Professional Documents
Culture Documents
If
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF 20TH-CENTURY
ARCHITECTURE
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF 20TH-CENTURY
ARCHITECTURE
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF 20TH-CENTURY
ARCHITECTURE
GENERAL EDITOR:
VITTORIO
MAGNAGO LAMPUGNANI
HARRY
ABRAMS,
N.
INC., PUBLISHERS,
NEW YORK
German and
German and
edited by
Barry Bergdoll.
"Originally published in 1964 as Encyclopedia of
modern
Includes index.
I.
I.
II.
Architecture,
Modern
NA680.H3913
ISBN
ISBN
III.
1985
Title.
84-24166
724.9T0321
0-8109-0860-3
0-8109-2335-1 (pbk.)
der
Droemersche
Verlagsanstalt, Th.
German
is
translated
by Vittorio Magnago
Lampugnani. Copyright 1983 Verlag Gerd Hatje, Stuttgart.
English translation and additional material copyright 1986
Thames and Hudson Ltd., London, and Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
Architektur des 20. Jahrhunderts, edited
New York.
Published in 1986 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated,
All rights reserved.
New York.
of this book
may
be
title
Printed and
bound
in Japan
is
available.
their
Tessenow, then not the subject of much discussion, were not accorded individual entries
alongside a Mies van der Rohe or a Terragni;
even Erich Mendelsohn was included primarily
for his bold use of modern materials, rather than
for the expressive and sculptural qualities of his
work; and, in the context of building materials,
glass, steel and reinforced concrete - viewed as
primary stimuli in the evolution of a new
architecture- were accorded their own entries.
In short, after more than twenty years, the
preparation of a new edition could not be
restricted to bringing existing entries
up
to date
and introducing
Rather, the
given a broader historical basis. It is thus not a
matter of chance that this latest edition appears
is,
then, the
on a variety of
an omission may well seem
unjust. The same holds true in the case of those
criteria,
and
many
individual countries
tural
output
is
whose
significant architec-
The
situation
is
no
different, either, in
questionable
it
an involvement in the
game of philological
classification
offer a
being
the
possible.
at
as
some
cases
themselves embodied
shifts
in
entirely
new
which have
witnessed important and influential architectural developments; and the movements those
is
The
of
viewpoints, united in
These
contributors
this
common
cannot
all
be
purpose.
suitably
of the task
of co-ordination; and Gerd Hatje, who was
naturally also closely involved as a contributor,
friend, critic, adviser and publisher.
Finally, mention must be made of the fact
that a significant part of my own work on this
tributor, as well as bearing the brunt
at
Columbia University,
New
List of contributors
FA
Friedrich Achleitner
VML
Vittorio
RB
Reyner Banham
BB
Carolina Mang
Karl Mang
CB
Barry Bergdoll
Moritz Besser
Peter Blake
Christian Borngrber
CM
KM
RBr
Robert Bruegmann
NM
MC
Max
RMi
MB
PB
AC-P
JLC
Cetto
Alexandre Cirici-Pellicer
Jean Louis Cohen
RLD
Robert
L.
Delevoy
RM
HM
AM
KM
HEM
LM
CFO
Magnago Lampugnani
Robert Maxwell
Harold Meek
Axel Menges
Norbert Meler
Robin Middleton
Kirmo Mikkola
Henrique E. Mindlin
Leonardo Mosso
Christian F. Otto
PD
Philip
TF
KF
JG
Tobias Faber
JPa
Kenneth Frampton
WP
Jorge Glusberg
Vittorio Gregotti
JPo
Oswald W. Grube
Ids Haagsma
Hilde de Haan
Horst Hrtung
Gerd Hatje
PR
Peter
JR
Joseph Rykwert
Peter C. von Seidlein
Margit Staber
VG
OWG
IH
HdH
HH
GHa
GHe
Drew
CR
PCvS
MS
GS
Gilbert Herbert
PS
Antonio Hernandez
Thomas Herzog
John M. Jacobus, Jr
JS
FJ
Falk Jaeger
JJV
JJ
BL
Jrgen Joedicke
William H. Jordy
Walter Kie
Bjrn Linn
DM
David Mackay
AH
TH
JMJ
WHJ
WK
BT
GV
FW
AW
Jrgen Paul
Wolfgang Pehnt
Julius Posener
Christopher Riopelle
Rumpf
Gavin Stamp
Pekka Suhonen
Julia Szabo
Barbara Tilson
Giulia Veronesi
Jacobus Johannes Vriend
Frank Werner
Arnold Whittick
Boyd Whyte
IBW
AWi
Iain
HY
Hajime Yatsuka
Alfred Willis
Dating
In references to individual buildings, the dates
cited are presented in accordance with the
information available. If specific, distinct dates
are known for the original design and for
subsequent construction, both are given (e.g.
'1937, 1939-42'); in
many
instances,
however,
only the overall period from design to completion or of the period of construction alone may
be known, and in such cases a simple span of
years is indicated (e.g., '1939-42'); in other
instances it has only been possible to state the
year of completion.
Cross-references
Further information in related entries is indicated by means of an asterisk preceding the title
of the entry to be consulted.
Kuortane,
Finland 1898, d. Helsinki 1976. Studied at the
Polytechnic in Helsinki from 19 16, graduating
in 1 921; he was a pupil of Armas Lindgren and
Lars Sonck. In the following years he travelled
widely in Scandinavia, Central Europe and
Italy and was probably active for a short time in
the Planning Office of the Gothenburg Fair of
1923. His career began officially with the
Tampere Industrial Exhibition of 1922,
although various minor works dating from
student years are
his
In 1923 A.
and
in
Marsio,
opened
b.
known.
his first office
injyvskyl,
who was
to be his
most important
Wooden
life.
the
At
same time his work in Turku anticipated the
developed Aalto
later, fully
works of
this
timeless.
first
firm of Artek
Furniture,
which was
which belong
He
- works
most
settled in
*Bryggman on
of the
city
of Turku;
staged one year before the better-known Stockholm Exhibition designed by *Asplund, it was,
New
York World's
the Finnish Pavilion at the
and the Terrace House in
Aalto
House)
nology
Town
at the
in
timeless masterpiece in
terials
and
rediscovered
and
romantic
as a
means
political values
of space are
enhance the social
sense
to
to
human
fragility and a
by those having
Town
Copenhagen
(195
1),
succeeded
more than
Haka
The war
years, during
which A. served on
up
Dormitory (Baker
Aalto
Gutzeit Company (1959, 1960-2); the Scandinavian Bank Building (1962, 1962-4); the
University Bookshop (1962, 19669); the Con-
after the
cert
finally the
House
Opera
(1964fr.),
at
Lahti (competition
war
(1947-53); the regional plan for Lapland (19505); the campus of the College of Education,
Jyvskyl (1950, 19536); the centre of Seinjoki with the Protestant Church (1952, 195860), the Town Hall (i960, 1962-5), Library
(1963, 19645)
(1963,
1964-6); A.'s
Muuratsalo
Munkkiniemi
(1953);
his
(1953-5); the
own
studio
in
main building of
a series
of build-
whole
of buildings, development plans and
ings and projects outside Finland. These include, in addition to those already mentioned:
series
Museum
in
lborg,
Denmark
(1958,
Aalto
Mount
community
by A. in conjunction
with his individual building projects from 1928
on, and produced under his supervision, reflected the same development stages as are
seen in his architecture. These interior fittings
were always conceived as 'detached parts' of the
useful objects designed
at
Riola
di
Vergato (1966-78)
community
New
Aillaud
New
York
1978,
Alvar Aalto: a
critical study,
Abramovitz, Max,
at
b.
London
Champaign-
Champaign-Urbana,
Adler, Dankmar,
Weimar, Germany
111.
b.
1963.
Stadt
near
Lengsfeld,
Edward
which was
entirely
A.'s
work except
for
was
the building
it
the concealment of
PL
in his
1983.
ture of 'concealment', be
Nirvana
The Japan
Architect
cit.,
247, vol. 52
smooth
and colourfully treated. The residents are thereby given an impetus to identify with their
AM
environment.
D Dhuys, Jean-Francois, L' Architecture selon
Emile Aillaud, Paris 1983.
estate,
Pantin
Among
architecture in
American
works were a
one,
Anshe
of interesting synagogues,
father's
his
Ma'arev,
for
society.
his
series
congregation.
Salzstein, Joan;
'Dankmar Adler:
the
Man,
Albini
Roman
ronment through
schemes and restorations, principally of museums, is the Museo del Palazzo Bianco at
Genoa
Assicurazione (INA)
1935, A.'s
also in
*CIAM.
The
effects
detail.
architectural
work
are:
the
(195
of
1),
clear geometries
work
this
project.
A's. architectural
work,
in
practice
went -
in
its
is
constant theme,
attention
to
the
historical
1962; Moschini,
F.,
Franco Albini,
London
1979.
Alexander, Christopher,
art*?!*
"
-ffciii:
store,
Rome
Andrews
empirical investigation of the needs and de-
testing
entirely of steel.
to the
Lima
Alexander,
London 1975;
London 1977;
Way of Building, London 1979.
Experiment,
Language,
The Oregon
,
Pattern
The Timeless
along with
aM
Marcelo
A.,
Mario
Roberto
Amsterdam, School
of departure for
their
own
work, and
who
made
AM
(1969).
Cambridge, Mass.
Trabuco,
building
first
picturesquely-composed
turally-conceived,
sors
Carl
Bergsten,
Tengbom and
In opposition to the
With his designs for standardized kitchen components (1922) and his hydro-electric power
plants near Hammarsfors and Krngfors (both
1925-8), in which all ties to the past are cut, A.
became one of the pioneers of modernism in
Sweden.
GHa
D Linn, Bjrn, Osvald Almqvist: En Arkitekt
och Hans Arbete, Stockholm 1967.
Alvarez, Mario Roberto, b. Buenos Aires
1913. Immediately upon completing his studies
in Buenos Aires in 1937, he opened his own
office (since 1947 Mario Roberto Alvarez y
He was Architect to
Works in Buenos Aires,
Asociados).
De
at
sity
the Ministry
1937-42, and
City Architect of Avellaneda, 1942-7; he acted
as Advisor to the Secretary of Public Works of
for Public
Argen-
Andrews. Scarborough
through Humanities
College,
Wing
Onun
(1964^ -5)
IS
Arbeitsrat
fiir
Kunst
of the building
is
the
Cana-
Miami, Florida
(1967), the
Graduate School of Design at Harvard University (1968), and the Cameron Office Block at
Belconnen, Canberra, Australia.
AM
D Drew, Philip, The Third Generation, the
Changing Meaning of Architecture, New York
1972; 'Conversations with the John Andrews
Architects', Progressive Architecture, no. 54 (Feb.
unlike the
*Novem-
political influence
government
as
an
artistic
December 191 8. The founding manidemanded: 'Art and the people must form
a unity .... From now on the artist alone, as
moulder of the sensibilities of the people, will be
responsible for the visible fabric of the new
state.' No political power was gained, however,
and Taut resigned from the leadership at the end
of February 1919, to be replaced by Gropius.
Dismissing any direct political aspirations,
ber and
festo
first
programme
of
Arbeistrat fr
Berlin 1980;
Whyte,
Cambridge
1982.
in
were
bition
first
exhi-
Institute
of
writings,
in
Art Deco
project
(Ron Herron;
1964)
addition to their
their ideas
of educational
London, Warwickshire, Hertfordshire and Dorset, and university premises at Leicester, Carmarthen and
Cambridge. Their early use of industrialized
building materials and their preference for an
'anonymous' team approach to architecture,
legacies of the European continental Modern
Movement, were developed into the current
quently displayed in a
series
own
worldwide.
London
at
the
Commonwealth
RM
(1973).
Architecture. Action
London and
New
York
1974.
Architext.
An
HM
they
"
19-80.
sculptural effect
its
name from
the
mediating between the avant garde and tradition, it absorbed impulses from *Cubism,
other
and
"^Expressionism
*Futurism,
movements.
17
Art Deco
In
the
most varied
guises: pseudo-purist in
let-Stevens' residential
complex
in
*Mal-
in the
Rue
tal
at
du Collecwhere
pyramidal
the
Pavillon
Patout's
Pierre
tionneur
massing
predominates
over
by
modern
constructional techniques in
its
distinc-
York
NM
(1928-30).
Hillier, Bevis,
Robinson,
Haag, Skyscraper
Style,
New York
1975.
Rue
[8
New
York, by
Art Nouveau
Art Nouveau. An individualist and highly romantic reaction to the currents of ^eclecticism
and academic classicism (*Ecole des BeauxArts) in late 19th-century architecture, Art
a diverse phenomenon which
most of Europe and, some historians
argue, even North America between 1890 and
1910. Known at the time under a variety of
rubrics which reflect its sources in the investigations of individual architects and the specific
contexts of various national traditions. It was
known for instance in England at the time as the
'modern style'; in ^Belgium as the coup defouet
Nouveau was
affected
(whiplash) or paling
line
stroyed).
Among
tectural products
differing
in
works of Willem
Th.
Sluyterman
(1864 1940),
(1863-193 1) and L. A. H. Wlfin the *Netherlands; Guimard's Castel Beranger (1897-8),
entrances to Metro stations and the auditorium
Kromhout
Guimard
*Guimard,
who
and
historicist
in
it
was the
stile
Liberty or
Spain modernisme.
(*historicism)
The
stile
anti-
for defining a
land,
Austria).
rise
to
two-
Elvira
n;
Art Nouveau
of the Humbert de
Romans
building (1902,
Folkwang, with
Velde,
at
Hagen
interior
design by van de
(1900-2).
stonework,
Art Nouveau.
Brussels (1895-
Wagner
moulded
and tapered
brackets in wrought iron; and burgeoning with
asymmetrical door- and window-frames, bow
and horseshoe windows, etc. The common
denominator of these diverse works is then
more a new conception of the relationship
between surface and ornament, rather than a
change in spatial expression of plan. An exception to this may, however, be found in buildings
designed in the tradition of the English country
house (*Voysey, *Mackintosh), with their
principle of building from inside to out; and the
Continental examples based on them (Olbrich's
houses on the Mathildenhhe at Darmstadt). In
the later phases of Art Nouveau, facade decoration was accompanied by a powerful plastic
treatment of the whole building, either by the
dramatic accentuation of individual parts of the
structure (Glasgow Art School, 1 898-1909, by
Mackintosh) or by the sculptural modelling of
the whole building mass (Werkbundthcater,
Cologne, 19 14 by van de Velde; Casa Mila,
grilles,
balconies,
Art Nouveau
veau
man from
the
pressures
it
obliged the
artist to
how
it
produced, in
all
fields,
real
severance between life and thought, and partially destroyed the 'relation between plant and
soil'.
Art
Nouveau may
compared
by confounding
thus be
to an
style
ments.
Distinguished
Nouveau
style,
the frontiers
its
which the
style
adherents.
Schmalenbach,
F., Jugendstil.
Ein Beitrag zu
Wrz-
London
1979-
Nouveau
Architecture,
of architects and
22
enon of
reality that
came
meantime
the
industrial production
to terms
with
only faint-heartedly,
theory the notion of
collaboration with the machine. He thus introduced the methods of industrial design, which
had seemed, since the Crystal Palace of 1851,
predetermined for the Machine era.
The Arts and Crafts Society maintained a far
more conservative position. Its first president,
Walter Crane, who was personally allied with
the romantic-regressive aesthetic of the Pre-
and accepted
it,
if
at least in
Raphaelites, was at first opposed to any opening-up of the movement. Thus the young C. R.
*Mackintosh and the entire Glasgow School
(*Art Nouveau) were categorically excluded
from
their exhibitions. In
architects figured
among
any
the
numerous
members and
case,
first
Ashbee
exhibitors, including Ashbee, Prior, *Voysey,
George Walton, *Lutyens and W. R. Lethaby,
the leading promoter and, in 1894, the first
Director of the Central School of Arts and
Crafts in London.
The effects of the Arts and Crafts movement
were, for all its contradictions, as profound as
they were lasting and far-reaching. In *Great
Britain a notably high professional standard was
established in its circles, which was characterized by an intensive reformatory involvement
with the problem of the house. It was here that
the concept of the house as a 'total work of art'
was developed. It was also out of the theoretical
principles and architectural statements of the
Domestic Revival that the Garden City movement developed. This was launched in 1898 by
Ebenezer *Howard with his book Tomorrow A
,
The
of
of
illusionistic
as
consultant to
1974-5)
numerous
Arup
as engineers,
but also
as
university buildings.
The
pedestrian
berDecember
I983-
Werkbund.
GV/VML
Pevsner, N., The Sources of Modern Architecture and Design, London and
York
New
1968;
Pioneers of
William Morris
to
tecture
London
b.
London 1863, d.
by the ideas
Walter Gropius,
Harmonds-
Crafts
Ashbee. Houses
London (1904)
in
39 and 38),
23
Asli
VML
to Kent.
Ashbee,
Houses,
London
London
dian Architecture,
the
b.
Sheffield 1893, d.
authority
offices,
A. became County
War
II,
an acute
Hertfordshire,
moved
A. to tackle the
The
prototype
was
Cheshunt
Primary
floors,
HM
Britain).
developments
November
in
1950;
at the
Stockholm
Exhibition (1930)
work is of historical
combining of traditional and
modern
tural
at
at
He
architecture.
training
Stockholm and
24
its
the
emy founded
there in
1910 by *Almqvist,
Atelier 5
In 1914 A., in collaboration
won
with Lewerentz,
holm
Snellman
villa in
Djurs-
Cinema (1922-3)
Stockholm City Library (1924-7). The
much admired
at
the time of
construction,
side balconies;
it
area enclosed
on
three sides
is
1885-1940,
and the
Skandia Cinema,
its
Odeen,
classicist in
gartner,
Lanini,
Hostettler, Pier
Bernard
influ-
early
the ageless
at La
Sainte-Baume (1948), in which rows of terrace
houses were rolled out almost like a carpet on
the landscape. Their early style, dominated by a
unified formal vocabulary derived from *New
Brutalism, gave way increasingly in the early
1970s to a tendency to derive formal expression
from the particular demands of the commission
and the local context. Examples of this are the
Thalmatt housing estate at Herrensch wanden,
near Berne (1967-72), and the Stuttgart
University Dining Hall (1970-6) at Stuttgart-
skilfully
slender
supports,
glass
walls,
circular
glass
Vaihingen.
Bezzola, Leonardo,
Europe.
After this exhibition A. designed the Bredenberg store in Stockholm (1933-5), which has
is
AM
Thormann- Wirz,
Es-
and Thormann,
Fritz,
liers',
it
Bauen
+ Wohnen (Munich),
estate,
near Berne
creates
Athens Charter
VML
CIAM, La
life
of the
This social
architectural schools
ner, the executor
artistic training,
endowed his
To
cite his
it still
is
Ohmann
26
XXIInd
by Otto Wagner
District.
Vienna
to
Austria
Austria. Sanatorium
Josef
at
Purkersdorf (1902) by
Hoffmann
Loos
his
active
in
schools
emerged
From
these
as
work
Istvn
Kovacic
(Trieste)
were
in California
is
well
known.
In addition,
Darmstadt
and
Dsseldorf)
were
by him.
Wagner's opposite number was Friedrich
Ohmann, a native of Prague and director of the
strongly influenced
Werkbund.
debate,
focal point
especially
after
of the
1897
Austria
nology
(to
in
War
(^Behrens, *Holz-
and Frank).
loosening
was
World War II
many architects tried to pick up lost threads;
among these were Clemens Holzmeister, who
returned
Haerdtl,
from
Max
exile
Ankara, Oswald
Eugen Wrle, Franz
in
Feilerer,
28
Roland *Rainer
deliberately sought,
on
Austria
The
changes in Graz.
bitions
Wilhelm
began
to
history,
as
'wild'
Raimund
Lorenz,
Ertl,
August Krmayr,
Aymonino
Gnther Domenig
Aymonino,
Carlo, b.
Rome
1926. Studied at
He was
became
di Architettura in
Universitario
Rome.
INA-Casa
of the populist
of Rome,
Azuma
- and
numerous
influenced
through
work
publications, A.'s
recent
architecture,
his
has greatly
particularly
tipologia edilizia,
Venice 1965,
Origine e
moderna, Padua 1965;
77
significato della citt, Bari 1975;
Lo studio dei
sviluppo della
citta
fenomeni
Rome
urbani,
Aymonino',
'Carlo
1977;
February 1978.
Azuma,
Aymonino.
Takamitsu,
his
own
harmonies' in
b.
office in
this desolate
is
the har-
telling
stress in
order
example of
his
own
house in Tokyo
(1967), a tall narrow concrete tower deliberately
contrasted with the traditional single-storey
buildings that surround it. In the Satsuki Kinhis
52
Azuma.
Satsuki Kindergarten,
Osaka (1969
31
B
Bakema, Jacob Berend,
Rotterdam
b.
Groningen 1914,
d.
Technikum
in
Groningen, the Architectural Academy in Amsterdam and the Technical College in Delft.
While still a student, B. worked under Cor van
*Eesteren, then under Willem van Tijen and
H. A. Maaskant, as well as for the municipal
architectural office in Rotterdam. In 1948 he
entered into partnership with J. H. van den
*Broek, and they soon became an influential
Dutch architecture.
In 1947 B. became a
1963 of Team X; he
was co-editor, 195964, of the journal Forum,
which helped at that time to prepare the ground
force in
for
turally
is
a pedestrian
expressive
town
zone.
hall
in
The
sculp-
Terneuzen
Bakema.
VML
stract clarity.
Contraspazio,
10
(1978),
special
issue;
architetto,
Trent 1957.
GHa
Architecture for
Stdtebauliche Archi-
(ed.),
en Bakema. Architektur
Urbanismus, Stuttgart
1976.
Baldessari, Luciano,
b. Rovereto 1896, d.
Milan 1982. Studied at the Politecnico in Milan;
diploma 1922. Baldessari began his career in the
1920s as a stage designer and painter. In 192932, together with Luigi *Figini and Gino
*Pollini, he undertook the elegant rationalist
building of the De Angeli Frua Press in Milan.
In 1932-3 he built, with Gino *Ponti, the Cima
Of his
varied
Banfi, Gianluigi,
founding
member of
the
firm
*BBPR
in
Milan.
estate,
Mexico City
(1967-8)"
expression.
combined
N.Y.
sant,
(1977),
are
among
Robinson,
AM
works.
Cervin,
'Edward
his best
Larrabee
Barnes: Profile of Firm and Work', American
Institute of Architects Journal, April 1980, pp. 52-
in
which
Trained
Mexico
1902.
an engineer, B. is self-taught as an
architect. After travel in Spain and France, he
established himself in Guadalajara in 1927, but
since 1936 he has worked and lived in Mexico
City. His earliest work was characterized by the
adaptation of indigenous vernacular forms of
Mexican architecture, as well as by elements
as
shift
to the ^International
Style and
especially to
surrealistic-
this effect
is
height-
Mexican building
translated
tradition
own
Mexico
house
the
City:
Satelite (1957,
Luis, b. Guadalajara,
works
in
Barragn,
composition of
his
in
as
ning and several public spaces for the
Arboledas residential quarter (1957 61); and a
house and stud-farm stables for the San Cristo1
AM
Ambasz,
Emilio,
Barragn,
New
The
York
Architecture
1976;
'Luis
of
Luis
Barragan.
House
for Luis
d.
Darm-
Hoch-
Bartning, Otto,
stadt
b.
Karlsruhe 1SS3,
lie was
schulen in Berlin and Karlsruhe
Director of the Hochschule fur [andwerk und
1
Basile
192 1-2) in
Bartning, O.,
191 9;
Vom
Mayer, Hans K.
Heidelberg 195 1.
Basile, Ernesto, b. Palermo 1857, d. Palermo
1932. Studied at the University of Palermo,
moved to Rome in
mo. After
works
(project
Rome,
1883-4;
tubercolare,
VML
in Italy.
Ernesto
Basile
architetto
(exhibition
cata-
Baudot, Anatole
Paris 191
34
5.
de, b.
Sarrebourg 1834,
d.
Baudot.
1904)
St
Bauhaus
rate his
torical
also in his
et le
numerous
beton arme
BB
(1905).
pensee
et l'ceuvre d'Anatole de Baudot 1834-1905'.
Architecture, mouvement, continuite, March 1973.
la
immediately after World War I ^Expressionism), but which go back ultimately to the *Arts
and Crafts movement of the 19th century.
In the first years this union of art and craft was
achieved in
communal
masters' diplomas.
though
chewed
its
effect.
Al-
Gropius'
skill in
wood-
its
own
self-dramatization,
Like the
Weimar Republic
itself,
its
itself.
the Bauhaus
was founded in the city of Goethe and Nietzsche, lasted from 19 19 until 1933 and experienced heated political confrontation to which
it
worse, tied to that of Germany's first democratic government. This parallel as well, lent the
Bauhaus an exemplary role.
Artists
were engaged
as masters,
including the
Oskar Schlemmer,
Georg Muche, Paul Klee and Vassily Kandinsky, and the sculptor Gerhard Marcks. Johannes
Itten,
who
pulsory for
all
beginners
at
com-
111
first
time
in
the exhibition
ernment
in 1923.
Even an
architectural experi-
35
Bauhaus
and life-styles, the opposition,
Thuringian handicraft circles, increased after the students began to take an
esoteric doctrines
especially in
HI
linked, via
Bauhaus. Views of
BBPR
Gropius gave up his relatively assured position
of the school he had founded and
justified his action by reference to the renewal of
as director
political difficulties.
as
his
successor
architecture
professional
active),
in-
omy
right, increasingly
liberal
Meyer.
In
its last
director,
a leader
der
devoted to
work
ethic.
This
work was
especially concen-
to 'Bau und
Ausbau' ('Building and Development'), so that
the conflict with the advocates of an independent art which had begun under Meyer's
directorship was continued, even if now under
different banners, under Mies van der Rohe. In
1932 the right-radical faction of the Dessau
municipal council put down a motion to close
the Bauhaus, and this was adopted with the
support of the Social Democrats. For over six
months Mies van der Rohe carried on the work
of the Bauhaus as a private institute, housed in
an abandoned telephone factory in BerlinSteglitz. However, after the enforced closure of
the school by the Gestapo and the S.A., the
Bauhaus's board voted on 20 July 1933 to
disband for good.
According to the estimate of its chronicler
Hans M. Wingler, the Bauhaus had scarcely
trated
on those
skills
related
more than
Its
influence
Modern Art
in
New
York
in the winter
of
became a legend of modernism and thus attracted much of the criticism voiced in the 1960s in
connection with the discussion of *functional-
ism.
and
WP
Bauhaus Weimar 1919-1923, Munich and Weimar 1923; Gropius, Walter, Idee
und Aufbau des Staatlichen Bauhauses, Munich
and Weimar 1923; Bayer, Herbert, and Gropius, Walter and Ise (eds.), Bauhaus 1919-1928,
New York 1938; Wingler, Hans M., Das
Bauhaus 1919-1933 Weimar Dessau Berlin, Cologne 1962; 30 Jahre Bauhaus (exhibition catalogue), Stuttgart 1968; Franciscono, Marcel,
Walter Gropius and the creation of the Bauhaus in
Weimar, Urbana, 111. 1971; Hter, Karl-Heinz,
Das Bauhaus in Weimar, Berlin 1976.
Staatliches
BBPR.
its first
masterpiece in the
late 1930s,
the
at
Beaudouin
BBPR.
Beaudouin, Eugene,
b. Paris 1898.
Studied
at
Academie de France
criticized
by many
at
by
of
however, an isolated
incident in BBPR's development. Already in
the restoration of the Monastery of San Simpliciano in Milan (1940; with E. Radice Fossati),
they demonstrated an unusual awareness of
traditional values, which recurs in the same city
both in the equally elegant and clear museum
decade the
architecture.
It
was
not,
and
in the offices
harmonized
with
its
15;
VML
units
Behnisch, Gnter,
b.
Zodiac (Milan), no. 4, 1959, pp. 82Bonfanti, E., and Porta, M., Citta, museo e
Enzo,
architettura: II
'Continuita
gruppo
BBPR
coerenze
Antonio,
BBPR
38
dei
Paci,
BBPR',
1
France,
urban
surroundings.
in
Behrens
and Convalescent
6);
Home
at
Reutlingen (1973-
the
(1973-80);
Sports
Hall
in
Sindelfingen
Behnisch
&
Partner,
Frankfurt
am
3,
pp. 12-42.
Hamburg
Behrens,
Stuttgart-Birkach (1977-9)
Peter, b.
1868, d. Berlin
the
Hohenstaufen-Gymnasium
in
Gppingen
Fachhochschule fr
Technik in Ulm (1959-63), the Mittelpunktschule in Oppelsbohm (1966-9) and the Pro(1956-9),
the
Staatliche
work.
Among
are: the
their
Old
most
People's
,1
39
Behrens
still permeated by the
decorative influence of Art Nouveau.
After travelling in Italy (1896), B. turned in
invited
sculptors L.
Behrens.
40
AEG
Belgium
style.
Cuno and
Schroeder
Houses (Eppenhausen, near Hagen, 1908-10)
express this rationalistic tendency, that was
ultimately to distinguish the work of Behrens
from the plastic dynamism and lyricism of
*Poelzig and ^Mendelsohn.
In 1907 (the year the *Deutscher Werkbund
was founded), B. was summoned to Berlin by
the AEG (the German General Electrical Company). His duties comprised the design not only
of electrical appliances (cookers, radiators, ventilators, lamps, etc.), but also of the firm's
packaging, catalogues, leaflets, posters, letter19056), as well as the
showrooms, shops, and, to boot, factories and workshops. This marks for the first
time, in a large industrial context, the emergence of a desire to humanize technology. By
employing an architect to ensure a good visual
appearance for their products, the AEG was
bringing objects into daily life that were not
only functionally efficient, but were harmoniously and sensitively designed as well, permeated as they were by an authentic creative
heads,
from numerous
need
These include the Mannesmann AG
Dsseldorf (1911-12), those for the
for prestige.
offices at
who worked
from 19 10
to
1;
member of
Milan
the firm
*BB1
<
established in
in 1932.
Belgium.
Brussels
Nouveau
111
us
many
Belgium
of Victor *Horta and
Paul Hankar, both based in Brussels and credited with independently achieving a non-his-
Horta
them, so
as to
Jugendstil.
the
completion
there
of Joseph
by
Poelaert's
leading practitioners.
original
Among
the
more
Octave van Rijsselberghe and Gustave Strauven in Brussels; Paul Jaspar in Liege; and Emile
van Averbeke in Antwerp.
Even as Art Nouveau enjoyed its greatest
vogue in the design of residential buildings,
gaining an enviable reputation abroad, revival
styles remained in extensive use for all building
types.
Not
infrequently, Art
Belgium. Hotel
Nouveau
4^
motifs
by
Belgium
were eclectically mingled with stylistic elements of neo-Gothic and neo-Renaissance derivation. French academic classicism (*Ecole des
Beaux-Arts) was favoured by King Leopold II
personally and particularly for large-scale secuwork; ecclesiastical commissions were
lar
usually executed in neo-Gothic style. Bye. 1910,
Art Nouveau was losing its prominence, even in
the domestic sector, to the very historicizing
styles whose hegemony it had originally challenged. Designers such as Horta and Antoine
Pompe
sels
11),
much
buildings informed
new
Belgian architecture
Wallonia.
After World War I, most of the reconstruction work in such devastated cities as Louvain
and Ypres was carried out in the conservative
ders,
this role in
had
Advanced Belgian
set in
such
left
Antwerp
After World War II,
river opposite
political
(1933),
the
new
international
prepon-
pseudo-CIAM
many
historic
urban
fabric.
Through
Braem and
seemed
Deco manner
*CIAM
meetings, as well as
at
Weienhof
in 1927. The
the
Owings and
Banqne Lambert
improvement in
the
declining
standards of
Beginning c. 1970, local councils and planning groups, such as the Atelier de Recherche et
d'Action Urbaines m Brussels, were able to
43
Belluschi
there,
own
m2agtip$&
came
to public
wall in which
composed
in
The
Juilliard
Edifici
e progetti,
igj2-igyj,
Rome
1974-
Berg, Max,
Belgium.
b. Stettin 1870, d.
Baden-Baden
Hochschule in
Berlin-Charlottenburg. Later he was Municipal
1947. Studied at the Technische
Architect
organize popular opposition to grandiose planning schemes and the banal architecture that
dis-
rived purely
structural skeleton.
as
Nord in Brussels
gium of
Vandenhove
styles
sensitively in a variety
in
pure
in archi-
de-
is
b.
Amsterdam
its
1856,
The Hague
his
own
which
since
c.
movement.
by the massive gravity of the
Romanesque, which is reflected in his semithe rising labour
B.
felt
attracted
Bill
surfaces.
As an
work of Frank
Lloyd Wright to public notice in Europe)
through his numerous publications and lectures. Many buildings, especially in the *Netherlands, are in fact based on B.'s work, even
though they differ formally from it. The poetry
of smooth surfaces had considerable influence
on the Modern Movement in Holland (De
*Stijl), while his expressive use of historic forms
influenced the development of Dutch *Expressionism (*Amsterdam, School of). In 1928 he
attended the first congress of *CIAM at La
Sarraz, but felt himself to be too committed to a
influence (notably bringing the
Stil in der
rrund-
StijlenSamenleving,
Rotterdam
19 10; (lr.it.inia.
Dr H.
P. Berlage,
Rotterdam
Amsterdam
Am-
sterdam 1969.
Bill,
tor,
the
Max,
b.
at
Block, Der
Bill.
Hochschule fr Gestaltung,
Ulm
(1953-5)
an architecture 'which takes account of the lifeand views of a people and the conditions
and nature of the country.'
VML
styles
to 1956 he
From
From
("^Switzerland).
Aires
1
Maldonado,
971;
Tomas,
1977.
tionally-oriented
in
Berlin in
1928 principally
as
Blom,
ied
Piet (Pieter), b.
Amsterdam
Academy
in
awarded the
Amsterdam.
Rome
at
In
1962
he
was
Herman
geren, B.
*Hertzberger, and Frank van Klinis one of the most important expo-
nents of
counter-
solution
46
Blom.
Bhm, D.
Heimond, 1975-8. Here
dominant theme was that of a cube set on
one corner; the housing units are stacked on
hexagonal shafts, resulting in a kind of 'forest'
formed of a series of 'tree' dwellings.
