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Digital Communication Lecture 1

Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

January 19, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 1

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Todays Lecture

Course outline
Aims of the course
Introduction to digital communication

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Course Outline

Part I January-March
12 + 1 Lectures
10 Tutorials
3 Hand-in assignments
Part II March-June
18 Lectures
11 Tutorials
1 Recap lecture of part I
Bonus question
Written exam

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Teachers

Amirpasha Shirazinia (Part I)


Email: amirpasha.shirazinia@angstrom.uu.se
Office:
A72411
Tel: 018 - 471 7003
Mikael Sternad (Part II)
Email: mikael.sternad@angstrom.uu.se
Office:
A72132
Tel: 018 - 471 3078
Feel free to interrupt us!

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Course Material

Main textbooks
Digital Communications by Bernard Sklar (BS)
ISBN 0-13-084788-7
Wireless Communications by Andrea Goldsmith (AG)
ISBN 978-0-521-83716-3
Additional materials
News
Lecture notes, exercises, old exams

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Language

The course will be taught in English since


The main textbooks are in English
International master students, exchange students, ...

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Teaching style

Based on
Lecture slides: Definition, summary, important results, ...
Lecture notes (written on the board): derivations, comments on

slides, ...
Some teaching notes during tutorials.

Lecture slides and lecture notes can be downloaded at the course page on
studentportalen.

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Pre-requisite Courses

Signals and systems, or


Signal processing, or
Digital signal processing, or
Signal theory.

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Outline Part I

Introduction (lec. 1)
Formatting: Sampling, quantization & baseband transmission (lec. 2)
Receiver structure (lec. 3-4)
Digital modulation schemes (lec. 5-7)
Channel coding (lec. 8-11)
Channel equalization (lec. 12)
Repetition and summary (lec. 13 in period 2)

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Assessment

Hand-in assignments
3 assignments
Work in groups of 2-3
Do not miss the deadlines
Feel free to ask for help ,
Please read Rules Requirements on Studentportalen
Exam
Covers all material
Focuses on parts I and II equally

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Aims Part I

We aim to teach/learn
How information is transferred from source to receiver through a digital
communication system
How to assess the quality of the received information
Some important modulation schemes
The most important features of error correcting codes

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Introduction
In this course, we are focusing on
how the information is communicated digitally,
how good the information is received.
Why communication?
Humans need ...
Why digital representation/signaling?

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Wired/Wireless Communication

Wired communication:
ADSL: copper twisted wire
Optical fiber: (almost) attenuation-free communication with high
bit-rate
Wireless communication:
Radio signal: e.g., satellite, mobile system, radar
Infrared signals: TV remote control

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Digital Communication: General Scheme


Transmitter (TX)
bit
b

c
Encode

Format

Analog
info

Information bits

Format

Coded bits

Decode

Waveforms

Channel

Demodulate
c

s(t)
Modulate

r(t)

Receiver (RX)

Figure : A typical diagram of a digital communication system.

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Random Signals

Random (Stochastic) processess


Signal energy and power
Cross/Auto-correlation
Power spectral density

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Digital Communication Lecture 2


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

January 20, 2015

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Lecture 2

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Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

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Todays Lecture

Sampling
Quantization
Baseband modulation (coding)

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Introduction
Transmitter (TX)
bit
b

c
Encode

Format

Analog
info

Information bits

Format

s(t)
Modulate

Coded bits

Decode

Waveforms

Demodulate
c

Channel

r(t)

Receiver (RX)

Formatting: Transforms the (analog) source information into digital

symbols by sampling, quantization and baseband coding.


Applications: Analog-to-digital convertors, etc.

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Sampling
Definition: is a discretizing process of a continuous signal in time.

How many samples are needed?


Sampling theorem: If the highest frequency in the signal S(t) is fmax ,

and the signal is sampled evenly at a rate of fs = T1s > 2fmax , then
S(t) can be exactly recovered from its samples, i.e., Si s.
Nyquist frequency: 2fmax .
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Sampling Methods

Impulse sampling by using a sequence of impulses.


