
is encountering
living infor
mants. W. H. Adams
to collect material
hired an ethnographer
culture
a short time, Adam's
data from Silcott
informants. Within
had
colleague
was left
turned into a "full-fledged
and the archaeologist
ethnographer,"
on his own to collect what material-behavior
data he could
(Adams
into ethnographer
has befallen other
1975:344). This same transformation
of modern
analyzers
With
the potential
say, in "meanings"
material
culture.
to talk to people comes
and "values"
(see Deetz
an
interest in what people

1977a; Leone
1973, 1977;
Ascher
rather than produce
1974; Fontana
1970, among others). Often,
materialist
of ma
that focus on behavioral
correlates
ethnographies
terial culture, archaeologists
turn to "mentalist
archaeology,"
using mate
WILLIAM
16
L. RATHJE
as one
the
This view can separate
systems.
from
of
the
research
of
the
archaeologist
society
majority
men
his archaeological
sand
from
broken
But
pots.
colleagues?dusting
talist archaeology
to dirt archaeologists.
does have potential
relevance
to
is sensitizing
The first value of mentalist
archaeology
archaeologists
in
human
As
outlined
of belief
behavior.
the importance
systems
by
socio
to see how dependent
the powerful
Leone
(1977), it is possible
rial culture
key
of modern
to belief
is upon
its carefully
Church
of the Mormon
framework
as
belief
As
intricate
the
system.
interplay among beliefs,
and material
culture is, archaeologists
behavior,
might find this realization
if not for mentalist
include quan
studies, which
archaeology
depressing
of identifying
correlates
titative data and hold out the potential
cognitive
economic
structured
of material
culture.
In his study of folk houses
in Middle Virginia,
(1975)
Henry Glassie
his data in a rigorous quantitative
format and identified changes
collected
and political upheav
in house construction
patterns during the economic
als of the nineteenth
of
Similar
century.
patterns
change were identified in
studies would
Ireland and England. Most behavioral
likely have stopped
to trade patterns or local
there or would perhaps have related changes
went on by attempting
to understand
the
economics.
however,
Glassie,
in eighteenth-century
house forms and mental
systems
He concluded,
other
among
things, that the architectural
to "accurately
in a society
that is
reflect the conflict
once?as
at
is?to
hier
attracted
American
society
schizophrenically
archical social classification
and to egalitarian activity"
1975:181).
(Glassie
to
to attempt, but it speaks of a potential
stuff for an archaeologist
Heady
relation between
Middle Virginia.
seemed
designs
is
correlates
of material
culture. A similar potential
mean
concern
and Deetz'
for
the
(1967)
symbolic
on their historic gravestones.
ings of the carvings
of modern
that can subvert ar
The other element
material
culture
has made
is
relevance.
for
The
chaeologists
Garbage
example,
Project,
to
few
with
direct
contributions
dirt
As
mentalist
relatively
archaeology.
are
to
there
indirect
benefits
traditional
archaeol
however,
archaeology,
amount
of
about
the
have
often
waxed
ogy. Archaeologists
eloquent
that can be gleaned from material
data. If an archaeological
information
to modern material
culture cannot tell us something useful about
approach
identify
evident
the cognitive
in Dethlefsen
those words might be called

into question.
The most
an
of
is
that
"relevant"
studies
perspec
archaeological
important
are making contributions
to useful knowledge
tive and methodology
about
ourselves
today,
aspect
the present,
the
further
legitimizing
the ability
of archaeologists
to learn about
past.
These
indirect
benefits
aside,
the ideal "archaeological"
study of mod
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
17
not only to the present, but also directly

ern material
culture contributes
culture break
to knowledge
of the past. The first real modern material
shun
the
in
await
who
will
those
throughs
temptations
archaeology
purists
and walk
the straight and narrow of
of mental
and relevance
systems
for the past in the present.
principles
testing archaeological
are
in archaeology
studies
culture
The traditions of modern material
are
if
well
set.
is
that
to
it
clear
be
Nevertheless,
they
only beginning
setting can con
done, each individual archaeological
study in a modern
to (a) teaching archaeological
(b) testing archaeological
principles,
(c) recording culture history, and (d) recording the archaeolog
principles,
cross-cultural
ical data for quantitative
Any good dirt ar
comparisons.
for
creative
functions.
The
these
challenge
chaeology
project performs
is
the
material
culture
modern
the archaeologists
translating
studying
own
our
in
into
action
of
society.
potential
good archaeology
in modern
civili
research
of archaeological
the full potential
Realizing
tribute
culture
the function of modern material
requires understanding
as
as
in
of
the
well
in contemporary
behavioral
science,
discipline
next
this
considers
of
The
section
paper
archaeological
archaeology.
in this broader context.
culture studies
modern material
zations
studies
THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TECHNOLOGY