AM
ing ring of houses at
the
in
der
Bofill
(Levi),
Studied
at
of Geneva. In
ists,
writers, musicians
Taller de Arquitectura
He
most
prominently
tural
at
monumental
Yvelines, a
developed,
Saint-Quentin-en-
neo-classical architec-
FW
tectura.
London
Ricardo Bofill
1981.
(exhibition catalogue),
Bohigas (Guardiola),
Studied
at
He became a
professor at the Architecture School in Barcelona in 197 1 and its director in 1977. Since 198
AM
theorist.
Barcelona 1969;
La arquitectura
espahola de la Segunda Republica, Barcelona
Proceso y erotica del diseno, Barcelona
1970;
jetiuada,
1972;
durant
la
Bhm,
Bhm,
d.
*Fischer at the Technische Hochschule in StuttIn 1902 he opened his own office in
Cologne, which he directed from 1952 on, in
collaboration with his son Gottfried *Bohm.
He was a professor at the Kunstgewerbeschule in
Offenbach, 1914-26, and at the Cologne
Werkschule, 1926-35. From the 1920s on, B.
advocated a reform in ecclesiastical architecture
in Germany, by the abandonment of the
historical formal vocabulary as well as by the
bringing together of congregation and altar. A
strong sensory-emotional element pervades his
work, whether it be that which depends ultimately on *Expressionism, as in the Circumgart.
August,
Muck,
47
Bhi
Bhm,
(1963-8)
Bhm,
In
marked tendency towards an architeclanguage more influenced by *Rationalism; examples are the - often metal - skeletal
structures such as in the Landesamt fur Datenverarbeitung und Statistik (Provincial Administration for Data Processing and Statistics) in
Dsseldorf (1969-76) and the pilgrimage
church in Wigratzbad (1972).
FJ
D 'Gottfried Bhm', Architecture and Urbanism
(Tokyo), March 1978; 'Bhm, Das Kunstu'erk
well
as a
tural
Gottfried, b. Offenbach
Munich he
studied
am Main
architecture
1920.
at
the
Cologne
ig>,oig8o,
Bonatz,
1982.
Paul, b.
1956.
Hochschule
appointed
partnership
in
1902-6,
Stuttgart,
with
Friedrich
Eugen
and was
He was
in
Scholer,
Old
48
and
as a
The
forcefully expressed
monumentality of
Botta
buildings of Peter "^Behrens. In
functionalist articulation
cism,
it is
Station,
its union of
and reduced *histori-
which
purveyed a tasteful
and definite traditionalism, while in transportation and industrial structures he tended to a
residential architecture B.
GHa
cal writings.
Stuttgart
1930;
Tamms,
Friedrich
Stuttgart 1977.
and studied
at
the
Istituto
Uni-
Botta. School
landscape
at
Morbio
Inferiore (1972-7)
in
lines
of
his
later
work were
encapsulated:
sensibility,
Morbio
Inferiore
an
ordered feature, it
impulses of its very natural
artificial
pressed above
Rota,
Italo (ed.),
Mario
Botta. Architetture e
ex-
VML
fabric.
Bonatz. Central
is
of refined singlefamily houses, from the house in Stabio (19657), still strongly reminiscent of Le Corbusicr, to
the independent buildings at Cadcnazzo (1970
and Riva San Vitale (1972-3) and the
1)
elegantly
striped
house
at
mannered,
Ligornetto (1975-6). The house at Riva San
Vitale renders the relationship between building and landscape problematic: as a tower
constructed on a slope, it is built on a rectangular group plan, but at its uppermost level - a
separate entrance is reached by a wire-mesh
gangway. With the administration building tor
the Staatsbank in Fribourg (197" s -^- 1* began
his involvement with the problems of integrating a new building with an existing urban
all in a series
the '70,
and
projects in
Botta; Btiments
*9
Bourgeois
and
of
with the
development of a local
architecture, brought about throughout the
colonial period by an ecological assimilation of
the Portuguese Baroque style, was disrupted,
and all kinds of foreign pseudo-styles were
Bourgeois, Victor,
b.
Charleroi 1897,
Academie
sels
Beaux-Arts
in Brussels,
architect in Brussels
d.
Brus-
Roy ale
as
des
an
He was
Brussels.
*CIAM,
editor
1928-40.
Moderne
Brussels
expression by
as
well
at
Berchem-Sainte-Agathe, near
Influenced in its formal
(1922-5).
as
early
house
in Brussels (1925), a
house
at the
own
Weien-
Flouquet,
Architecture
O. Jaspers
in Brussels (1928).
Pierre-Louis,
1Q22-IQ52,
Victor
Bourgeois:
Brussels
1952; Linze,
Georges, Victor Bourgeois, Brussels 1959; Victor
Bourgeois
i8gy-ig62
(exhibition
catalogue),
Brussels 1971.
its
regional connotations,
also
destroy
the
alien
influences
the
modern
projects
were
disqualified
by
it
attempting
all
and its
had strong spiri-
its
tual links
fact,
copying of whatever might be done abroad not only in architecture but in all the arts.
A few years before these two new movements, scientific studies of the effect of sunlight
in relation to buildings had been started by
Alexandre Albuquerque, who in 19 16 succeeded in incorporating into the Building Code
of the city of So Paulo precise requirements as
to the minimum provision of sunlight in a new
building. Thus, there existed in the 1920s not
only an intellectual atmosphere receptive to
new ideas in architecture but also a sound
regional approach to the basic problem of the
exposure of buildings, both in order to assure a
minimum of sunlight and also to control any
excess. In 1927 in Sao Paulo, Gregori *Warchavchik, a newcomer from Russia, presented
his first cube-like houses to the public, and was
later joined in partnership by Lucio *Costa.
When the Revolution of 1930 upset all the
conventional political and cultural values of the
country and launched a programme of important new public works, the younger architects
were already prepared for the decisive, if
paradoxical, episode of the new building for the
Ministry of Education and Health. A competition was held for the design of this building, and
conservative jury. But the Minister of Educa-
by
lyrical content,
it
daring
formal expression,
on the formation of a
team to include all the other rejected candidates,
and this was done. Thus Costa, Oscar *Niemeyer, Jorge Machado Moreira, Affonso
Eduardo *Reidy, Ernani Vasconcelos and Carlos Leo were jointly responsible for the development of the final design, with landscaping by
Roberto *Burle Marx. In 1936, *Le Corbusier
was invited to act as a consultant on this project,
as well as on one for the New University City.
project. Costa insisted
Brazil
and modern architecture was irrevocably established. Le Corbusier's main ideas fell on fertile
ground. The use of pilous was especially appropriate for the Brazilian climate, the brise-soleil
was
in
many cases an
by Oscar Niemeyer
A local version of
New
York
of construction,
as
well as a
Museum
Reidy
Si
Brazil
Mindlin and Giancarlo Palanti. The most important examples of Brazilian architecture since
1950 are Oscar Niemeyer's Ibirapuera Exhibition Pavilions in Sao Paulo (195 1-4); in Rio,
Lucio Costa's Parque Guinle apartment build-
Eduardo
coast,
in
km
hitherto
virgin
territory.
Costa
rounded by
Oscar Niemeyer
huge
new
city,
Breuer
the
entertainment
districts
at
the
intersection,
street
meyer's
striking
designs
for
the
public
buildings.
economic conditions. He objected to a transposition to Brazil of architectural models originwith high purchasing
power. Guedes is predominantly concerned
with housing, particularly for low-income
groups. A demonstration of his ideals is to be
found in the new city of Caraiba (1976 ff.).
Another architect who seeks expression in
themes identifiable with the environment is
Carlos Nelson Ferreira dos Santos, who worked
extensively on Brazil's shanty towns or favelas.
Furthermore, the process of change has evidently brought about a new, locally inspired, use
of materials. In this context it is appropriate to
mention Zanino Caldas and his simple building
techniques. The 'new' generation of architects
also includes Fabio Penteado (although his
ally created for societies
beginnings
professional
Filgueiras
Lima
date
from
1950),
of the exceptional
Centre) and Paulo
HEM/JG
(creator
built
Bahia
and
Mendes da Rocha.
D Goodwin, Philip L., Brazil Builds,
York 1943; Hitchcock, Henry-Russell,
stress
the significance of
new
trends.
One, the
and
Brazil's
life-style.
The
deaths
Roberto
in
1965
Administrative
New
Latin
Bologna 1967;
Bullrich, F.,
New
New
b.
Directions in
York
Pecs,
1969.
Hungary
sioned with
around for
its
'tired eclecticism'
a practical apprenticeship in
ment
Before long,
his
preoccupation
with
53
Breuer
anm
plywood
chairs, as well as
chairs using
aluminium
some of
as a structural
the
first
support-
ing frame.
He
left
architect
in the Doldertal,
Zurich
(i935~6)
Breuer. The
Conn. (1947)
architect's
own
house,
New
Canaan,
moved
cities, theatres,
England and
soon entered into partnership with F. R. S.
factories, etc. In 1935 B.
bent
54
steel
to
*Yorke
!937>
Breuer
there as Associate Professor.
the
architectural partner-
Cambridge, Mass.
While it is difficult, if not impossible,
for
ship in
to
at
Harvard and
it is
students
them
was
in age,
was
fair to
Harvard
closer to
and
it
is
attention
fair,
to
detail
is
much of
evident in the
B.'s
work
completed by the Gropius and Breuer partnership. In any event, both B.'s teaching and his
completed buildings left a profound impression
on a new generation of American architects.
Among his students, for example, were Philip
Johnson, Paul *Rudolph, John *Johansen, and
Edward
L. *Barnes.
94 1 B. set up an independent practice in
Cambridge, and in 1946 he moved to New
York City. For the first few years, his work was
limited largely to houses and relatively smallscale institutional buildings; but in 1952 he was
In
New
UNESCO
were
St John's
Among
Abbey and
(19609), the
Art
in
New
complex
in
characteristic feature
which
especially
details,
always clearly defined and separately articulated; and even in his large buildings, such as the
UNESCO Headquarters, there was always a
clear distinction and separation of functionally
different elements - whether different kinds of
building or different parts of the same building.
Already in his early American houses B. had
abandoned the rigid formulae of the International Style and had adopted a style in which
regional characteristics were given new life by
the generous use of texturally rich materials.
such as wood and rubble masonry, and by close
specific landscape.
PB
creation.
am
Breuer:
Architect,
Disegno industriale
architettra,
Milan
[957;
55
Brinkman
and
Projects,
London
1962;
Papa-
He
started his
own
practice in 1927 at
JJV
Projekte,
New
York
in
de
Interiors (exhibition
Bryggman,
1981.
Erik, b.
Turku
1891, d.
Turku
b.
Rotterdam
1925 he was in
partnership with L. C. van der *Vlugt; later,
substantially,
dam
56
1898, d.
The Hague
b.
Rotter-
Burle Marx
noted: a block of
Finnish Sugar
silently
developing in
flats
for
Company
at
(1928),
Turku
(1923-4);
Pavilion at the
rises in a district
but taken
as
employees of the
whole
bestfine,
of its internal
it
reveals the
B.'s notable
more
at
others revealing a
LM
man
di Erik
Brygg-
Atti S.J.A.
Anna-Lisa,
(Turin),
Erik
December
Bryggman,
1958; Stigell,
Ekens
1965;
Piironen, Esa, Erik Bryggman (exhibition catalogue),
Turku
1967.
b.
So Paulo 1909.
Botanical Gardens in
interest in the
time
at
Dahlem
to take a close
Rio de Janeiro.
itself,
are typical
of
his
gardens and parks. His involvement with painting is especially evident in his conscious manipulation of the colours in different plants.
Among the highpoints of his extensive ceuvre
try in
Rio de
Marx
Bryggman. Cemetery
c
Canada.
nial rule,
and
its
Canada
of
features
its
from abroad. At
ing. Frederick
Dominion
Parliament
Buildings,
Ottawa
(185967), a powerful symbol of British authority, crowning a cliffon what was then the edge
9 10-12).
imitated
H.
now Musee
Edward
H.
J.
Richardson's
Allegheny
Cormier
(his
own
house, Montreal,
Canack
Cormier
(i
Rome, he
tradition,
while
the
curtain-wall
National
Edmonton
(1974),
Myers
rate
results
J.
expertise in the
USA.
have
proved skilful in the design of large, technologiIn an inhospitable climate architects
such
as
by Affleck,
(1964-7)
kopoulos, Lebensold
&
Candela
(1966),
by
The 'towers-in-the-park'
the co-operative St
Lawrence Neighbour-
and
home,
easily replicated,
fabric.
existed,
Where no
urban
Raymond Moriyama
Deer, Alta.
bec:
Quebec 1979;
Canada issue, May
Bernstein, William, and Cawker, Ruth,
Trois Siecles
d' architecture,
1980;
Building
with
Architecture,
Canadian Architects on
Words:
Toronto
1981.
(Scarborough,
J. Michael Kirkland,
winner of the 1982 competition for Mississauga,
Ont., City Hall are providing them. Historical
New-
Red
Candela,
Felix, b.
Madrid
to an almost unparal-
and precise
calculation.
Candilis
summer of 1939
via
the
refugee camps
at
and
lectures.
him
to reduce the
Ray
won
his
more
this fact
com-
building.
As an architect and designer, C. has distinguished himself with his Church of Santa Maria
Miraculosa in Mexico City (1954-5, with
Enrique de la Mora) which shows the unmistakable influence of *Gaudi. Later buildings of a
non-industrial nature, such as several churches
and pavilions in Mexico City and Cuernavaca,
the Los Manantiales restaurant in Xochimilco
(1958), and the Olympic Stadium in Mexico
City (1968), were executed in collaboration
with different architects, who were glad to avail
themselves of the free outlines of his structures
in their search for organic or baroque shapes.
From 1953 to 1970 C. was a professor at the
National University of Mexico, and from 197
to 1978 in the USA at the University of Illinois,
Chicago, where he has also worked as an
MC/GHa
architect.
The Shell
Builder,
Candilis,
Studied
with
Georges,
at the
Woods
had
his
own
in
office in
Paris.
as fully as possible in
inte-
order to favour
6]
Candilis
&+.
le
Mirail (Candilis/
Josic/Woods; 1962)
more organic
com-
sity in
Josic
GHa
transportation network.
tektur
le
Woods,
Stuttgart
Recherches sur
,
I'
1975;
Candilis,
Georges,
Batir la Vie:
Un
Casson,
Sir
Studied
at
62
Hugh
(Maxwell),
Cambridge; the
b.
London
1910.
British School at
Chareau
Athens; and the Bartlett School of Architecture,
University of London. In private practice from
1937 with the late C. Nicholson; resumed 1946,
after
He
war
service, latterly
Conder
He
period of office
as
President of the
Royal
Academy of
Arts (197184).
Casson, H., Homes by the Million, London,
1946;
Murray,
Peter,
Chamberlin, Powell and Bon. Firm established in 1952 by Peter Chamberlin, Geoffrey
Powell and Christof Bon. In the same year they
attracted attention for their prize-winning
scheme for high-density housing at Golden
first
Lane,
London
in
1956.
Among
their
academic layout
HM
velopment', in
Architects' Journal
Rede-
(London), 4
June 1959; 'Barbican Metropolitan Neighbourhood', Bauen und Wohnen (Zurich), April 1974.
Chareau,
Pierre, b.
Hampton, N.Y.,
Bordeaux
1950.
Bijvoet; 1928-32)
Paris (with
Hail,
Bernard
for
New
other
which
1883, d. East
at the
After studies
apprenticeship
of an
office
English furniture firm, he established a practiceas a private architect and furniture designer in
1918.
He
first
came
to public attention
at
the
1919 Salon d'Automne in Paris, when Inexhibited furniture designed for the Dalsace
apartment. Dr Dalsace and Ins wife also commissioned the Maison de Verre in Pans [928
32), at once one of the most thoroughgoing
realizations of the idea of the 'Machine tor
Living in' (first postulated by *Le Corbusier in
(
63
ChermayefF
(1977)-
ChermayefF, S., and Alexander, C, Community and Privacy, London 1963; ChermayefF,
S., and Tzonis, A., Shape of Community London
1 971; Plunz, Richard (ed.), Design and the Public
technology.
as
Serge,
b.
1900 in Russia.
C.
design as
achieved prominence
in
interior
Exhibition of Modern
Chiattone, Mario,
no
the
the
designer,
and
radios.
Movement
structural
buildings
engineering),
Samuely's
including:
Shrubs
(using
b.
Bergamo
1891, d.
Luga-
Furnishings
Theatre,
ern
Piedmont
director at
chitects
ChermayefF,
1930s,
titles
'Structures for a
modern
Metropolis',
(Italy).
L'opera
di
1965.
group of
of the 19th
for a
structures.
teristic
structure,
whereby
Wood
64
(1937-8),
anticipated
his
American
features:
and
a clear
steel-skeleton
supporting
Chicago School
already tested in a five-storey factory building
York in 1848. This proved not only
in
New
thus
more
(later
Street)
though
was erected
it still had
in
a
Roebuck
new
constructed in the
first
was
new
was born
numbers,
in Chicago.
One
of the two prerequisites for multi-storey residential, commercial and office buildings had
been available since the mid- 19th-century:
Elisha Graves Otis had invented the elevator and
in 1853 demonstrated it in spectacular style in
New York. The second prerequisite was an
appropriate construction system which would
at once allow construction to great height and
be fireproof; this was still lacking.
The credit for having discovered a structural
solution able to carry loads for
tall
fireproof
by assembly
He
fell
a classic
of
new
With
mode of
overcame the
construction, Jenney
Jenney's
and were
Co.) in 188991,
his
modern metropolis
(project, 1914)
scarce, the
&
to
used a steel
skeleton, in contrast to the cast-iron type which
the inventor and architect James Bogardus had
technologically
pioneering
ten-
Home
Jenney
powerful neo-Romanesque
style.
He com-
Chicago (18857), a massive, rationally designed masonry building, the effect of which
derived principally from the expressiveness of
rusticated facade. This straightforward
monumentaility, whose closed character was
softened by the great round-arched windows,
was to be imitated by, among others, Dankmar
*Adler and Louis *Sullivan, in the architectural
language of the Auditorium Building ( S x - 9;
today Roosevelt University), as traditional in
its architectural language as it was technologiits
cally progressive.
Chicago School
Field Wholesale
Chicago (1885-7), by H. H. Richardson
Rookery Building (18856) and in the Monadnock Building (1889-91) - the last tall building
in this group with load-bearing outer walls all
ornament is avoided: instead the exterior of the
16-storey building is enlivened by simple, canted bow-windows which elegantly subdivide
the facade. The corner of the building from
ground level to the upper window ledge is
sharply angled, and the projecting cornice as
well
as its
simple curves.
received a
with
its
overwhelmingly
vertically-
of
century.
William Holabird and Martin Roche likewise followed in the tracks of Richardson, with
the Tacoma Building (18879), an d the reserved and elegant Marquette Building (1893
4), both in Chicago. Their unpretentious and
well-balanced aesthetic reached a highpoint, as
unobtrusive as it was noteworthy, in the
McClurg Building (today Crown Building) of
1899-1900.
The most important protagonist of the Chicago School and its formative head was, however, Louis Sullivan. He studied briefly at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology and
later, like Richardson, in Paris; he worked in
Philadelphia under Frank Furness and in Chicago under Jenney, then in 1881 formed a
partnership with Dankmar Adler in which he
66
Chicago School
.,
Building in St Louis,
The Wainwright
bold upward-soaring
from
890-1;
it
mezzanine, a vertically articulated office section, as well as a tall attic for mechanical
services.
It
marked
the
moment of birth
for the
less
as
uncommonly
clear design.
Mayer
by
narrow band of
terracotta
ornament
111
organic ornamentation of
in a lively
The World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1893), whose layout was originally projected by Root in a romantic way nearly in the
manner of Richardson (1891) but subsequently
67
CIAM
Beaux-Arts manner of
the end of the Chicago School's heyday. This opting in favour of
the neo-classicist 'White City' was no coincidence. After the grand episode of noble, but
mainly disparate individuals, with each reaching
realized in the calmer
Burnham's
marked
plan,
it
VML
skyscraper.
Early
Modern
Architecture:
Chicago 1870
1910, New York 1930, 2nd ed. 1940; Tallmadge, Thomas E., Architecture in Old Chicago,
Chicago 1941; Randall, F. A., A History of the
CIAM
previous year.
The
tion of
effective
and intelligent woman who had aspirations towards being a patroness of the arts. She
proposed in the first place a reunion of creative
spirits at her chateau at La Sarraz, Switzerland,
but this romantic project was turned to some-
sincere
68
thing
more purposeful
after consultation
with
congresses.'
Although
made between
a distinction
was thus
928
at
CIAM
The
and standardization.'
of these repeated invectives against the Academies is underlined by the
dry, formalistic statement of aims that appears
as the preamble to the statutes drawn up at
Frankfurt-am-Main in 1929 (CIAM II). The
Frankfurt Statutes also gave CIAM three operative organs; (1) the Congres or general assembly
of the members; (2) CIRPAC (Comite Internationale pour la Resolution des Problemes de
F Architecture Contemporaine), to be elected
by the Congres; and (3) working groups, to apply
alization
The
historical irony
CIAM
good
the
offices
applied itself to basic problems of land-organization for housing, publishing an equally important report, Rationelle Bebauungsweisen.
By
that
1930
it
problem to which
had driven it town
planning. In order to deal with this situation
CIAM
set to
work
used by
its
members
methods of presentation
was not
before
it
was
felt
that
work was
sufficiently
CIAM
IV - theme 'The Functional City' in July and August aboard the S.S.
between Marseilles and Athens. It was
took place
Patris,
the
first
set against
Charter.
Its
and
practical
With
benefit of hindsight, we
merely the expression of an
aesthetic preference, but at the time it had the
power of a Mosaic commandment and effectively paralysed research into other forms of
housing. The Paris Congres of 1937 (CIAM V)
did little more than make marginal annotations
exists'.
recognize this
the
as
to the Charter.
After World
CIAM
VII, held at
Bergamo
in
1949, a
new
than a
as the
into architecture.
related to immediate
problems than the Frankfurt and
Brussels reports had been. The generalization
had its virtues, where it brought with it a greater
breadth of vision and insisted that cities could be
considered only in relation to their surrounding
regions, but this persuasive generality which
gave the Athens Charter its air of universal
applicability concealed a very narrow conception of both architecture and town planning and
committed CIAM unequivocally to: (a) rigid
functional zoning of city plans, with green belts
between the areas reserved to the different
ized
less specifically
VIII
69
CLASP
extent
CIAM
up
a position
tradition,
particular,
asked to
Today we recognize
new spirit.
It is
manifest in our
revolt
accept
architects,
the
responsibility
form
for
as
the
the res-
of creation, however
small.'
was the
trivial
as
to
70
CIAM
the
Stuttgart
and
Cities Survive?,
Cam-
bridge, Mass.,
busier],
New
Oscar
1
(ed.),
CIAM
'5g
in
1952;
Otterlo,
Newman,
Stuttgart
96 1.
CLASP
to counteract sub-
creates a deceptive,
feeling of informality.
Constructivism
CLASP.
HM
Canadian parents,
d.
b.
London
Tokyo
1895 of
and
an engineering and
architectural consultant. In 1929 he opened his
own architectural office in London which he
continued until his death, with the exception of
periods during World War II and during
several years involvement in urban planning
affairs in ^Canada. He was a founder-member
in 1933 of the *MARS group and one of the
leading English exponents of modernism before
the war. His Lawn Road Flats in Hampstead,
Constructivism. As Le Corbusier once remarked, Constructivism is a term whose connotations are vague, for, unlike *Purism or
London
Italian
then for
a short
(1933),
time
as
Coates. Lawn
Road
Flats,
Hampstead, London
(1933)
^Rationalism,
clearly defined.
its
possible,
however,
er
to assign
don 1978.
It is
from
life,
or
Productivists
as the
ww--
through
was a period of
timber construction which was em-
two
distinct phases.
agitprop
The
first
JV)&HJ*
introduction
such
radio
aerials
alienated
more
formalist
artists
like
the
leader of
The canonical Constructivist work was Vladimir *Tatlin's project for a gigantic Monument to the Third International, first exhibited
in 1920. This design, projected as a distorted
frustum (logarithmically diminishing in a spiral
vortex towards the summit), was inspired, like
all Constructivism, by the triumphs of modern
technology. And yet, while the precedent for
this project was clearly the Eiffel Tower of 1889,
the science-fiction aura of its form derived from
Alexei Kruchenikh's Futurist opera Victory over
the Sun. Naum Gabo's public criticism of
Tatlin's proposal - 'Either build functional
houses and bridges or create pure art, not both.
Don't confuse one with the other.' (made within
the
persuading a
art to
work
number of artists
to
abandon
fine
such
cious
erected
in
nationale
Paris
des
for
arts
the
'Exposition
decoratifs
et
inter-
industriels
modernes'. Articulated pre-cut, standard timber members, wood-block stencils, interlocking mono-pitched roofs and rhetorical stair-
Alexander
Rodchenko, Varvara Stepanova and Vladimir
Tatlin claimed for themselves the description
in
as
when he
technology
of which the
Rusakov Club in Moscow (1927-8), with its
cantilevered concrete lecture halls, is the most
characteristic example.
The post-Revolutionary attempt to evolve a
totally new architectural expression, one which
would be based on the direct revelation of
structural and technical form, gave rise within
a
series
of workers'
clubs,
Constructivism
the vkhutemas to a number of rival factions.
The most prominent of these, the functionallyoriented OSA group (Association of Contem-
which
.
Lissitzky
such
wrote
as signs,
Vesnin
Moscow
(1923),
by Alexander
In
tivist architects
In the
first
place, they
and
Ginzburg
realized
prototype in
his
structures as offices,
department
stores, sanato-
electric installations.
was the
largest
Cook
It was in the late 1920s that Constructivism
began to exert an influence outside the
Soviet
Union
Sweden, Switzerland, Czechoslovakia, England and even the United States (Philadelphia
Saving Fund Society Building in Philadelphia
mushroom-column, reinforced-con-
crete construction.
What finally
confirms
is
it
as a
the use of
Kopp, Anatole,
1967;
Quilici,
costruttiuismo,
74
Ville
Vieri,
et
revolution,
L'architettura
Paris
del
and
New
York
USSR,
igi7~igj2,
London
An
Architecture for
Mass. 1970.
Cook, Peter, b. 1936 Southend, Essex. Received his architectural education first at the
Bournemouth College of Art, and then
at the
Architectural Association in London. His love
eclecticism has
more
in his
Yellow,
Californian *Art
important
as
cally architectural
wayward and
talent
fantastical
more
drawings such
as the
Arcadia sequence of 1977-9, which exist primarily as art works. They blend a reflection of
the aspirations of the high technology era with a
kind of intense hedonism, indeed eroticism,
which may well provide evidence for future
generations of the fantasy inherent in technological dreams.
RM
Cook, Peter, Architecture, Action and Plan,
London and New York 1967;
Experimen-
tal Architecture,
,
1974;
Coop Himmelblau. Group of architects founded in Vienna in 1968 by Wolf D. Prix, Helmut
Swiczinsky and Rainer Michael Hlzer (dissolved in 197 1). Under the influence of Hans
*Hollein and contemporary experimental
teams such as *Haus-Rucker-Co, the group
was at first concerned with pneumatic space
structures. It was, however, pyschological and
aesthetic matters rather than technological concerns which engaged their interest. With their
'Wiener Supersommer' (Viennese Super Summer) of 1976, Coop Himmelblau for the first
time made strong play with their alternatives to
currently accepted modes of urban design. This
Costa
Cook.
group.
particular place.
jects' as the
Vienna (1980), and the Flammenflgel (Flamewing; 1980), as well as the 'Roter Engel' (Red
Angel) Music Bar in Vienna (1981).
FW
D Coop Himmelblau, Architektur mu brennen, Graz 1980.
Costa, Lucio, b. Toulon 1902. After graduating
1924 from the Escola Nacional de Belas Artes
in Rio de Janeiro, he entered into an early
partnership with Gregori *Warchavchik. In
193 1 he was appointed to the directorship of the
School of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro, which
included the School of Architecture, and
adopted new teaching methods, through which
a generation of young architects were given a
grounding in the principles of the European
avant garde of the 1920s and '30s. Between 1936
and 1943 the Ministry of Education and Health
(now Palace of Culture) in Rio de Janeiro - for
which *Le Corbusier was consulting architect
and C. was for a time the leader of the team of
architects, which included *Niemeyer and
*Reidy - was under construction; this proved
to be the most important building in ^Brazil in
terms of spreading Modern Movement ideas
there. With Niemeyer, C. designed the Brazilian Pavilion at the New York World's Fair
in
WOLKE-HIMMELBLAU-
BSSBKSSf;
framework
for
l-M/VML
Niemeyer's public buildings.
D Gazenco,J. O., and Scaronc, M. M.. Lucio
Costa,
Arquitectura,
Cubism
Cubism. Movement
European painting in
which developed the
new 'way of seeing' which Paul Cezanne had
already introduced around the turn of the
century, whereby the representation of objects
in
is
all,
mond
1827, d.
Roermond
b.
Roer-
Antwerp Academy;
ment in
numerous
the
*Netherlands.
He
designed
ground-plan or the
'type'
of the
ture
76
monumental silhouettes.
They are examples of a picturesque architecture
whose principles of truth to materials and
expressivity
the School of
Cuypers, 1827-IQ17,
Amsterdam
1917.
Denmark
D
D'Aronco, Raimondo,
b.
Gemona, Udine
town
hall at
Raimondo D'Aronco,
Milan 1955.
De
and architecture
at
D De
plan
carlo
De
Carlo,
reconciliation
politique',
Carlo,
urbanistica,
G.,
De
l'architecture
Carlo. La
et
de
la
Nicoletti, Manfredi,
*New
Udine
(1909).
De
site
Questioni di architettura
inspiration
always drawn
of world
centres
Bindesboll
more pronounced
clear
work
stylistic
c.
functional
i860 has
expression,
but
(1861).
The
"
Denmark
ain building
(1913,
by Jensen Klint
1921-40),
Nyrop, developed
also
his
The
chief
which
monuments of the
predominated
neo-classicism
immediately
before
World War I are: Carl Petersen's Fborg Museum (designed 191 2); and, in Copenhagen, the
Police Station (1918-22) by Hack Kampmann,
his two sons, and Age Ram. In terms of future
developments, the chief significance of this neoclassicism v/as that
78
led to a
discipline
qualities
it
its
landscaping.
The
school architecture of
twoon
Denmark
The
"^International
Style
first
made
itself
Stockholm Exhibition of
1930,
which was
architects.
this
Bellavista residential
(in
collaboration
by
inspiration
from
the
USA,
Rohe's
disciplined
steel
first
by
their adapta-
structures.
Rodovre Town
buildings
Hall
and
(1955),
hotels,
like
and the
SAS
Bank
housing Jacobsen convincingly combined foreign inspiration with Danish tradition. Jrn
*Utzon is the country's most important representative of a dynamic and expressive architecture. In Denmark he has built noteworthy
single-family and terrace houses and his only
public building, the church at Bagsvaerd (19746). In the Sydney Opera House in Australia he
realized a building of great expressive power.
Halldor Gunnlogsson is a fine exponent of a
severe classicist architecture (Kastrup town hall,
1957-60, with Jrn Nielsen). Vilhelm Wohlert and Jrgen Bo have created a delightful
Denmark.
Denmark.
71),
by Arne Jacobsen
Denmark. Kingo
by
Jrn Utzon
79
Deutscher Werkbund
Smaller units of high-density low-rise developproviding greater opportunities for
ments,
variations in design,
A fine example is
Galgebakken at Herstederne (1969-74) by J. P.
Storgrd, J. Qrum-Nielsen, H. Marcussen and
A. Qrum-Nielsen. In recent years a growing
general interest in historical buildings and
cityscapes has also led to a series of wellexecuted examples of conservation.
TF
D Fisker, Kay, and Millech, Knut, Danske
Arkitektur stremninger l^o-ig^o,
Copenhagen
penhagen 1977-
craftsmen,
publicists,
Denmark.
Louisiana
Museum, Humlebaek
(1958),
Denmark. Odense
University (1966-76) by
Copenhagen Country
Herlev (1960-76) by Gehrdt Bornebusch, Max Briiel and Jrgen Selchau. Between
1968 and 1974 Knud Friisr and Elmar Moltke
Nielsen, with their secondary schools at
Riiskov, Skanderborg and Viborg, created
some of the finest works of the period.
Most recently, architecture has been characHospital
at
terized
by
dential
developments such
so
huge
resi-
quality.
its
as a starting
point
be reversed.
Their efforts had a strong echo immediately,
and the effect of their movement extended
throughout the cultivated middle classes who
suffered from the general lack of culture during
this period. Industrialists and businessmen recognized the advantage that tasteful modern
products could afford. In the very year of the
Werkbund's foundation, 1907, Emil Rathenau,
the founder of the AEG (Allgemeine Elektricitts-Gesellschaft, or General Electric Company), chose the painter-architect Peter Behrens
Deutscher Werkbund
duced
company
work
good
German
Naumann, who
Werkbund
pointing
never tired of
this out.
Garden City of Hellerau itself (*Riemerschmid, Muthesius and *Tessenow). Also pro-
work of
art
Van de Velde
protested
any suggestion of
a canon or a standardization' and the younger
members, Taut and Gropius, supported him.
But the advent of World War I prevented the
immediate collapse of the Werkbund. With the
end of the war in 1918 came the victory of the
majority in 1914 - the victory of handicraft
over industrial production. In 1919 Poelzig
delivered a campaigning speech in Stuttgart in
which he renounced the tendeiu v towards big
Naumann and
by
advocated
business
Muthesius, and proclaimed handicraft as the
goal of the Werkbund. It seemed as though the
movement might be reverting to the ideology
of William Morris.
in the
'against
Si
Deutscher Werkbund
Stuttgart (1927)
part of the
as
an English counter-
Werkbund.
The Werkbund
should
in
satisfied
by machine than by
the hand.
'A
tion
estate) in
bund housing
estates): that in
Breslau
came two
Weienhof
were
heavily
involved
in
the
82
horrific
it
as
Paul
also
be-
Doesburg
seemed
as
would again
find validity.
The German
section
exhibited.
joined
Owings
satisfied
expression
to indicate a
Werkbund
the
also
economic
forces
is
evident.
JPo
(exhibition catalogue),
Munich
lin
b.