Aliasing: happens when sampling rate is not high enough, i.e.,

fs < 2fmax .
Other types of sampling methods: natural sampling, sample and hold,

...

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Quantization

Quantization is a compression method (a lossy source coding

technique)
Definition: A mapping from a value in a continuous set into a digit in

a discrete set.
In a general view, it can be divided into two types:
Uniform quantization
Non-uniform quantization

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Quantization: Uniform and Non-uniform

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Baseband Modulation/Coding

Digits are just abstractions a way to describe the message

information
Baseband modulation/coding: In practice, we present the binary

digits with electrical pulses


Two most common ways:
Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

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Digital Communication Lecture 3


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

January 21, 2015

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Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

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Todays Lecture

Mathematical Foundations of baseband demodulation/detection

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Introduction
Transmitter (TX)
bit
b

c
Encode

Format

Analog
info

Information bits

Format

s(t)
Modulate

Coded bits

Decode

Waveforms

Demodulate
c

Channel

r(t)

Receiver (RX)

Baseband modulation: create pulses representing binary digits.


Baseband demodulation: The received waveforms are again pulses,

but corrupted, due to thermal noise, interference, etc.


Goal of Baseband demodulation: is to recover a baseband pulse with

the best possible signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).


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Noise

By noise, we normally mean thermal noise due to thermal motion of

electrons.
Noise Statistics: We normally model the thermal noise by a random

process distributed according to Gaussian (normal) distribution.


n(t) N (0, 2 ) f (n) =

1
2 2

Spectral characteristics of thermal noise: Gn (f ) =

psd is flat at all frequencies white noise.

n2

e 22 .
N0
2

= 2 , i.e., the

Noise is additive additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN).

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AWGN
0.8
2

= 0.25

0.7

2 = 1
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
4

Figure : PDF of a Gaussian RV


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Digital Communication

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Vector Representation of Signals


Geometric representation is useful in performance analysis of

(baseband and bandpass) detectors.


Define an N dimensional orthogonal space as a space characterized

by a set of N linearly independent functions {j (t)}N


j=1 , called basis
function.

Important condition:

j (t)k (t)dt =
0

Kj j = k
0 otherwise

(1)

j, k = 1, . . . , N , 0 t T .

Any arbitrary finite set of waveforms {si (t)}M


i=1 (pulse or sinusoid)

with duration T , can be written as a linear combination of N


orthogonal waveforms {j (t)}N
j=1 , where N M .

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Vector Representation: Example 3.1 in BS


Orthogonal representation of waveforms:

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Signal-to-noise ratio SNR)


In digital comm, SNR is expressed as Eb /N0 .
Waterfalling curves of error probability vs Eb /N0 are the most

common plots in research.

Figure : An example of water falling curves using different modulations.


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Digital Communication Lecture 4


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

January 26, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 4

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Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

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Lecture 4

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Todays Lecture

Detection
Analysis of matched filter
Analysis of error probability

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Introduction
Receiver structure for baseband modulation
n(t)

r(t)
s(t)

Matched filter

z(t)

h(t)

Detector
0 or 1?

s(t)

Matched filter: Aims to maximize SNR at the output of the filter.


We characterize the matched filter.
Detection: Decision-making process of selecting the digital meaning

of the waveform s(t).


We find the error probability (false detection) for some baseband

waveforms (signaling).

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Digital Communication

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Matched Filter (MF)

Let the noisy (AWGN channel) observation r(t) = s(t) + n(t) be

filtered using the impulse response h(t)


Hence, z(t) = r(t) h(t), 0 t T

Our goal: is to determine h(t) that maximizes output SNR, i.e.,

(S/N ), at time t = T
n(t)
r(t)
s(t)

Matched filter

h(t)

z(t)

... MFs impulse response: h(t) = s(T t)

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Error Probability

Now, we want to find the error probability for a binary waveform

(signaling) si (t) (i = {1, 2}), i.e., probability of sending 1 but


receiving 0 (and vice versa).
n(t)

si (t)

r(t)

We have r(t) = si (t) + n(t), where n(t) is AWGN, s1 (t) = a1 and

s2 (t) = a2 .