we do
no joke when Union Carbide claims that "something
a
as
or
much
states
that
"we're
Eaton
when
will
life"
touch
your
today
a
car
as
car
few
the
life."
is
of
Over
the
the
of
years,
your
past
part
part
aware of the part material
have become
we, as individuals,
increasingly
of our
A claustrophobic
realization
culture plays in our daily activities.
as
sources
was
one
of
art"
of
the
material
culture
"pop
by
encapsulation
with the
into a fascination
it emerged
in the early 1960s and developed
It is now
concern
for the socio
culture" of the 1970s. This avant-garde
a
interest.
of
material
is
culture
scholarly
by
paralleled
impact
have
humanities
and
the
the
sciences
behavioral
past decade,
During
our
on
our
artificial
environ
to
articulation
with
attention
focus
begun
in
are nothing new, but putting technology
ment. Analyses
of technology
a social context
is.
a recognized
in fact, become
culture
studies have,
Modern
material
"popular
cultural
in a variety of disciplines.
increasingly
Sociologists
be
interactions
and measures
and evaluating
interviews
with obtaining
difficulties
and
urban geographers,
Environmental
psychologists,
on
are studying
environments
the impact of material
endeavor
research
turn to observations
cause of increasing
informant bias.
urban planners
WILLIAM
18
L. RATHJE
and attitudes,
and vice versa. Market
and con
behaviors
researchers
sumer educators
studies because
have long focused on behavior-material
and behaviors
is a key to
the relationship
between
commodities,
attitudes,
are
and concepts
Architectural
theorists
selling products
efficiently.
use
a
the way people
forms and space out of
need to make
studying
artificial
for the kinds of things people actually do.

in resource management
and specialists
and
have begun to make assessments
of the be
so
because
technology
simple
technological
useful
environments
Government
policy
planners
technological
development
of
havioral
implications
lutions to problems often backfire, owing to unexpected
human reactions.
are recording
the social context of technol
Even cultural anthropologists
of the devastating
in
effects of introducing new technologies
ogy because
communities.
"primitive"
of modern
The development
in most
material
studies
disci
culture
seems to have followed
similar courses.
as it seems to be leading
is worth outlining,
plines,
including archaeology,
This shared evolution
process
to a new research
focus in the behavioral
1 :The
Phase
"Popular
Culture"
sciences.
Phase
toward a focus on the social context

The first gropings
of material
culture have been forms of play, such as the Tell-el-New
York III tales,
future archaeologists
which
of base
the contents
pit bumbling
against
ments and Disneyland.
Mania
of art deco, old baseball
collectors
cards,
and Superman
comics are another symptom of a new awareness
of com
mon material
things. From the same roots rose Robert Rauschenberg,
art on the
and Larry Poons, who focused
their "pop"
Andy Warhol,
that many of their early
lives. It is no accident
artifacts of our everyday
an American
works
that received
critical acclaim depicted Coke bottles,
1967). Other artists, such
1962; Fairbanks
"super-artifact"
(e.g., Warhol
as chroniclers
as author Tom Wolfe,
of
themselves
have proclaimed
over us. In this role, Wolfe
of people who drop out of traditional
and drop into the material
culture tide of cars,
leisure
stereos and the "new social etiquette."
Wolfe
bikes, boats,
television,
a literal part of the wave,
also documents
the individuals
who become
such as Carol Doda, who "blew up her breasts with emulsified
silicone,
the wave
records
of material
culture
the ever-increasing
and social activities
as
it breaks
numbers
the main
1968:i, 65-74).
(Wolfe
ingredient of Silly Putty"
context of material
This kind of interest in the humanistic
culture seems
to be the basis for "popular
in academia.
The first
culture" departments
an
and largest was
founded
literature
Ray B.
English
specialist,
by
at
In
had a
in
1960s
Green.
1974
the
the
late
Browne,
department
Bowling
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
19
43 graduate students, and 600 undergradu