Holland, Mich.
the
&
Chicago
Merrill,
office
of *Skidmore,
He began
his col-
He began
resulted in his
first
neo-plasticist pictures. In
*Oud
and Jan
and to connect
it
it
did not
last
sculptural
and advocated
architecture
in
a geometric,
opposition to the
School of *Amsterdam.
In 1917, with Oud, he designed the hall ot
Oud's house at Noordwijkerhout, near Leiden,
in which he sought to reinforce and stress the
83
Drew
denden Kunst,
Amsterdam 1919;
The Hague
modern,
bar ok,
L''Architecture
Doesburg
vivante,
Paris
1925;
(exhibition
883-1 Q31
Klassiek,
1920;
Theo van
catalogue),
London
Drew,
1974.
Jane Beverley,
191
b.
1.
Studied
at
the
medium of painting.
joint
Ibadan, Nigeria. Other projects were in: Kuwait (1,000-bed hospital); India (hospitals,
housing, and a large school; senior architect at
Chandigarh
busier);
movement's
ing).
activities at the
*Bauhaus
in
Des-
on the fundamental
principles
of art (originally
in
de
Delft
Schilderkunst,
1917;
sterdam 19 19;
84
Grondbegrippen der
Drie
Ambeei-
in
Singapore;
(housing,
town
Sri
Cor-
chusetts Institute of
at the
Technology
Massaand
in 1961,
from
practice in 1974.
Drew, Jane, Kitchen Planning,
London 1945;
Drew, J., Tropical Architecture in the
Dry and Humid Zones, London 1966; Brockman, H. A. N., Fry, Drew, Knight, Cramer.
Architecture, London 1978.
Fry, E., and
Dudok, Willem
Marinus,
b.
Amsterdam
1884,
an engineer at the
Royal Military Academy, Breda. In I9i3-i4he
d.
as
the
which
work of Michel de
Cite Universitaire,
Paris
(1927-8),
and the
Duiker, Johannes,
Amsterdam
1935.
b.
The Hague
Studied
From
at
1890,
d.
the Technical
19 16 he
Eames,
Eames Chair,
exhibitions. His
own
house
1956), to films
and
at Pacific Palisades,
from prefabricated
catalogue),
New
York
1973.
Eames. The
architect's
own
house, Pacific
VML
85
Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The Ecole des BeauxArts in Paris, which dates back ultimately to
organization of the Academie
Colbert's
d' Architecture in 167 1, was reorganized in 18 16
and quickly became not only the most important school of architecture in *France, but by
the third quarter of the 19th century the most
such
influential
institution
in
the
world.
Although various reforms were effected, notably in 1863, the methods and philosophy of
the Ecole des Beaux-Arts displayed an overall
unity for some 150 years. The same teaching
methods were employed until the student
revolts of 1968, which led inter alia to the
separation of the architecture section from the
fine arts divisions
tecture.
taught in independent
refusing
tique
its
was sharpened
there in
1863.
own
cri-
If as
French 'grand
*Garnier
siecle'
in the 1920s.
pattern. Students
were prepared
students
to
compete
ateliers
in
the
at the
French
Academy in
governmental architectural
which dominated the hierarchy of the
prestigious
posts
profession in France.
By
as professors
the
late
19th century,
ateliers
after
1863),
including
F.
the
McKim
English and
portantly, the French Ecole served as a prototype for architectural education either by emu-
American architectural
Cambridge, Mass., or Columbia University in New York - or by
lation
as in
schools at
the earliest
MIT
in
critique.
If the
masters of the
Modern Movement,
its
influence
whose
relation
Ehn
only for its formal principles, but as a particular
approach to the problem of style, raised again in
the context of the growing disillusionment
with the international Style in America.
A 1975 exhibition of Beaux-Arts student
drawings held at the Museum of Modern Art in
New York marked a watershed in historical
study and architectural taste. 'Beaux-Arts' once
again became a household word in Anglo-
the Hoger Bouwkunstonderwijs in Amsterdam, 1919-22; he won the Prix de Rome and
American
and approach
to representation
Middleton, Robin
(ed.),
London
London
1984).
Kromhout
b.
Kinderdijk
(1924)
some time
spent
De
to
*Stijl,
work on
plan
prepared by *Berlage in 1917, which he substantially revised and enlarged. For many years
he was president of *CIAM.
juli
Ehn,
Karl, b.
Vienna 1884,
d.
Vienna 1957.
In the 1920s
subsequent buildings,
(1927)
*-
Eiermann
mode
(Adelheid-Popp-Hof).
1934 and to the end of the
Social Democratic era in the Viennese city
administration, E. found himself unable to
realize anything more than a few smaller
compositional
After the Civil
War in
Mang,
MM
CM/KM
private houses.
Kommunaler Wohnungsbau
Karl,
in
as
well as his
numerous competition
juries,
assured
him
Eiermann. Handkerchief
factory,
Blumberg
(1949-51)
thesis
nology, such
as
stair
or
lift
towers, heating
industrial in-
steel railings,
Company
61), the
in Frankfurt
in
Bonn
light, elegant,
E. Studied at the
pupil of
88
diploma
on department
stores
and worked
first
in
Eisenman
Eiffel.
of the
The
site
and, facing
(left)
it,
tures.
He
used
much more
structure
itself;
the towers of the Olivetti
headquarters in Frankfurt-Niederrad (1968-72)
are raised on gradually widening concrete
supports.
in
Washington
WP
international success.
Dijon 1832,
After
training
as
chemist,
d. Paris 1923.
he became a
by chance. Several
ever
more
difficult
territory.
In
his
much
up
from small individual members and riveted
together. His structures were of fundamental
significance for the modern aesthetic of reduced
use of materials (as exemplified in *Mies van
der Rohe's dictum 'Less is more'). His most
renowned structure, the Eiffel Tower in Paris
(18879), was built for the Exposition Unition of three-dimensional space-frames built
shown by such
Tower;
Eiffel
artists as
Eisenman,
Peter, b.
then in
1957-58
collaborator of the
*TAC
team.
89
Ellwood
Even
the El
Odd House
an
autonomous
its
architecture
Five).
Five Architects,
P.,
House of Cards,
(*New York
VML
cany. E.,
steel, is
from 195 1 on
in the context
Eisenman. House
(Barenholtz Pavilion),
Princeton, N.J. (1967-8)
at
and,
abstract sculptural
works or
paintings, includ-
N.J. (1967-8);
client's
90
as
ties
of the Case-Study
zation, his work displays an uncommon elegance and reductivist discipline. Among his
most important works - all in California - are
the Case Study House No. 18 in Beverly Hills
(i955, 1957-8), the Hunt House in Malibu
(i955, 1956-7), the Scientific Data Systems
Building (today Xerox Building) in El Segundo
(1965, 1966), and the bridge-like Arts Center of
the College of Design which spans a street in
AM
Pasadena.
McCoy,
New York
1968.
Endell, August,
b.
Berlin
1871, d.
Breslau
Weiss, Peg
(ed.),
Kandinsky
in
Munich:
the
Erski
PoeUig-Endell-Moll
England. *Great
Britain
A tremendous
b.
Vancouver
University of British
Columbia in Vancouver and McGill University
in Montreal, 1942-50. Active in various part1924.
nerships
at
the
from
in
it
w
on the American (*USA).
The Architecture ofArthur Erickson, Montreal
1
197-5-
Erskine, Ralph,
b.
London
at
Waiden. ssex
(which had a lasting influence on Ins development) and architectural studies at the Regent
ondon, he moved in
Street Polytechnic- in
1939 to Sweden, which seemed to him the
promised land in which society was the leader
the
Quaker school
in Saffron
91
Ervi
consciousness, and,
on the
other, the
from
historical
ground
under
one with the
ground below. Further examples of this cli-
snow
the winter
the building
is
so that
at
Solla, Pentti,
arkkitehturia,
Hel-
phenomenon.
In ^Germany, during
prior to
consisted of men
Aarne Ervi
sinki 1970.
who owed
from the
its
their allegiance to
considerable inheri-
in
*Canada,
tance
was
to receive
and hence we shall readily perceive the numerous connecting links with avant-garde German Expressionist movements such as Die
Brcke and Der Blaue Reiter. In this context one
thinks of the work of Otto Eckmann, Bernhard
Pankok, Hermann Obrist, August *Endell,
Joseph Maria *01brich, who played a key role
at this period with his activities at Darmstadt,
and above all of Richard *Riemerschmid with
his Hellerau factory (1910) and Henry *van de
Velde, for their direct influence on the architects of Expressionism.
It was Peter *Behrens who achieved the
transition to Expressionism with his buildings
for the AEG in Berlin (1908-13). We are not
concerned here with those elements which
as the
in 1973. E.
mile);
it
features
km
clearly
historical styles
anticipated
the
and
its
Rationalist
general
style.
92
because
its
city centre
and three
residential
before
Expressionism
mous dome 65
m (213
ft)
in diameter.
No other
was
as
com-
pelling or
in
to
of the
design. Three years previously, Poelzig had
built a large house near Breslau, where the
plastic fusion of all the elements towards a
volumetric continuity recalls some of van de
Velde's villas of the same epoch.
Thanks to the absence of preconceived types,
underline
it
was
the
peculiar
individuality
path of
least resistance to
ments
at
progressive experi-
hall,
leaves
no
part of
a desire to
unmarked by
surface
its
model
its
author's will.
ter.
The
political in charac-
accompanied Ex-
Socialist revolution
between
cultural avant-gardism
sive politics.
artistic life in
many architects
were members, including *Gropius, *Mendelsohn and Bruno *Taut. Its programme
accorded particular importance to architecture,
regarded as a direct instrument for raising social
standards. The group was dissolved after the
bloody suppression of the Spartacist rising, and
of the
spirits
decisively to
keit,
essential
ideas
of
Expressionism.
obligation;
Expressionist theory.
It is
some
at this
period
in Berlin (1926;
demolished),
War Memorial
at
as
Weimar
well as
(1922)
Jropius'
and
his
Among
the
Schumacher;
at
Expressionism
executed between
that
source.
His
and 1920,
display the same stylistic idioms, and that
character of cosmic and stylistic search and lyric
effusion as an act of liberation, and at the same
time the mystical union with the world that is
typical of Der Blaue Reiter's spiritual posture.
His use of sketches to work out his approach to a
theme, without reference to structure, is typisketches,
19 14
cally Expressionist.
Two
tantamount to
in the
Friedrichstrae, Berlin (project, iyiy). by
der
Mies van
Rohe
Eyck
Under
menacing
political
the
time tended
to
crystallize
into
groups
most
VG
fairy-tale effects.
Borsi, Franco,
Architettura
dell'espressionismo,
Expressionism,
London
Modern
1966;
Genoa
n.d.
Architecture and
Pehnt,
Wolf-
London
1973.
numerous guest
Expressionism. Salzburg Festival Theatre, project
(3rd version, 1921), by Poelzig
Expressionisn. The second Goetheanum,
Steiner
extraordinary lengths.
more monumental style, as exemby his designs for the IG-Farben offices at
Frankfurt (1928-31) and his broadcasting studios in Berlin.
Rudolf Steiner's second
Goetheanum at Dornach (19248) is linked to
Expressionism by its picturesque treatment, but
occupies a place apart, as it was designed in
accordance with the principles of Anthro-
severer and
plified
posophy.
lectureships in
(*CIAM) from
1953, he came to an adherence to *Structuralism through his studies of the Dogon, the
Arnhem
in
GHa
clarte
d'aujourd'hui
L' Architecture
labynnthienne',
(Paris), no. 177. January-February 1975, pp.
14-30.
95
1885, d. Dssel-
Landwehr
rural areas
traditional
AM
Present, Future,
London
Feb-
Fehling, Hermann,
Received
96
disdains
right-angles
in
developed anew
from the ground up in each commission; the
dynamic of form grows out of the almost
scholastic graphic indications of functions and
their interrelationships.
is
Among
their
most -im-
entangled
residents
which
in
bricks;
between the
Fathy, Hassan,
Villages,
architecture,
and the
has not, unfortunately, proved
sun-dried
to be an unqualified success.
countless quarrels
bureaucrats, this
b.
Baugewerkschule
in
the
at
Brunswick 1981.
sion
laid
Finland
Bank of
the
Architecture:
Thames
Hugh
in London (Director of
*Casson). This was signifi-
it
afforded
modern
provided an occasion
of townscape which
had been developing and clarifying themselves
over the previous years. Eschewing the formal
layouts that had been usual in earlier major
exhibitions, recourse was had to a subtly
planned disposition of buildings and features, an
exploitation of changes of level, progressively
evolving views and the dramatic long-distance
backdrop of the north bank of the Thames to
give an exciting complexity and size that was
of design, but because
it
Royal
Festival Hall
by
site.
Bank
Sir Leslie
Of the
only
*Martin
site
and industrial
narrow
slits
remains.
corn),
Brian
Ships).
Exhibition', JRIBA,
autonomy -
influenced
all
the
arts. It
The
wooden
archi-
Hi
jijBijB
jKSB-:-;
Festival
(195
1)
Festival Hall
:
:
Finland
of the
and Saarinen,
well
trio Gesellius,
Lindgren
and
as
as
Power Plant in
Helsinki (1908-13)
both by Selim A.
1),
in
Brussels.
which
in
they
polemical
called
for
an
paminter-
About
this
mantic vocabulary
lost
architecture, to be replaced
by an archaicizing
strongly symmet-
economic prosperity
World War
I.
the
period
Characteristic
works
in
before
ot
this
Sonck,
(191
1)
Central
Station
(1904,
1910-14).
Saarinen's
also anticipated
future
98
Sonck
Finland. Suvilahti Power Plant, Helsinki
(1908-13), by Selim A. Lindqvist
Finland
upswing
most
were Kpyl Garden City in
Helsinki (1920-5) by Martti Vlikangas, as well
as Gunnar Taucher's designs for blocks of flats
in Helsinki (1926). The most important public
buildings of the time were *Aalto's church in
at
successful projects
Muurame
Saarinen
Mu-
seum
in
Sigfrid
Siren.
Modernism began
1928.
As the leading
to penetrate Finland in
architects
of the time,
however, the accent of Finnish modernism - unlike the situation on the Continent
position,
and
Sweden, where prototypes were espesought by Finnish architects was directed not so much to housing, but rather was
regarded, more than anywhere else, as a style for
public buildings, which underlined the modernity of the young Republic.
Alvar Aalto immediately assumed the leading position among the modernists; his Sanatorium in Paimio (1928-33) and Municipal Libin
cially
99
Finland
rary in Viipuri ( 1927-3 5;
classic
World War
P.E.Blomstedt'sPohjanhoviHotel,Rovaniemi
(1935, destroyed in World War II); and Yrj
Lindegren and Toivojntti's Olympic Stadium
in Helsinki (194052). Aalto, who had from the
outset been critical of the mechanistic thinking
of the Modern Movement, developed a personal form of expression around the mid- 1930s
which led him towards *organic architecture.
Great curved forms were already introduced in
the auditorium ceiling of the Viipuri library as
well as in the great exhibition wall of the Finnish
Pavilion at the New York World's Fair of 1939.
In the Cellulose Factory
complex
at
Sunila
of traditional methods.
At the beginning of the 1950s there was a
return to the modernist tradition, the lead being
taken by Viljo *Revell in particular; an examthe industrial centre in Helsinki (1952) by
Revell and Keijo Petj. On the other hand,
ple
is
Aalto introduced in the Senior Students' Dormitory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge (1947-8) his 'red' period
(so called for the predominant use of red brick),
of which the masterpieces were the Town Hall
in Syntsalo (1949-52) and the administration
building of the National Pensions Institution in
Helsinki (1948-56). At the same time both Aulis
Blomstedt and Kaija and Heikki *Siren created
sensitively conceived housing; the Sirens also
Otaniemi (1957),
Aarne *Ervi
Revell, and like Revell was
imbued with
came closest
a pantheistic spirit.
to
Finnish
social
'Wooded City' ideal, where the town is embedded in natural surroundings. The urban milieu
of Tapiola is to a certain degree heterogeneous;
but careful environmental planning eliminated
this shortcoming to a large extent. The centre of
Tapiola (195469) by Ervi is an important
Finland
as the
Modular System
make an impact on
relied
on
its
own
festations
tably the
Marimekko
factory (1972)
by Erkki
whole
the
reasons
*Post-Modernism
Finland. Municipal Theatre, Helsinki (1964-7), by
Timo
Penttil
adversely affected
Towards
the
its
profile
own
characteristic *historicism
and
its
represented
in
Finland,
although
*Pietil's
expressive character.
of
acteristic
instead
is
striving
to enrich the
embraced geometric formalism, spiritually related to *Niemeyer's architecture; while Blomstedt remained the most prominent adherent to
modernist *Rationalism. Aarno Ruusuvuori,
Pekka Pitknen and Osmo Lappo were the
principal upholders of the modernist legacy in
the
1960s.
'school'
in
present in the
works of Timo
is
nevertheless
Penttil (Munici-
1964-7) and
Reima
*Pietil
Pietil's
1966;
Dipoli Students' Residence in Otaniemi, 1967).
Finsterlin
architecture,
biomorphic form
fantasies, in line
with Darwin's evolutionary teachings, harbingers of a new great cultural level which would
supersede
the
contemporary
'geometric
epoch'. As a theoretician and dreamer F. was
spared the conflicts with reality which his own
expressionistic departures stimulated within the
*Rationalist camp. After 1922 he was little
concerned with architecture. Moving to Stuttgart in 1926, he subsequently worked principally as a painter and writer.
FJ
Union
Weltarchitektur
Company
administration
by Matti K. Mkinen
Hermann,
Finsterlin,
Genesis
der
Deszendenz
der
'Die
seiner Idee,
Wickberg, Nils Erik, Byggnadskonsti FinStockholm 1959; Becker, Hans J., and
Schlote, Wolfram, Neuer Wohnbau in Finnland,
Stuttgart 1964; Suhonen, Pekka, Uuta suomalaista arkkitehtuuria, Helsinki
1967; Tempel,
Egon, Finnish Architecture Today, Helsinki 1968;
Richards, J. M., 800 Years of Finnish Architecture,
Newton Abbot 1978; Suhonen, Pekka (ed.),
Finnish architects and their work since 1949,
and Weidner, H.
land,
Helsinki 1980.
in
Finsterlin,
Hermann,
Stuttgart 1973.
He first
b. Munich 1887, d.
studied medicine, phys-
ics
painting.
Dome
oder
die
1922, pp. 73
Finsterlin.
ff.;
Idea
no.
3,
spring
Hermann
Architektur
in
C, Hermann
Finsterlin.
Munich and
and architect
in
a
Stuttgart,
signatory of
Evangelical Garrison
numerous
offices,
Church
schools and
at
Ulm
(191
1),
museums.
scher Baumeister,
Munich
Foster
Munich
1968.
Frderer,
Construction'
the Staatliche
at
Akademie der
in Karlsruhe. As a planner F.
proponent of the attempt to achieve
bildenden Knste
is
which per-
mit the accommodation of a variety of activities. In formal terms, his buildings are closest to
*New Brutalism in their use of emphatic
compositional elements and in the cubistic,
sculptural development of the building mass as
a response to the variegated internal spatial
articulation. His architectural career began with
the Hochschule fr Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften in St Gallen (1957-63, with Rolf
Georg
Otto
sequently
church
his
and
Hans
Zwimpfer).
work focused
such
design,
as
St
Subon
principally
Nicholas
in
work
is
whose
most differentiated
*Mies van der Rohe's
functions. In contrast to
essential classicism, F.
the St Konrad multi-purpose centre, Schaffhausen (1968-71). In the 1970s urban renewal
schemes came to the fore, and he has recently
revived his interest in sculpture.
AM
heute fr morgen?
Wrzburg
1964; Burckhardt,
arises
from
works
Among
his
most important
and adminis-
tration building
103
France
The
contradictions inherent in
Viollet-le-
Norwich
Arts,
(1978)
near
Norwich
as
(1978),
well
as
the head-
ing
'Foster
quarters of the
Associates',
Architectural
in
Design
et theorie
de
I'
architecture
(1902-4)
In a
Viollet-le-Duc
in
1863-4.
Away from
the
I'
architecture (Discourses
1872).
is
the
moment,
architecture.
The
new
ideas in
France.
the
temporary constructions built for the Expositions Universelles of 1878, 1889 and 1900. held
in Paris; in these the decorative envelopes of the
buildings were ever more in open contradiction
with their metal skeletons. This state of conflict
was also echoed in the domestic architecture
which followed the great building boom under
Haussmann. Although French architects rarely
attained the acuity of a *Horta in Belgium or an
Otto *Wagner in Austria, in the buildings of
*Guimard such as the Castel Beranger in Paris
(18978) or in the works of the Ecole de Nancy
(*Sauvage) a typological renewal was combined with a new aesthetic freed from strict
Pans
France
hands
of engineers,
new impetus
including
in the
*Freyssinet,
*Perret,
Franklin
the
working
met
classes,
efforts to create a
who were
to join in their
planning.
In Paris, Henri *Sauvage's 'habitations bon
marche hygieniques' in the Rue de Tretaigne
(1903) and the housing which A. Augustin-Rey
built in the
105
France
the absence of a
cies
war
created in
architecture
which predominated
borrow
the
title
founded in 1920,
foreign
work
New
Spirit'),
first
published in
106
mistrust
Germany
still
subject to post-
new
France. Pavillon de
by Le Corbusier
l'Esprit
Nouveau,
Paris (1925),
France
however,
in
The
appearance
in the
d'aujourd'hui,
is
particularly
evident
in
the
The
tion
was the
of the authoritarian
how-
direct interven-
state in
urbanism and
The reconstructions of
Le Havre by Perret, of Maubeuge by Lurcat, of
Sotteville-les-Rouen by Lods, by Pingusson in
architectural patronage.
107
France
which fostered the widest dispersal of prototypes of functionalist buildings and urban
forms. As a result of these immense undertakings, which were continued from the mid1950s in the 'Grands Ensembles' and the 'Zones
Urbaniser en Priorite', industrialized construction reached a level in France unparalleled
ment
Modern Move-
open the
paralysis
of
a doctrinal debate. It
France. Notre-Dame-du-Haut,
4), by Le Corbusier
108
Ronchamp
(1950
Raymond Lopez
by
Prouve pursued
his
the
1960s,
the urban
Utopias of Paul
France
France.
Town
by Jean
Renaudie
inaugurated earlier in
with notably mediocre
a series
of Prefectures,
results. It
is
nonetheless
the
crisis
of 1968.
The
real
architectural
marked by
crisis
in
quence of
this
intellectual
much influenced by
amongst such architects as Bernard
Huet or Antoine Grumbach, who advocated an
architecture based on urban values. At the same
time the debate over industrialization was
this
spurred a reaction,
Italian ideas,
relaunched
at
Saint-Ouen
share the
same
1953; Piccinato, Giorgio, L'architettura contemin Francia, Bologna 1965; Besset, Mau-
poranea
109
Freyssinet
rice,
Neue
franzsische
Norma,
1967; Evenson,
Architektur,
Paris.
Stuttgart
Century of
hibition
catalogue),
Marcel
(ed.),
La
urbaine
et crise
de
d'Aujourd'hui
Paris
198 1;
Roncaylo,
(ed.),
Guide
d' Architecture
en
new
first
He worked
F.
built
several reinforced-concrete
Bouches-du-Rhone
Avord, Cher (19 16). The exper-
(19 14)
and
at
him
for the
two
stroyed 1944). Here he used reinforced-concrete arches - only 9 cm (3^ in.) thick - with a
from 191 8
profile
to this
building technique.
to 1928
in
determined by the
than
and thus
/A
is
buildings to lighter,
stress
ft
to the slender
at
Ij
Orly (1916-24)
lines
sSSSKSF
ot
regular
Fuller
unity.
devoid of
artistic
harmony,
stability
Incessant research,
practical adjustment, a
handling of materials and a rare
ability as a designer enabled F. to achieve in his
oeuvre a complete unity of structural needs and
consistent
WK
aesthetic expression.
Freyssinet, E.,
niques du beton,
November
1941; Giin1
Freyssinet
ground, the secondary features being the inserted infill elements whose development
the users
the
The
F.
designed to demonstrate his 'mobile architecture', was soon followed by more concrete
projects such as 'Paris Spatial' and 'Tunis
Spatial' (both i960), as well as Bridge-City over
the rmel Canal (1963). Since the 1970s he has
been chiefly concerned with build-it-yourself
methods and simple technologies.
AM
D Friedman, Yona, L' Architecture mobile,
Brussels 1968;
Les Mecanismes urbains,
Brussels 1968;
Pour une architecture scien,
Paris
tifique,
getiques,
Alternatives
197 1;
Saint-Jean-de-Bray 1982.
,
ener-
Worked 1924-34
Thompson; was
in
the firm of
&
with *Gropius
*Drew
1945-50; prac-
Adams
in partnership
retired
to a Continental Siedlung. In 1936 he collaborated with Gropius on the design for the
Impington
Village
progressive
College,
with
in
Friedman, Yona,
entirely to research
he founded the
Mobile
Fielitz,
In 1958
also
included
Frei
Schulze-
among others.
idea,
ration with
(GEAM) which
*Otto, Werner
the
on urban planning.
b.
Milton, Mass.
lated
living
to
in'
the
which he
called
the
'Dymaxion
Functionalism
[dynamic plus
maximum
efficiency] House'. In
ma-
(19293
in
1), F.'s
mm
Fuller.
Dymaxion House
at
(project, 1927)
Expo
'67,
Montreal (1967)
schools in the
Boston
1974-
Functionalist!!
fulfill; the schematic and technological aspect
of architectural modernism (*Rationalism),
whose wider theoretical stance comprises also
philosophical, political, social, economic, stylistic and symbolical questions.
Functionalism in architecture remains in part
the essence of the modern as opposed to the
traditional. Therefore there is hardly an architectural principle which occurs with greater
persistence in the history of architecture, nor
one which is less appropriate to characterize any
particular chronologically delimited movement. Even in palaeolithic cave dwellings and in
neolithic lake dwellings form was determined
by function; in Roman fortifications and aqueducts, in medieval castles, in Renaissance palaces and Baroque country houses, in 18thcentury warehouses, in residential architecture
of the 19th century and office skyscrapers of the
between form
Architettura razionale,
Gli Elementi
it
as
thus, the
tion in architecture.
sacrificed
their reputation
20th, there
is
a close relationship
is
as
old as building
itself.
to
Parallel
tall
that,
the
theoretical
basis
of
he
in objects
such
considerations
alism.
the
first
from
the
on which
had been founded. With regard
to the inadmissible conflation of Rationalism
and Functionalism, the words of Le Corbusier,
that great apologist of engineers, and admirer of
the Bleriots, the Aquitania and the Bugattis,
is
which
light
reveals to
Vienna
1964;
'Kritik
der
Kritik
des
Futurism
Arch
Funktionalismus'
(Berlin),
27
vol.
(1975)-
Futurism.
Tommaso
The
Fascism.
ideas
it
re-
and
service of
*Italy,
propagated, however -
way - were
to bear fruit
throughout
Futurism. Citta Nuova
The
writers,
Futurist
painters,
architects,
(project, 1913-14)
by
Sant-Elia
stage
designers, musicians,
became
(1
August
officially estab-
of architecture.
than
by Marinetti of a
text which had appeared several weeks earlier
under Sant'Elia's name (and with his thoughts)
in a catalogue of an exhibition held in Milan of
the young non-futurist group of artists 'Nuove
Tendenze', although it had been originally
written by Ugo Nebbia (who had edited the
catalogue) and was later entitled 'Messaggio' (as
opposed to 'Manifesto'). Next to the furious
rejection of all past norms, an architecture was
advocated which would employ new materials;
which was expressive and artistic; which gave
version, slightly lengthened,
perishable and
light,
dynamic
so that every
its
own
city.
These propositions took account of new scientific and technological developments and accorded extensively with the Futurists' demands
ephemeralness and speed' is evifrom Boccioni's theory of
'dinamismo plastico'. Thus an unresolved contradiction was introduced into the movement's
architecture, which is confirmed by comparing
the texts with Futurist architectural drawings: if
the first encouraged a simultaneity, speed, and
usefulness,
dently
derived
architecture
monumen-
for
in the
European architectural
discussion; other-
it
Gardella
dell'architettura
futurista;
the manifestos
to
Roma futurista);
dinamico, stato
avant-garde
in the
Architettura Futur-
to this short
episode.
Fourteen years passed before Futurist archibecame a live issue in the context
of the search for an artistic identity for young
tecture again
Pram-
in the
'grattacielo in
tensistruttura'
Finally,
(1933).
even to
this
[Sant'Elia,
A.],
Lacerba (Florence),
Ulisse,
'L'architettura
futurista',
(Milan),
futurista,
II,
polini, E.,
A., Sant'Elia e
I'
architetturafuturista,
l'archi-
Sartoris,
Rome 1944;
and
Taylor, Joshua
C,
Futurism,
New
York
1961;
New
York
1973.
G
Gardella, Ignazio,
b.
at
other architects of
he did not have recourse to any
or aesthetic ideologies for the genuine
social
^Rationalism displayed
in his first
works. His
solutions to the
Garnier
extension of the Villa Borletti in Milan (1935),
which established his reputation. Soon after-
wards came
his finest
work
most interesting
lines
and
employment of
- and
this at a
of G.'s
many
time
when
and most
architectural activities
lead G. a long
way from
Gamier, Tony,
Lyons 1869,
La Bedoule
BeauxArts in Lyons and in Paris at the *Ecole des
Beaux-Arts and in the atelier of Julien Guadet.
Awarded the Prix de Rome, he spent the years
1899-1904 in Rome; he was city architect of
Lyons, 1905-19, and continued there afterwards in private practice.
During his years in Paris, he moved in the
socialist circles of Jean Jaures and Emile Zola,
increasingly radicalized by the Dreyfus affair.
Subsequently, his studies at the Villa Medici in
b.
d.
and
half-hilly in a
Garden
Gardella.
Company,
Flats for
principles
distinction
resi-
tial islands',
116
each 30 x
50
m (approx.
100 x 500
Garnier
he projected traffic-free,
generously planted pedestrian paths; a community centre which not only anticipated in its
programme the social centres of modern hous-
ft),
Both
ern
its
overall
Movement.
Its
circles.
Mod-
on *Le Corbusier,
strip
canopies,
la
Taking
this
and
He developed
formal elements which took the greatest advantage of the possibilities of reinforced concrete:
and
shops;
school on an open
easily
practically
single-level,
surveyed
site; a
hospital
pavilions;
and workorganized
composed of
small
residential
of elegant cubic simplicity and with wellorganized plans. Everything, even down to
technical innovations such as electric heating
systems and temperature controls (for the economy of the Cite Industrielle was to be based on
the availability of inexpensive electricity), was
precisely set out in the
accompanying
texts.
for instance,
pour
worked out
VML
Cite Industrielle.
la construction
Gamier.
industrielle.
Etude
Abattoirs de
la
Jaussely
rejected tradition,
tre
is
nothing but
modern
interpretation of a
The Cite
Industrielle,
were exhibited
117
Gaudi
Badovici, Jean, and Morance, A., L'Oeuvre de
'Tony Gamier, Paris 1938; Veronesi, Giulia,
Tony Gamier, Milan 1948; Pawlowski, Christophe, Tony Gamier
et les
debuts de l'urbanisme
Wiebenson, D.,
Industrielle,
New
York
1969.
when
revivalism was in
full flood,
it
had the
milestone in G.'s
artistic
Gaudi. Palau
Giiell,
Barcelona (1885-9)
arches
style,
closely
from nature.
which
rise to a
and terminate
in thin,
onally,
crowned by
a piece
surfaces,
Gaudi
umns. It permitted a type of vaulted structure
without buttresses of any kind, since all thrusts
are taken
Barcelona (190014), G.
systematic use of inclined supports for
retaining walls and bridges. An important
In the Giiell Park,
made
Plastically speaking,
it
rhythm of
undulating horizontal edges, comparable to
eyebrows or lips; an affinity between G.'s work
and Surrealism is especially evident here. His
structural masterpiece is the Sagrada Familia
schools (1909), walled and roofed by undulating membranes of thin brick.
Towards the end of his career, G. asserted
structure of organic shape, with a
immense
below the
gables.
(1
898-1914), which
string
model
Gehry
half of the century, appreciation was long
postponed. Indicative of this reappraisal are two
comments of Sir Nikolaus Pevsner: while he
restructure
first
wrote
the
in
New York
and
Sert, J. L.,
Mower,
Su
D., Gaudi,
London
1977; Collins,
G., and Bassegoda, N., The Designs and Draw1970;
ings of
b.
at
Gehry. The
Cal. (1978-9)
architect's
own
and
structures
spatial
them
boundaries
order to
in
in multi-layered,
overlapping
and antithetical ways; the result evokes a
comparison with the spatial stratifications of a
Guanno Guarini. Evidence of G.'s ability to
master large-scale composition is provided in
Santa Monica Place, a complex of shops and
parking facilities in Santa Monica (1979-81)
which, in its relatively straightforward construction, recalls older, traditionally structured
FW
buildings.
Architectural Record,
Germany.
cial
possessions
and
the
sudden
acceleration
and
of
elec-
trical industries).
that
concerns
among
reflected
this
ambition
to
steady
count
upward
by the Depression,
same time
policy of
provided the
necessary aesthetic incentives. While Great
Britain remained the only real economic rival,
it was Pans, despite the French defeat in 1870 1,
which retained unblemished its glittering role as
cultural 'Capital of the Nineteenth Century'
(Walter Benjamin) and thus provided the
construction, at the
cultivating
national
stimulus for
particular the
official
as a
prestige
architectural
policy.
In
development of Wilhelnunian
The
aspirations of Schinkel
foster a
and Semper
to
all
new needs,
materials,
new
interest
Germany
'German Renaissance' movement and fi- because of its abundant representation in
German architecture - the Baroque, were all
called into service. On the other hand *neoclassicism, which was stamped with reminiscences of the Wars of Liberation in 1813 and
(thanks to Schinkel's pupils) had long dominated in Prussia, was still a viable alternative in
the
nally
catastrophic
was
also functionally
modern
transport fa-
cilities
growth
of population
the
populated 'Miethaus'
contrast
to
the
(barracks)
prevailing
quarters,
in
type of artisans'
conditions
living
that
The
resulted
first reform
of co-operative or cottage housing. The
problem of housing continued until well into
the 20th century to be an unresolved preoccupation of politicians, architects and that new
breed which was itself born in the late 19th
century: urban planners. These unmastered
problems stood in great contrast with the
tremendous organizational efforts and investments that went into tramways and railway
construction, sewers and electrification, and
even into the beautification of public streets and
efforts
squares.