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Error Probability
Conditional probability of z(t) given that waveforms s1 (t) and st (t)

are transmitted over AWGN.


0.16

0.14

0.12

f (z |s 1 )

f (z |s 2 )
0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
8

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a2

a1

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Error Probability using a MF

We determine the threshold for detection and then error probability

PB .
... Error probability becomes

PB = Q
RT
where = E1b 0 s1 (t)s2 (t)dt =
space representation.)

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Eb (1 )
,
N0

1
Eb s1

s2 (why? Hint: use the vector

Digital Communication

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Example 3.2 (BS)

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Digital Communication Lecture 5


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

January 9, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 5

1 / 10

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 5

2 / 10

Todays Lecture

Passband Digital Modulation


Transmitter (TX)
bit
b

c
Encode

Format

Analog
info

Information bits

Format

s(t)
Modulate

Coded bits

Decode

Channel

Demodulate
c

Waveforms

r(t)

Receiver (RX)

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Digital Communication

Lecture 5

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Principles

Modulation: is to encode an information bit stream into a carrier

signal, which is then transmitted over a communication channel.


Demodulation: is the process of extracting the information bit stream

from the received signal.


Corruption: of the transmitted signal by the channel can lead to bit

errors in the demodulation process.


Goal: to send bits at a high data rate while minimizing the

probability of error.

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Modulation Types

Modulated carrier signals encode information in


Amplitude Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Combined amplitude and phase Amplitude Modulation

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Modulation Types

Modulated carrier signals encode information in


Amplitude Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Combined amplitude and phase Amplitude Modulation
Representation:




s(t) = A(t) cos 2 fc + f (t) t + (t) +
...

n
o
= u(t)ej2fc t , u(t) = sI (t) + jsQ (t) = (si1 + jsi2 )g(t)

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Amplitude and Phase Modulation


The information bit stream is encoded in the amplitude of the transmitted
signal.
Define: Symbol interval Ts and number of possible sequences (symbols): M
K = log2 M bits are encoded into the amplitude and/or phase of the
transmitted signal s(t)
Amplitude/phase modulator
s i1

InPhase branch

Shaping
Filter
g(t)

s i1g(t)

cos(2f c t+ 0)
cos(2f c t+ 0)
s(t)

2
sin(2 f c t+ 0)

s i2

Shaping
Filter
g(t)

s i2g(t)

Quadrature Branch

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Amplitude and Phase Demodulation


Amplitude/phase demodulator (coherent demodulator if = 0 )
InPhase branch
Ts
x1 =s i1+n 1

g(Tt)

cos (2f c t+ )

^
m=m
i

x(t)=s i(t)+n(t)

Find i: x Z i

/2
sin (2f c t+)
Ts
g(Tt)

x2 =s i2+n2

Quadrature branch

Normally carrier phase recovery, i.e., , and synchronization, i.e., Ts , is


challenging in wireless communication.
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Amplitude Modulation Technique: M-PAM


Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) is the simplest (one-dimensional)

form of amplitude modulation.




Representation: si (t) = u(t)ej2fc t , where u(t) = Ai g(t),
0 t Ts .
In M-PAM, Ai = (2i 1 M )d, i = 1, 2, . . . , M .
M-PAM Constellation:
M=4, K=2
00

01

11

10

2d

M=8, K=3
000

001

011

010

110

111

101

100

2d

Figure 5.12: Gray Encoding for MPAM.