$500,000
library, 4 professors,
a "more or less scholarly"
ates each quarter. It also publishes
quarterly
Culture
contains
30, 1974, p. 42); The Journal
{Time, Dec.
of Popular
on carnivals,
articles
of
women's
the
social
magazines,
significance
and the architecture
stands. The spe
of McDonald's
T-shirts,
hamburger
cific rationale for "popular culture"
studies in the humanities
is based on
the concept that material culture is so much a part of our everyday
lives that
our relation to itwill help us to better understand
ourselves,
understanding
to better cope with our environment,
and even to answer some of the more
of meaning
in life (Glassie
1977; Fish wick and Browne
profound questions
their ultimate purpose,
the substance of
1970; Kavanaugh
1978). Whatever
humanistic
studies struck a responsive
chord among behavioral
scientists
who began to do their own analyses.
Phase
2: The
"Measurement"
or "Reflexive"
Phase
Serious behavior-material
studies are based on three factors:
(a) the
material
culture
culture,
ubiquity of material
(b) the unique possibilities
offers for recording data using standardized
and (c)
scales and measures,
the assumption
that material
are interrelated
culture and behavior
in a
manner.
Within
most
modern
material
culture
systematic
disciplines
studies were developed
to use material
culture as a passive
primarily
indicator or mirror of attitudes and/or behaviors.
This type of utilization
is
studies, but it is best illustrated by the past uses
typical of archaeological
of material
in sociological
culture
research.
The move
in sociology
toward adding material
culture to attitude and
behavior
studies is exemplified
in the literature of social stratification
and
has most often taken the form of indices based on house types or living
room furniture. Other
and clothing, have also
items, such as magazines
been used. The format was set in the 1940s by Warner's
studies (Warner
et al. 1960). In his work, most of the material
indices were considered
of
was not sophisticated.
Little con
value, and the methodology
or even
classifications
spent on developing
internally consistent
measures.
are
not well
standardized
The result is that many early studies
or not replicatable.
documented
In the last two decades,
in sociology
has
the role of material
culture
peripheral
cern was
the last decade,

Over
interview and questionnaire
methods
expanded.
to more and more criticism concerning
have been subjected
the effect of
the measuring
device on informants. This led to the plea by Eugene Webb
to attempt
to develop
and his colleagues
for sociologists
"unobtrusive"
measures
of behaviors
and attitudes:
WILLIAM
20
L. RATHJE
and questionnaires
intrude as a foreign
element
into the social
setting
roles
describe,
attitudes,
they would
they create as well as measure
they elicit atypical
. . . but
and responses,
and will cooperate
they are limited to those who are accessible
the principle
is that they are used alone
1966:1].
[Webb et al.
objection
Interviewers
book itself is a good example of the result of this call.

mea
in its rationale for developing
new, unobtrusive
Although
eloquent
it
in
is
mundane
its
The
level
of
sures,
practical
suggestions.
sophistica
tion is illustrated by the example cited most often: determining
the popu
a
museum
at
of
rate
in
the
which
the
floor
tiles
of it
front
larity
display by
are replaced. The matter has rested at this level until recently. Owing
to
Webb's
classic
rates for interviews

informant
refusal
and questionnaires,
increasing
are
observations
about
of mate
again talking seriously
sociologists
using
rial culture to record behaviors;
but a decade after Webb's
their
book,
new analysis
still
lack
the
of
the
rationale
for
techniques
sophistication
them
and
1975).
(Sinaiko
using
Broedling
and Eicher
There are exceptions
1965). More
(e.g., Roach
rigorous
studies have begun to appear and with them new quantitative
and meth
concerns.
In a study of living-room
and
furniture, Laumann
odological
over
to
House
distress
their
"failure
select
and
differ
express
carefully
entiate" within material attributes and over the "fundamental
crudity" of
same
a
the resulting
These
authors
also
(1970:338).
express
categories
new awareness
of the value of material
culture as components
of be
havioral systems: "Certainly
[material items] afford a means of examining
some of the more
subtle hypotheses
regarding peoples'
lifestyles with
and precision
than hitherto has been possible."
The
objectivity
an
on
draw
from
is
still
their
based
data, however,
they
implication
assumed
of
material
culture
and
attitudes
and
actions:
isomorphism
in their behavior
"people with traditional decor are also more traditional
and attitudes"
House
and
1970:337).
(Laumann
greater
and student archae