While Pans offered the model for the grandeur of a capital city, the impetus for a practical
approach to achieving more comfortable housing and reasonable living conditions came from
England. In 1902 the German Garden Cities
Association was founded on the British model,
and realized
its
first
noteworthy scheme
at
Hermann *Muthesius,
an attache in the German
studied
the
English
its
their
architectural
careers
with
their
own
as a
the residential
Germany
Thus
the comparatively
now
translated
from
new
materials
utilitarian
were
buildings to
public
August Endell
combined
any significant influence on architectural developments there. Already c. 1910 other models,
such as the Empire and Biedermeier styles, were
adopted, as the Jugendstil had been, to help
counteract historicism.
They inspired a
'brger-
122
of the first post-war years. The housing shortage inherited from the 19th century became
even more critical. Architecture was synonymous with the administration of shortages. In
this situation of urgency, which was at the same
time a period of political hope, the avant garde
new schemes
Nearly
important role
visions.
Expressionist
whom
all
the architects
who
played an
went through an
Bruno Taut, around
of younger artists and
in the 1920s
phase:
whole
circle
orial in
Weimar;
1922).
Although the educational principles were estabBauhaus and although its school
buildings in Dessau became exemplary models
lished at the
for
*Rationalism
in
Europe, the
real test
of the
in
1920,
and due
to
*Novembergruppe and
Kunst,
a sense
the
the
activities
of the
*Arbeitsrat
fur
in
Germany
was not confined to the individual
encompassed a town-planning
concept. Berlin's housing estates, with their
rows of buildings set in green surroundings, still
Berlin; this
buildings, but
The new
Berlin.
Its
architecture spread
principal outposts
in
public.
The
position of the
new
'objective' architec-
by Mies
van der
Germany. Memorial
Rohe
and
by Mies van der
to Karl Liebknecht
(1926),
preserved
its
expressive character
somewhat
123
Germany
contrast to Italian Fascism, National Socialism
would tolerate virtually no modern architecture. The official style would be modernized
neo-classicism, the formulation of which was
largely the
meister', Paul
Only
in industrial buildings
prefabricated
gave
architecture
rise to a sort
was
still
a functional,
possible;
this
of internal emigration.
revived.
It
was
immediately resumed or
to investigate the
aside
Germany. The
72),
Dttmann
124
units,
in
units.
At
compact
Hamburg
first
areas
for
offices,
such
as
in
in these
Germany
cities
in
counteracting
kind of expulsion process arose: cheap innercity housing was now replaced by expensive
property.
Republic has been the BundesBuilding Code); this replaced the reconstruction laws of the various
Lnder with their sometimes more favourable
planning provisions. The scandal of profits
arising from land speculation and planning
decisions persisted. The social responsibility of
property ownership established by the constitution (section 14 of the Basic Law) was as
the Federal
baugesetz
(Federal
haphazardly respected in reality as the more farreaching provisions of the Weimar Imperial
Constitution of 19 19 had been. Indeed, in the
case of the cities, one must wonder whether the
paucity of planning instruments has not proven
for the worst.
The
German Democratic
Germany), which accorded
much greater powers to its planners, of whom
the most important was Hermann Henselmann,
bau'
architecture of the
Republic
(East
in
West Germany
architects
in
Berlin
the 'Inter-
of 1957 leading
in
steel-
North American
standards of the
decisively shaped
tects.
exhibition
tions in
began
received
125
Germany
on
entirely
schnigg, Friedrich
his
mor-
new
prestige,
a
be
it
as a
source
tects
for a
rivals
to
communist
East
Berlin's
sign. Gottfried
*Bhm's
great space-creating
cial
extreme
ecclesiastical
and
offi-
cases.
German
post-
St Bonifatius,
Aachen
by Rudolf Schwarz
Germany. The
(1969-71),
Germany. Church of
(1962-4),
especially for a
DLRG
Building, Berlin-Spandau
by Ludwig Leo
Gibberd
Germany. Lightweight
the Bundesgartenschau,
Amidst
ber
this
at
of structures
German
which
Frei
der
Gegenwart
(3
vols.),
I)
und
and II)
des 19.
Strmungen
in
K.,
WP
sources.
New German
London 1956;
Cologne
Munich
Heathrow
Bode, Peter M., Deutsche Kunst seit i960, Architektur, Munich 1976; Petsch, Joachim, Baukunst
und Stadtplanung im Dritten Reich, Munich 1976;
National
Klotz,
Heinrich,
Architektur
in
der
Bundes-
8);
Cathedral. His
more
recent
work
in
Brasilia
the capital
Hyde
Gill
N.Y. 1870, d.
Carlsbad, Cal. 1936. First worked in the office
of * Adler and *Sullivan in Chicago; after 1896
Gill, Irving John, b. Syracuse,
in
San Diego on
his
in a unified style,
Irving Gill
Architects,
McCoy,
New
York
i960;
Kamerimg,
as Architect,
San
Zurich, he
principal
at
the Kunstgewerbeschule in
in ^Switzerland. In 1945
the
Movement
*New
which
is
distant reflection
of
and wood.
Among
G.'s
atypical Park
Theatre in Grenchen (194955): the Bergkirche
in Rigi-Kaltbad (1962-4); the Protestant Community Centre in Stuttgart-Sonnenberg (19646); a residential complex with 1,800 units in the
'Mrkisches Viertel' of Berlin (1965fr).); and the
Gymnasium and Realschule in Vaduz, Liechfigure,
besides
the
relatively
tenstein (1968-73).
FJ
Gisel',
and studying
as if natural,
who
also
coined the
Bruno Taut's
title
insti-
in the corre-
spondence.
The common
factor shared
by
the
members
came
Gisel.
Gymnasium and
(1968-73)
128
Realschule,
Vaduz
Grassi
work of
the
members of
by Taut
the
journal Frhlicht.
The correspondence ran until December
1920. Several members of the group later joined
lished
the
in the
with the
*Neue
Architecture of Bruce
New
York
1977;
Architectural
London
and
The
New
York
AD
Design,
Cook,
London
1978;
1978.
IBW
Sachlichkeit.
1982.
Gogel, Daniel,
b. Berlin 1927.
After study
at
G. established himself as an independent architect in his native city, and since 1953 he has
worked in partnership with Hermann *Fehling.
*Wright
is
from
central mast
1^^
by
v'
steel cables.
',
GHa
Gollins, Melvin,
Ward
national clientele.
Architecture
Partnership,
of the
Gollins
Melvin
Ward
London 1974
Grassi, Giorgio,
more
Aldo *Rossi, G.
individualism
attacks
radically than
that
architectural
history
and
He
already
Not coincidentally,
work of Heinrich *Tesseno\v is,
the rigorous
house
with G. Favazdemonstrates G.'s reductivist impulse. In his project for the conversion ot the
Castello Visconteo at Abbiategrasso into a
Town Hall (1970) he contrasts historical forms
with a neutral monumcntality. In 1976 he
built in 1962 in collaboration
zeni, already
29
Graves
collaborated with Antonio Monestiroli on the
design of the Students' Residence in Chieti,
own
quest for a
maximally objective, formal language, represents the limits of *Rational architecture, in that economic factors and reason
collective,
VML
Grassi, G.,
tettura,
La costruzione
Venice 1967;
mestiere
altri
logica
dell'archi-
L'architettura
come
scritti,
published
escrhos,
getti e disegni
Mantua
1982.
Graves, Michael,
at
came
to
work
name
in 1972
in
first
through
Five Architects,
*Gwathmey and
*Hejduk and *Meier (*New York
Five). His
Corbusier's
work of the
architectural
The primacy of
G. to some far-
form soon
led
first
to Boullee
this
examples of
his
130
Five
Graves,
Architects,
London
New
York
1972;
Peter,
Michael
1979.
1920s.
pastel tones.
Oregon (1980-2)
Oregon
AM
Great Britain
in the years
before
World War
manner, often
into
in
persuasive
interior
Lyons
&
new
ideas
and
new
Great Britain
materials: Albert Richardson,
Howard Rob-
Times Building
in
made the Liverpool University ArchitecSchool the leading one in Britain. Thomas
worked through the established
J. Tait, who
practice of the Scot, Sir John Burnet (extension
of the British Museum, London), introduced a
daring Dutch strain into their later work such as
alism)
tural
(1930-4), the
career
ings,
Of his
later build-
Street,
London
Oxford
on the
known.
However, the most showy innovator of the
period was not an architect: Owen *Williams
had worked on the design of railways and
aircraft. He became a specialist in reinforcedthe best
bley
swimming pool
The
office
transport,
132
Great Britain
Cities
type for
much
the proto-
after the
Palestine,
Chermayeff designed
large
at the
London Zoo
U3
Great Britain
Britain. After the
marily on the
New Town
pri-
of Peterlee, near
Durham.
Peterlee was one of the many New Towns
conceived and designated after the war. The
most important group of them was sited to the
north of London. This policy was the implementation at government level of some Garden
City ideas. The last of the New Towns, Milton
Keynes, was not designated until 1967, and is
still under construction. The war period was
devoted to temporary construction (various
types of prefabricated housing) and to the
setting of town-planning exercises of some
ambition, of which the Abercrombie plan for
the LCC is best known. Post-war reconstruction inevitably started with emergency housing, though from the outset planning ideas were
being implemented. The 1944 educational reforms required the building of many new
cultural
(LCC,
gallery
*Lasdun, 1967-76).
schools,
134
Theatre,
Great Britain
designed in
manner
scaled
which they
down from
the
architects' office
rather
cially
number of new
135
Greene
The
in Paris
(1971
(exhibition
Lyall, Sutherland,
London
catalogue),
The
intense
being undertaken
still
new
by
Oxford
(at
Queen's College,
Among
8).
his
development
in
New Town
Runcorn
London.
ture,
British
Mills,
Edward
D., The
Britain, IQ46-195J,
J.,
London
1953;
Architecture,
Summerson,
London 1956;
Landau, Royston,
Architecture
New
London and
New York
Brighton, Ohio
Studied at the
flat
gables,
among
are
the
best
examples of
McCoy,
New York
Greene:
Dobbs
Architecture
in
the
Residential
Style.
N.Y.
1968; Pevs-
Harmonds-
in
b.
1957.
Directions
York
Angeles,
details,
1;
New
stained-glass
195
London and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in CamHe was in joint practice with his brother
London
1979;
bridge.
tute
1851-1951,
London
1982.
ture
Architecture,
York
Architecture,
C. W., and Summerson, J., ArchitecHere and Now, London 1934; Royal Insti-
Ellis,
British
New
and
1972
War
Pompidou
London
Architecture,
London
British
British
Salt
Ferry,
Gropius
1952-60, of Edilizia Moderna, 1962//
Verri, 1963-5; Director of La
Rassegna italiana since 1980 and, since 1982 of
continuita,
4,
and of
Venice.
G., who during the years he spent with E. N.
*Rogers on the editorial staff of Casabellacontinuit had been an apologist for Italian Neoliberty (block of flats for the Bossi company in
Greene, Charles
S.
then independently in
projects for
Brighton, Ohio
1870, d. Altadena, Cal. 1954. Studied at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge.
Worked in
Charles
Sumner *Greene
Angeles,
b.
894-1922,
in
the Quartiere
Pasadena.
lic
Pierluigi Cerri
otti Associati.
He was
artistic positions
them
Gregotti. Residence for employees of a textile
factory, Camen, near Novara (Architetti Associati;
1956-7)
services
on
rational ideas
and to express
work
VML
fruitful.
Gregotti,
Vittorio,
tettura,
Milan 1966;
Italian
Architecture,
territories
//
,
New
dell'archi-
Directions in
New
York
fredo,
New
York
Gropius, Walter,
Mass., 1969.
1982.
b.
One of the
outstanding architects
position
in
Berlin.
His great-uncle,
Gropius
repute, served as Principal of the Kunst- und
Gewerbeschule (Arts and Crafts School) in
Berlin and Director of art education in Prussia.
tects later to
der
also
worked,
It is
of which
floors,
vertical
is
tural
feature in
many modern
department
stores.
Mendelsohn
From 19 14
It
buildings, especially
to fine effect.
served in the
to succeed
the Groherzoglich-Schsische
as Director of
Kunstgewerbe-
name of Das
energies
more wholeheartedly
to architecture
138
workshop
building,
students'
the
five-storey
blocks
but
acted
as
co-
Gropius
ordinator for eight other architects.
In
this
maximum
sunlight, widely
Socialists in 1933,
for liberal
1934 G.
conditions
became
and modern-minded
left
Germany
difficult
architects, so in
for England.
He settled in
ium
younger British
larly sited,
Together they designed film laboratories for London Film Productions at Denham (1936); two houses, one in
Sussex (1936) and one in Old Church Street,
Chelsea (1935); and Impington Village College,
Cambridgeshire (1936), one of four village
colleges erected by the County Council. This
was G.'s most important contribution to archiarchitects.
tecture in England.
It is a one-storey building
with single-depth classrooms, fan-shaped hall,
and club amenities, sited amongst lawns and
trees to serve the dual purpose of a secondary
school and community centre for adults. Early
in 1937, G. accepted an invitation to become a
professor at Harvard University and left for the
United States; the following year, he became
Chairman of the Department of Architecture at
Harvard. One year later, he built his own house
Lincoln, Mass.,
restraint
one for
New
in the Siemensstadt
Berlin (1929-30)
factory (1941); the buildings were irregufollowing the contours of the hills,
architects
life,
139
Gropius
(TAC; 1949-50)
block
as part
Hansa
district. It
Archive
G.'s buildings are distinguished by an adventurous use of modern materials - steel, concrete
and
glass
as
perhaps
was
appreciated fully
to
the
whole
Bauhauses,
The
and
New
work
is
ter
1923;
New
York
1936;
New
der Demokratie,
his
AW
maximum of light.
contribution related
G. regarded this as a
his
integration of society.
architecture.
how
design.
Architecturally,
in the Hansaviertel
London
Scope of
total
Apollo in
York 1943;
Mainz 1967; Giedion, S., Wal,
New
Fitch,
Weimar, Urbana,
111.,
1971.
in
Gwathmey
Gruen, Victor, b. Vienna (as Viktor Grnbaum) 1903. Studied in Vienna under Peter
^Behrens (1924-5). Emigrated to the USA in
1938. Mainly known for his town and country
planning projects (e.g. plan for Fort Worth,
Texas 1955). His conception of 'shopping centres' was epoch-making; sited out of town and
catering for the needs of a car-owning society
(Northland Shopping Center, Detroit, 1952),
they became prototypes for the American post-
New
lit"
Guimard. Entrance
( 1
%'
- Kj'
to a Paris
Metro
station
899-1 900)
Gruppo
Luigi *Figini,
Guido
aesthetic
on the
(Movimento
zionale).
RaVML
Among
8),
his principal
works
are the
still
eclecti-
composed
cally
a large
He
Graham,
F. L.,
Hector Guimard,
New
Brunhammer,
York
Y., Hector
Gwathmey, Charles, b.
Charlotte,
N.C.
1938.
Institute,
New
York,
1964-6.
Sub-
at the
University of
Articles in
1926-May
1927; Kruft,
Robert
Siegel,
G.
along with *Eisenman, *Graves,
*Hejduk and *Meier, to the *New York Five,
belonged,
Guimard, Hector,
b. Paris 1867, d.
New York
He
brilliant
early
modernism,
especially
*Le Corbusier's
141
Haesler
early 1920s. In addition to numerous interiors, G. has for the most part designed
private houses, such as his own house at
work of the
realms',
Progressive
Architecture,
Feb.
&
Architectural
Architects',
New York
Record,
Sep.
Gwathmey
S.,
own
Zum
Architekt,
Miller,
Berlin (East)
Architecture
H. made
name above
his
is
USM
Haesler, Otto, b. Munich 1880, d. Wilhelmshorst, near Potsdam, 1962. After studying at the
Baugewerkschulen of Augsburg and Nuremberg and working for a time as a mason, he
worked for a time in collaboration with Ludwig Bernoully in Frankfurt am Main before
office in Celle in 1906.
an advocate of the
Haesler, Otto,
H
starting his
maximum
He was
possible industri-
firm,
was the
USM
become
of modern
alization
which has
thies
he joined in
1926.
Among
individual
H.'s
known
is
the
(1927-8, built
under the direction of *Gropius). Of his contemporary public work, the 'Italienischer Garten' (Italian
portions of
garden)
which
in Celle (1924)
still
survive
as
isolated
well as the
Georgsgarten estate in Celle (1925), the Rothenberg estate in Kassel (1929-31) and the
Blumenlagerfeld estate in Celle (193 1), all of
which adhere strongly to the strip-building
principle, should be noted. With the rise of
National Socialism, H. withdrew in 1934 to
Eutin, where he was active as a garden designer.
In 1946 he went to Rathenow to rebuild the
historic town centre, and from 1953 he lived in
Wilhelmshorst.
FJ
142
since
a classic
developed
the
known
are: those
Brugg-Windisch (1961-6).
H., who with Franz Feg
is
the
most promi-
Hring
buildings, for
as in
in
construction
his
In
1962,
he established
his
own
New
Pfeiffer as
Associates
most
way' in
the
ization
University,
Minneapolis (1974;
in collaboration
with
in
Ham-
Theater
at
Holzman
Pfeiffer,
1981.
b. Biberach 1882, d. Gppingen 1958. Studied at the Stuttgart Technische Hochschule (under Theodor *Fischer)
and in Dresden. In 192 1, he established his own
Hring, Hugo,
1924 the
H3
Harrison
H. was responsible for a number of imporof which the Garkau farm buildings
(1924-5) and the housing project in BerlinSiemensstadt (1929 3 1) became widely known;
his real importance, however, lies in the theoretical field. He expounded his views on organic
building in numerous articles and lectures
(Organic architecture). He maintained that
the work of rejuvenating architecture had to
proceed in two stages. The first is concerned
with research into changing needs, and aims at
fitness for purpose and the 'organism'; the
second, on the other hand, deals with 'design'.
While in rationalist thinking architectural
forms were determined by using geometric
forms accepted as a priori beautiful, H. attempted to develop designs solely in line with their
fitness for a purpose, without preconceived
aesthetic ideas. The decisive criterion in organic
building is the determination of form from an
object's identity. A building derives its shape
tant works,
it
has to discharge as
house
as
it)
of man. The
is
the starting
GUT GARKAU
started
(1924-5)
H.'s ideas,
c.
Alvar *Aalto, Louis *Kahn and Hans *Scharoun adopted similar views.
JJ
D Hring, H., 'Wege zur Form', Die Form,
vol. 1, 1925;
'Geometrie und Organik',
Baukunst und Werkform, vol. 9, 195 1;
Die
,
Hugo Hring.
J.,
(ed.),
Das
andere
b. Worcester,
Mass. 1895, d. New York 198 1. Studied briefly
at the *Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris. He
worked in association with Harvey Wiley
H continued to
Haus-Rucker-Co.
Architectural
group
founded by Laurids Ortner, Gnter Zamp Kelp
and Manfred Ortner in Vienna in 1967, and also
active in Dsseldorf since 1970, as well as in
New York since 1971. The work of HausRucker-Co, which occupies a middle-ground
between art and architecture, is to be understood as a 'School of Astonishment', that is as a
means to set learning and self-experience processes in motion. They seek to propagate a
'provisional', disposable architecture, a concept
which
Among
the group's best-known achievements are: Balloon for Two, Vienna (1967); the
shell around the Haus Lange Museum, Krefeld
(1971); and the Oasis Number 5 at 'Documenta
5' in
Havlicek
pneumatic cells;
posed of a resounding
artificial
Harrison
up into
number of
Pneumacosm (1967),
New York using
and the Big Piano (1972), com-
cloud with
FW
it.
Medium
Havlicek,
Josef, b.
196 1. Studied
the Fine Arts
at
modernism
in
Czecho-
slovakia.
Among
his
(projec t, 1967)
etc. It
is
one of
145
Hejduk
most
the
significant buildings
of the 1930s
in
AM
Europe.
D Havlicek,
J.,
Nurhy
a stavby:
1925-IQ60,
Prague 1964.
including that of
much on
so
includes the
Long
Demlin House
in
work which
Locust Valley,
Hommel Apartment in
New
975)
didactic
FW
Five Architects,
duk, Architect
1973
Hertzberger, Herman,
b.
Amsterdam
1932.
the
own
office in
Amsterdam. He taught
in Amsterdam,
Academy of Architecture
a professor at
(*Structuralism)
lands,
as its leaders.
For H.
spatial
its
users. In
146
Beheer
Insurance
Company
in
Apeldoorn
De
AM
8).
Herman,
'Huiswerk voor
meer herbergzame vorm', Forum (Amsterdam),
Hertzberger,
1.
in der
historicism
He
for
there, 1955-7-
begun
temporaine'.
Enormous uniform
slabs
form
two superimposed
business activity
Hilberseimer. Skyscraper
tree
With
Housing
no
(house
his
at
whom
restraint
repetitive
Stuttgart 1928;
Chicago 1944;
Chicago 1949;
idee,
The
Grostadtarchi-
New City,
New Regional Pattern,
,
The
Berlin, Frankfurt
am Main
and Vienna
(Madrid),
May-June
1968.
The
first
into the
German
art
he
introduced the purely historiographical term
historian
in 1928
H7
historicism
of
a positive re-
Germany)
period in
With
his
work
the term
was accorded
a neutral
adopted
historicism describes a
tural theories
From
148
from
history.
c.
19 10
is
but
Throughout
the
the
dition.
tra-
differentiating
is
to the typological
helm
myth of architectural
movement.
concept of historicism
tectural criticism, where it is often used as an illdefined and undifferentiated evaluation of the
most varied phenomena of 20th-century archi-
critique
tecture.
The adoption of a
in the
historical links
monu-
Expressionist
architecture
(*Expressionism)
traits,
especially in
on
gestalt and
psychology (Wilhelm Worringer); and
moreover not exclusively in church architecture (Dominikus *Bohm, Peter Vilhelm Jensen
historicism
is also true of the brick architecwith their ethos of materials and
consciousness of tradition (Fritz Schumacher,
Fritz *Hger, *Amsterdam, School of), in
which the border with anthropological and
natural analogies was fluid (Bernhard Hoetger,
Anthroposophical architecture). The cultural
ideological 'racist' conservatism (Paul SchultzeNaumburg) on the one hand, and the socialutopian futurist pathos (Bruno *Taut) on the
other, represent only the extremes of these
*Klint). This
tural styles
historicist positions.
social
Thus
the
monu-
now
still
1)
which
after 1945
and above
all
albeit
with
of
were
of Fascist *Italy. The League of Nations Competition (1927-8) for Geneva and the governmental and cultural buildings of the 1940s in
community
centre,
by Theodor Fischer
the time of
dominant influence
states, was intended
conservative tendencies,
The
historicism
similar,
a cultural
The
was
to
imbued with
propagandistic significance.
also the
more or
less
preservation-conscious
West German
suggestions for
The
new
construction.
of *Post-Modernism
have developed in a rather contradictory context. These include a historicizing architecture
of luxury in the *USA (Philip *Johnson,
Minoru *Yamasaki), which continues the implicit
various
protest
strains
against
rigour of Rationalism
the
abstract
aesthetic
more
recently
through
#**
in
first
architecture
intellectual
distance
in
which -
historical
elements are used playfully, ironically, or merely aesthetically as a pictorial 'book of quota149
Hoffman
Ssspjij
Ohio
New
historicism.
tions' (Charles
architecture
canon of
W.
in
classic
^^
influence
him
to
show
were combined
minded
Baltimore,
Md
1972; Pehnt,
Wolfgang, Die
New
keiten
150
in a surface
which served
to
architecture.
he built dozens of
Vienna with few essential variations. At
the 1914 *Deutscher Werkbund Exhibition in
Cologne, for which he designed the Austrian
Pavilion in an elegant style of vaguely neoclassic derivation, he encountered in the work
In the years that followed,
villas in
Hollein
Josef Hoffmann,
L.
.,
Eduard
Hger,
F.,
Trained
in
in the
Becken-
reihe, Holstein
1877, d.
After
of Hermann *Muthesius, he
designed a number of office buildings in Hamburg, whose clinker-brick facades introduced a
renaissance of north German brick architecture.
The best known is his Chilehaus (1922-3)
the
influence
ringen (1929).
FJ
Westphal, Carl J. H.
Hger. Der
Backstein-Baumeister,
hagen-Scharbeutz
Studien
zur
1938;
Kunst-
Schleswig-Holsteinischen
Holford, William,
London
b. Johannesburg 1907, d.
1975. Studied under Charles Reilly at
He became
precinct,
1956;
for
St Paul's
three-level
plan
Cafor
tant
the
first
large-scale
modular building.
Holland. *Netherlands.
Hollein, Hans,
Hoffmann.
(ed.), Fritz
b.
at the
19767 he conducted
the Staatliche
since
a class in architecture at
Kunstakademie
in
Dsseldorf;
professor at the
among
in
these are:
New
York
AG
in
(1967-9); the interior design for Siemens
Munich (1970-5); the Schullin jewellery store
151
Holzbauer
landscape
ing in
effect,
at
logue),
Dortmund
1976.
Holzbauer, Wilhelm,
Spalt, the
4)
store,
Vienna (1972-4)
All these
works
are characterized
by the use of
well as an
as
meant
No
works
is
less
all
to
do
architecture.
Through
alienation, cult-wor-
rad
determination of form entirely through construction, H.'s later works - like, for example,
the St Virgil School in Salzburg-Aigen (196676), the De Bijenkorf department store in
Utrecht (1978-82) or the Amsterdam City Hall
(1978 ff.) - reveal his concern to develop each
building in terms of its particular context.
AM
eines Architekten,
provoke subconscious
associations: Stadtstruk-
XlVth Triennale in
152
cannot be classified
under any current trend or theory. While in his
St Joseph College in Salzburg-Aigen (1960-4,
with Kurrent and Spalt) the influence of Konin 1970. H.'s architecture
Olympic
Village
Holzmeister, Clemens,
1
b.
Fulpmes, Tyrol
Hochschule
in
period
in
teacher, he
Turkey),
was
1954-7.
An
influential
Akademie
Hood
in Vienna (192438,
Technical College in Istanbul
(19409); many important Austrian architects
were his pupils, including *Hollein, *Holzbauer and *Peichl. Strongly stamped with a
basic 'scenographic' sensualism which can be
der bildenden
1954-7) and
traced back
Knste
at the
H.
government buildings
Holzbauer.
St Virgil School,
Salzburg-Aigen
(1966-76)
decoration
ing in
is
avoided
in the Daily
News Build-
pronounced
verticality of
be found in the
buildings of Rockefeller Center in New York,
where H. and Fouilhoux formed one of three
monumental
effect, as
is
also to
in Istanbul
AM
1926).
Gregor, J., Clemens Holzmeister. Das architektonische Werk, Vienna 1953; Clemens Holz-
Vienna 1982.
88 1, d. Stamford,
with Fouilhoux
with John Mead
Howells, he won the competition for the
Chicago Tribune Tower (finished 1925) with a
neo-Gothic design; the other entrants included
Eliel *Saarinen, *Gropius, and *Loos. H.'s
further evolution brought an abandonment of
*historicism and a turning towards a restrained
rationalist formal language, with borrowings
from the *Art Deco style. Nearly all external
1,
after 193
Hood. McGraw-Hill
Building,
New
York
(1930)
153
Horta
architectural teams responsible for planning.
(1930),
in
New
York
its
GHa
Schwartzman,John
B.,
New York
1973;
catalogue),
New
Horta, Victor,
b.
was
programmes
by
the
He
building
set in train
subtle structural
number of
of Viollet-le-Duc.
He began his architectural studies at Ghent
Academy (1876) and continued them at the
Academie des Beaux-Arts at Brussels. After
spending some time in the office of Alphonse
Balat, a neo-classical architect of repute, he built
a group of three little houses in Ghent (1886) in
which
was
al-
H.
in this building,
Nouveau
It is
d. Brussels 1947.
new
as
too,
ture,
ping,
that
branching out
often
to
in chandeliers
excess,
and outstrip-
every
structural
requirement.
One year later, in the Hotel Solvay, Brussels
(1 895-1900), Art Nouveau can be seen in its
fullest maturity: it is an astonishing symbiosis,
lutionary in
wall.
country with an expanding middle-class economy, strong craft traditions and a high degree of
industrialization. Above all, the Hotel Tassel is
remarkable for the novelty of its plan: instead of
the corridor usual in *Belgium, H. substituted
an octagonal hall, from which a broad staircase
departs, giving access to the various rooms at
different levels. The arrangement broke with
the practice of uniform layout floor by floor,
foreshadowing the 'plan of volumes' conceived by *Loos in 1910 and *Le Corbusier's
two-storey system of 1930.
The Hotel Tassel is also remarkable as being
the first private house in which iron is used
extensively, both as a structural material (a huge
154
the
Howard
N?2.-^
the
USA
and
of Art Nouveau were
calligraphic tendencies
conclusively superseded
by
&*-
The
diffusion after
World War
RLD
II.
and
Hoppenbrouwers,
Bruggemans, J.,
A.,
Vandenbreden, J.,
Victor
Horta
archi-
Howard. Garden
city
Tomorrow, 1808)
and then
visiting
Subsequent influences
theories of Peter
Kropotkin, the economic ideas of Henry
George, John Ruskin's St George's Guild
(*Arts and Crafts) and above all from Edward
Bellamy's Utopian Looking Backward. All of
these trends have echoes in H.'s book of 1898,
Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social Reform
(entitled Garden Cities of Tomorrow in the
second edition of 1902). In it, he described his
reforming vision of an ideal type of settlement:
a self-sufficient Garden City for some 32,000
inhabitants, consisting of rural-like residential
neighbourhoods, extensive cultivable terrains
(which were to be arranged as a green belt to
exclude any urban extension), shopping areas,
cultural facilities, a central park for community
and recreational activities enclosed in a crystal
filthy
industrial
city.
anarchist
related to a large
inhabitants;
were
to pass
neither
private initiatives, but assured against speculation. The basic idea of his concentrically disposed plan - which he developed only as a
diagram - had already been proposed in the
Renaissance. The English architect J. B. Papworth had worked on proposals for
'rural towns' as early as 1827 (Hygeia). In
addition, James Silk Buckingham's Ideal City
of Victoria of 1849 and Joseph Paxton's Great
Victorian Way proposals of 1855 were precursors of H.'s formal scheme.
H. campaigned actively in numerous publications, assembled many sympathetic collaborators, and organized the financing of the
project. The Garden City Association was
launched in 1899.. The first Garden City was
begun on the plans of Barry Parker and
Raymond Unwin in 1903 at Letchworth near
London; however, it diverged considerably
oped into viable residential towns, they remained isolated and weak palliatives against the
explosion of city populations in the early 20th
century. It was only in *Grcat Britain, with the
Howe
was developed into an effective, if not
unproblematic, means to limit the expansion of
city idea
VML
Howard,
New
Century,
Howe,
E.,
York
George,
b.
1977.
d.
the
D
its
Jordy,
W.
H., 'PSFS:
Significance in
are:
High Hol-
(1914-
Pa. (1922-8,
Its
Modern
Development and
Architecture', Jour-
concepts.
low, his
Howe.
Howe,
New
4);
(1954). Square
Shadows,
marked
in
a
its
Howell, Killick, Partridge and Amis. Practice established in 1959 by William Gough
Howell, John Alexander Wentzel Killick, John
Albert Partridge and Stanley Frederick Amis,
all of whom had worked for the London
County Council. Their style is characterized by
a powerful striving after plastic originality. The
project for the Department of Commerce and
Social Science at
Birmingham University
fea-
of precast-concrete
balcony units; a redevelopment plan for St
Anne's College, Oxford, consists of a series of
curved blocks with highly modelled surface
treatment, set in a wide oval round the college
tures *Gaudi-like facades
garden.
Hungarian Activism
Strongly influenced by the principles of the
*Smithsons, one of their most important projects while with the LCC was the Roehampton
TETT
('Action'), edited
by Lajos Kassk
in
191 5-16
MA
MA
MA
a.
MA
panion Farkas Molnr published some woodcuts of his house-design, although his utopistic
the
title
Az UT
was to be published in
Novi Sad (Yugoslavia) under
('the way'), along with the
(1921)
design
by Farkas Molnr
manifesto
'KURI'
('constructive,
utilitarian,
Bauhaus.
In 192
Laszlo
Dadaist
Akasztott
aesthetical values
of
new
constructive archi-
which might create a new social harmony. Taking up the pictorial and theoretical
approach to the principles of modern architecture, Lajos Kassk himself became a founder of a
tecture
new
trend in graphic
art,
He
architec-
manifesto under
the same title in Vienna in which he declared:
again bears his art with
'The artist of today
ture), in 1921.
published
Not
him
as a
tion
is
manifesto.
architecture.
Bildarchitektur.
The
absolute picture
we
is
be157
India
come
ings.'
linocuts
MA
MA
summarized
in his
Von Ma-
zu Architektur (1929).
The reproductions and articles published in
had a deep influence on such architects as
Farkas Molnr, Marcel *Breuer, Alfred Forbt
and Andor Weininger, and on such artists as
Moholy-Nagy and Peri. Its editor, Lajos Kassk, attempted a Constructivist Gesamtkunstwerk in his programmes and publications. JS
D The Hungarian Avant Garde, The Eight and
terial
MA
the
Activists
(exhibition catalogue),
London,
Hay ward
ism'),
Budapest 198 1.
I
India. Before independence and the partition of
India in 1947, architecture in the sub-continent
Although,
styles
and
British
At
first,
mid- 19th
century, the
came out
first
trained architects
158
in
Bombay.
By
number of British
began to have doubts about the
wisdom of imposing Western styles on an Asian
culture. Inspired by the ideals of Ruskin and
*Morris, Lockwood Kipling encouraged the
employment of native craftsmen and sculptors
in new building works, while a number of
architects, notably Robert Chisholm, William
Emerson, Swinton Jacob and Major Mant,
grafted Mughal features onto Gothic Revival
compositions, producing the picturesque and
the 1870s, however, a
architects
adaptable style
By
known
as 'Indo-Saracenic'.
fected India,
Memorial in
by Emerson. The appoint-
new
India
India. Viceroy's
New
Edwin Lutyens
waned in
when a new
by Le Corbusier
potency although,
ironically,
regional capital at
imperialism by
GMS
the
London
in
1984
The
in
India
New
Cap-
17501850,
1968;
itals
in India',
Victorian
159
International Style
(Indiana
Studies
Autumn
tecture:
Indian
University),
xxiv,
no.
i,
The Prospect
Institute
1;
tecture in India',
198
'India:
JRSA,
The end of
cxxix,
May
the Classical
wider application
conjunction with
contemporary buildings.