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Phase Modulation Technique: M-PSK


For M-PSK all the information is encoded in the phase of the

transmitted signal
Representation: si (t) = u(t)ej2fc t , where

u(t) = Ag(t)e2(i1)/M , 0 t Ts .

s i2
M=4, K=2

M=8, K=3

s i2
011

01
010

11

00

si1

001

110

000

110

10

si1

100
101

Figure 5.15: Gray Encoding for MPSK.

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Amplitude and Phase Modulation Technique: M-QAM


For M-QAM, information is encoded in the phase and amplitude of

the transmitted signal


More degrees of freedom Higher spectral efficiency.


Representation: si (t) = u(t)ej2fc t , where u(t) = Ai eji g(t),
0 t Ts .

4QAM

16QAM

Figure 5.18: 4QAM and 16QAM Constellations.

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Digital Communication Lecture 6


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 6, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 6

1/9

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

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Lecture 6

2/9

Todays Lecture

Frequency modulation
Performance analysis of modulation techniques

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Frequency Modulation

For frequency modulation: the information bits are encoded into the

frequency of the transmitted signal.




si (t) = Ag(t) cos 2(fc + i fc )t + i , i = 1, . . . , M, 0 t < Ts
Frequency separation needs to be considered to ensure orthogonal

basis functions:
f = min |fi fj |
i,j

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1
2Ts

1
Ts

if i = j
if i 6= j

Digital Communication

Lecture 6

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Frequency Modulation Technique: M-FSK

In M-FSK the modulated signal is given by




si (t) = A cos 2 fc + i fc t + i
where i = (2i 1 M ) for i = 1, 2, . . . , M .

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Frequency Demodulators

Let the received signal be


r(t) = A cos(2fi t + ) + n(t)

Coherent: We have perfect information about ideal!


Non-coherent: We do not have perfect knowledge of Practical.

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Other Types of Modulation & Applications

Differential amplitude/frequency modulation


Addaptive Modulation
2G: Minimum Gaussian Shift Keying
3G: QPSK, 16-QAM
4G: Orthogonal Frequency Division Modulation (OFDM)

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Performance Analysis of Digital Modulation Techniques


Channel: AWGN, i.e., r(t) = s(t) + n(t) where
n(t) N (0, 2 ), 2 = N0 /2
s(t) = {u(t)ej2fc t }
Baseband signal u(t) has a bandwidth of B s(t) has a bandwidth of
2B
Performance criterion: Probability of bit error Pb or symbol error Ps .
We define
Eb : energy per bit
Es : energy per symbol
Tb : bit time
Ts : symbol time
SNR per bit b = Eb /N0
SNR per symbol s = Es /N0

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Performance Analysis of BPSK and QPSK

BPSK (or binary PAM):

Pb = Q
QPSK:

Pb = Q

p

p


p
2Eb /N0 = Q( 2b )


p
2Eb /N0 = Q( 2b )

Ps = 1 (1 Pb )2

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Digital Communication Lecture 7


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 10, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 7

1/7

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

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Lecture 7

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Todays Lecture

Some notes on modulation


Performance analysis (SER and BER) for higher-order modulations

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Lecture 7

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SER for M-PAM, -PSK, -QAM, -FSK in AWGN

Coherent M-PSK: Ps(MP SK) 2Q( 2s sin(/M )), s = (log2 M )b



q
s
6s
E
1 PM
2
M-PAM: Ps(MP AM) = 2(M1)
s = N
Q
, Es = M
i=1 Ai
M
M 2 1 ,
0
q

3
s
Rectangular M-QAM: Ps(MQAM) 2( M 1) Q( M1
)
M
q
3
s
Non-rectangular M-QAM: Ps(MQAM) 4Q( M1
)


 1
P
ms
m+1 M1
Coherent M-FSK: Ps(MF SK) M
(1)
exp
m=1
m
m+1
m+1

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Summary of SER and BER Formulas

Modulation
BFSK:
BPSK:
QPSK,4QAM:

Ps (s )

Ps 2 Q  s
2(M 1)
Q
M

MPAM:

Ps

MPSK:

Ps 2Q

Rectangular MQAM:
Nonrectangular MQAM:

Ps

6 s
M 2 1




2s sin(/M )
q


3 s
2( M 1)
Q
M
1
M

Ps 4Q

q

3 s
M 1

Pb

2(M 1)
M log2 M Q

q

6 b log2 M
(M 2 1)


2
2b log2 M sin(/M )
log2 M Q

q

3 b log2 M
Q
Pb 2(M M1)
(M 1)
log2 M

Pb

Pb (b )

Pb = Q b

Pb = Q 2b

Pb Q 2b

Pb

4
log2 M Q

q

3 b log2 M
(M 1)

Table 6.1: Approximate Symbol and Bit Error Probabilities for Coherent Modulations

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Comparison of Modulation Techniques


0

10

10

10

Bit error rate

10

10

QPSK (or 4QAM)


10

10

BFSK
BPSK
8PAM

12

8PSK

10

8QAM

14

10

16

10

10

15

SNR per bit (b)

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Spectral Efficiency

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Digital Communication Lecture 8


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 16, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

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Lecture 8

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Todays Lecture

Fundamentals of channel coding

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Channel Coding: Encoding & Decoding

Transmitter (TX)
bit
b

Format

Analog
info

Encode

Information bits

Format

Coded bits

Waveforms

Channel

Demodulate

Decode
c

s(t)
Modulate

r(t)

Receiver (RX)

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Why Channel Coding?

Pros?
Protect information bits
Decrease BER coding gain
How?
By adding redundancy (more bits) to information bits
Cons?
Rate penalty (reduce data rate)
Bandwidth expansion
Delay

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Channel Coding Techniques (Covered in the Course)

Linear Binary Codes: GF (2)


block codes
Cyclic codes
Non-binary codes: Reed Solomon Codes: GF (m)
Convolutional codes

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Some Definitions

Hamming distance of two codewords: Modulo-2 addition of the

codewords
Code Weight: Number of 1s in a codeword
Minimum distance: Hamming distance between a codeword and the

all-zero codeword.

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Block Codes: Fundamentals

A code (n, k) contains a codeword of n bits from k information bits

(n > k).
For an information sequence U and codeword C, encoding is

performed via a Generator matrix G {0, 1}kn such that C = UG.

We normally use systematic generator matrix G = [Ik |P].

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Block Codes: Fundamentals

A code (n, k) contains a codeword of n bits from k information bits

(n > k).
For an information sequence U and codeword C, encoding is

performed via a Generator matrix G {0, 1}kn such that C = UG.

We normally use systematic generator matrix G = [Ik |P].


Sometimes, it is easier to work with parity check matrix

H = [Ink |P ] {0, 1}(nk)n .

Syndrome check: S = CH = 0, otherwise the received codeword is

corrupt by noise.
minimum distance of linear binary block codes (n, k):

dmin n k + 1.

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Cyclic Codes: Fundamentals

Cyclic codes: If C = (c0 c1 . . . cn1 ) is a codeword, then

Ci = (ci ci+1 . . . cni1 ) is a codeword.

Cyclic codes are generated via a generator polynomial:

g(X) = g0 + g1 X + . . . + gnk X nk . (g0 , gn1 6= 0).

Less complexity.

Systematic cyclic codes ...

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Lecture 8

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Digital Communication Lecture 9


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 19, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 9

1/7

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 9

2/7

Todays Lecture

Channel Decoding: Techniques & Design

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Channel Decoding

Hard-decision decoding (HDD): Each coded bit is demodulated as

either 0 or 1.
Soft-decision decoding (SDD): The distance between received bit

from constellation points (in modulation) is also considered.

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Lecture 9

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Hard Decision Decoding (HDD)

HDD typically uses minimum distance decoding.


It can be shown that for transmission over AWGN channels,

maximum likelihood decoding (MLD) coincides with minimum


distance decoding.