culture
studies by professional
Many material
corre
alike
have
followed
this
for material
format?a
search
ologists
lates of specific social and ideological characteristics.
Studies have sought
cost of house and lawn furnishings
between:
isomorphisms
(Rosenberg
and reuse alternatives
characteristics
1976), sociodemographic
(Banes
1977; Larich
1977), types of litter and types of films shown at drive-in
theaters (Schlessman
liberation move
1977), fashions and the women's
ment (Ackerman
the
of
over-the-counter
1975),
purchase
drugs and mari
use of hal
tal status
and
bathroom
decoration
the
1972),
(Snyder
lucinogenic
drugs (Motz 1972), and the way people dress and the way they
put ketchup on hamburgers
1971).
(Thomas
are studies in search of stereotypes.
These
The basic goal is to con
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
21
is isomorphic
in which material
culture
struct a neatly organized world
from our own per
This approach
derives
and behaviors.
with attitudes
to material
culture is so perva
culture. Because material
sonal relations
and
clear
sive in our society, we, as individuals,
stereotypes
develop
obscure
and such normative methods
shorthands,
variety.
As a result, students are often frustrated when a specific type of mate
The "reflexive"
rial culture does not fit into neat patterns with behavior.
and
between
behavior
have sought direct correlations
studies, which
This result
material
items, have found much more variety than predicted.
itself is indicative
of two conclusions:
(a) that our behavior-material
the real world, and (b) that in many
stereotypes
drastically
oversimplify
our society
cases expected
is in con
correlates may not exist because
are
tinual flux and material
culture-behavior
constantly
relationships
are part of a transformation,
not only in the
changing. These propositions
but also in the way
scientists
view material
culture,
way behavioral
itself is
view their everyday world. An American
Americans
mythology
changing.
American
Mythology
in Flux
to
and especially
The characteristically
American,
response
human,
From the start, technology was awarded a prime
is technology.
problems
in which
"wilderness
role in the American
[transformed
Dream,
by]
science and technology
1976:12). The
[results in] abundance"
(Garretson
same myth
is in evidence
today. Not enough food? Produce more fer
Poor quality of
and invent new forms of processing.
tilizer and machinery
on
economic
countries?"
Model
life in "less developed
development
In the American
Dream
the
United
States
systems.
energy-intensive
to be direct and
and behavior
is assumed
between
technology
relationship
is being con
this basic premise
understandable.
however,
Increasingly,
in the real world.
an ever-accelerating
foul
has become
Reality
parade of technological
that radically
de
that cause disease,
food processing
ups: medicines
creases
that pollute,
food value, cleaning products
toys that harm chil
dren, urban renewal projects that create slums. Technological-behavioral
so expectable
in our society that a new mythology
backfires have become
the old supertechnology
is replacing
of mistrust
of technology
myth
was our champion
(Coates
1974). In the "old mythology,"
technology
In a grim "new mythology,"
bred in energy crises,
whatever
the problem.
tradicted
and other
disasters,
the problem.
We are currently
caught between
environmental
technological
these myths
foul-ups,
technology
of technology
is
as super
WILLIAM
22
hero and
popular
L. RATHJE
as supervillain.
Our
technology
It is clear on television
media.
in the
is evident
schizophrenia
where
the ultimate
screens,
dollar man,"
the "six million
appears alongside
technology
superhero,
a "new myth"
It is
the Waltons,
poverty.
family happy in their material
enactment
of
The classic "2001"
clear in movies.
(1968) is an archetypal
from old to new mythologies,
the transition
humanity's
documenting
this case a paranoid computer
gone berserk?in
struggle with technology
and
where Popular Mechanics
named Hal. It is clear in written materials,
are sold on the same newsstands.
It is clear in
the Whole Earth Catalogue
seem attached
to cars
those about cars. Americans
songs, especially
cord (Botkin
1970). Cars
1970; Hammond
through an invisible umbilical
status symbol
have always been a source of pride, our most multipurpose
in songs such as "Little Deuce Coupe"
and the subject of adulation
(Jan
and "Hot Rod Lincoln"
and Dean),
"409"
(The Beachboys),
(Chuck
have been derided
these same machines
Berry). More recently, however,
and massive
for lack of safety, poor gas economy,
factory
pollution,
such as "Oh Lord, Mr.
recalls. Some new songs are now less charitable,
Ford"
(Jerry Reed):
to man
your contribution
the least got a little out of hand
Lord, Mr. Ford, what have you done?
It seems
To
Oh
say
in books
in mythologies
transition
is most explicitly
documented
as The Wastemakers
America
The
1963),
(Packard
of
Greening
et
(Meadows
(Reich 1970), Future Shock (Toffler 1971), Limits to Growth
a
Diet
al. 1972), Small Is Beautiful
and
Small
(Schumacher
1973),
for
to lay
texts attempt
Planet
doomsday
(Lappe 1971). These
technological
out the scope of our struggle with material
and
disaster.
material
bounty
but how it changes behavior and lifestyles.
Their focus is not technology,
In effect, technology
servant of human wishes",
is viewed not as a passive
and negative
but as an active component
of societies with both positive
Our
such
in public perspective
holds implications
effects on behavior. This change
for modern material
culture studies.
reflection of particular be
culture as a passive
The study of material
was
in tune with our "old" myth
structures
and cognitive
haviors
The
is under control and essentially
culture
passive.
ology?material
is emerging as a
active role in society
of technology's
"new" mythology
science based on behavior-material
strong rationale for a new behavioral
the
stress the need to anticipate
the popular media
studies.
Increasingly
on behavior
it is introduced.
before
effect of a technology
Thus, what
are
now
science
were once only technological
behavioral
also
problems
3.
enter
problems;
phase
MODERN
Phase
3: The
Context
"Social
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
23
Phase
of Technology"
as well as many
for an
searches
older ones,
discipline,
a
for all
of
view
that
and
point
provides
integrates
principle
organizational
its research. Few find this nirvana, even after decades of looking. Modern
culture studies have had their point of view forced upon them. In
material
a field of
fact, it is a common
point of view that is actually assembling
of this new
The nucleus
study out of the fringes of other disciplines.
new
Every
is clear:
perspective
was developed
to cope with our environment.
Ultimately,
Technology
as the source of our
it has replaced our natural surroundings
however,
so have
its
in quantity,
As material
culture has increased
challenge.
unex
in wholly
human
societies
side effects,
transforming
unplanned
In fact, it seems that change often comes as the result of
pected ways.
If we
of planned behaviors.
consequences
coping with the unanticipated
are to achieve
and the form of our
any control over our technology
our present
and
condition
society, we need to be able to understand
efforts must be made to understand
future changes. Systematic
anticipate
that focus on
Studies
in our manufactured
environment.
how we function
and
behavior
between
of the interaction
the basic principles
our current
a basis for evaluating
will provide
condition,
technology
of change, and, as a result, making
directions
planning and
anticipating
side effects.
with fewer unexpected
policy decisions
are studies of the social context
The first fruits of this new perspective
(a)
types of SCT have been implemented:
(SCTs). Two
of technology
and (b) projec
social context of technology,
evaluations
of the "current"
defining
Current SCTs
social effects of proposed
tions of "future"
technologies.
on a wide
have focused
issues, such as the
range of issues: (a) Social
of adult role models
effect of toys and books on the development
among
or the behavioral
of urban renewal projects,
(b)
minorities;
implications
Health
issues, such as the relation between
toys, children, and accidents;
or studies of the effect of food processing
and delivery
systems on con
sumer
nutrition,
(c)
Resource
issues,
management
such
as
consumer
to the gasoline
reactions
shortage and the energy crisis; or the effect of
on the purchases made by the poor. Many of
national brand advertising
others are
these studies are undertaken
agencies;
by or for government
done
by
urban
planners,
consumer
educators,
market
researchers,
and civil engineers.