In his book Modern Architecture, Romanticism
and Reintegration (1929), Henry-Russell Hitch-
of Le
Neo-Plasticist painting
made
this
work
By
193
1,
it,
volume
(space enclosed
by
thin
opposed
fection
'.
International Style.
International Style
therefore
without
is
quite
And by
became another
Style'
art-historical category,
in
19 14, lent a
Gothic
United
States, and a more portable version of it
circulated for six years. While the latter was still
making the rounds, three popular and influential statements on the new architecture heightened its meaning. In his Pioneers of the Modern
Movementfrom William Morris to Walter Gropius
(1936), Nikolaus Pevsner examined English
19th-century reform efforts in the arts and
architecture (*Arts and Crafts), and saw them as
leading to the Modern Movement, initiated by
1914 m Germany on the basis of Gropius's Fagus
Factory and through the agency of the
travelled to eleven other cities in the
^Deutscher Werkbund;
new
architecture
this
historical
window
walls,
More
visible (and
more
specifically associ-
two or
three
were drawn
Style orbit.
Raymond *Hood's
Building
New York
Daily News
City was a tall block
composed of asymmetrical setbacks, and ornament played no role in larger views of the
structure; but in other ways the building was
'less pure in expression', according to Hitchin
different attitude
was
McGraw-Hill Building:
and as a development of
progressive design. The cumulative effect of
this activity was to establish International Style
as the cutting edge of contemporary building.
When Time magazine, in its issue of 8 February
1937. greeted the arrival of Gropius in the
United States, he was celebrated as 'one of the
founders of the concrete-pipe-and-plate-glass
school of architectural modernism known as
inevitably of the time
According to Hitchcock and Johnson's realmost none of the architecture in the United States up to 1932 was
International Style, and of the little that existed
most was on a small scale, and virtually none
was by Americans. William *Lescaze, trained in
Zurich by the first-generation modernist Karl
*Moser, and settled in America since the early
strictive definition,
161
International Style
Johnson, such
projects
terior
ing.
delphia Saving
vertically
stacked
as
single
slab
as
the
I
the Packard Motor Car
Forge Shop, Detroit (191 1), and
fully realized by the time of the Ford Glass
Plant, Rouge River (1922), where steel frame,
sheets of glass, and precise detail were used in a
manner that was similar to International Style
fore
Company
design.
without
the 1930s,
Johnson.
a broad
range of issues started to emerge within the
setbacks.
The
tightness
as
some
throughout the United States. Several architects maintained their practices for a time, such
as Neutra and Howe & Lescaze, and others for a
time brought theirs into being: Gregory Ain,
Philip L. Goodwin, Vincent G. Kling, Edward
Stone, William Wilson Wurster, Franklin and
Kump, Keck & Keck, A. Lawrence Kocher and
Albert Frey.
Also during the 1930s, however,
laminates and
wood and
American
cities
162
grew
in
weightless,
plywood
as stressed skin,
ply-
and
would 'symbolize
aspirations'.
confirmation in the
National Socialism
in
Germany prompted
International Style
After
World War
II,
when
the explosively
to:
modular
rhythms; clarity, expressed by oceans of glass;
flat roof; box as perfect container; no ornament.' The change was indicative of the popular but simplified use of the term that had by this
'structural
honesty;
come into
The shift was
time
general use.
already
underway by
the early
When
Rohe
repetitive
Oregon; Wallace
ectady, N.Y.;
New
York University-Bellevue
Medical Center, New York City, by *Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM; begun 1945),
and Nathaniel Owings' Office Building Project
for the Building Managers Association (1947).
But it was Mies van der Rohe's Lake Shore
Drive Apartments in Chicago (1948-51) that
provided the model for the steel-framed highrise that was to proliferate throughout American cities during the next decades: a rectangular
tower or slab sheathed in sheets of glass that in
turn were held in place by thin metal frames set
in
reticulated
pattern,
the
whole
sparsely
the
Consultants, produced
twelve-storey, glass-
a similar
proposal for
163
Isozaki
Mich.
scaped plots along urban outer ring roads these lines, such as the
Connecticut General Life Insurance Company,
Bloomfield, Conn. (1954-7), by SOM. Other
architects used the steel-and-glass box in smaller, domestic designs: Gregory Ain, Edward
Larrabee *Barnes,John *Johansen, Philip John-
son.
the time
York City
(194750).
SOM,
The
New
rapidly expanding
chiefly
Gordon Bunshaft
bronze-clad
as
Seagram Building,
New
York
everywhere
in
of the
number);
see also
Summer
works
1983
cited above.
(1954-8).
164
practice in
Israel
replace with
Isozaki. Fuji
(1972-4)
gawa
8),
Prefectural Offices in
Takamatsu (1955-
and the
had left his
Tange continued to employ him on such
Tokyo
office,
I.
PD
Drew, Philip, The Architecture of Arata
Isozaki, London and New York 1982.
(1980).
Israel.
At the beginning of
this
century the
Expo
and Claude-
Nicolas Ledoux.
architecture took
members not
Tange, but with a stronger
and gigantism of scale. The
expression of reinforced-concrete
dissimilar in style to
conceptual bias
Festival Plaza for the Osaka
stylistic crisis in his
the beginning
Expo
'70
marked
in this his
work shows a much greater reliance on European and American models and is typified by
highly abstract
new
This
to break
by Alexander
Baerwald
165
Israel
Geddes and,
later,
1936;
taught
who
at
1936);
the
significantly to
ment of the
recommence
There already
outstanding
the
Weizmann,
houses
(Schocken,
1936;
1935/36) and hospitals (Mt Scopus,
By the
tion techniques
more
larger, construc-
sive use
diversified;
Israel.
renewal.
that
many
66
Israel
Israel. Israel
Israel.
(1969),
Jerusalem (1959), whose elegant pavilions predicate a cellular plan capable of growth, and the
Tel Aviv Museum by Dan Eitan and Itzhak
Yashar (1971), an exciting spatial exercise, but
in
campus
challenging.
A new
round of major
hospitals,
more
is
rich in
museums
is
usually
in
beton
brut
(exposed concrete),
by
Israeli
architects.
Its
inherent qualities -
appropriate for
make
skill
arc particularly
'Architecture en
GHe
Palestine',
L' Architecture
Canaan, Ger167
Italy
Israel,
New
Israel',
York
Baumeister
1;
Harlap,
Amiram, New
Israeli Architecture,
1.
Italy.
(1902)
reflection.
Nouveau
decoration
in
strongly
sculptural
The
Art
Italian
o{ unusually modern
conception in Turkey, including the Santoro
House
in Istanbul (1908).
Station,
won
in
competition in
Cen-
1906),
168
the
North
Italy,
his roots.
Rome's most
such as Guglielmo
architects,
Calderini or Cesare Bazzani (the creator of the
important
Italy
architettura razionale',
exhibition of 191
the
mention.
The
ture, rather
legend
Marinctti's 'Manifeste
when
appeared,
lie
numerous important
young
young
ties
architects, including
Giuseppe
built the
the 1914
had an
in-
in
this
Virgilio
of 1925.
common
among
attitude after
Between 1919
for
Gualino
office
building
in
1929),
Alberto
first
the
rivalry
Novecento
Italiano
in
'Novecentists'
*neo-classicism.
(1933)
ture in general
by Luciano Baldessari
to
della
Meridiana,
a
reminiscenees of *Loos.
In the
same period
Alessandro
sought the
in
Limongelli
way
building
Rome,
and
rich
in
Pietro Aschieri,
Gino
Capponi
Adalberto *Libera and Gaetano Minucci orgain Rome the first 'Esposizione dell'
nized
169
Italy
were
realized in
Rome
Nomentano
(1932)
93 36),
In the Rationalist
camp
the
*BBPR
group
(*Banfi, *Belgiojoso, *Peressutti and *Rogers), as well as *Gardella and Mollino, effected a
sort
of
critical
*Nervi
in 19403.
After the government ordered the journal
Casabella-continuita - the most important organ
of
political
underground. Raffaello
Giolli.
Gian
The
reconstruction
after
World War
II
around a policy of
strong continuity with pre-war tradition. In
Milan, BBPR built the memorial for the
victims of the concentration camps (1946). The
Seventh Milan Triennale and the experimental
united the
Rationalists
Italy
by Pier
Luigi Nervi
residential quarter
with
QT8,
built in conjunction
are representative
years,
(a
Italy.
INA-Casa Tiburtino
quarter.
Koine
(1950).
Italy
Zanuso,
The
by Gio Ponti and
constructional experiments.
scraper in Milan
Pirelli
sky-
others, built
(likewise 195
school in Florence).
in 1956-8,
Italy.
Museo
del
Tesoro
di
by Franco Albini
museums
its
relationship to
On
hand there
between ideological obligation and language in favour o{ a
greater concentration on questions specific to
was
the other
architectural discipline.
The competition
ter across
for the
The
1961 competition for the administraof the city of Turin elicited many
tive centre
Italy. City centre, Turin (project, 1963),
Lodovico Quaroni
172
by
architecturally important
Italy
the extension
in
Rome.
The important protagonists of the 1960s
were Leonardo Ricci, who worked with the
theme of informality, Maurizio Sacripanti with
his interest in the expressive means of advanced
technologies, Giovanni *Michelucci, who built
the Church of San Giovanni Battista (1960-3)
on the Autostrada del Sole (motorway) near
Florence, and not least Carlo *Scarpa, who had
already realized his famous pavilion at the
Pordenone
by Gino Vallc
House
Italy.
at
Guido Canella.
The Triennale of Free Time, held in Milan in
1964, once again took up problems of architecture after three successive Triennales
had fo-
L'Architettura
by
delta
Vittorio
citt
by
Gregotti
Aldo
and
Rossi
(*Rational architecture).
173
Jacobsen
confidence in
Earlier
progress
limitless
ended with the onset of the world-wide economic crisis of the late 1960s and with the crisis
of ideals which culminated in the movements of
19451975,
77
Rome
1977.
1968.
The
provide
a series
*De
Giancarlo
a special
He
has
of Urbino, whose development he has determined not only as a planner but also with built
work of a noteworthy standard of architectural
quality.
Among
Salvatore Bisogni,
who
take Rossi's
work
VG
London
Architettura
italiana
Today,
Architecture
Milan
by Nicolai Abildgard. However, J.'s first encounter with the architecture of *Le Corbusier
and *Mies van der Rohe in exhibitions in Paris
(1925) and Berlin (1927-8) was important both
for himself and for the whole development of
Danish architecture.
Trained in the architectural school of the
Academy of Arts, Copenhagen, from which he
graduated in 1928, J. later taught there (1956
71). While still a student, he built the first of a
long series of single-family houses, reminiscent
externally, with its yellow bricks and tiled roof,
of the period around 1800. The flexibility of his
talent enabled him, however, at the same time
to try his hand at the cuboid forms of the
as a
Italy Builds,
starting point.
1955;
Meeks, Carroll L. V.. Italian Architecture, 17501914, New Haven, Conn., and London 1966;
Galardi, Alberto, Neue italienische Architekturc,
Stuttgart 1967; Fanelli, G., Architettura moderna
in Italia
'Italia',
Zodiac
oggi,
Florence
Patetta,
1971;
Milan 1972;
razionalismo
fascismo,
174
Patetta,
e
and Danesi,
L.,
V architettura
Venice
1976;
in
Italia
Conforto,
S.,
//
durante
C,
il
De
Jacobsen. Bellavista
estate,
Copenhagen
(193.
Jacobsen
modernist
style.
Together with
Flemming
features.
Finally
came
the
summer
a sliding ceiling to
a roof.
It was through his close friendship with the
Swedish architect Gunnar *Asplund that J.
learned to work at a building, both technically
and architecturally, and to respect detail.
Asplund's
Stelling
2),
Jacobsen. Jespersen
office building,
Copenhagen
(1955)
building
in
Copenhagen
(1955);
Rodovre town hall (1955); and the SAS Building in Copenhagen (1958-60).
Among his industrial buildings, special mention must be made of. the Massey-Harris
exhibition and works building,
Glostrup
office
Catherine's
College,
Oxford (1960-4);
the
main
administration
the
building
of
Hamburgische Electricitts-Werke, Hamburg
(1962-70); and the City Hall, Mainz (1970-3;
completed by his colleagues Hans Dissing and
Otto Weitling).
At home J. 's last major work was his design
for the Danish National Bank in Copenhagen
175
Japan
961-71). Here, the simple, monumental mass
of the building and reflective surfaces were
conceived to blend well with the old warehouses near the harbour. J. in fact never wanted
to be a specialist. In addition to being an
architect he also was an influential designer of
silverware,
furniture and fabric patterns.
Although these were mostly undertaken for
particular buildings, they were never of such an
individual nature that they could not be put to
general use, and many were in fact subsequently
mass-produced.
TF
(
Copenhagen
This kind of
'functionalism' derived
Taisho period (1912-26), immediately following the Meiji era, was marked by the pursuit of
1972.
literal
affected
by
German *Expressionism.
Among the founding members of the Secessionist movement were Sutemi Horiguchi,
Mayumi Takizawa, Mamoru Yamada and
the architecture of
own
culture
essentially
in practice, this
in
curred.
However,
government
invited
many
specialists
of the
building industry to expedite the task of construction of public buildings and to establish a
among
education.
The
its
development
commitment
to
reflected
technocracy
and
definite
attached
176
a specifically
Japanese
architectural style
was
in fact
- for example,
Telegraph Office by Yamada
(1926) and the Asahi News Press Building
(1927) by Ishimoto, both in Tokyo there was
soon a movement towards the purer inter-
showed
the
Expressionist features
Central
national Style.
Of particular
interest
change
is
the fact
in the 'architec-
Japan
Tokyo
(1926).
Office,
Tokyo
For
this
reason, aside
works by such
from
several imitative
architects as Shin
influence of the
of
his collaborators
contributed
much
some
to the
Tokyo
(1927).
architects
architecture.
177
Japan
contained any important features reminiscent
of Wright.
The lessons of the 'New Architecture' were
also introduced into Japan by young Japanese
architects who had gone to Europe to study
under the leading figures of the Modern Movement. Kunio *Mayekawa and Junzo Sakakura
worked under *Le Corbusier in Paris, and
Bunzo Yagamuchi worked under *Gropius in
Berlin. Yamaguchi's remarkable Constructivist
annexe to the Tokyo Dental School (1934) and
Sakakura'sjapanese Pavilion at the World's Fair
of 1937 in Paris exhibited the skill of the
younger generation of Japanese architects.
In the late 1930s and early '40s, however, this
new international language had to confront a
new situation, a call for a 'national style'. This
problem had already been discussed in the
Japanese Architectural Academy as early as
1920, a fact which revealed the Japanese architects' awareness of their own national identity.
This issue had been raised during the long
planning process for the National Parliament
Building, which was ultimately completed in
1936 in a classic *Art Deco style. The rise of
Japanese militarism accelerated this call for a
'national style' and gave birth to a strange
stylistic mixture of European Fascist architecture,
Crown
project
in
Imperial
the
competition
Museum
(193
Watanabe
178
1,
for
the
built in 1938),
Museum
(1938)
Tokyo
which
by Hitoshi
in the
earliest typical
examples of
this
hybrid
style.
book
Architecture of Humanism,
movement
1949,
Tange reappeared
younger
architects after
two
decades.
And
in
champion of the
winning the competias a
showed
their
ability
to
synthesize
modern
Japan
Tokyo
(1959-60) by
Kenzo Tange
with
architects
under
his
(^Metabolism). Typical
works,
as
if in
Togo Murano's
Metabolist
main-
ing
neo-platonic
aesthetic,
and
Kazuo
179
Japan
"
H
iL
3|
li;;;
In
H8!t!^
Hin!
came
new
the
leaders
of the 'conceptualists'
in
Japanese
Tafuri,
Manfred,
Giappone,
180
Architecture.
Rome
New
L'architettura
York 1968;
modema in
Gunma
Prefectural
Hall,
Kyoto
Museum of Fine
Arts,
Yatsuka,
Johnson
Johnson,
philology
was the
Philip, b.
at
first
De-
own
Cambridge, Mass.,
architectural office in
Modern
New
architect in
Burgee).
and combined
in a
New
York
1972.
by
most
J.
first trip
J. 's
to
New
York (where
apartment),
as
well
as
Movement
as a
House' in
Canaan, Conn.; for all the unmistakable
influence of Mies van der Rohe's Farnsworth
he
New
House
in Piano,
111.
is
a decidedly
in
park-like
bathroom core
reveals
new
The
circular
interest
in
Johnson
The
experi-
New
Canaan, Conn.
and interior
MOMA
even larger
scale
Kahn, A.
and cultivated-cynical refinement; they are only able to imitate the hollow
masks of his forms in order to make architecture
attractive for patrons who are concerned only
with appearances and to satisfy a noveltyaesthetic sense
VML
craving public.
son:
London
London
1949-1965,
New
York and
1972; 'Philip Johnson', The ArchitecForum (New York), vol. 138 (1973), no. 1,
pp. 26-74; Miller, Nory, Johnson/ Burgee: Architecture, New York 1979; Stern, Robert A. M.
tural
New York
1979.
Johnson. Pennzoil
Place,
ship
1955 a partner-
since 1963
J.
own
In
AT&T
the
The
PPG
A.
W. N.
Pugin and
refers
With
However, most of
his
made
his
name
Toulouse
office in
Woods, he
new town of
Mirail (competition 1962, realization 1964-77). His designs are generally based
le
on
new town of
Calsat).
Lille-Est (1972-8,
with Francois
AM
K
Kahn, Albert, b. Rhaunen, Westphalia
1869, d.
Kahn, L.
Plant,
Ford
(1924)
Kahn (exhibition
catalogue),
Detroit,
The
Architecture of Albert
Kahn, Cambridge,
Mass. 1974.
Kahn,
Louis
(sadore), b.
Estonia 1901, d.
on the
Island
of scl,
New York
opened
his
own
the
*USA;
in
withK.
until 1948,
K. taught
at
is
seen
to
give
way
to
heavy, historical
monumentality.
In 1 95 1-3, in collaboration with Douglas
Orr, he realized the extension to the Yale Art
Kahn,
Gallery in
New
Haven. At
time
when
L.
the
growth, advocated that elegant technical perfection which had been introduced by *Mies
van der Rohe, K. - although starting from the
aesthetic of the master of German Rationalism
- presented a bold and skilful ruggedness. He
clad the architecture of 'beinahe nichts' (almost
nothing) in an expressive, massive monumentality, thereby creating one of the most
important buildings in the sphere of *New
Brutalism.
much more
The
Philadelphia (1957-60).
three laboratory
blocks, to
sive
the
axially
in relation to
composed
first
laboratory
tectural language.
In this building K.
development:
his
geometric forms and compositions; the overheightened emphasis on function and construction tending towards formalistic autonomy; the
hierarchical, and often dramatically treated,
differentiation between 'served' and 'servant'
185
Kiesler
spaces,
feature
from *Wright's
adopted
and
light'
by no means
free
of mythic
which
is
Institute at
Ahmedabad,
metric-decorative types,
Roman
fortress-
numerous geo-
principally
derived
models.
within-a-house' principle
onstrated
is
"^International Style
which the
late
L' Architecture
d'aujourd'hui
no.
(Paris),
142
from antique
K.
is
Kiesler, Frederick,
York
1965.
b.
Studied
Vienna 1890,
at
the
d.
New
Akademie der
Technische
and
the
Knste
Hochschule in Vienna. After a brief collaboration with *Loos in 1920, he was active notably
bildenden
as a stage designer. In
in
nationale
history.
186
in
the
group De
Austrian
artistic
des
arts
decoratifs
et
industriels
Kleihues
- such as
production of Karel Capek's
R.U.R. (also 1923) - and the Endless Theatre
(1924) to the Universal Theater project for the
Ford Foundation (196 1). The Endless Theater
exercised an influence on Walter *Gropius's
Totaltheater of 1927.
AM
repeatedly until i960), via stage sets
that for the Berlin
Frederick
(exhibition
Environmental
Kiesler:
New
catalogue),
Sculpture
York
1964;
New
Vienna 1975.
(exhibition catalogue),
Kikutake, Kiyonori,
at
the
has
b.
Kurume
Waseda University
had
his
own
in
1928. Studied
Tokyo, where he
His career
*Metabolism,
in
is
which
he
various
in the
ods 1956-1970,
Tokyo
Tokyo
1978.
rather disposed
Hotel
in
Chigasaki (1966) the bathrooms are prefabricated units hung on the exterior walls of the
bedroom tower. In both cases the underlying
principle
is
most subject
to
Shimane Prefectural
Museum
in
Matsue (1959)
a strongly
expressed fixed part in the lower two storeys
and an open exhibition hall above, and in the
Miyakonoyo Civic Hall (1966) where a light,
collapsible
The
ties
fixed platform.
(as
new
Kopfklinik Westend building in Berlin-Charlottenburg), 1960-2, and since 1962 has had his
own office in Berlin (until 1967 in partnership
with Hans Heinrich Moldenschardt). He became a professor at the University in Dortmund
in 1973 and was appointed Planning Director of
the 'Internationale Bauausstellung 1984' (IBA)
While his early works reflect a continued involvement with *New Brutalism and
Structuralism, K. developed at the end of the
in 1979.
187
Klerk
for: the
University
in Bielefeld
Sprengel-Museum
(1968-9); the
Hanover
in
(1972);
the
D 'Kleihues',
Das Kunstwerk
(Stuttgart),
^2
Klerk, Michel
Amsterdam
de,
1923.
b.
Amsterdam
leading
1884,
member of
d.
the
West (1913-19)
Amsterdam South
flat
of *Berlage.
GHa
D Frank, Suzanne, 'Michel de Klerk's Design
for
Amsterdam's
Spaarndammerbuurt',
forms
hand, stands clearly
in the tradition
of Prussian
in the tradition
7);
the
83); the apartment block 270 in Berlin- Wedding (1969-80); and the Hospital in Berlin-
Neuklln (1973,
1976fr).
Of
his
unrealized
Denmark
1853, d.
1930.
b.
near Skelskor,
first as an
Worked
Koolhaas
engineer, then as a painter
architect.
He strove in
synthesis
of the brick
his buildings to
style
as
an
achieve a
of northern Euro-
pean Gothic churches and contemporary architectural *Expressionism. His best-known work
responsible
is
the
G Ha
organ.
'Den
Kay,
Fisker,
Koolhaas, Rem,
b.
Klintske
Skole',
number.
Rotterdam
1944. After a
Holland
in
who
Office
for
later
became
worked with
his partner
Metropolitan
Elia
when
Architecture
New
thereafter
renderings produced by
for
OMA.
The
of
the
first
joint
the
former was still a student. This was a phantasmagoric collage based on the theme of the
Berlin Wall and entitled Exodus (1972). With
the formation of OMA, the work of K. and
Zenghelis assumed a more professional stance,
as in their T975 competition entry for a housing
complex on Roosevelt Island> New York City.
Around the same time, K. designed (in collaboration with Laurinda Spear) the Spear House in
Miami Beach, Florida, a work which was
finally realized in
1979 by the firm of
Arquitectonica. At the same time K. published
his manifesto on Manhattanism, entitled Delirious New York (1978), a study which, aside from
its documentation, was to reflect the evolving
sensibility of OMA, through a series of fantasy
projects for Manhattan.
189
Kramer
formation of their highly chromatic
team have been affected
K. and the
by a number of influences, ranging from the
architecture
of
Ivan
neo-Suprematist
In the
OMA
style,
all
The Hague
(1978,
OMA
OMA
London
198
1.
modernism (*Neue
Sachlichkeit).
formal architectural education, but had acquired the essential professional skills through
working in Eduard Cuyper's office. After
collaborating with van der Mey on the latter's
Scheepvaarthuis in Amsterdam (1911-16), K.
concentrated on housing (terrace houses in Park
Meerwijk, Bergen, 19 15-16; communal housing in Amsterdam). Despite their highly cultivated
individuality,
his
buildings
are
nonetheless developed from their particular
urban situation and architectonic context, especially in the case of the Amsterdam bridges
(1918-37). After de Klerk's early death, none of
the Amsterdam Expressionists built with the
degree of fantasy he had incorporated in his
designs. None of the characteristically softly
modelled wall planes of K.'s works surpassed
the corner solution achieved in his housing
complex in Amsterdam South (192 1-3) for De
Dageraad housing corporation. In the De
Bijenkorf department store in The Hague
(1924-5), he applied his treatment to a completely
different
building type.
In
his
later
Germany 1873, d.
1955. After studies at
Eltville,
Kramer. Housing
in
Amsterdam South
(192 13)
finally a
more
abstract *neo-classicism
which
Krier
Socialists K. was much favoured, designing
notably the buildings intended for the army
High Command headquarters, situated on the
(1968-70) and then underj. P. *Kleihues (1971In 1974 he opened an office in London,
where he has also taught, 1973-6, at the
Architectural Association School and in 1977 at
2).
the
Rob
tecture.
He
upon
has seized
early 19th-century
fied architectonically
plans
as
that
for
the
Lycee
Classique
at
1953-
Echternach,
Stuttgart,
Luxembourg City
AM
(1978).
Rational
Architecture/ Architecture
la
ville',
Rationelle,
Leon Krier.
1978, pp. 33-42:
Drawings IQ67-IQ80, Brussels 198 1.
Brussels
]];:;:
-/-:
Warmbronn,
near
draws heavily on
Dickes House
Stuttgart
*Stirling's
at Bridel,
(1968), which
work; and the
Luxembourg
(1974-6),
entirely enclosed in a
(1974-6)
Bridel,
Luxembourg
Stuttgart
1975;
in
in
Vienna.
FJ
'The
Work
of
Rob
(Tokyo), June
1977.
191
Kroll
been
a professor at
K.
is
among
clxv,
no.
984,
Kurokawa,
at
office
in
Tokyo
in
1961.
key figure of
Japanese *Metabolism, he has played an essential role in this movement, not only through
projects and buildings but also through theoretical writings. After putting forward his
projects for the Wall Cluster (i960), the Helix
Sony Tower
in
Osaka
(1976).
New
Urbanism,
Tokyo
i960;
Le Corbusier
1970;
Drew,
Philip,
New York
Tokyo
the
1972;
1975.
L
Lasdun,
Sir
Denys,
b.
London
1914. Studied at
London.
was
its
a part-
National Theatre in
London
J.
Theme:
London
Le
the
William
(1967-76).
AM
Language and a
Work of Denys Lasdun and Partners,
R.,
des arts,
1976.
above
all
Auguste Choisy's
Histoire de
1935-7, before
Curtis,
it
was
of the
reflects the
La Chaux-de-Fonds
(1916) one
Schwob
reinforced-concrete houses
which
Le Corbusier.
(1916)
193
Le Corbusier
reconstruction
mechanization.
However, he rose astoundingly quickly to
the fore among the avant garde of Parisian
painters. The order of the day was *Cubism and
nouveau (1920-5;
tion with
where,
human
degree.
began
Le Corbusier.
Ville
contemporaine
(project, 1922)
in 1920.
As
nym
is
insepara-
as a publicist,
'Le Corbusier'
which
the pseudo-
THE
194
archi-
as a
modern
guarantee of good
composition, his *Modulor was also used. This
was a system of proportions grounded on the
golden section or the Fibonacci series using the
tectural office
Le Corbusier
famous definition of architecture as 'the mastercorrect and magnificent play of masses
brought together in light'. His comparisons
with engineering constructions and with modern forms of transportation were formulated
ly,
into such
oft-misunderstood postulates
as 'the
and function.
further enunciation of
("^Rationalism).
Of the
first
plete has
it
did
Le Corbusier.
1925):
model
Le Corbusier. Houses
at the
Weienhofsiedlung,
Stuttgart (1927)
version carried on
pilotis
as
Cook
Le Corbusier. Second Maison Citrohan
1922): model
(project,
195
Le Corbusier
Sislii? ^
Le Corbusier.
Le Corbusier.
(project,
Moscow
931)
Le Corbusier.
Villa
Le Corbusier.
Paris (1930-2)
which
Savoye at Poissy (1929-3 1) and
the Clarte apartment house in Geneva (1930-2).
Characteristic of all these buildings - which
have become monuments of modern architecture - are their general independence of terrain
as well as a rich variety of interior and exterior
spaces achieved by means of double-height
rooms, gallery floors, bridges and ramps with
1927), the Villa
1).
Especially impressive
by
at the stage
end
Le Corbusier
Palace,
Geneva
(project, 1927)
numerous
for
office
buildings
million
inhabitants
requires
more humanistic
*CIAM
of
in 1933. Much
visions of the future were
(1935)
and Les
Trois
Ville
Etablissements
humains (1945).
in
derived not so
theses
as
much from
from the
attitude
to
d'Habitation, Marseilles
(1947-52)
visibly
Le Corbusier. Unite
restoration
its
creative
power
to that
of the
(1947-52) masterfully
accommodated
in
197
Le Corbusier
a
block - 165
example
for
reasons
of sound-proofing
community
all
streets,
is
as large as a
stadium):
moreover,
1,800
residents
units
which
(1956-8),
Meaux
(1957-9),
Briey-en-Foret
power and
Le Corbusier. Monastery of
198
Leonidov
specific site; rather
vidual
creations,
even
at
can also be
Neuilly-sur-
tradition
of the
rationalist
which
creator of forms
enlightenment and a
endure well beyond
will
MB
his time.
Ozenfant, Amedee, andjeanneret, CharlesEdouard, Apres le cubisme, Paris 191 8; Le Corbusier, Vers une architecture Paris 1923 (English
ed.:
Towards
new
Paris 1930;
un
etat present de
four
His
*India.
in
buildings
at
Ahmedabad-the Museum
Wool Weavers
ing of the
the Sarabhai
Villa (1956)
I'
1937);
1967);
1937 (English
white,
London
don
1947);
Precisions sur
radieuse, Paris
etaient blanches.
architecture et de l'urbanisme,
La Ville
The Radiant
(English ed.:
New York
(1961-4).
London
Architecture,
City,
Quand
1935
London and
cathedrales
les
Voyage au pays
When
Cathedrals were
ed.:
the
Les
Trois
Etablissements
Painter,
Writer,
New
York
1948;
created in
nature.
now superimposed an
'inexpressible' (the
word
to describe the
London
new
Russia, 1902, d.
feeling
Leonidov, Ivan
Ilich, b.
Moscow
He worked first
ferred
from painting
onstrated his
full
^Constructivism
to architecture.
He dem-
India.
as a
leading figure
cow. He began
to break
Mos-
his
time and
first
in
endow
is,
at
of his capacity to
evokes the
was
finally, a reflection
spirit
once the
of
his
epoch. In
which
this sense
he
Institute in
OSA
With
its
its
Moscow
in
[927.
elevated monorail,
it
envisaged
and
form of
199
Lescaze
D
1
Magomedov,
902-1959',
in:
S. O. Khan, 'I.
O. A. Shvidovsky
I.
Leonidov
(ed.), Build-
New
ing in the
York
Leonidov. Lenin
1927): model
Institute,
Moscow
(project,
the imagery of
light steel-lattice
mooring mast.
York
198 1.
first
work
in that city;
it
World War
L. enjoyed tremendous
of commercial space in
New York. His building at 71 1 Third Avenue is
a restatement of the parti established at the PSFS
After
II,
success as a designer
L.'s style
Kislovodsk
New
KF
Building.
Lescaze, William,
On
Being an Architect,
New York
Urban
York 1982
New
Lissitzky, 1
influenced
some of
in
the
both
most
Woodland Cemetery
where
was responsible
L.
Finnish
Museum of Architecture,
compromise such
Ricevimenti
ing
subsequently
to
Ekilstuna
(194358),
Nordic Classi-
forth for a
9 10,
and poetic approach of *Tessenow's architecture. His late brick churches at Skarpnck
(i960) and Klippan (1966) continue the lyricism
which announced a quiet critique of the functionalist tradition in European *Rationalism.
O Codrington, J., 'Sigurd Lewerentz 1885-
holm
in
separatist Free
in
*Asplund for
Stockholm (1914),
as the
Palazzo dei
War
II,
various
L.'s
Rome
in
VG
(1959; with others)
Alieri, A., Clerici, M., Palpacelli, F., and
~
Vaccaro, N. G., 'Adalberto Libera', L'architettura - cronache e storia (Rome), nos. 124-33,
Rome
Lissitzky,
El
(Eliezer
Markovich),
b.
Moscow
at
the
ma
in
Moscow. The
ration with
taught
at
Skarpnck (i960)
to
first
Moscow Academy
'Prouns'.
He
92 1 and in
and Switzerland, 1922-5; he returned
at the
Germany
Lewerentz. Church
Russia
in
1928.
in
Lods
Zur Knust
Cologne 1958;
El Lissitzky. Life, Letters,
des Konstruktivismus,
Lissitzky-Kppers,
S.,
Lissitzky,
El,
An
Russia:
Architecture for
Cologne
1976.
member of *CIAM. He
pioneering
work on
is
from
best
1945. L.
known
was
for his
the Cite de
la
d'architecte,
Paris
1976.
b. Brno 1870, d. Vienna 1933. An
admirer equally of the logic of Roman architecture and of vernacular architecture, L. was one
of the pioneers of the European Modern Movement. He was one of the first architects to react
against the decorative trends of *Art Nouveau
Loos, Adolf,
Upon
Dresden.
was eager
to
the
austere
blocks of Burnham and Root, and the uncompromising severity which *Sullivan manifested
his famous Guaranty Building (Buffalo,
N.Y., 1894-5). It was Sullivan who, after
providing American architecture with an original and personal style of floral surface decoration, wrote in 1892 in an essay entitled
'Ornament in Architecture': 'It would be
greatly for our esthetic good if we should
refrain entirely from the use of ornament for a
period of years, in order that our thought might
concentrate acutely upon the production of
buildings well formed and comely in the nude.'
This reflection was to become the central
point of L.'s aesthetic. On his return to Europe
in 1896, he settled 111 Vienna, a cosmopolitan
centre with a culture typified by elegance of
thought and sophisticated manners. In this
milieu, he showed himself forthwith to be an
ardent and aggressive polemicist. In a first series
of articles, published chiefly in the Neue Freie
Presse in 1 897 and 898, he took up arms against
stylistic
the
and aestheticizing tendencies
preached by the painter Gustav Klimt and the
architects *01brich and *Hoffmann who had
founded the Secession movement in 1897.