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Lecture 9

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Hard Decision Decoding (HDD)

HDD typically uses minimum distance decoding.


It can be shown that for transmission over AWGN channels,

maximum likelihood decoding (MLD) coincides with minimum


distance decoding.
An (n, k) linear binary block code with minimum hamming distance
dmin , using HHD, can
detect at most dmin 1 errors,
correct at most 21 (dmin 1 errors,
correct 2n 2k error patterns (all combinations of errors).

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 9

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Probability of Error using HDD over AWGN Channel


Probability of error Pe : the probability that a transmitted codeword is

decoded in error.
Upper-bound

n  
X
n j
Pe
p (1 p)nj ,
j
j=t+1

where p is the probability of symbol error for a modulation type.


Lower-bound (tight at high SNR)

Pe

dX
min

j=t+1

Bit error probability Pb


Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)


dmin j
p (1 p)nj .
j

1
k Pe

Digital Communication

Lecture 9

6/7

Soft Decision Decoding (SDD)

SDD typically uses correlation metric.


Using BPSK modulation, we obtain
k

Pe

2
X

2
X

i=2

p
Q( 2Rc b wi )

i=2

p
Q( 2Rc b dmin )

where wi is the hamming weight of the ith codeword.


SDD performs 2 dB better than HDD in coding gain.

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Lecture 9

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Digital Communication Lecture 10


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 23, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 10

1 / 11

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 10

2 / 11

Todays Lecture

Convolutional Codes: Encoding & Decoding

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Lecture 10

3 / 11

Convolutional Codes
Codes with memory.
A Convolutional coded symbol is generated by passing information

bits through K linear shift register (memory unit + shift).


Number of shift registers: K (constraint length)
Representation: (k, n, K)
lengthn codeword
To modulator

...

k bits
1

...

Stage 1

...

...

Stage 2

...

Stage K

Figure 8.6: Convolutional Encoder.


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Lecture 10

4 / 11

Encoder Characterization

Encoder characterization: input transition phase output.


Three ways to characterize convolutional encoder:
Tree diagram
State diagram
Trellis diagram (more popular!)

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Digital Communication

Lecture 10

5 / 11

Trellis diagram
n = 3, k = 1, K = 3
S=S2S3
t0
C1 C2 C
3

Encoder
Output

00

000

t1

000

t2

S1

S2

S3

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

01

011

100

010

011

100

010

t5

000
111

011

t 43

000
111

111

111

111

t3

000

100

010

010

10
001

001

101

11

001
101

101
110

110

101
110

S1=0
S1=1

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Lecture 10

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Maximum likelihood Decoding (MLD)


Maximum likelihood decoding: check p(R|C ) > p(R|C), C in one

of the two ways

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Digital Communication

Lecture 10

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Maximum likelihood Decoding (MLD)


Maximum likelihood decoding: check p(R|C ) > p(R|C), C in one

of the two ways


1

Hard-decision: At branch i of the trellis diagram, check the metric


Bi =

n
X
j=1

log p(Rij |Cij )

P
and check i Bi for all paths and choose the maximum. Equivalently,
find the minimum distance codeword by comparing the distance of all
codewords with the received codeword.

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 10

7 / 11

Maximum likelihood Decoding (MLD)


Maximum likelihood decoding: check p(R|C ) > p(R|C), C in one

of the two ways


1

Hard-decision: At branch i of the trellis diagram, check the metric


Bi =

n
X
j=1

log p(Rij |Cij )

P
and check i Bi for all paths and choose the maximum. Equivalently,
find the minimum distance codeword by comparing the distance of all
codewords with the received codeword.
Soft-decision: At branch i of the trellis diagram, check the metric
i =

n
X
j=1

and check

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Rij (2Cij 1)

i for all paths and choose the maximum.