economists,
sociologists,
The second
type of SCT is a form of futurism called "technological
in
of congressional
and is a new component
assessment"
policymaking
as the analysis
of
assessment
is defined
Technological
Washington.
on society:
the total impact of a technology
WILLIAM
24
L. RATHJE
a technology
assessment
must go far beyond
be useful,
conventional
engineering
an immediate
to look at what else may happen
in achieving
and cost studies
goal, to the
on legal, political,
and social
institu
the impacts on the family,
range of social costs,
on international
on land-use
on the
tions, on the environment,
relations,
planning,
To
structure
of cities,
and on
the makeup
of populations
[Coates
1974:30-32].
SCTs may be as specific as forecasting

the local effects of a new
or
in
now partici
which
process
highway
factory?a
archaeologists
national
the
effects
of
another
oil
Marshall
McLu
pate?or
embargo.
han's (1966) insights into the "global village"
and models
of global sys
tems such as those developed
in The Limits
to Growth
et al.
(Meadows
and
its
at
Mankind
the
Point
and
Pastel
1972)
sequel,
(Mesarovic
Turning
SCTs at a more abstract
level.
1976), are futuristic
From both types of SCT, there do seem to be the beginnings
of two
Futuristic
of analysis.
The first and most
theme in SCTs is that
important
is treated as a dynamic
culture
component
impinging on our
This means
behavior
and cognition.
the addition of a material
component
to traditional
studies. Thus,
the second
theme of
behavior-cognition
SCTs is their holistic perspective
based on the premise that human actions
are com
are not made up of discrete,
Actions
components.
independent
a
of
of
and
behavioral
posed
complicated
integration
cognitive, material,
themes
material
In any systematic
elements.
analysis, all three must be considered.
Cogni
are (a) general cultural rules elicited from informants and (b)
tive elements
as a result of
occurs
informant perceptions
of what behavior
actually
are (c) records of direct observations
of
these rules. Behavioral
elements
actions and (d) common
behavioral
shorthand
level,
concepts
(income
in groups
education
level) used to classify people
ethnicity,
demography,
are
to have behavioral
that are assumed
Material
elements
significance.
measures
data
in
form
the
of
standardized
of
the
material
(e)
quantitative
and if) the natural environment
human
culture environment
affecting
are
actions. These are not separable components.
all
in a
involved
They
total description
and understanding
of human actions
(Shimada n.d.).
Current and futuristic
than shared
SCTs are linked together by more
to anticipate
themes. The ability
upon being able to
changes
depends
state of all relevant variables,
and (b) how these
define (a) the present
will
variables
interact with each other and with new variables.
Thus,
on current SCTs
on
futuristic
SCTs are dependent
(a) for information
current situations as a base point, and {b) for data on the past interactions
as a basis for projections.
of specific variables
future impacts
Defining
of past and present
must,
therefore,
rely upon studies
technology
behavior
interactions.
set
in this process
The most important component
is building a coherent
to be tested in current SCTs and applied
of valid general principles
in
MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
25
These principles will likely become