Basing himself partly on Sullivan's purist arguin
its
Lubetkin
Loos. House
dominance of solids, cubic style); the commercial block on the Michaelerplatz, Vienna (1910),
where the arrangement of the various levels
looks forward to the complete expression of the
'volumetric plan' achieved in his Rufer House,
*Lurcat,
^Mendelsohn,
*Neutra
Mnz,
and
RLD
^Schindler.
L.,
New
1982.
b. Tiflis, Georgia, Russia
90 1. Studied principally in Moscow, Leningrad and Paris. After a brief collaboration with
Lubetkin, Berthold,
1
Vienna (1922).
figures
of
Esprit
Nouveau.
He
also
Moller House
at
House
in his
in
oeuvre.
Lubetkin. Highpoint
I,
HIghgate, London
(1933-5)
203
Luckhardt
Jean Ginsburg in Paris 1927-30 (Apartment
house at 25 avenue de Versailles, Paris; 1927), he
established himself in London in 193 1, where he
Kliemann, H.,
Lundy,
Furneaux-Jordan, R., 'Lubetkin', Architectural Review, July 1955; Coe, Peter, and Reading, Malcolm, Lubetkin and Tecton. Architecture
and Social Commitment, London and Bristol
1981.
Wassili
Luckhardt,
Tbingen
1973-
at
Victor A.,
b.
New York
1925. Studied
Unitarian Church
at
Westport, Conn.,
He
designed
Atomic
Springs Inn
at
Venice,
Energy Commission,
Fla., 1958).
'pneumatic' structure,
at Seattle (1962).
Luckhardt, Hans,
b.
Bad
Technische Hoch-
Berlin
at the
He was
1890,
d.
member of the
*Novembergruppe
and later of the *Ring. From 192 1 he worked in
*Arbeitsrat fur Kunst, the
was appointed
a professor at
Luckhardt,
He worked in
Hans *Luckhardt,
1921-54. After their first works in the spirit of
*Expressionism - project for the- Hygiene
gruppe and
later
of the *Ring.
Museum in Dresden
tower
as in their
experi-
the pioneering
dwelling houses. After his theoretimanifesto Architecture (Paris 1929) and the
Hotel Nord-Sud in Calvi (1930), which is a
radical, for
cal
homage
light, L.
'Andre Lurcat',
Lutyens,
1869, d.
Hanover
(195
1)
- dynamically
bis d'harmonie
JLC
Architecture,
Mouvement,
et
(Pans 1953-7)-
Lyons
including
Munstead
Wood at Godalming,
Sur-
rey (1896), for Gertrude Jekyll, a garden designer who had created or rather revived the
English cottage garden, as well as Deanery
Garden
AM
Lutyens,
E.,
'What
Think of Modern
(1
899-1902)
London
Lyons,
for
of the
1981.
Eric Alfred, b.
London
19 12, d.
private-enterprise
Britain,
Work
housing
London
new standard
in
*Great
landscaping of entire
accommodation.
Lutyens:
New
Architecture
Laureate,
London
198 1;
Bognor
Regis,
with
certain
shared
205
M
Mackay, David
Polytechnic, he
worked
London
moved
at
the
Northern
with
partnership
in
Josep
AM
Mackay, D.,
London
ronments,
1971;
Wohnungsbau im
of the
and most
firms in the
*USA
at
architectural
prolific
monumental American
public
has
tradition into a
architecture.
largest
New
architects trained in
York-based
office
of
(*historicism) vocabulary,
first in
The
elegant do-
monumental
work was
firm's early
York
1906),
who was
Charles Folien
New
the
monumental design of
1847, d.
been
at the
House
in
206
as
and White, lSjg-igi^, New York 191 5 (reprinted 1973); Reilly, Charles H., McKim, Mead, and
New
York
Baldwin, Charles;
193 1; Scully, Vincent, The Shingle Style, New Haven, Conn.
T 9555
Roth, Leland M., The Architecture of
White,
Stanford White,
New
1924;
York
List,
1978;
White, Architects,
New
White, 1870-1920:
Building
1984.
ist
Mackintosh
draws often on ancient Celtic ornament and on
the cultural traditions of Japan.
When he was barely sixteen, M. enteredjohn
Hutchinson's office as an articled pupil; from
1885 he attended evening classes at the Glasgow
School of Art. In 1889 he was engaged as a
draughtsman in the building firm ofJ. Honeyman and Keppie, where he remained until 191
(from 1904 as a partner), and while there he met
the architect J. Herbert McNair, his future
brother-in-law. In 1890, he was awarded a
scholarship which enabled him to make a study
tour in France and Italy. Already in his first
executed work, the corner tower of the Glasgow Herald Building (1894), M. revealed a
rejection of academic traditions which was to be
fundamental to his work. One year later, in
December 1895, he participated in the opening
exhibition of L'Art Nouveau in Paris with a
number of posters which already displayed
clearly the linear, symbolic style of the Glasgow
School. In 1897 he won the competition for the
new building of the Glasgow School of Art,
erected between 1 898 and 1909. In 1 898 he drew
up a bold scheme for a concert hall on a circular
plan, covered by a parabolic dome, which was
not however premiated at the Glasgow exhibition of 1 90 1.
At the same time M. was involved in interior
decoration and in furniture design. The pieces
which
and
is
taut,
at
207
Maillart
The
internal layouts
openwork
*Stijl.
addition to the
shows similar
stylistic trends,
The superb
horizontal
support
the
galleries
pillars
which
punctuate space in
raising architecture
to
level
principles are at
He moved
activities
to
London
were limited
in
191
3,
where
his
to designing furniture
and printed fabrics. In 1920, he retired to PortVendres to devote himself exclusively to water-
RLD
colour painting.
Hermann,
Muthesius,
Kunstfreundes,
Charles
Haus
eines
Rennie
Mackintosh,
London
1977;
Charles
1980).
(ETH)
in
worked
he became
Zurich, he
in various
208
In 191 2
he
left
Switzerland to build
whence he returned
in Russia,
October
Maillart
The
multi-storey buildings.
o(
constructions
his
clearly,
however,
intrinsic character
shows up
particularly
structural systems
stiffened bar
both
also in
to seek a specific
own
problem
in its entirety
to think
and
on
through
his
specially
90 1
ally
bridge between Hinterfultigen and Schnentannen in the Canton of Berne (1933), also on a
are the
Canton Schwyz
reinforced-concrete bridges,
Engadine.
at
already displayed
It
Zuoz in
some of
the
the
incorporated
as a structural
element.
box
triply articulated
Rhine bridge
at
following
may
essen-
be men-
warehouse
at
Chiasso (1924-5); and the barrel-vaulted Cement Pavilion at the Swiss Provinces Exhibition, Zurich, 1939, a show building for the
Swiss cement industry. His most important
invention in the field of high structures was
made in 1908 with mushroom slab construction,
which he used
and
floors are
as in
for the
no longer
timber or
steel structures,
209
Maki
Here again,
cal in the
a structural
system that
is
economi-
MS
elegant appearance.
Amsterdam
Art, 1910-1930,
Maki, Fumihiko,
b.
Tokyo
University, the
New
York
offices
Merrill, as well as
London
Embassy
Museum
in
To-
the
work of his
which occasionally
re-
AM
teacher, Sert.
New
Maki,
Fumihiko,
Urbanism,
Investigations
Tokyo
in
i960;
Collective
Deco
style in *France,
he assimilated influences
Rue
emphasis
image.
Rob
is
In his buildings,
Mallet-Stevens
laid
on
notably the
of Art in Kiev,
1902 moved to Moscow. In his early
career he was strongly influenced by the paint-
191 5 he
moved
matism:
his
Ground was
in
picture
Black
Square on
White
worked
first
with
El
*Lissitzky,
visited
the
*Bauhaus and investigated compositional relationships and possibilities of simple cubes in his
'Architektona' and 'Planks', architectonic and
sculpturally abstract constructions in wood.
210
flats
in Paris (19267),
GHa
pp. 61-70.
der
Rohe
d.
of Modern
Art
calls
Pans 1886,
b.
1945.
Numazu
A.,
Russian
V Ecole
in
1982.
Mallet-Stevens, Rob(ert),
Larissa
1928. Studied at
Cranbrook Academy of
Harvard
University. From 1954 to 1966 he worked in the
Tokyo
Zhadova,
1970;
- M.
Martorell
Mare
workshop
Lissone,
near
hall
the
for
Monza
in
Genoa (1963),
Elmag at
Societa
(1964),
as
well as an
Tokyo
Angela Mangiarotti,
1965; 'Angelo
Markelius, Sven,
b.
and
at the
influenced
Urbanistn
Stockholm 1889,
Studied in Stockholm
at
d. 1972.
the Technical College
the Scandinavian
own
special
first
won
Swedish Pavilion
at
the
New
at that
self-evident.
Ray, Stefano,
tettura
77
contemporanea
Rome
1969.
MARS
Group (Modern
search Group).
Among the
architects
founding members
Wells *Coates and
AM
York World's
head of the town-
Martin,
193948.
His
Royal Festival Hall, London (195 1, with Robert Matthew, Peter Moro and Edwin Williams)
dates from his period (194853) in the architecture department of the London County Council (he was chief architect 19536). From 1956
he conducted a private practice in Cambridge
where he has built notably the Harvey Court
Residential Building at Gonville and Caius
College (1957-62; with Colin St John Wilson)
and the Stone Building at Peterhouse (19604;
also with Wilson). M/s comprehensive planning approach and concern for materials and
constructional methods have exercised considerable influence chiefly through the Centre for
Land Use and Built Form Studies (now the
BB
Martin Centre) at Cambridge.
D Martin, Leslie, 'Notes on Developing
Architecture', Architectural Review, no. 164
>^-
hall,
Hlsingborg (193,
at the
b.
Bar-
May
bined the urbamstic principles of the English
satellite towns with the typologies and formal
language of the rationalist *Neues Bauen. In
execution he adopted the so-called 'montage'
construction method, novel at the time; even
the kitchens, the 'Frankfurter Kche' (design:
Crete Schiitte-Lihotzky), which were - from
the functional point of view - radically reduced,
were themselves prefabricated. From 1930 to
1933 M. was active in ^Russia on large-scale
flats,
Benicasim
(1966--7)
Maybeck, Bernard
(Ralph), b.
New
d'aujourd'hui (Paris), no. 177, JanuaryFebruary 1975, pp. 74-89; Martorell- Bohigas
Mackay: Arquitectura ig^igj8, Madrid 1979.
ture
York
May, Ernst, b.
Hamburg 1970.
May. Rmerstadt
(1927-30)
estate,
Frankfurt
am Main
Meier
others, has
worked
in
Stutt-
gart 1968.
b.
Newark,
N.J. 1934.
Cornell University.
Worked successively with, among others,
*Skidmore, Owings & Merrill and Marcel
*Breuer in New York. Since 1963 he has been in
practice independently in New York. His early
built work is primarily domestic, including: the
Meier House, Essex Fells, N.J. (1965); the Smith
House, Darien, Conn. (19657); the Saltzman
Maybeck.
First
Church of Christ
Scientist,
scale
clubs (Faculty
He
at
at
architecture
fornia at Berkeley, 1902) and shops, and designed the Palace of Fine Arts for the 'Panama-
Pacific Exposition',
neo-classical style
D McCoy,
New York
in
Kenneth H.,
i960; Cardwell,
Ber-
Barbara 1977.
in Paris,
the
structural
the
office
Machine
floors
Company
are
in
Tokyo
decoratively
clad
Janome Sewing
(1965), the office
in
expressively
facade to
form
able influence
sun screen.
M. had
on younger Japanese
of the
a consider-
architects;
213
Melnikov
of
architects
Five Architects,
Meier.
in
his generation,
Architect,
New York
New York
1972; Richard
1976;
Richard
New
York
[984.
Melnikov, Konstantin (Stepanovich), b. Moscow 1890, d. Moscow 1974. The first Soviet
architect to achieve international repute, with
his
at the Paris
with
his
Moscow
projects for a
(1922) or the
workers' quarter
Moscow
offices
in
of the
His
own
house
in
dynamic forms.
(1927) was a
Moscow
Laboratories in
Ind.
artists'
ders.
214
five
its
cylin-
in
Moscow
(19279) each have a specific manifesto, revealing externally the auditoria and
con-
apartments; and
Twin
The
two
circulation spaces in an expression of continuous movement. M.'s radicalism and his rejection of the orthodoxies of the various organized
avant gardes was expressed in his projects for the
Christopher Columbus Lighthouse on Haiti
Moscow
which he
movement
in the city
on
grand
scale:
his
interior refurbishment
to purely
D
in a
Mass
Mendelsohn,
first at
the
which
Mendelsohn
Mendelsohn. Cinema on
prototype-free
ings,
were
to
at a
drawings was
major building: the
Observatory and Astrophysics Laboratory at
Potsdam, known as the Einstein Tower after its
completion in 192 1. Although the tower was of
masonry construction, it had the formal and
constructive
appearance
of
reinforcedconcrete. A whole series of other buildings soon
followed, including: the Hat Factory for
Friedrich Steinberg, Herrmann & Co. in
Luckenwalde (192 1-3); a two-family house in
Berlin-Charlottenburg (1922), a commercial
building in Gleiwitz (1923); and a machinery
building for a textile factory in Wstegiersdorf
(also 1923). In addition during these years, he
renovated the Rudolf Mosse House in Berlin
(1921-3, with Richard J. *Neutra and R. P.
in these project
first
Henning).
Especially decisive for the expression of his
personal style were the two department store
buildings for Schocken in Stuttgart (1926-8)
and by
by
constructional disci-
members, and
achieved
an
in
early
the
staircase
highpoint
in
towers.
his
M.
nearly
the
Kurfurstendamm,
Berlin (1926^31)
formal
Woga complex
inventiveness
in Berlin (192631).
in
the
This in-
interior
he designed
a hospital in
lem (1937-9).
Hebrew
Museum
Modern Art
at the
New
York, he
received practically no commissions and instead
undertook extensive lecture tours. In 1945 he
moved from New York to San Francisco,
where he lived until his death. In the last six
years of his life M. again enjoyed a period of
of
in
considerable activity, principally designing religious buildings for Jewish communities (St
Louis, Mo., 1946-50; Cleveland, Ohio, 194652; Grand Rapids, Mich., 1948-52; St Paul,
Minn., 1950-4).
After his departure from Germany, M. never
again attained the originality of his early work,
and even in his native land he was followed by
only second-class imitators rather than genuine
215
Metabolism
Mendelsohn. House on
Pacific Heights,
San
(1959),
by
Francisco (1950-1)
Kiyonori Kikutake
Gesamtschaffen
des
Architekten,
Berlin
New
Eckardt,
Wolf
1960;
New
tecture
best
characterized
typified
by
216
Metabolist image,
represented by his
959)
the
strikingly science-fiction-like
Mexico
development of his former Metabolist groupform theory, while Ohtaka adjusted his approach, turning in his designs to the use of a neo-
HY
vernacular style.
Tokyo
i960;
Concept of Metabolism,
K.,
and Kuro-
Kurokawa,
Tokyo
K.,
New
The
1972.
they
ever,
and the
turbulence of the following years broke the
influence of the Paris *Ecole des Beaux-Arts
which had prevailed over Mexican architecture
since the mid- 19th century and had largely
replaced a tradition of dependency on the
Spanish motherland. It also signalled the reevaluation of the vernacular architecture of the
country, especially that of the Spanish colonial
period. Parallel to this development - but in
marked opposition
to
it
19 10
- many young
archi-
began,
c.
on the
of the Modern Movement, particularly in the area of hospitals and schools, as well
as in workers' housing. At the same time a
Mexican variant of *Art Deco served as a
principles
are
buildings for a total of 5,000 inhabitants (194750). Tall office buildings, which followed the
international trend for glass curtain-wall facades, sprang
in
Mexico
la
Reforma
first
appeared
only
c.
neers.
In
spite
subjects.
exceptional in
Its
its
reliefs
with
an extinct volcano.
Also in the University City is Felix
*Candela's first well-known shell construction,
217
Mexico
ing
Cosmic Ray Building (195 1). In the followtwo decades Candela collaborated with
market halls and factories; Candela also developed impressive spatial solutions for churches.
in architecture
a garden layout
of raw lava with
interconnected planted areas with flowering
created
by contrasting
fields
Barragan,
Max Cetto,
others). In
this
Santiago
Greenham and
his
own
house (1953-6).
In the early 1960s the Nonoalco-Tlatelolco
quarter of Mexico City was constructed for
fantastic fairytale-like
Mexico. Ciudad
(1957),
Satelite,
near
Mexico City
Mexico
111
!"
Ulli
iiiiillll
HUHU'"*
(1968),
by Ricardo Legorrete
mix
was
The
primary aim
in this project, in which buildings ranging from
4 to 22 storeys in height allowed half of the 95hectare site to be left open and green.
Pedro Ramirez Vazquez' solution for the
ot different social classes
fulfils
much more
suc-
the
Museum
of
of Modern
are
Mexico
(1975);
Museum
(198
its
1),
Chapultepec Park
site.
An
in the
new
Art (1965).
Military
A rejection of the "^International Style which persisted in Jose *Villagran Garcia and
Juan Sordo Madaleno's Hotel Maria Isabel in
Mexico City (1962) - is clearly evident in
another Mexico City hotel, the Hotel Camino
Real (1968) by Ricardo Legorrete, with its
emphasis on the wall surfaces, attention to
sunlight conditions and maximum privacy in
the arrangement of the rooms.
The public buildings of the 1970s in Mexico
City display a tendency to monumentality
which is frequently characterized by the use of
large supporting and infill elements. At the
same time there has been increased attention to
interior courts. Three buildings by Teodoro
Gonzalez de Leon and Abraham Zabludovsky
HH
unmistakable.
Myers,
New
B.,
Architects,
E.,
York
Architektur
Clive
I.
Militr),
1952;
in
New
York
[967.
219
Mey
Delfshaven
der, b.
Amsterdam
brick facade in
fantastic richness
of
detail;
met during
his years in
younger
col-
whom
he had
Eduard Cuyper's office
He
collaborated in
programmes in Amster-
a series
b.
Mechernich,
is
ing
pavilions.
WP
Eifel 1881, d.
North Sea
on
1929.
Meyer, Hannes,
mason and
architectural draughtsman. Contemporaneously with his first works in architecture, he pursued further training in evening
courses at the Kunstgewerbeschule, the Landwirtschaftsakademie and the Technische Hoch-
schule in Berlin.
movement
organization, for
buildings
classicist
in
an
active in the
and communal
which he designed
architectural
several
language
estate
still
at
It
of projects,
Meyer, Adolf,
'This building
GHa
Teufen 1965.
M.I.A.R. (Movimento
^Rationalism
first
came
to
association,
Luciano
Mario *Ridolfi and Alberto Sartoris were also included. In the same year,
Gruppo 7 spawned a new movement, M.A.R.
(Movimento Architettura Razionale), which *Baldessari,
as its
rationalist
Italy's
architects
'Seconda esposizione dell'architettura razionale'. This took place in 1931. once again in
Rome, and was the occasion for publishing a
'Manifesto per l'architettura razionale', with
which Mussolini associated himself opportunistically.
The polemical 'Tavolo degli
orrori',
Brasini,
*Piacentini,
among
compromise
political
ually
Giolli,
Ban
1972;
I'analisi
Raffaello,
dell architettura
durante ilfascismo,
razionale,
L'architettura
Cennamo. Michele,
moderna,
Materiali per
II
M.I.A.R.,
and
Patetta,
l'architettura in
on
the
Autostrada
del
(motorway) near Florence (19603), is
works M. turned
to a
neo-
b. Aachen 1886,
Chicago 1969. One of the four most influential architects of the 20th century - the others
being Frank Lloyd *Wright, *Le Corbusier,
and Walter *Gropius - M. had no formal
d.
training
architecture.
in
His initiation
into
came
went
to Berlin,
architect
where he worked
briefly for an
structures.
In his later
Sole
Battista,
The
Venice 1976.
Battista,
all of
and architectural
groups m four regional sections. Its most
important task was the preparation of the
with Libera
two
years to
Bruno
The
at
most
prolific
^Germany.
provided
Paul, a
M. joined
his
M.
most valuable
electrical
gallery
(project, 19 12)
industrial society.
tion represented
although
Schinkelesque
neo-classicism
oc-
masonry piers
pediments of some of Behrens'
and simplified
factories as well.
To
create a
modern
architec-
purity
of form,
perfection
of proportions,
Initially,
to modern art. He joined the *Novembergruppe; founded in 191 8, and named after the
month of the Republican Revolution, this
organization,
section
in
publicized
too,
Movement. Mies
from 1921
directed
until 1925.
the
the
It
was
gruppe
that
his
early
modern
Modern
architectural
principally
Novemberprojects
first
appeared.
In
two skyscraper
of
not widely
first
later, this
to feature ribbon
project
windows.
one of the standard motifs of modernist architecture. This stage in M.'s development is
concluded by two projects for houses. One, in
1923, for a brick country house, used De Stijl
principles. Brick panels in slab, L and T shapes,
infilled where necessary with floor-to-roof
window panels, modulated a spatial continuity
through their arrangement in a tense asymmetrical equilibrium in space. For the first time
in architecture, the wall by its placement and
shape actually generated the plan. Although the
design was schematic only, it nevertheless
represented
architectural
in
had
(1926)
arbitrarily
the
time.
In
this
respect,
M.'s concrete
reveal
how
far
his
pre-war
neo-Schinkelism, and how much his early neoclassicism continued to influence his work.
Both
possess a solidity
associated with
The
an
abstract
reminiscent
1930.
Monument.
His work at this time, however, is climaxed
by two major works. One, the Weienhof-
Notable
significant
it
memorials
the
office
22}
continuity.
on the open
the larger
right-angles to
modern
was
Immediately
M.
its
concrete-surfaced
European
career,
the
Tugendhat House at Brno, Czechoslovakia
(1930). Built on a gentle slope, the house
importhe
private
Barcelona Pavilion,
designed the most important house of his
after the
last
Among
institute
until
the
Nazis
forced
its
closure in 1933. The hostile political environment made it increasingly impossible to work
in
Germany
and, in the
(1930)
presented
rear.
The continuous
in 1944,
In 1938
the
River,
111.
(1946-50)
subtleties
much
like the
as
an idealized
manner
his use
of
slabs in the
buildings
is
regulations
covered.
demand
Hence
that
most
itself,
since fire
steel
must be
is
more
much
as
more convincingly resembles and more intimately relates to the real thing within. From the
standard alphabet of the steelmaker's catalogue
he
The
225
llr
HHHH
" fc
fijBSt:^
H^,^:.
^M fe^i.v-"
*J
f?miaJinitv- f---f
Jfe,
:4
BjRfi--!
"^
MMR^^
'^iK
Mies van der Rohe. Crown
Hall. IIT.
Chicago
(1952-6)
occasions, as in
Crown
apparently floating
and more
terrace,
which
at
stairs
stairs rise
to the floor-slab,
raised a
design for
this
ft)
m (720
as
The culmination
buildings was the
Berlin (1962-8).
ot the series
3660
Hall.
Chicago
(project. [953
of pavilion
\r
"5
226
TOIir
^IIU'
\r
in
11a
<IHir
to
provide a colum-free interior space for a capacity audience of 50.000. Diagonal bracing extended from the outside edges of the threedimensional ceiling trusses makes a two-dimensional truss of the exterior walls. This bracing
would bring the entire structure down on low
-\r
iiiiiiiiuinmiiiir mimtiiiuiuiitn
^iiiiiiiiiuiiiii'
nmiuinumi'
MJIiniHIIir
MillilSHin'
MIIII1II'
<!l|r
'
.Illlllllir
^IIP
miiuiuimiuiiiir
wmiuiiiiaiir
MIinilHHl
qillllll'
"'nil
~\r
New
Berlin (1962-8)
from the
corners.
deeply recessed glass wall encloses an exhibition space subdivided only by several stage-like
sculpture court
is
elements
in
perpetual
disequilibrium.
The
arranged.
series
skyscraper. M.'s
two
skeletal
Lake
Shore Drive Apartments (1 950-1) and the
Seagram Building in New York (1954-8; with
classic skyscrapers,
at
same
much as
Paestum and
same
we
static
Mills
of the
first
opposites.
is
by the
The perpetual
reduced to
is
clear
tension
reconciliation of
'things in themselves', so he
developed
ele-
mental building types to serve different purapproach was narrow, but this very
narrowness permitted his passionate integrity
and purifying artistry to come to focus. In his
greatest works, the concept of 'less is more'
contains the paradoxical fulfilment of an
poses. His
WHJ
ideal.
ed.
der
Rohe,
New
Rohe
tried to grapple
lated
from
science
Edward David,
b.
191
5.
Studied
at
new
sought to
society
politi-
and were
enormous
brick,
respect
for
materials,
especially
would
knobs
to
lifts
tile
and furniture;
(4)
filter; (5)
the
at
and
Modernisme
over
Bohigas,
DM
Resena y catalogo de la
arquitectura
modernista,
Barcelona
1973;
Marfany, Joan Lluis, Aspectes del Modernisme,
Barcelona 1975.
Oriol,
eclectic revivals
rather
ft 5 in.), i.e.
nostalgic
with
was
relying on
the height of a
Moore
2.2B0
bines
this
formal
with
sense
an
almost
_Ltei_
5
^V
MS
8
534
432
cm
of 183
__8_04_
102
es
La
|s
EI?
version, based
on
body height
(6 ft)
system using
Le
(English
Corbusier,
feet
Le
and
inches.
Modulor,
Paris
AM
1948
translation:
954);
translation:
Moneo,Jose
After studies
at
Hellebaek,
at
the
Rafael
Moneo',
Nueua
Forma
Moore,
derived.
'Jose
series' (o-6
British
DM
__2SZ_
Modulor. Second
Scandinavian
i\
his
lished tradition in
>
330
from
1.397
established his
Ranch
(1966),
which
is
presented in essence
229
Morandi
differentiated spaces provided the first
evidence of theatrical effects in his work. In
whose
addition to
large
number of
typologically
forest setting.
Among
works of recent
New
Orleans (1975-8),
a stage-like
sian
classicism,
19th-century
glass-and-iron
Moore. Kresge
ground
fertile
in
Europe,
is
his
commitment
to
fair to
work
is
It is
not
to confallen
on
FW
of ^Rational architecture.
MLTW.
Vol.
ber,
May
New
Morandi, Riccardo,
Moore. Condominium
Grover Harper; 1964-5)
I,
(Moore
(Tokyo), special
num-
b.
1980.
Rome
at
Polcevera, near
Genoa
(1965).
230
Moser
Morandi,
Riccardo Morandi,
Rome
1974.
for
Red House
at
Bexley
VML
Morris,
May
(ed.),
vols.),
London
19 10-15;
Morris,
the architect A.
critic
romantically inspired quest to revive the spiritual and aesthetic principles of the Middle Ages,
which he developed in opposition to the *eclecticism of his time and which he saw as intimately linked with progressive social ideals. For
him, socialism was a conscious return to a lifestyle in which workmen took pleasure in their
craft. In formal terms he stressed a need for
'honesty', sincerity and quality of craftsmanship. Although he was not himself responsible
Work and
Paul,
Friends,
London
The Works of
Life,
Thompson,
William Morris, London
1967;
1977.
Moser,
Although
his
strained,
classically
oriented
in
re-
*historicism
M.
*Switzerland with
his reinforced-concrete St
231
Murphy/Jahn
Antonius Church
counterpart
Raincy,
to
*Perret's
Notre
Dame, Le
France (1922-3).
D Kienzlc, Hermann, Karl Moser: 1860-1936,
Zurich 1937.
in
Murphy/Jahn.
has been
Architectural practice
known under
various
names
which
in
its
we know
it
today.
in
191
H.
Helmut Jahn
(b.
Zindorf, near
McCormick
Place 1971).
With Jahn in charge of design, there was an
increasing relaxation of the link to the model of
Murphy
Associates; 1965)
Nuremberg
building,
Murphy. Chicago
Deco
n.d.
Muthesius, Hermann,
b.
Gro-Neuhausen
Hochschule
in
Wallot's
office
in
Berlin-Charlottenburg; worked
office.
of Ende
&
Period in Japan
Bckmann;
in the
Tokyo
attache at the
architecture
House
in Berlin (1911-12)
is
an independent
neo-classicism
essay,
its
N
neo-classicism. Although the word has been
used to describe any number of departures in
music (Les Six, Igor Stravinsky's compositions
of the late 1920s and 1930s), in painting (Pablo
Picasso, Giorgio de Chirico in the late 1920s, the
Novecento movement
in Italy), in literature
(it
Louis Aragon,
as
physics
(a
who
and even
in
Prussian
phenomenon.
The term 'classicism' is taken by art historians
energies.
effective
embodiment
description),
it
defined architectural
to
describe
the
movement towards
greater
Greek
art. It
tended to Britain,
state
in
his
work
Allgemeine Elektricitts-Gesellschaft
which included
ity,
for
the
(AEG),
and machinery
and factory buildings. In this and in other work
done at this time, Behrens insistently used
different electrical appliances
well
to the
To some
extent
this
neo-classicism
rep-
best
work done
in the last
fact,
the designers
who
to
as a tight
proportional system.
In Britain motivation
was
less direct.
The
whimsy took
influenced
233
neo-classicism
site
of the World's
(general plan
by
influential
composition
manual
in 1896.
He
on
architectonic
'classical'
architecture
was
that Perret
had
're-
using
wood
prototypes,
much
as
the
in
their use
antiquity concentrated
the city,
which he
its
neo-classicism
191
1,
la
different,
sober
academic
claimed
(mostly
'classical'
and
style
17th-
rational,
which
and
as
also
18th-
century) precedent.
In Vienna, Josef *Hoffmann
the pupils
and a number of
of Otto *Wagner (notably Josef
(1937),
by Auguste Perret
(who
for
whom Loos
hold up the
example of antiquity against the vagaries of
'ornamentalists', was an exemplar not only for
the German-speaking lands, but for all northern
Europe. Hack Kampmann and Carl Petersen in
*Denmark, Gunnar *Asplund, Ivar Tengbom
and Sigurd *Lewerentz in Sweden, even the
early work of Erik *Bryggman and Alvar
*Aalto were all marked by the teaching that
went back to the tradition of Schinkel, which
had been rooted in Finland by Carl Ludwig
Velde). Karl Friedrich Schinkel,
quotes as the
last
of those
who
Engel.
office,
but
at
a short
period
in
when
scheme
who
re-
235
neo-classicism
official architect,
owes
it
was the
lessons
and the
representatives
committed
caution
Fascist Piacentini
against
any
facile
may
serve as a
identification
of
Building
in
disqualifica-
scheme
in
favour of a fivesome of
much more
explicitly
'classical'
or
'academic'
a single
projects
executed
one.
In *Russia, meanwhile, the experimental
phase of Soviet construction was terminated by
Communist
vopra group
Party congress
at the
when
on
the
June
new
'proletarian
the
more
refined
neo-classicism
of
northern
Europe.
Throughout
the 1930s
were considered
virtually
synony-
236
of neces-
Nervi
sary tasks; in the latter part
of the period,
this
necessity
rooted in
new
*historicism.
Already
in the
historians
repeatable unit
formed so
as to
is
often identified as
carry the
type
maximum of historical
reference.
By
later
school of rationalist
^Ra-
*Rossi,
no
Larsson,
relation
Lars Olof,
'Klassizismus in der
in:
Albert
am Main,
lated in his
process of creating
is
work of
the
form
is
identical,
technicians or of
whether
it
the
artists:
is,
whereby the beauty of a
example, is not just the outcome
of calculations, but of an intuition as to what
calculations to use, or with which it is to be
principle,
contrast,
tional
that
structure, for
identified.
first
structures (for a
cinema
in
work, the
first
Communal Stadium
at
important
Florence
most controversialjournals
as
an example
which
strikingly
237
Nervi
attention
on
These were to
prove the object of constant and ever deeper
research on his part, in an infinite variety
prompted by his taste for creation and experiment. With the construction of these hangars
network
(now
ot load-bearing joists.
destroyed),
forward
tures, as
in the process
much
he brought to a successful
conclusion the studies and experiments he had
been carrying out to obtain 'strength through
form' in buildings, i.e. strength in surfaces
alone; this is at once the most technically
1940,
interesting
Nervi.
238
consists in effect
up of undulating prefabricated
units.
A number
below completely
free;
leaves
some
are
on
the
space
a circular
Rome Lido
and Banqueting Hall at Chianciano
Terme (19502). At the same time N. was
carrying out reseaich on reinforced-concrete
plan, such as the Casino at the
reasons.
About
Communal
(1950)
prefabrication,
using
small
ferro-concrete
Netherlands
UNESCO
which
swelled surfaces of
hall,
are derived
the
from
Vatican (1971).
D Nervi, Pier Luigi, Arte
Rome
,
1954;
Aesthetics
Rome
(with
GV/AM
scienze del costruire?,
Structures,
and
New York
Technology
in
1956;
Building,
York
Ada
New
Neue Strukturen,
Agnoldomenico, Pier
Stuttgart
1962;
Luigi Nervi,
Pica,
Rome
1969.
Netherlands. The reaction against the prevail*historicism and *eclecticism of 19thcentury Dutch architecture began c. 1890,
notably
with
Petrus Josephus
Hubertus
*Cuypers, architect of the Rijksmuseum
(1877-85) and the Central Station (188 1-9) in
Amsterdam; inspired by the French architect
and theorist Viollet-le-Duc, Cuypers advocated
a contemporary building style - albeit heavily
indebted to Gothic prototypes - and a revival of
craft traditions. Many notable architects were
trained in his studio, including Hendrikus
Theodorus Wijdeveld, Willem Kromhout and
ing
traditions in his
real
ern architecture
generally considered to be
is
- may be summa-
of construction,
housing projects.
Soon, however,
younger generation of
architects set itself against this 'rational' architecture. J. M. van der *Mey, Michel de *Klerk
P. L. *Kramer displayed their ideas in
and
239
Netherlands
ist
line
established
early
1940).
Opbouw', which
included,
among
others,
Netherlands.