Digital Communication

Lecture 10

7 / 11

Maximum likelihood Decoding (MLD)


Maximum likelihood decoding: check p(R|C ) > p(R|C), C in one

of the two ways


1

Hard-decision: At branch i of the trellis diagram, check the metric


Bi =

n
X
j=1

log p(Rij |Cij )

P
and check i Bi for all paths and choose the maximum. Equivalently,
find the minimum distance codeword by comparing the distance of all
codewords with the received codeword.
Soft-decision: At branch i of the trellis diagram, check the metric
i =

n
X
j=1

and check

Rij (2Cij 1)

i i for all paths and choose the maximum.


Complexity of MLD: A trellis diagram with information bits k and

constraint length K has 2K1 states, and 2k incoming/outgoing


paths to/from states. exponential complexity.
Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 10

7 / 11

Hard Decision Viterbi Decoding

Instead of calculating all branch metrics, only calculate some of them:


Add the branch metric to the path metric for the old state.
Compare the sums for paths arriving at the new state (there are only

two such paths).


Select the path with the smallest value (Hamming distance). This path

corresponds to the one with fewest errors (survivor path).

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Lecture 10

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Hard decision Viterbi Decoding: Example


1/2 convolutional code with received codeword: [111011000110],

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

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Lecture 10

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Viterbi Decoding: Example (Conted)

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Digital Communication

Lecture 10

10 / 11

Viterbi Decoding: Example (Conted)

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Digital Communication

Lecture 10

11 / 11

Digital Communication Lecture 11


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

February 27, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

1 / 12

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

2 / 12

Todays Lecture

Analysis of Convolutional Codes

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

3 / 12

Trellis Diagram
n = 3, k = 1, K = 3
S=S2S3
t0
C1 C2 C
3

Encoder
Output

00

000

t1

000

t2

S1

S2

S3

Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

01

011

100

010

011

100

010

t5

000
111

011

t 43

000
111

111

111

111

t3

000

100

010

010

10
001

001

101

11

001
101

101
110

110

101
110

S1=0
S1=1

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

4 / 12

State Diagram

The right one is a modified version of the left one by splitting the

self-loop of the all-zero state.

000

011

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

5 / 12

State Diagram

The right one is a modified version of the left one by splitting the

self-loop of the all-zero state.

000

011

Transfer function (for the state diagram) is defined as

T (D) = Xe /Xa =

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

d=df

ad D d .

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

5 / 12

Extended State Diagram


The state diagram can be extended to yield information on code

distance properties. How?


Split the state a (all-zero state) into initial and final states.
Label each branch by D d N l J
path weight d denotes the Hamming weight of the n coded bits on
that branch,
data weight l = 0 when the info. bit is 0 (solid line), and l = 1 when
info. bit is 1 (dashed line).
Each transition on a branch represents J.

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

6 / 12

Transfer Function for Extended State Diagram


Transfer function is defined
P as

T (D, N, J) = Xe /Xa =

d=df

P P
m

Dd J m N l ,

In the previous extended state diagram,

T (D, N, J) =

J 3 N D6
= J 3 N D6 + J 4 N 2 D8 + . . .
1 JN D2 L(1 + J)

The minimum free distance df denotes


The minimum weight of all paths (in Trellis or state diagram) that
diverge from and remerge with the all-zero state, or
The lowest power of the transfer function T (D, N, J) in D.
Using long convolutional codes, we set J = 1, and the exponent of N

can be written
P in terms of d. In a compact way
T (D, N ) = d ad N f (d) D d .
Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

7 / 12

Decoding Error Probability for Convolutional Codes


Assume, without loss of generality, all-zero codeword is transmitted.
An error event happens when an erroneous path is selected at the

decoder.
In general, decoding error probability Pe is upper-bounded as

Pe

ad P2 (d)

d=df

ad : the number of paths with the Hamming distance of d (known from

transfer function)
P2 (d): pairwise error probability of a path with Hamming distance of d

(pairdepends on modulation type, hard or soft decision decoding)

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

8 / 12

Decoding Error Probability for Convolutional Codes


(Contd)
Using soft-decision decoding (Euclidean distance measure) and BPSK

modulation
P2 (d) = Q

2Ec d
N0

p
= Q( 2b Rc d) exp(b Rc d)

Using hard-decision decoding (Hamming distance measure)

P2 (d) =

d
X

j=(d+1)/2

 
d j
p (1 p)dj
j

where p is bit error for binary symmetric channel.