the basis of a new
on defining
to society.
of technology
the relationship
focused
discipline
and computer modeling
The simulations
(1975)
by Forrester
exemplified
of social systems
in studies that emphasize
the counter-intuitive
behaviors
are in the forefront of this crystallizing
discipline.
field. In a very real sense, all
is relevant to this developing
Archaeology
can provide methodol
futurism must be based on the past. Archaeology
as
as
culture
well
backup data and general
ogies for studying material
futuristic
SCTs.
principles
Contribution
for current
and futuristic
1: Long-Term
SCTs
to draw upon.
Background
Traditional
archaeological
and Bowen
SCTs. As Dickins
of our modern
problems?such
studies
should
Studies
be
(1978b) have found

as overcrowding,
of many
the foundation
in urban CRM, "many
and
impersonalization,
historical
considerable
pollution?have
depth, with clear manifestations
record effi
To use this archaeological
in the archaeological
record."
from
data must also be recorded
modern
however,
comparable
ciently,
an archaeological
perspective.
Contribution
2: Material
Culture
Methodologies
and Data
to
of our society can be valuable
The process of doing the archaeology
a
on
new
own
focus
in its
there is, in theory,
SCTs
right. Although
at present
there are few useful
in a behavioral
material
culture
context,
a holistic per
social systems,
data. In fact, in studies of contemporary
are
sometimes
elements
has rarely been achieved.
Cognitive
spective
defined. Many
types of behavior are not directly
ignored or inadequately
are
are
but
described
observed,
only through interview-surveys?which
to
more relevant to a study of informant perceptions
events.
than
actual
But the greatest problem
is the lack of quantitative
data on the material
as it impinges upon human cognition
and behavior. As our
environment
more
more
and
and
has become
upon technology
dependent
society
has
become
is
directed by its products,
the fact that this element
missing
obvious.
increasingly
to SCTs
modern
is providing
contribution
second
Archaeology's
Ar
for data collection.
data and new methods
material-behavior
over
one
in
of
hundred
have
years
studying
experience
chaeologists
culture
context. All the modern material
material
culture in a behavioral
or
in
outside
fall
either
data collected
large part
wholly
by archaeologists
culture in
used to record material
the purview of standard methodologies
a unique
our society.
data represent
The result is that archaeological
source
collected
information
that (a) supplements
information
by tra
status
behavior
current
of
the
describes
ditional means,
(b)
particular
26
WILLIAM
L. RATHJE
a data bank for developing