Duin
Villa
(191 5-16),
Amsterdam with
16); its exterior
by Robert
van't
Hoff
tecture' (*Functionalism)
better future.
attitude are to
would contribute to
as
collaborating architect.
the
1920s,
partly
designs
were
because the
Amsterdam
number of progressive
architects joined together in Amsterdam to
form a new group: 'De 8'. They called them-
selves non-aesthetic,
towns like
Groningen and Utrecht. For the most part, the
style proved to be useful as facade architecture,
for example in the 1920s in the Amsterdam
South expansion scheme, based on a plan by
Berlage. De Klerk and Kramer in particular
realized masterpieces in this style; but after de
240
School.
In
1927,
Netherlands
building.
Even stronger opposition to modern archicame by the late 1920s from Granpre
tecture
He
maintenance of
characteristics
architecture.
craft traditions
and regional
Scandinavian and
in
He was
German
s<mf-? Li-W
'cubistic'
Town
During World
practically
School,
Amsterdam
(1928-30).
By
1930 the
came
ation reconstruction
and
at the outset
alists
it
who were
practice.
of modern town planning, although the disruption of World War II caused the realization of
the greater part
of it to be postponed
until the
1950s.
In the
1930s the
much of its
initial
impetus.
Netherlands
early as 1946 by the head of the Townplanning Department, Cornells van Traa. A
rebuilt city centre with an entirely new street
plan - corresponding only occasionally to the
pre-war layout was intended to provide a
as
housing
in
media and
activist
groups
in
it.
most large
tl^KMMWl
242
site,
Mass
cities
Netherlands
a re-evaluation
the
From
the
early
1950s,
architects
within
CIAM
scale as
tiny
city
243
Netherlands
profound.
Ham-
was
adopted
also
W.
Minister,
F.
in
Schut,
priate
building
example
materials.
An
instructive
development in Zwolle
(!977)> built by van Eyck and Theo Bosch.
In the case of urban renewal, there has often
been an element of user's participation. To be
sure, there is nothing new about this. As early as
Nicolaas John Habraken had advocated
1 96 1
the participation of future users in the building
of their dwellings, and as a result the Stichting
Architecten Research (SAR) was founded in
1964.
is
The
the housing
and even
Ijsselmeer
Polder)
building
the
ever,
line
the
momentum.
The tradition of the 1920s Moderns is continued in the work of such architects as: Petrus
Hendrik van Rhijn and Bernard Antonie Johannes Spngberg, designers of the Amsterdam
city railway (1977 on); and Willem Gerhard
Quist, architect of the Berenplaat Waterworks
(19605) on Beijerland, the Kralingen Waterworks near Rotterdam (1973-7) and the extension of the Rijksmuseum Krller-Mller
(1970-7), Otterlo.
ment (19802)
lection
for
in
Rotterdam, reveal
distinct
his predi-
(mega-)structures.
His
of nostalgic elements
by many of his colleagues.
dislike
Since
244
housing
is
shared
Rem
in
Neutra
World War
general.
ies
of form and
his focus
on the dynamics of
architecture).
formation of
large cities.
II
he
set
WF
architectural principles,
He
Amsterdam
lands
bouwen na 1945
bauen
in
holland
set
1959;
/
Reflexen, neder-
j I' architecture
neerlandaise,
I.,
Am-
Housing
in
19001940,
's
Nederlandse architecten,
Amsterdam
198
1.
c.
^Germany.
Neutra, Richard
architect's strictures
by
his
and
design. In 191
tecture
source.
after World War I, he worked
gaining experience in the fields
of landscape and city planning. While em-
Immediately
in Switzerland,
VML
New
Brutalism
close
series
by now
themes reach
International
traditional
a striking
Style
precision that
In 1949,
houses.
JMJ
Neutra, R., Wie baut Amerika?, Stuttgart
1927;
W.
1954; Boesiger,
ings
and Projects
1966;
New
1927 the two
men
collaborated in
design
California,
N.'s personal
into focus.
style
rapidly
in his early
with
*Le
Corbusier's
noted
Villa
Stein,
from above by
structural details
works, but
246
is
from
these
stylistically identical in
(3
New York
vols.),
Zurich 195
1,
1959,
Ravens-
(1946-7)
came
McCoy,
(ed.),
New
York
1982.
1954-
New
New
(1949-54),
Brutalism
The
basis
clarity
that
emerged from
these
and
sought.
international
Of these,
comparisons
were
Art Gallery,
was
in
New
Brutalism
However,
of the
and the topology of internal circulabe seen very clearly in the siting
and planning of Park Hill, Sheffield, designed
by Jack Lynn and Ivor Smith.
Once the Brutalism of a complex such as
Park Hill is understood it becomes clear that the
application of the term to such fashionably
sentimental architecture as that of Leonardo
Ricci is improper, as is any attempt to make
tion
site
as
may
steel-
some
Niemeyer
of this definitive image the other plastic arts
provided, not an aesthetic, but an exemplar of
method or a standard of comparison - thus the
admirations of the Brutalists covered subjects as
diverse as U.S. car-styling and the Ise shrines in
Japan. Neither had any visible influence on
Brutalist architecture, but both served as examples of images created out of the kind of
way comparable
of
be fundamental,
the conception
to
also,
It
other
radical
Italian
Illuminism.
On
theorists
ground,
this
of
late
18th-century
typical
example of
the Istituto
Mar-
chiondi Spaghardi
9)
is
sight
its
at
common
practices
the
Stylistically,
Istituto
Marchiondi
still
accep-
all
at
of architecture.
RB
Brutalism: Ethic
basic traditions
D
or
period of
I'
(*Rational
architettura razionalista
architecture)
entirely expressive
that
New
is
New York
*Eisenman,
of
Michael
a circle
five
building.
For
uncompromising
all
its
attitudes,
from
conception of architecture -
it
the tradi-
was
in
no
architects,
Architects
displayed
some
evident.
five architects
distinct
Five Architects,
New
York
1972.
New
Niemeyer,
Graduated
in
Oscar,
249
Niemeyer
Belas-Artes,
later
Rio de
stepped into
Janeiro,
and
few years
is
famous
for
its
in
group of
N.
unified the scheme by an irregular series of
elevated pathways linking the various blocks:
two low buildings, 140 m (460 ft) long, the
Palace of Nations and the Palace of States, with
permanent
fair
*&
work.
Pamplha (1942-
light
parabolic
shells.
reinforced-concrete
250
(1943-4)
Novembergruppe
Ministries,
Brasilia (1958)
York
and
i960;
the Presidential Palace, the
New York,
Niemeyer,
Oscar Niemeyer,
New
New
Rio de Janeiro
Novembergruppe. A
W., Oscar
1978.
loose
association
of
Max
nent
Ludwig Meidner,
in Progress,
York
Spade, Rupert, Oscar Niemeyer, London
1956;
influence of the
November
members included
revolution.
Promi-
Hugo
Hans
Ludwig
*Hilberseimer,
*Hring,
*Luckhardt, Wassili *Luckhardt, Erich *Mendelsohn, Ludwig *Mics van der Rohe, Bruno
*Taut and Max *Taut, and the composer Hans
Eisler.
Although
the
Novembergruppe
was from
the outset
and defined
its
shared
radicalism
in
terms.
An
clared:
'The Novembergruppe
ambitious
strictly
artistic
union ot
251
Noyes
radical
artists
radical
the
in
rejection
of
The group was active in many fields. Between 1919 and 1932 it exhibited in Berlin on
nineteen occasions. In 1920 an exhibition of
graphics and watercolours was arranged in
Rome
in
Tommaso
active in
officially
banned
by the National Socialist government in September 1933, but had already ceased to be active
IBW
some two years previously.
D Kliemann, Helga, Die Novembergruppe,
Mexican
Architects,
New
in the
York
Sun: Five
1967.
Noyes,
Eliot, b.
d.
New
made by
inflated balloon, to
His houses all feature open plans subdivided by placement of furniture or fireplaces;
shell.
Noyes,
Furnishing,
Eliot
Eliot,
New
Noyes and
is
also characteristic.
York
1941; 'The
Home
Work
of
June 1966.
at
d.
members of
under
252
Darmstadt
the public
(1
upon completion. As an
'exhibition',
organic architecture
Das
Werk
des
M.
Olbrich. 1867-
Architekten
(exhibition
tied
to natural
distinguished
examples of
representative of the
civic
adornment
restrained
forms and
shift
towards *neo-
source, for
it
offered the
253
organic architecture
f>fvfl
an
article
title
'The
stood
as
as
sion.
However,
Sullivan
own
believed
from
that
this
the individual's
254
is
linked,
would
cer-
have been
in
organic architecture
develop; and, like Wright, he started from the
premise that in nature 'the formal ordering of
many things in space is in relation to a living
development and to the fulfilment of tasks.'
'Thus
in
if
we want
harmony with
to discover form,
we must
be
nature'.
by two architects
different
as
Alvar
combined with
an exceptional thinness of construction. Most
recently it has been Frei *Otto in Germany who
developed new constructions by analogy with
natural models.
JJ
Greenough, Horatio, Form and Function.
Remarks on Art, Design and Architecture (ed.
Harold A. Small), Berkeley and Los Angeles
1947; Sullivan, Louis, 'The tall office building
possible to achieve great spans
New
York
1947;
Wright, Frank Lloyd, An Organic Architecture The Architecture of Democracy, London 1950;
Lauterbach, Heinrich, and Joedicke, Jrgen
(eds.),
Hugo Hring.
1.
architect's
own
house,
255
Otto
Otto,
Frei, b.
at
seded in 1968 by his present studio at Warmbronn, near Stuttgart. Throughout his career he
has kept his design and academic research
activities separate; consequently, in 1957 he
the Entwicklungssttte fur den
Leichtbau (EL) in Berlin, which was the forerunner of the Institut fur leichte Flchentragwerke (IL), which he founded in 1964 at the
Technische Hochschule in Stuttgart.
established
Bird.
The modern
From
clastic
O.
is
tent,
the
modern
shape,
tent,
there
distinct
from
tensile
with
its
stemmed
efficient anti-
bewildering
and cable-net
on masts or arches, grid
shells, retractable or convertible roofs which
combine features of both textile and steel-cable
textile,
pavilions supported
undulating
256
as
The
in effect, air-sup-
tents.
Hamburg
(1963)
Oud
impress by their integration of aesthetics and
construction. Prior to 1963, his textile pavilions
membrane
ele-
ments arranged symmetrically in additive compositions. It was not until the mid-1960s, when
he began working with Rolf Gutbrod, that O.
began to explore picturesque asymmetrical
roofscapes divided unevenly by interior low or
high points. The Pavilion of the Federal Republic of Germany at Expo '67 in Montreal
(1965-7) is the outstanding example of a freely
formed roofscape suggestive of mountain
scenery.
The
Na-
tional Exhibition
at
up
Pavilion at
Expo
With
'67.
cable-net roofs
Olympiapark
in
Munich (196772;
as
came
built
by
consultant)
textile structures
roof, in
roof
membrane
extended or retracted at
such roofs have been
constructed in Germany, France and elsewhere,
but none is so captivating as the roof for the
Open Air Theatre at Bad Hersfeld (1967-8).
will.
great
to be
many
1970 he concentrated
his
on the
analysis
due to
it is
in large
come
about,
as
Theatre,
at the
Open
Air
German
the completion of
to O.'s first
well as the
creation of a
PD
Otto,
F.,
New
weight,
Structures:
Haven,
Conn.
1961;
New
York
1970; Glaeser,
Drew,
Philip,
Frei Otto:
New
York
Form and
1971;
Structure,
Pieter, b.
Purmerend
d.
Wassenaar.
his generation,
*Berlage,
as
his
early
257
at,
Hook of Holland
(1924-7)
Oud.
Shell Building,
much
too
painting in
Berlage's honest handling
of materials and
*'Neue Sachlichkeit' approach, despite the obvious formal
differences. O. was faced with the difficult task
of translating De Stijl's often all too theoretical
ideas into practical building terms. Examples of
his De Stijl-type architecture include: the Cafe
de Unie in Rotterdam (19245; destroyed
1940); a project for terraced housing on the
promenade at Scheveningen (19 17); and a
structure
was
to influence O.'s
few
258
years,
stress
modern
on the
role
architecture.
near
of abstract
The housing
at
Oud-Mathenesse (1922-4) and
Kiefhoek, Rotterdam (1925-7), and at Hook of
Holland (1924-7) demonstrate the transition to
schemes
'Neue
Sachlichkeit'.
From
c.
functionalist principles
Building,
The Hague,
(Shell
whereas - viewed
change of direction towards
a more formalist academic design method
seems to have been a harbinger of the increasing
uncertainty that has been evident in architecture
led to rather harsh criticism,
in retrospect
this
Peichl
in recent years.
Oud,
J.
J.
P.,
JJV/GHa
Hollndische
Architektur
Mijn
(Bauhausbuch 10), Munich 1926;
Weg in 'De StijV, Rotterdam 1961; Hitchcock,
Henry-Russell, J. J. P. Oud, Paris 1931;
Veronesi, Giulia, J. J. P. Oud, Milan 1953;
Fischer, Wend, J. J. P. Oud: Bauten 1906-63
,
(exhibition catalogue),
Munich
1965.
of Technology
and at Harvard University. He was Director of
Architecture at Webb and Knapp, Inc., in New
Science
Wing of the
'I.
M.
Pei
&
Church
Partners:
Center',
NCAR &
Christian
Global Architecture
259
Pelli
machine
dled in
aesthetic,
many
cases
Baroque-inspired axiality,
as in the
Rehabilita-
Meidling (1965-7), or
Works
ation
of
in
in the
Phosphate Elimin-
Berlin-Tegel (1980
a free overall
form
in
which
His use
ff.).
a basic
type
is
elements
is
seen
in
the
regional
Radio (RF) in
Salzburg, Innsbruck, Dornbirn, Graz and
Linz,
Ground
which blends
into the
AM
landscape.
Gustav
schule,
260
Peichl.
Bauten,
Projekte,
Meister-
School
at
Yale University in
New
Haven,
Perret
Conn., and
tracted
the
at
In the buildings
office there.
in
Choisy's constructional theories is easily detected in P.'s own work, where tradition is upheld
by inclusion
in a
new
The apartments
technological context.
in the
Rue
Franklin in Paris
entire structure
transparent
which
der
Rohe had
but
all
exterior
expressionless
shell,
homogeneous except
colour
(a
characteristics are
projects,
which
still
more recent
bound to more
present in
are mostly
Houston, Texas
tower addition
and the rebuilding of the Museum of Modern
in
Art in
New York
'Cesar
AM
(1980-4).
Pelli', Architecture
way
celebrated in
for
its
*Le
eleva-
ornamental
The
March 197 1; 'Cesar Pelli', op. cit., November 1976; Pastier, John, Cesar Pelli, New
York and London 1980; Frampton, Kenneth,
kyo),
in
Corbusier's 'plan
Tokyo
Rue
1981.
d. Pans
As a neo-classicist (*neo-classicism) with a
pronounced sensibility for modern technological requirements, he belonged to that tradition
extending from Hennebique to de *Baudot
which fostered significant changes in the meth-
1954.
teacher,
he developed
which, for
cohesiveness.
all
its
This
variety,
is
formal language
retains
characterized in
strong
equal
Piacentini
Wm
l'iflBfil
his
London
partners,
Paris
means
is
employed
to
tendencies
shown
in the
Champs-Elysees is unmistakable.
Typical of the tranquil-elegant
their traditionalism, a
courageous interest
Theatre des
style
of these
262
all
in
as a
for
mmm
C
ft!
||l- |f
Rome
(1926)
Piano
junction with Attilio Spaccarelli, the not surprisingly controversial Via della Consiliazione
in
in
its
tecture
VML
Style.
features of
of the 1930s. From 1937 to
1942 Piacentini collaborated with Giuseppe
Pagano, Luigi Piccinato, Ettore Rossi and Luigi
Vietti in the planning of the centre of the
Rome
inscription
are
characteristic
all
Italian neo-classicism
satellite
town
Roma)
near
EUR
(Esposizione Universale di
Rome
for the
Rome.
Piacentini,
Pica,
Italia,
Marcello,
Architettura
d'oggi,
tismo a
Roma
1870 ig22,
Rome
1969.
Bf!?W
i
rftl l
203
Pietil
the
Cabinet
Office
and
Foreign
Ministry
buildings.
ps
Septem-
ber 1974.
projects, as
work
*Con-
*Archigram group.
In his
'Piano
170,
November-December
_
973. PP- 45 58; 'Renzo Piano. Projets et realisations 1975-1981', op. cit., no. 219, February
I
Poelzig, Hans,
in Breslau,
there,
among
his
pupils in
Berlin
1)
anticipates
Suvikumpu
and
after
World War I,
19)
Ponti
7.
Ponti, Gio,
^^B
Tnij
B
iVW
"^H
-!
in
? H
1
'HLvfi
j|
He
member of *Gruppo
larly in collaboration
b.
Milan 1891,
worked regu-
has
d. 1979.
Studied
at
abandoned.
istic'
which united
classical
generation,
Salzburg
Festival
Theatre
visionary imagination.
The
as
administration
in
on the
classical effects
(1920-2), are of
rebuilding of the
In 1928 he
Ponti.
Pirelli
Skyscraper, Milan
(in
collaboration;
1956-8)
LG. Farbenindustrie
the
block,
relied
who
Frankfurt
am Main
(1928-31).
Polk, Willis Jefferson, b. near Frankfort, Kentucky 1867, d. San Mateo, Cal. 1924. Pupil of
*Maybeck. The Hallidie Building (San Francisco, 1918) by Polk and Co. is one of the first
buildings with a fully glazed, non-loadbearing
outer wall. It was a forerunner of the buildings
of the Modern Movement on the American
West Coast;
ever,
is
its
howNouveau
in
265
Portman
of the
before
architects
from Milan
major
international exhibitions.
Portman, John
inner-city
point. His
bows,
it
first
skyscrapers to
266
Francisco
of Technology
at the
Portman
In
&
Associates
many of his
Georgia Institute
1953 he estabthe firm of John
in Atlanta. In
was
established in 1968.
him
to deter-
programme of his
buildings.
He developed
strolling; these
Center
areas
best-known works
are: the
Peachtree
Post-Modernism
Chicago (1971) and at the Embarcadero Center
San Francisco (1974); the Embarcadero Center itself (1976); the Bonaventure Hotel in Los
Angeles (1977); and the Renaissance Center in
in
AM
Detroit (1977).
Architect as Developer,
New
York
1976; 'John
Portman. Peachtree Center, Bonaventure Hotel and Renaissance Center', Global Architecture
(Tokyo), no. 57 (1981).
Casa Baldi near Rome (1959) presents a contradictory synthesis of the Baroque and De *Stijl.
cal
considerations
all
contribute to a stimulating
formal solution. At the same time P. investigated the aesthetic possibilities of inexpensive
prefabricated building (Technical School in
L'Aquila, 196978) and daring concrete vaulting structures (Islamic Centre and Mosque in
Rome, begun
Through
1976).
his
numerous
Gigliotti.
of
di architettura',
resumed
teaching at the University of Rome. Chief
editor of Controspazio since 1969 and editor of
Politecnico in Milan; since 198 1 he has
In the late
to orient
models.
first
his
early
architectural
Baroque,
VML
Modernism.
architects to turn
1956;
Rome
Borromini
1964;
Rome
moderna,
Architecture,
Le
di
europea,
After Modern
Norberg-Schulz,
dell' architettura perduta: Le
1974;
Bari
cultura
nella
1982;
Paolo Portoghesi
Vittorio
Gigliotti,
and drawings
in
numerous
AT&T
*Moore
in
267
Post-Modernism
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Cruelty Society
man
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rm rrrr rl rr
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rrrr mi
p-prpr
The
principal
second sense
arises
rr
rr
in
(1980); and,
r
"
when
number of people
moment
belonged
to the historical past. Several recent writers have
distinguished between 'modernism' in the largest sense, referring to the Western Humanist
tradition, and 'modernity', referring to the
more specific ideals and goals of such avantgarde artists of the early 20th century as
Stravinsky, Pound, Eliot, Picasso and *Le
Corbusier. In the first case Post-Modernism
would be a reaction to the scientific, rational,
man-centred culture developed in Western
Europe and America over the last several
a large
felt it
rr
rr
ernism, pushing
it
of 20th-century mod-
to the point
rr
ill
initially rested.
rpl jrp
prpr
a radical position
is
it
best
Such
critics. In
Eisenman's
and sculpture,
in
iMlll I Uli.
Post-Modernism. AT&T Building, New
York (1978-83), by Johnson and Burgee (model)
268
tions based
Post-Modernism
with syntax rather than semantics, that is with
way the words or elements are put together
rather than with their inherent meaning.
Although these manipulations are rigidly regulated according to rules, the choice of the rules
themselves is admittedly arbitrary and thus
constitutes a break with modernism. The specific forms may appear to be unchanged, but all
notions of social or aesthetic utopianism are
gone, as well as the beliefs in the universality of
simple geometry and primary colours and other
moral imperatives that had formerly guided the
work of the modernists.
The second alternative, Post-Modernism as
the
an opposition to 'Modern
dernity', implies a
Modernism, by
far
more common,
the
American
is
meaning
to architecture
by
the re-introduction
specific places
classical
elements, to be
more straightforward,
employed
literal
much
in a
fashion
(*neo-
classicism).
difficult to
sketch
compounded by
its
history. This
problem
many
post-
New
Orleans
as
of
Piazza d'ltalia,
(1975-80), by Charles Moore
architects
Post-Modernism.
seem
to be
important episodes in the development of antimodern and post-modern theory and practice.
Despite the numerous attitudes over a long
period which may be isolated as precursors, it
was only in the 1960s that an overtly antimodernist polemic came to the fore. One of the
earliest and most sustained attacks originated
outside the architectural profession in the
form
From
on as critics of
modernist practice. Charles Moore, in both
teaching and a series of architectural projects,
sought an architecture based on anthropomorphic forms, historical memory and even a
degree of whimsy. Philip Johnson, in a series of
widely publicized lectures, undermined some
of the most basic assumptions of avant-garde
20th-century architecture in asserting the primacy of art, intuition and beauty over functionalist and rationalist concerns.
Finally, Robert *Venturi challenged modernist practice and ideas in Complexity and
cans established themselves early
Contradiction
in
Architecture (1966), in
which he
argued for a more complex and vital architecture, opening the door for the simultaneous use
of elements derived from history and from the
vernacular. He celebrated ambiguity and irony,
qualities not commonly even acknowledged by
269
Post-Modernism
modernists
sion.
The
as
important anti-modernist
number of
common
things in
memory.
created
important.
insisted
upon
as the
documented
the diversity
and David Watkins' notable Morality and Architecture (1977) have attempted to expose the
contradictions and fallacies of modernism itself.
In a wider intellectual sphere, semeiology
had a profoundly corrosive effect on modernist
assumptions,
most
all meanwere conventional and culturally bound. Although its implications for buildings were widely discussed in
alist
European
part,
set
of moral
basis of
that, far
since
from being
it
increasingly
suggested
universal, almost
270
Prouve
to
architectural
practice,
for
example Peter
By
announced the death of modernism by cataloguing all of its alleged crimes. A somewhat
later example, Tom Wolfe's From Bauhaus to
Our House (1980), has found a wide public.
Charles Jencks' Language of Post-Modern Architecture (1977) provided the first influential at-
York
der
(exhibition catalogue),
Munich
Moya
Sir Philip
studied
at
der
the Architectural
Housing Scheme
(now Churchill Gardens, 194662), London,
which they had won (in competition against
ship to carry out the Pimlico
and
technology and
modernists in
the metaphorical and in a new kind of ambiguous space. Despite these clear-cut simplifying
definitions, Jencks'
catalogue of
In
the
book was
little
more than
stylistic categories.
last
few
years,
a significant
*Festival of Britain,
with arena
stage,
Buildings,
St
John's
more searching
The
younger generation of
proved
establish a
rise
architects trained
of
by
Prouve, Jean,
ist
point of view.
Jencks,
Architecture,
RBr
C, The
London
Language of Post-Modern
1977;
Late-Modem
Architecture
New York
Modern
Architecture,
Aesthetic, Essays on
The Anti-
Post-Modern Culture,
New
distinction
271
Prouve
on
steel
architect
for roofing large surfaces (Congress Hall, Grenoble, 1967; Total service stations, 1968); and
curtain-wall designs distinghuished by elegant
details. P.'s curtain-wall facades are to be found
on numerous French school buildings, and also
on an apartment block in Paris (1953; architect
Lionel Mirabaud), on the Institute buildings of
the Free University in Berlin-Dahlem
(1963,
1967-79; architects *Candilis, *Josic and
Prouve. Houses
at
Meudon-Bellevue (1959)
BS"
3333^
create buildings
272
type) under
Rainer
as
tion
new
equitable
industrial
age
is
also
given
MB
convincing form.
D 'Jean Prouve', Architecture (Brussels), nos.
11/12, ig64;Jean Prouve (exhibition catalogue),
Paris 1964;
Huber,
B.,
and Steinegger,
J.
C,
Purism. The first exhibit of the purist movement took place in 191 8 in the Galerie Thomas
Rainer, Roland,
at
b.
Ludwigshafen
(1965)
characterized
are
by
D
H.,
Gderitz,
Die
J.,
gegliederte
Zurich
gerechtere Stadt,
1972;
Tbingen
Livable Environ-
Fr eine
Vienna 1974;
Began
Kamm,
Schriften
lebens-
Peter,
und Projekte,
1973.
273
Rational architecture
nifniTni
En-
ff.).
with
274
E.,
Bonicalzi,
R.,
Braghieri,
G.,
Raggi,
F.,
Architecture! Architecture
1978.
Rationelle,
Brussels
Rationalism
first
whose common
the
most
of
(2)
as
problems. Although
and 1930s,
*Functionalism,
existence'
sophical,
it
political,
it comprised an aspect of
encompassed wider philosocial, economic, stylistic
in
is
De
work
his
architecture
that
Architectura
a science that
can be compre-
from
a
a special,
common
unified theoretical
work
as
less
from
posed by the
real
and
represented a reaction
it
a contrast to
*Art Nouveau
and *Expressionism.
It was not by chance that the ideological
superstructure of the new movement extended
from the sceptical humanistic socialism of a
Ludwig *Mies van der Rohe to the radical
communism of a Hannes *Meyer. The belief in
a better society in a better
this
was not
to be individualistic,
but
rather collective;
ations;
it
was
its
to be not
free
(3)
(Siedlungen).
(5)
was seen
type.
Form
thus
logical entity,
to the
collectively controllable.
was,
at least in
and
ethical activity.
as a
tion.
minimal
the contrary,
of
formal language.
The
were
of Rationalism:
(1) The concept of urban planning, architecture, and industrial design as the means for
led,
everyone
artistic
*Bauhaus
275
Rationalism
Rfe
Rue
and Peter
Turbine Factory in
Berlin (19089). Primacy must, however, be
accorded to those by Adolf *Loos; his Steiner
House in Vienna (1910) constituted an emblem
of budding Rationalism that was as revolutionary as it was impressive. In addition there were
the urbanistic visions of Tony *Garnier and
Antonio *Sant'Elia. Numerous noteworthy
contributions were made by Soviet Constructivism and the Dutch De *Stijl group.
The architecture of the second generation of
progressive architects of the 20th century above all *Le Corbusier, *Gropius (who already in 1910-1 1 had created a pioneering work
of Rationalism in the Fagus Factory at Alfeld an
der Leine), Mies van der Rohe andj. J. P. *Oud
Franklin
*Behrens, such
were
for the
visible,
elements and decorations were eliminated, and finally the notion of the facade
having a privileged appearance gave way to an
equal treatment of all parts of the building.
Among the earliest works of the 20thcentury architectural Rationalism are buildings
historical
by Auguste
276
flats
in the
in
Paris
as the
(1902-3),
AEG
Rationalism
their
earliest
expression in
unexecuted projects drawn up immediately after World War I. Mies van der Rohe's
designs for tall buildings of steel and glass (1919
chiefly
on
'Ville
One of
Amsterdam
(1921).
Research Association)
at
Dessau-Trten (1926
Rationalism. Maison
Stein,
Garches (1927), by Le
Corbusier
(192931) by Le Corbusier.
Despite Frank Lloyd *Wright's influence
from the beginning of the century onward on
277
Reichlin
younger
architects,
(especially in the
was
over 1925;
Grostadtarchitektur, Stuttgart
(ed.), Internationale
1928;
neue Baukunst,
1927;
The
New
Vision:
Moholy-Nagy,
From Material
L.,
to Architecture,
London
Architecture,
Oxford
1979.
built in Stuttgart
Thus Rationalism,
and external confrontations, achieved a considerable expansion in both Europe and the USA
in the early 1930s. Yet shortly afterwards, the
political and cultural situation in Germany,
*Italy, and the USSR (*Russia) interrupted its
development in these countries; soon World
War
would
II
halt nearly
all
building activity.
movement
which was
overwhelming as it was
experienced
tively
a return
as quantita-
qualitatively
dubious: the
'classic'
were no longer
grown
old.
valid;
its
as stragglers
highpoint
is
Switzerland
Hochschule (ETH)
in Zurich;
diploma 1967.
buildings
within the
- of which
the
Rohe's Neue
Berlin (19628) - remained
Mies
Nationalgalerie in
b. Bellinzona,
protagonists had
Reichlin, Bruno,
van
der
qualities,
crisis',
to
new
proposals.
tecture:
278
Han-
Reinhart
Sept.
1976,
pp.
'Architettura
35-44;
intrinseca.
Nicolin,
Opere
Pierluigi,
di
Bruno
Werkbund
Reinhart,
(ed.),
Marie-Claude
Eraldo
b. Paris 1900, d.
Rio
Pedregulho Housing
Rio de Janeiro (1947-52), with its
Building.
Estate,
In
Reidy. Pedregulho
(1947-52)
the
estate,
Rio de Janeiro
R.'s architecture
is
characterized
by consid-
HEM/GHa
sake'.
Reidy,
New
York
Reinhart, Fabio,
i960.
b.
Bellinzona, Switzerland
279
Revell
Petj; 1952)
1958-64)
at
b.
Vaasa
Helsinki.
19 10.
d.
Helsinki
The
office building
Petj in Helsinki (1949, 1950-2) was a harbinger of the "^International Style in Finnish
The
sinki (1952-3,
role
launched
280
in
in
(1
collaboration;
lization, standardization
worked
in collaboration
Frankl. R.'s
edly
first
rationalist
position.
Nonetheless,
after
Rietveld
1946 he published, together with G. Carcapnna, that popularly, even pluralistically
inclined
Manuale
dell'architetto,
on
which was
to
Roman architec-
am
ture of the
bourhood
at Ivrea
M.
41
Cellini,
(1956);
Ridolfi',
F.,
In 1921 he
interior decorator
with
whom
House
in
Rome
1979.
finally
to
architecture
c.
1900.
He was
in the
Ring, Der
the
dam
(196372, with
J.
J.
van
JJV/GHa
Tricht).
Buffinga,
A.,
Gerrit
Thomas
Rietveld,
of
architectural
282
for the
scientific
tics
in
1968.
b.
Dublin 1922.
National University of
Ireland in Dublin, he entered the offices of
Michael Scott and Partners in Dublin and then
that of Maxwell *Fry and Jane *Drew in
London, before going to the *USA in 1948. He
entered Eero *Saarinen's office in 195 1, where
he became head partner responsible for design
at the
in 1954.
office
ferred
From 1966
until
Dinkeloo's death
in 1981, the
Rogers, E. N.
geometry of *Mies van der Rohe with powerful structural expression and a pronounced
corporeality developed from the specific situation. Their Oakland Museum in Oakland, Cal.
(1961-8), one of their first works after taking
over Saarinen's office, brought them considerable attention, not only for
museum
its
success as a
skilful
Among
the
most important of
b. Trieste
1909, d.
283
Rogers, R.
Norman
ers).
(like Foster)
proponent of a
become
a principal
*Kahn
London
1983.
Rossi, Aldo,
b.
at
the
also
(1979-84)
He was
continuit,
taught
architectural
at
the
Istituto
position
in
Universitario
the
circles
his
di
of
own
around
Ernesto
influence of the
Modern Movement of
the
1968.
Rogers, Richard,
b.
284
with
its
1,
Rudolph
physical atmosphere pervades the four-storey
block of flats of ivory-coloured stuccoed rein-
R.
two
storeys in height.
radically ascetic in
elements.
It is
its
involvement with traditional urban architecture which, R. feels, contains the elementary
rules that determine all architecture - from the
single dwelling to large-scale planning. R.
himself explains: 'In my house designs, I refer to
the basic types of living which the architecture
of the city has formed through a long process.
On the basis of this analogy every corridor is a
street, every court a city square, and a building
reproduces the places of the city.' In 1971 he
designed,
with
collaboration
in
new San
Gianni
Cataldo
cemetery
position
16th-century
the
tradition
of
ephemeral
architecture.
He
underpins
his
work
as
an architect with a
of which he
principles
in
della citta.
VML
sive discussion.
1966 (English
The
ed.:
Padua
1982); -
Cambridge, Mass.
citt,
Scritti
scelti
Milan 1975;
A
Scientific Autobiography, Cambridge, Mass. 198
(paperback ed. 1984); 'Aldo Rossi', Architecture
and Urbanism (Tokyo), no. 65 (1976); Moschini,
Francesco (ed.), Aldo Rossi: projects and drawings
sulV architettura e
la citt,
New York
1962-1979,
Insti-
New
in
bition catalogue),
Rudolph,
Studied
at
America 1976
New
York
to
1979 (exhi-
1979.
the
Alabama Polytechnic
1918.
Institute in
New
York.
School
in Sarasota
(1957-8)
all
bear witness to
285
Rudolph
tendencies, surprising in R.'s work. The
combination of brick walls and continuous
concrete bands recalls *Le Corbusier's Maisons
ist
Jaoul
at
^Stirling
mon
State Service
Siena.
New
University,
resort
(1966), in
which
The Mary
experimentation.
constructive
Cooper Jewett Arts Center, Wellesley College,
Wellesley, Mass. (1955-8),
is
the
first
announce-
York
al
(1967),
AM
elements.
Moholy-Nagy,
Sibyl,
Introduction
New
York
New
York
A
form
most
of
clearly
in the Sarasota
as
well
as the
Yale University,
concrete
New
'sculpture'
Haven
(1958-64),
contrast to
its
Milam House
De
provocative
Jacksonville, Fla.
(1960-2),
else in
*Stijl in the
The
Yale
University
286
(1
at
Rudolph. Graphic
(project, 1967)
Arts Center,
to
the
1970:
Russia
Spade, Rupert, Paul Rudolph,
York
principal types
two
earlier
styles.
was
(1859-1926)
new
developed
variant of Russian
c.