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

9 / 12

BER for convolutional codes

BER is obtained by multiplying the error event probability by the

number of data bit errors associated with each error event.


Pb

f (d)ad P2 (d),

d=df

where f (d) is the exponent of N in the transfer function T (D, N ), or the


number of data bit errors corresponding to the erroneous path with the
Hamming distance of d.

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 11

10 / 12

Interleaving

Convolutional codes are suitable for memoryless channels with

random error events.


But, some errors have bursty nature
Statistical dependence among successive error events due the channel

memory: errors in multi-path fading channels.


Interleaving makes the channel looks like as a memoryless channel at

the decoder.
Interleaving is achieved by spreading the coded symbols in different

positions before transmission.


A reverse operation, Deinterleaving, is used at the decoder.

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

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Lecture 11

11 / 12

Interleaving: Example
Consider a code with t = 1 ability of correction and 3 coded bits.

A bursterror
error of of
length
3 cannot3
becan
corrected.
A burst
length
not be corrected.

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
2 errors

Let us use a block interleaver 3 3


us use a block
interleaver 3X3 3X3
Let us
use a Let
block
interleaver
A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3

A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3

Interleaver

Deinterleaver

A1 B1 C1 A2 B2 C2 A3 B3 C3

A1 A2 A3 B1 B2 B3 C1 C2 C3
1 errors

1 errors

1 errors

ECE 6640
Digital Communications I: Modulation and Coding Course, Period 3 2006, Sorour Falahati, Lecture 13

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13

Lecture 11

12 / 12

Digital Communication Lecture 12


Amirpasha Shirazinia

Department of Engineering Sciences


Uppsala University

March 9, 2015

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 12

1/7

Bonus Question

Please hand in your answers in 3 minutes.


Answer:

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 12

2/7

Todays Lecture

Equalization

Amirpasha Shirazinia (UU)

Digital Communication

Lecture 12

3/7

Intersymbol interference (ISI)


What is ISI?
ISI is a type of distortion of a signal in which a symbol interferes with
subsequent symbols.
Causes & Consequences of ISI?
Cause: Limited channel bandwidth increase in delay spread
Consequence: modulation symbol time is on the same order as channel
delay spread Symbol Interference!
transmitted signal

received signal

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Equalizer

Channel equalization is a way to combat against ISI, specially for high

data-rate wireless communications (e.g., 4G-LTE).


Equalizers are typically implemented at the receiver and before

demodulation

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Equalizer

Channel equalization is a way to combat against ISI, specially for high

data-rate wireless communications (e.g., 4G-LTE).


Equalizers are typically implemented at the receiver and before

demodulation
Categories:
Analog equalizer
Digital equalizer (more common)
1 Linear equalizer: ZF, MMSE
2 Non-linear equalizer: ML (using Viterbi)

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Linear Equalizers

We have

Heq (z) =

L
X

wi z i

i=0

The design goal is to optimally find wi


Zero-forcing (ZF)

Heq (Z) = 1/H(Z)


Minimum mean-square error (MMSE) equalizer minimizes

E[(dk dk )2 ], k = 0, . . . , L

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Non-linear & Other Equalizers

Maximum-likelihood sequence estimator (MLSE): is a type of

non-linear equalizer based on





{dk }L
k=0 = argmax p [d0 d1 . . . dL ] [r0 r1 . . . rL ]

Decision feedback equalizer (DFE), adaptive equalizers, ...

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Digital Communication

Lecture 12

7/7

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