and (c) provides
and testing
patterns,
modern mate
general behavior-material
principles. Many archaeological
on the acquisition
rial culture studies concentrate
and disposal of material
data can be useful for
These
culture by specific population
segments.
material
SCTs.
or
The disposal
of garbage,
Processes.
Disposal Data: Site Formation
in both legal and illegal forms is one of the most
solid wastes,
important
This process of site formation, which
problems
facing industrial societies.
on depositing
and natural factors working
includes both the behavioral
and modifying
material
is also a major concern
culture,
can be beneficial
of modern
site formation
Studies
of archaeologists.
to both SCT and
interests.
of the legal disposal
of solid wastes
involves
of household
the broad socioeconomic
correlates
discard
determining
in solid wastes
relative to household
demo
behavior,
including variation
state of
and social strata, time of year, and general
graphic composition
the economy.
A number of civil engineers
and solid waste managers
have
one or
such studies. Their research
examines
recently begun to conduct
traditional
archaeological
The behavioral
aspect
two sociodemographic
of discarding
such as in
dimensions
households,
come or ethnicity,
in gross material
in relation to solid wastes
recorded
such as paper, ferrous metal,
and plastic
(Re
composition
categories,
source Planning Associates
and Wilson
1972; Winkler
1973; Winfield
to
1974; Tolley et al. 1978). These data have not been sufficient, however,
waste
stream.
in
household-level
solid
An
the
the
variability
explain
of household
discard patterns must be based on data de
understanding
of specific products and the consumption
patterns of
in
these
turn,
data,
segments.
requires re
specific population
Obtaining
more
in
of
the
households
detail as
discarding
cording
sociodemographics
name.
and
brand
well as recording
the solid wastes
type
by particular
com
in
for archaeological
is a clear opening
There
describing
expertise
and
discard
in
the
behavior
consumption,
procurement,
patterns
plex
scribing
the use-lives
1975). The
resulting
(Rathje and Hughes
can be used inmodeling
the future composi
correlates
stream as well as in reconstructing
tion of the solid waste
past behaviors
from older solid wastes.
there are more opportunities
Once garbage is in a disposal
for
location,
of household
commodities
behavior-material
biochemists
have the empirical
results
Although
of
they have few field data on the generation
hazardous
runoff from disposal
sites that can
the potentially
leachate,
contaminate
groundwater
(Dunlap et al. 1976). Studies of the biod?grada
of actual landfills and dumps would
tion process
through the excavation
useful to
culture sequences
and decay rate information
provide material
site formation
of laboratory
historic-site
research.
simulations,
archaeologists
and,
in addition,
actual
test data
including
MODERN
solid wastes
specified
and environmental
MATERIAL CULTURE
conditions
for
STUDIES
leachate
27
scien
tists.
sites is not a
and recording of recent garbage disposal
it is faced every day by urban CRM
archaeological
problem;
and Bowen
As Dickins
observed,
dumps have changed
archaeologists.
is
and
this change
in
the
few
decades,
documenting
past
considerably
and
SCTs:
to traditional
relevant
archaeology
The
excavation
hypothetical
these dumps have to tell us about their

that once we have elicited what
rates of various materials,
the life span of various
artifacts,
decomposition
we can
urban behavior,
of
about
attitudes
the pathological
by-products
and other seem
some hypotheses
about the solid waste
to generate
problem
proceed
life [1978b].
of urban
aspects
ingly maladaptive
It is probable
formation,
and human
and
in littering activities,
Similar studies of patterns
illegal dumping,
undertaken
culture decay rates are being increasingly
related material
by
Administration
federal and local government
(Federal Highway
agencies
can participate.
The McKel
too, archaeologists
1974; Samtur n.d.). Here,
a
on
relevant
lar Principle was based
study of littering behavior. Another
student paper identified 1774 illegal dumps and patterns in their distribution
to specific socioeconomic
(Clifford
neighborhoods
et al. (1976) have used poptops
in
(n.d.) and Morenon
et
conducted
al.
for
Morenon
studies.
(1976),
example,
archaeological
of
the rate of utilization
refuse to determine
surface surveys of modern
a
of
forest
and
the
in
national
forest
estimate
sites
potential
impact
specific
visitors on cultural resources. This study illustrates the synergistic value of
around Tucson
1977). Both
relative
South
collecting modern SCT data on littering behavior for traditional archaeolog

ical and CRM purposes.
between Behavior, Material
Culture, and
Acquisition Data: The Relation
patterns
Defining
disposal
requires
Cognition.
studying patterns of ac
quisition.
household
As
effect
religion
define
the sociodemographic
correlates
of
archaeologists
and
and
Harrison
Schiffer
1978;
procurement
patterns
(Rathje
can be added for analysis.
subtle variables
One
1978), more
McCarthy
area of interest is the effect of cognitive
structures on the acquisition
of
material
vice
the
effect
of
culture
material
versa,
culture, and,
acquisition
on cognitive
structures.
For example,
Oscar Lewis'
(1969) study of the
in a barrio of Mexico
of poor families
the
possessions
City illustrates
of
on
the way
money
is allocated
to acquire
material
culture.
A related area of research

is the role of material
culture in maintaining
or breaking down ethnic boundaries
1974; Tumin
(Newton
1952:84-98).
This issue is especially
important because many CRM and other urban
in ethnic neighborhoods?Blacks
involve work
archaeological
projects
1974; Fleming
1971), Spanish-Americans
(Ellis and Grange
(Schuyler
culture studies
1973). A number of material
1978), and Chinese
(Ayres
28
WILLIAM L. RATHJE
have also been done in Native American

communities
1974; Katz
(Brown
similar
1974; Fontana
1978), and Salwen
(1973) has suggested
doing
in modern
cities. The potential
of documenting
studies of ethnic groups
the material aspects of enculturation,
the ability to procure food and other
and the maintenance
of ethnic patterns can be significant data
resources,
for theoretical
and practical
SCTs. A consider
archaeological
analyses
able amount of research remains to be done to document
the
systematically
structures
have on
cumulative
effect that material
culture and cognitive
in this research
and each other. Archaeological
participation
the past as well as the
valuable
insights for interpreting
provide
will
data for interpreting
the past, however,
present. The use of modern
in the additional
step of theory
require that archaeologists
participate
building.
behavior
may
Contribution 3: Theory Building

can play a role in building
structure of
the theoretical
Archaeologists
new
format
of
futuristic
research.
The
SCT
dramatic
SCTs, especially
an
to
moment
understand
The
is
for
the
elaborate
facade.
SCTs,
ability
must be based on
current and future behavior-material
consequences
are
for any
Documented
essential
tested principles.
principles
empirically
or
to
understand
the
sociocul
control, mitigate,
foresee,
attempts
simply
It is
At present there are few such principles.
tural effects of technology.
can make a significant contribution
with its
in this area that archaeology
relations.
in nomothetic
interests
principles
are
as
to
the study of the
General material-behavior
relevant
principles
as
are
to
who
the
and
the
future.
Thus,
past
present
archaeologists
they
can
in
of
behavior
search
of
modern
societies
general principles
explore
to the study of the past. Likewise,
those who choose
make a contribution
can make useful contribu
traditional areas to explore general principles
and the impact of
the social context of technology
tions to understanding
on future societies. Archaeology
can be limited to the
future technologies
reflections
of
of past behavior by using artifacts as passive
reconstruction
ancient
lifeways. On the other hand, from the same data base, archaeol
ogy can expand to develop a theory of the relations between
people and
things.
ARCHAEOLOGY'S
ROLE
IN MODERN
MATERIAL CULTURE
STUDIES
If archaeologists
they stop recording
could speak with

data
the material
the ancient Maya of Tikal, would

in their tombs and caches? Would
MODERN
29
of spaces and rooms in palaces or

they stop looking at the arrangements
are
to
trade
elements
attempting
quantify
patterns? No. These material
a
in
and
of
ancient
civiliza
components
Maya
important
legitimate
study
items are no less important in our twentieth-century
civili
tion. Material
In fact, the social context of technology
has rarely been a more
zation.
issue.
significant
source of knowledge
about
Modern
material
culture offers a unique
ourselves
and our ties to the past. Modern
material
culture shapes our
and understanding
how it does this is important to
lives in many ways,
the future. Modern
material
learning about our past and anticipating
of archaeology
culture studies represent a final step in the transformation
to the study of society and its material
into a unified, holistic approach
of our own constantly
The challenge
of doing the archaeology
products.
to archaeologists
accustomed
changing
society may be a little frightening
to carefully exhuming
But we need not
the remnants of dead civilizations.
At
worry.
giant
we are bound
the very worst,

mice
three-fingered
worshipping
to do better than finding

in our basements.
boxes
a race of
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Modern Material Culture Studies

Author(s): William L. Rathje

MODERN MATERIALCULTURE STUDIES

Modern Material Culture Studies

of the dealings of archaeologists

THE ROLE OF MODERN

MATERIAL CULTURE STUDIES

of modern data does have precedents.

The most obvious

to the road was

Behind each road end were dumps for stolen cars

and found a correlation

of family status, little

that local fluctuations

the student papers I have mentioned

1978). The archaeology

The potential of modern material culture studies to develop and validate

has been made.

In a similar study, Morenon

has been tested using mod

tin cans devoid of labels identifying

size data collected

stress. Such general archaeologi

from Boston and vicinity.

MATERIAL CULTURE STUDIES

have used modern

data from Tucson

the more information we shall retrieve about our own

we must feel that things will

ical data will not be easy to find.

Second, when they do, their "objec

cards. The fad of collecting

through newly dumped debris and thoroughly mixing

1978). Current research

MATERIAL CULTURE STUDIES

a year of specific population

and others study

of today is that it provides an

being drawn in this direction.

to relate historic sites to the present

in the upper portion

from that of modern America.

in the process of becoming

interest in what people

those words might be called

the ideal "archaeological"

not only to the present, but also directly

THE SOCIAL CONTEXT OF TECHNOLOGY

for the kinds of things people actually do.

toward a focus on the social context

43 graduate students, and 600 undergradu

the last decade,

book itself is a good example of the result of this call.

rates for interviews

and student archae

and civil engineers.

SCTs may be as specific as forecasting

These principles will likely become

(1978b) have found

a data bank for developing

these dumps have to tell us about their

collecting modern SCT data on littering behavior for traditional archaeolog

A related area of research