1910; this
neo-classicism
as
clarify,
its
handsomeness, and
its
moderate
decoration
made
cultural heritage
The key
Rossii,
it
the ideal link between
and modern building tasks.
become firmly
classical period,
own
historical
c.
in 191
Fomin,
who
287
Russia
Many of the young graduates of the St Petersburg Academy saw themselves as the true
renewers of Russian architecture in the name of
World War I destroyed all
flowering ofthat architecture
for which St Petersburg seemed to have been
waiting for decades.
After the October Revolution all art schools
neo-classicism; but
hopes for
new
fore,
Academy of Fine
omy
mod-
formulated. In
conjunction with the competition for the Palace
first
basis
areas
Russia,
opment of his
the
Palace
288
at the
'Exposition
Russia
a single
when
Union of Archi-
The
leading
inevitable demise of a
now
obsolete bourgeois
culture.
The
Union of Soviet
Architects in 1937
all
archi-
concerning the poverty of Constructivist architecture and in the same context the growing
was deplored.
was sought, in which
architects, painters
new
brothers; the
to
Moscow.
Moscow,
In
the centre of
modern
architec-
rationalized building
within it, in 1935, a section devoted to monumental painting. In 1935 the first general plan
for Moscow was approved; this, in its adherence
to the ring-form structure of the city, took up
once again ideas from the 'New Moscow'
project of the early 1920s. The largest undertakings of the general plan were the Moscow
ture, the
the Soviets in
which
in their
monu-
a decisive
effect
voiced
circles.
189
Moscow
monumental
290
scale in
flect, in its
the
Fascist
aggressors.
Late in
architectural congress in
1954,
at
Moscow, Nikita
an
S.
Khruschchev
criticized
Saarinen, Eero
La
citta sovietica
J.-L.,
La
1917-1978:
I'
DeMichelis,
architecture,
Yarchitettura.
citta,
Rome
and
La
Paris
ville,
1979;
in
URSS
(1957-9)
of the
both this
reflected
clearly
of academic styles and the shift towards modern architecture; once again, however, the project never came to fruition. In 1958
the Soviet Union chose to be represented at the
Brussels World's Fair by a pavilion of glass and
rejection
resumed their
and at the
of the 1930s
made
a fresh
details
developed
from
the
approaches were
means of
expressive
national traditions.
CB
own
office in
Birmingham, Mich.,
sion
ville,
E.,
Memorial near
parabolic arch,
192
St
Louis.
(625
ft)
The
elegant
high,
drew
291
Saarinen, Eliel
directly
Libera
Roma' (EUR) of
Universale di
finally
built
in
1963
as
University
in
New
TWA
Terminal Building at
1956-8, and the
Idewild (todayJFK International) Airport, with
in
its
tures,
was
built 1956-62.
The
technologically
came
quently displaying
S.'s
work defies any categorization. This is equally true of his work in product
design (e.g. the plywood chair of 1940, in
heterogeneity of his
conjunction with Charles *Eames). An uninterrupted flirtation with the unusual and the
spectacular was not conducive to forming a
school. Nonetheless, such noteworthy architects as *Pelli,
D
and
all
had
VML
Saarinen, Eliel
Saarinen, Eero
TWA
Kennedy Airport,
New
Associates; 1956-62)
Saarinen,
London and New York 1971;
Kuhner, Robert A., Eero Saarinen: His Life and
Work, Monticello, 111. 1975.
Saarinen, (Gottlieb) Eliel, b. Rantasalmi, Finland 1873, d. Bloomfield Hills, Mich. 1950. In
Helsinki he studied painting and architecture
simultaneously, 1893-7, at the University and
the Polytechnic, respectively. He was active in
independent practice from 1896 to 1923 (18961905 in partnership with Herman Gesellius and
Armas Lindgren, 1905-7 with Gesellius only).
In 1923 he emigrated to the *USA, where he
had
1923-4, and
(1937-41 in
collaboration with his son Eero *Saarinen; he
and his son werejoined byj. Robert Swanson in
partnership, 19417, after which he again practised with his son alone). From 1924 he taught at
the Architecture School of the University of
Michigan at Ann Arbor, and was its Director,
1925-32, and President, 1932-50. From 1948 he
was also Director of the Graduate Department
of Architecture and Urban Planning at the
Cranbrook Academy of Art in Bloomfield
his
from 1924
Hills.
^93
Salvisberg
Gallen-Kallela's
(1895),
own
entry
into
the
field
high standard of
marked
Finland's
of experimentation
in
With
masses,
elegantly
its
articulated
functional organization,
its
masonry
its
equally
among
Scholer.
Munkkiniemi-Haaga, near
moved
S.
in the circle
his
Romantic
in
earliest
style
*Finland
as
'patriotic'
reaction
against
Studio House
at
in
its
external
294
9 1 o-
was
thoroughness and
complexity. Evidence of his continuing involvement with urban problems, which he saw
as being closely related to architecture, can be
seen in his plans for Budapest, 19 12; Canberra,
1912; and Greater Helsinki, 1917-18.
With his project - historically aware, but by
distinguished for
Helsinki,
no means
Tower
its
historicist
won
second prize in an
competition which attracted
(1922),
international
care,
S.
worldwide
in the
He combined
architecture
Samon
harmoniously designed complexes in all 20thcentury architecture. The formal language
evolved from a romantic picturesque *eclecticism into a dignified reductivism.
In his rich and varied oeu vre S. never rehis own romantic origins; their traces
even to be detected in the work he carried
out after 1937 with his son Eero. Progressively,
though without ever embracing the radicalism
of the avant garde, S. became one of the most
important advocates of the Positivist heritage of
the 19th century, a heritage which he introduced independently into the architecture of
nounced
are
VML
the 20th.
Bloomfield
Form,
Mich. 193
Hills,
New York
1939;
1;
Search for
The City:
Safdie. 'Habitat',
New
York 1943;
Growth, Its Decay, Its Future,
Christ-Janer, Albert, Eliel Saarinen, Chicago,
London and Toronto 1948; Hausen, Marika,
'Gesellius - Lindgren - Saarinen', Arkkitehti
(Helsinki), no. 9, 1967.
Moshe,
b.
Haifa
1938.
Studied
at
in
two
projects in Jerusalem,
'67,
Montreal (1967)
more monu-
mental mould - a characteristic which is perhaps the principal heritage of his earlier
association with Kahn.
GHe
D Safdie, Moshe, Beyond Habitat, Cambridge,
Mass.
Safdie,
Expo
Its
1970;
For Everyone
Garden,
Philip,
The
New
York
1972.
The
the
Porat
295
Samon
Neutze House
(also
He was
dramatization.
FJ
Wertheim, Paul
O. R.
(ed.),
Zurich
882-1940'
Jahrhundertfeier,
Salvisberg
O. R.,
1937;
Werk.
R.
'Otto
Archithese
artistic
in
highly
manner.
VML
Lovero, Pasquale, Giuseppe Samon, L'unit
distinctive
Samon,
in
Rome
Alberto
in collaboration
Samon. He
Venice,
the Quartiere
within the
Appio
spirit
of
in
Italian
*Rationalism, the
was already
in
dal,
Cinquant'anni
logue),
Rome
di
architettura
(exhibition cata-
1975.
Sant'Elia, Antonio,
b.
Como
1888, d. near
Monfalcone 19 16. In 1905 he received a diploma from the school of architecture in Como;
from 191 1 he studied at the Accademia di Brera
in Milan and at the Scuola di Belle Arti in
Bologna, where he received his diploma in
1912.
.Stile
Liberty
*Sommaruga,
Secession
Romeo
Longatti. In
296
in the
Monza
He first
of his own
in
developed an independent
style
worked
Sauvage
during this period: as in the case of Adolf *Loos,
this occurred under the influence of North
American skyscraper cities, but whereas Loos
as a result of his trip to the *USA of nearly
twenty years earlier - was indebted above all to
architectural culture,
Como
in
own
(this
sketches,
Nuova of 1913-14. In
work prepared the way for
*Italy
Citt
that
itself,
S.'s
mixture of
interpreter.
VML
Sartoris,
Antonio
Alberto,
Sant'Elia,
Milan by the
in
no way
and
still
free
from
expressionistic
moments
school
architetti italiani',
Association of
months
organized
Lombard
in
Architects.
Several
of
his drawings was shown in the first exhibition of
the Nuove Tendenze group, a recently formed
association which counted Mario *Chiattone
and Marcello Nizzoli, as well as S., among its
members. The catalogue contained a spirited
declaration rejecting the past, honouring the
new world of technology and proclaiming a
revolutionary architecture; it was signed by S.
Both the drawings and the text attracted much
attention, notably that of Filippo Tommaso
Marinetti, leader of the then five-year-old
later, also in
Milan,
a large selection
logue),
Como
umana,
Rome
la
77
nuova dimensione
1970.
Rouen
1873, d.
Beaux-
Sauvage,
(Frederic) Henri, b.
Arts in Paris.
He worked in
Paris in partnership
subsequently
Futurist
movement
after S.
was
recruited,
Marinetti edited
S.'s
earlier
declaration
for
Lacerba as the
front line,
and he was
from
realized
witness in
its
numerous
buildings,
in
open display of a
steel
skeleton and
297
power
refined inventive
S.'s
dramatic
unfurls itself in
settings,
founded
Likewise
commanding precision, are given full expresThe Villa Zoppas in Conegliano was built
sion.
Venice of 1957-8 is
composition
monumental central pier. The Casa
sensuously
in the
Rue
Vavin,
Paris (1912)
around
precious
spatial
exhibition in Turin:
inscribed
its
1,
et leurs
immeubles.
pp. 41-60.
Scarpa, Carlo,
Veritti
in
openly
S.'s
chamfered interior
is
S.
Among
Venice Biennale
from 1941
(S.
Mondrian exhibition in
Moderna in Rome in 1956,
same
year.
Scarpa
The importance of S.'s work for the architecof the present century resides in his
conservatism. In the 1950s and 1960s - a period
ture
work
that
has evident
noteworthy
parallels
with
VML
Architetto poeta,
Scharoun, Hans,
b.
Bremen
1893, d. Berlin
still
Hugo
his
extraordinary
191925, he worked
Nen
(ed.),
Carlo Scarpa
Yokoyama,
talent as a
as
an independent architect
299
Scharoun
He was involved in
which Bruno *Taut had
launched, and from 1926 was a member of Der
in Insterburg, East Prussia.
*Ring. From
which take up the dominant contemporary theme of the communal centre and the
city crown ('Stadtkrone') and are closely related
to ^Expressionism. As a member of the Ring, S.
built a house (1927) in the Weienhofsiedlung
sketches,
in Stuttgart.
gewerbe
He
served as a professor
Akademie
Staatliche
in Breslau,
fur
at the
1925-32.
He
built a resi-
Work
He was
also
Scharoun. Residential
Werkbund
300
hall at the
Deutscher
to
building
Schminke House
private
houses:
the
Scharoun
series
competition
for the
Amerika-Gedenkbibliothek (America
Memorial Library) in Berlin (195 1); for the
Convalescent
Home
in
Berlin-Tiergarten
Mannheim
group 'Romeo and Juliet' in Stuttgart-Zuffenhausen (1954-9) and the tower block 'Salute'
in Stuttgart-Mhringen (196 1-3), as well as the
farmstead dwellings of the CharlottenburgNord development in Berlin (1956-61) directly
adjacent to the great Siemensstadt estate of three
decades
buildings,
for
the Geschwister-Scholl
Gymnasium
(secondary
Scharoun. Philharmonic
301
Schindler
The
due to adverse
themselves only
S.
of his career,
(1970);
the
buildings:
the
internal spaces.
30,
D Hammond,
Entwrfe,
Blundell,
Texte,
Berlin
1974; Jones,
Peter
AM
(I953-4)-
Towards a Church
Architecture, London 1962; Schwarz, Maria,
and Conrads, Ulrich, Rudolf Schwarz, Wegweisung der Technik und andere Schriften zum
neuen
Bauen,
Peter
(ed.),
iQ2iig6i,
Sundermann, Manfred
(exhibition catalogue),
Wiesbaden
(ed.),
Bonn
1979;
Rudolf Schwarz
198
1.
1978.
He
American
parallel to
De
the
that his
sympa-
articulation of structure
McCoy,
New
York
i960; R.
M.
Schindler (exhibition
David, Schindler,
New York
1972.
D
Schwarz, Rudolf, b. Strasbourg
Cologne 1 96 1. Studied in Berlin at
1897,
d.
the Tech-
don
works
Segal, Walter,
1948;
Architecture',
JRIBA
(London), July
1977;
Segal, Stuttgart
successively
Town
Shaw
of the early 1950s reveal him
as a disciple
of his
same
years,
which
national Style in
led
its
away from
wood and
its
landscape.
rubble, as
When
commissions
c.
S.
received his
classically inspired
are:
the *Inter-
incorporation of natural
first
large-scale
began
to reflect a
Tower in Sydney
Commonwealth Trade Group
(19607); the
Australian
Sert, Josep Lluis, b. Barcelona 1902, d. Barcelona 1983. Studied at the Escuela Superior de
Arquitectura in Barcelona, then worked under
1937
revealed
^International
Fondation
him
as
Style.
Maeght
in
an
His
advocate
designs
of the
for
the
Saint-Paul-de-Vence
(1959-64)
had
American
styles
*Muthesius was
Germany.
later
Among
much
appreciated in
in
d.
Crafts
ters,
in
VML/BB
English architecture.
Saint, A., Richard Norman Shaw, London
1976;
London
1977.
303
Sheppard
Studied
School of
b. 1910.
Association
Architectural
the
at
in
latterly
Robson and
partnership
others.
with Geoffrey
especially
Cambridge
Northumberland.
D 'The Work of Richard Sheppard, Robson
and Partners, Architectural Design, July 1957.
Shinohara, Kazuo, b. 1925 Numazu, Japan.
After graduation from the Tokyo Institute of
Technology, he taught
there,
Shinohara. House
in
Uehara (1975)
in
in
more
applied
HY
expression.
Kazuo Shinohara:
Theory,
Tokyo
1971;
Kazuo Shinohara
II:
11
b.
Johann
Sigfrid Siren,
its
owed much
to the
304
issues
formal development, as
Parliament Building by
Johann Sigfrid Siren, completed in 193 1
Among the most important works of the Sirens
are the Chapel of the Technical College at
Otaniemi (1957), the Otsonpes terrace-housing development in Tapiola (1959) and the
Brucknerhaus (concert hall) in Linz (1974). AM
Kaijo + Heikki Siren, Architekten, Helsinki
and Stuttgart 1977.
phatic
restraint
exemplified
in
in
the
Skidmore, Owings
&
Merrill
Heikki *Siren.
own
early
of houses he built
between 1967 and 1977, above all the Alcino
Cardoso House in Moledo do Minho (1971)
and the Beires House in Povoa do Varzim
l
These residences embody characteris( 973~6).
tic features of his style, the former showing how
also characterized a series
the
site as
Maior Bank
in Oliveira
as in his
de
other
Oporto (1974-7)
onstrate,
no. 211
method on
a strictly
the other.
offices,
ot
firm's
ognition
as
an architectural practice
Lever House,
came with
office building,
new
tion,
was
to set a trend in
North American
305
Skidmore, Owings
&
Merrill
An
entire series
SOM
of similar projects by
followed, throughout America, in which the architects' responses
- undoctrinaire, but formally brilliant and at the
time especially well-adapted to each client's
functional requirements - lifted these buildings
well above the majority of their countless
imitators.
SOM not
the 1950s in
its
own
right.
It
was
SOM who
developed the new building type of the company headquarters as a flat building complex in
a park-like landscape setting, and brought it
to its masterful perfection. Examples are the
306
Skidmore, Owings
sented as partners.
&
Merrill
of the Business Men's Assurance Co. of AmerKansas City, Mo. (1963). It was also in the
Chicago office that the building systems were
originally developed which first made buildings of great height economically feasible. The
'tube construction', worked out by Fazlur
Khan, in which the external supporting components of a skyscraper constituted a self-supporting tubework, led - in such reinforced-concrete
constructions as the Brunswick Building in Chicago (1965) and the One Shell Plaza Building in
Houston (197 1), as well as in such steel-frame
constructions as the John Hancock Center
(1970) and the 450m high (1,500 ft) Scars Tower
(1974), both in Chicago - to highly impressive
technical and formal results. The Hancock
Center was also the first large-scale multifunctional complex, a type which incorporated
residences, offices and shops in a single building.
In the early 1960s, Walter Netsch in Chicago
developed what he named the 'field theory'
ica in
and
hospitals.
The
field
towers
in
roof construction
in the
is
world.
Inter-
the capacity
monumental
developed from the interior spaces outward. In these the latent regionalism of the
American West Coast is given reflection. The
recently founded office in the oil capital,
Houston, has seen a very dynamic development, like the city itself whose skyline is today
tions
largely
Fourth
American tradition.
Supported by its pre-eminent organization,
SOM
USA
the value of
307
Smithson
identity
OWG
maintained.
1973,
New
Architecture
York
&
Architecture and
and
New
from
their build-
*New
launched
which
Hunstanton School
steel
(1972)
308
estate,
London
allied
The building
the
movement,
Brutalism.
this
in Norfolk (1949-54),
with glass-and-brick infill,
with the work of *Mies van der Rohe
skeleton
a
is
in
Sostres
formal strength and its emphasis of construcbut rejects the classical proportions and
perfectionistic details of his work. Other significant buildings by the Smithsons are the Economist Building in London (1964), whose spatial
composition creates an urban setting of singular
quality; and the Robin Hood Gardens housing
estate in London (1972), where they sought, by
its
tion,
Smithsons:
Profile',
Building Design,
May
1977.
Soleri.
Mark
Dome
Mills; 1949)
Stockton-onTees, Co. Durham 1923. Studied at the University of Durham and the Royal Academy
Schools in London. Since 1950 he has worked in
partnership with his wife Alison *Smithson.
He also was a member of the Independent
Group and of Team X (*CIAM).
D See preceding entry.
b.
Turin, he joined
Frank Lloyd *Wright at Taliesin West, 1947-8.
In 1949 he collaborated with Mark Mills on the
Dome House in Cave Creek, Arizona, which is
roofed by two intersecting domes. He returned
to Italy, 19505, where he built the expressive
and bizarre Ceramica Artistica Solimene factory at Vietri sul Mare, near Salerno (1953).
Since 1955 he has been involved almost exclusively with the design of alternative urban
planning models and in 1956 founded the
Cosanti Foundation in Scottsdale, Arizona, to
pursue that end. By 1970 he had designed thirty
'Arcologies' (a term coined from architecture
and ecology) - a series of high-density, fantastically unreal megastructures for up to six million
inhabitants, conceived as the antithesis to the
dissolving metropolis of the automobile era.
The thirteenth of these Arcologies, Arcosani,
New
York
1981.
SOM.
*Skidmore, Owings
&
Merrill.
Villard,
Ugo Monneret
de, L'architettura di
London
1973.
to
widen
his studies
and
interests to include
well,
all
of which made
his
and painting
as
an architecture of
309
South Africa
Spanish architecture found itself at an exceptionally low ebb. To combat this situation S.
and a small group of architects in Barcelona
him
to
climate. Sir
Edwin *Lutyens,
to the establishment
World War
who
ing in
discipline
DM
the street.
Domenech,
Luis,
'Josep
Maria
Sostres',
2C
Maria
May
Sostres',
1974; 'Josep
Construction de
la
Ciudad
histories
and, in consequence, different patterns of architectural development - the only one of note
being that of the Cape of Good Hope, where a
Dutch vernacular was cultivated in the 1 8th and
19th centuries, with some sharpening of expression provided by the French refugee L. M.
Thibault (1750-18 1 5). This local tradition was
further expanded and enriched at the end of the
century with the arrival of Herbert Baker who
was to build Groot Schuur, Cecil Rhodes'
and later the Rhodes Memboth near Cape Town. Thereafter, the
focus of all architectural activity was in the
Transvaal province, in Pretoria, where Baker
was to build the Union Buildings, and most
notably in Johannesburg, where Baker and his
pupilsj. M. Salomon and Gordon Leith were to
set the tone in the years that followed for all
public and private building of any distinction.
On the rocky ridge to the north ot this mining
official residence,
orial,
310
mem-
1947,
sensibility
and
too, contributed
Rex
Martienssen,
1925 and
on repeated occasions, making direct
contact with *Le Corbusier and Fernand Leger
and returning with paintings and drawings by
travelled to Europe,
first
in
thereafter
Stefan Ahrendts
Spain
that
displayed
by
Amancio
was practised by
ture as well.
During
its
in architecture
cism),
shed
and even
this
(1
878-80), or in Josep
all in
and Trium-
may be distinguished in
Catalan 'Modernisme', Gaudi's mature work is
the clearest expression of the rich experimentastanding architect,
tion with
a great
decorative images
in the
which was financed by commercial exploitation of Cuba. The Victorian-minded bourgeoisie was especially eager to catch up with and to
surpass their European rivals in scientific and
endeavours as well. In addition, the
of a Catalan national rebirth or
'Renaixenca' made it imperative that the initiative be populist, which indeed it was. This
served the interests of the newly enriched classes
well, for by casting social problems in medieval
terms the workers' attention was essentially
directed away from revolutionary notions and
towards patriotism. Thus 'Modernisme' was
one of those rare moments when high and low
culture coincide in a free popular style undercultural
feeling
Spain. Palau de
Lluis
Domenech
la
i
by
Montaner
3"
Spain
Palau de
la
ence lay
less
however, Domenech's
in his
analytical process
work
influ-
his
organiza-
tional ability to
with
his
way
for
the rationalist undercurrent of
'Noucentisme' in the 1920s and for rationalist
ity.
Madrid
was Antonio
Florez,
who combined
312
was
laid
expres-
Miquel
histori-
H. H.
School,
Utrillo).
It
in
Barcelona the
Spain
gatcpac (Grup
d' Artistes
whole new
Nacional de Colonizacion
dition inspired
Ugalde'
Caldes de Estrac, Barceformal effects were deliberately sought in a desperate rejection of the
social and cultural realities of the moment. In
order to come to terms with these realities, a
group of architects in Barcelona formed in 1952
'Grup R', which went back to the point where
gatcpac had begun twenty years earlier. On
the one hand there was an admitted influence
from Italian neo-realism and British *New
Brutalism (workers' housing development in
Calle Pallars in Barcelona by Josep *Martorell
and Oriol *Bohigas, i960), while on the other
hand there existed a genuine intention to revive
the traditions of the early Modern Movement,
which had been so violently obliterated in Spain
by the Fascist regime. Josep Maria *Sostres
experimented with the forms of De *Stijl in his
Casa M.M.I, in Barcelona (1958), Antoni
Moragas with the Nordic architecture of
*Aalto in his Cinema Femina in Barcelona
(1950-2), Joseph Antonio Coderch with the
elegant international Style of *Neutra in his
their 'Casa
lona,
where
in
surrealist
Madrid
American
architects
were influenced
either
by
forms, as in the
and
Ramon
Pavilion
economic boom,
notable exceptions,
become almost
with
few
negligible.
was
Spain. Housing
(i960),
Barcelona
313
Speer
become
Pefia
evident. In the
summarized
seemed
in his
1970s, this
The economic
Spain. Torres
de Oiza
Bk
icas,
architectural theorizing.
which were
their
realized
theoretical
significance
(Belvedere
Basque homeland.
Flores,
DM
Carlos,
Arquitectura
tempornea,
Madrid
arquitectura
espafiola
de
la
espafiola
con-
Segunda Republica,
Barcelona 1978.
Speer, Albert,
1
98
1.
first in
3H
Studied
b.
at
Mannheim
1905, d. London
the Technische Hochschule
in Berlin,
and served
as
Spence
assistant
under
until 193
*Tessenow
redecoration of the
NSDAP
Headquarters
in
Halle; 1938)
as
new
pressed
by
S.'s
Mem-
oirs,
Albert
Spence,
Sir
Basil
(Urwin),
b.
Bombay
(of
315
Stam
work of modernist
bridge Barracks,
pioneering
display that
tecture.
controversy.
industrial archi-
company
Weien-
*May
(1930-4).
On
the initiative
of
Steffann, Emil,
b.
Mehlem/Rhine
d.
ticeship under Professor Munch of the Baugewerkschule in Lbeck and volunteer work
under the Municipal Building Director of
Lbeck, Pieper. S. built his first modest houses
and met Rudolf *Schwarz, with whom he
formed
Union
Soviet
(*Russia),
a lasting friendship. In
including the
St
Elizabeth
194 1
parish
S.
was
part
centre in
Gisberth Hlsmann).
elementary,
easily
perceived
Tobacco Factory
at the
Weienhofsiedlung,
Rotterdam (1926-30),
He
monas-
the Carthusian
spatial
organFJ
May
'".-*ll
316
Stern
Stern.
which he has
(1975)
cal statements,
Hlsmann,
G.,
Wohnen (Munich), 36
899-1968', Bauen
issue 9/10
of
first
manifestos of Post-Modernism.
In
orientation
at
Yale
University,
Richard *Meier's
he
office.
worked
He was
briefly
in
subsequently
City until
New York
of *Post-Modernism,
to
is
which he
criticizes in the
'associational', 'perceptional'
in culture'.
This
is
inter-
and 'grounded
by a return to
to be achieved
317
Stijl,
De
ment (competition
on, followed
group.
Strongly influenced by *Cubism, the new
group developed a much more radical position
than its prototype. In the light of the philosophical background of Dutch Calvinism, it
subscribed to such ethical principles as truth,
Stijl,
Stijl'
world.
M. Stern. Buildings
New York 1981.
A.
(1916),
3i8
Its
sected
at
right-angles;
the
use
of primary
Stijl,
Among
De
Eesteren
Germany,
a trip
which
resulted in
his
who two
Through
Lissitzky,
319
Stirling
*Malevich,
Kasimir
with
the
influence
of
bution to
Paul,
De
Modern
Stijl,
York
New
1982.
Glasgow
Stirling, James, b.
1926.
Studied
was
this
might account
modern
Rowe
as a
design;
fellow-
most spectacular
was the
It
building of
De
single
Stijl.
in his paintings
subsequent years
De
came
Stijl
increasingly
The De
movement
Stijl
on three personal-
Yet
its
influenced
opposed
spectrum
in
the
contemporary architectural
*Eisenman and Paolo
Peter
as
VML
*Portoghesi.
D De
Internationaal
Stijl,
De
Stijl
Maandblad
voor
en Kultuur, Leiden
(exhibition catalogue),
Am-
320
95
Zevi,
student
modern, owed
little
"^International Style.
to the then
predominant
Ham Common
Cambridge
Stirling. Flats at
Gowan; 1955-8)
Ham Common
(Stirling
and
Stirling
for
Runcorn
vetti
New Town
Training School
at
Haslemere (196972);
From
his
associate
important work includes: projects for the Olivetti headquarters at Milton Keynes (1971) and
for an Arts Centre at St Andrews University
(1971); competition designs for the Kunstsammlung Nordrhein- Westfalen in Dsseldorf
and the Wallraf-Richartz Museum in Cologne
(both 1975); extensions to the Staatsgalerie
Stuttgart (1977; opened 1984); and a new
Staats-
theater in Stuttgart.
including the
Gowan; 195963)
projects for
Lower
Housing
in
Runcorn
New Town
(1967-76)
321
Structuralism
University, in
wing of
the
New York
Some
(1981).
critics
have seen
Stirling's
work
after
shift in
is given to
always consciously
experimental in his use equally of eclectic
reference and formal structures. In freely admitting the wilful nature of all artistic creation, he
has liberated himself from the false determinism
which plagued so much architectural production after 1945. The element of 'historicity' in
his work is no less self-conscious and wilful than
was the element of 'modernity' in his early
work. It is this candour and lack of preconception which makes his work so important; the
unpredictability of S.'s response to the demands
of each commission ensures a continuation of
interest on the part of the younger generation in
any new work by him.
RM
D Stirling, J., James Stirling. Buildings and
Projects 195074, London and New York 1975;
Arnell, Peter, and Bickford, Ted (eds. ), James
Stirlitig. Buildings and Projects 1950-82, New
expressive gestures. S.
York
322
1983.
is
all
The
structuralist architects
K*rs!s
,..
Sullivan
allowed
Cardedeu
Studio
PER. Umbrella
lished in
distinct
Lluis Clotet
(b.
partnership
estab-
which challenged
established
in
possible,
Pantelleria,
Italy
(1974),
re-interprets
column
In
contrast,
Bonet and
Cirici
to
greater extent
the
are
more
which emphaconstructional
process, often exploited to achieve poetic interior spatial effects. Their best
works
are: the
(1968),
(1974), with
house
at
DM
constructions.
own
'Studio
PER',
(Tokyo), no.
4,
Architecture
and
Urbanism
1977.
323
Sullivan
In 1879 S. began his collaboration with the
engineer Dankmar *Adler and in 1881 became
his partner. In their first years together,
both
in the
strong reminiscences of
Roman
architecture
evident in the freestone-clad Walker Warehouse (1889), both in Chicago. In the latter S.
united several storeys by continuous pilasters
theatre to seat
and
office building)
and
its
tion as rich as
reveals
the
it
was
excessive
fantastic,
the building
demands of
the
pro-
a hotel
complexity were
324
talents
spite
Sullivan
single
facade.
After the
split
with Adler,
S.'s
commissions
lems which
in the
(1898)
New
in
York
Chicago
his later
ornament.
The long path from the first skeleton buildings clad with historicizing facades to those
buildings in which 'the structural dimensions
provide the real basis for the artistic formation
of the exterior' - words which could just as
easily
is
a reflection
325
Superstudio
ness in
diction
misunderstood
maxim
that
of the
and oft-
tion
Experimental
architectural
Superstudio.
group founded in 1966 by Adolfo Natalini and
Cristiano Toraldo di Francia; later Piero Frassinelli joined the group, as did Alessandro and
Roberto Magris, and Alessandro Poli was
1970-2. The
associated with Superstudio,
group was dissolved in 1978. Its members were
active as teachers (from 1973), principally at the
University in Florence.
Superstudio won notice in the
art,
in a
late
1960s with
projects that
fall
earth's
entire
surface
area
and represents
building on the
(project
by
abandoned collaborative production. The defiant symbolism of the disbanded group has
continued to have echoes in Adolfo Natalini's
projects (e.g. for a building on the Rmerberg
in Frankfurt am Main, 1979).
VML
1972;
Salvataggi di centri
morfogenesi
Momenti
Utopia
(1972);
storici,
(ed.),
Florence
Topologia
dell'antinatura.
crisi
Venice 1978.
*Malevich for
ironic
commentary on
first
paintings
the
enigmatic
in his
De
*Stijl
later also
group.
surrealistic graphics.
architecture
326
applied to abstract
architectonic compositions, which have considerable affinities with the contemporary work ot
Centres' campaign.
was having no
effect
and hence
Sweden.
In 1900
ian country
Although
with
Sweden was
a
mainly agrar-
population of
industrialization
c.
million.
Sweden
around
ployed
em-
in industry (including
Not
estry).
until
c.
new
tasks for
in the
this
i-^iii
domestic
ii ill
#*TOSf.
Two
'contemporary
festing
itself
especially
in
bank and
office
holm and
Crafts
national
realist'
in
movement, but
also
involved
continu-
Sweden in
source
for
architectural
inspiration.
Spear-
Sweden. Elementary
Georg Nilsson
Sweden.
Galerie Liljevalch,
Stockholm
(1916),
by
Carl Bergsten
ment was
station
power
locks,
town
in 190616.
As municipal
of Vasteras
in the 1910s
won
considerable
acclaim
for
his
sensitive
327
Sweden
noteworthy chapel
in the 1920s.
Elsewhere
in
were
as
Gunnar Wetterling
in Gvle.
'first
Swedish functional-
international
(1925-8).
It
fell
to Asplund,
in
his
brilliant
in
Gothenburg (1922-3) by
Arvid Fuhre
Neo-classical tendencies
after
open symbolically the 'New Era' in a distinguished and convincing manner, and he remained the artistic leader until his death in 1940.
The work of the Co-operative Society's
architects' office (founded 1924) under Eskil
Sundahl was, however, much more typical of
Swedish architecture of the 1930s and 1940s, an
era of social-democratic rule and of ambitious
and progressive public building policies - inhibhowever, by limited resources. Characterwere new building types such as cooperative retail stores and inexpensive restaurants, tourist hotels in mountain and island
resorts, and low-rise apartment houses, freestanding in green surroundings. Untouched by
World War II, Swedish architecture enjoyed an
uninterrupted development in which smallscale projects, a social awareness and careful
design combined to yield one of the most
convincing manifestations of the 'new architecture' anywhere.
During the 1940s the somewhat schematic
character of early Swedish modernism was
ited,
istic
Sweden. Rosta
Sweden
(1953-5), by
softened
by
the influx of
Anglo-Saxon
ideas
was
now more
suburban
loosely
composed
to suit
An
important variation of
the tall apartment block, a type which had been
first introduced in Stockholm c. 1940 (Sven
*Markelius was Director of the City Planning
office, 1944-54), was the 'star-house' pioneered
by Sven Backstrm and Leif Reinius, both
leading housing architects (Grndal estate in
Stockholm, 1946-51, and Rosta estate in
Orebro, 1948-52). Classicizing tendencies were
settings.
The
went
M.
the
Giertz partnerships.
a significant
effects
work of
The archi-
profession
329
Sweden
called for one million new
dwelling units to be constructed in ten years.
Although this was a great achievement in terms
of quantity, the designs did not establish a high
programme, which
standard of quality.
architects
maintained
a distinguished level,
no-
architect
remained true to
gradually
achieving international fame for his housing
1940s,
the great
1970s
materials.
of the
on
a colossal scale
architects
terns
to accommodate
number of units required. By the early
many units remained unoccupied and the
emphasis was rapidly switched to the production of small houses, which had not been built in
Sweden for many years. Again, however, the
method was mere repetition of a simple pattern.
The popular reaction to this wholesale
restructuring of the environment was a re-
was
also
weakened,
with
stricter
a number of
however, numerous
other aspects of design, notably the urban
environment, remained uncontrolled. Architects had increasingly less control over the
construction industry and witnessed an increase
The
early 1980s
tice.
in
'Oedipus complex'
Swedish architecture, which - despite the absence of outstanding achievements - had been
characterized by a generally high standard
during the years of the country's 'middle way'
(1930s to early 1950s - steering a middle course
between capitalism and socialism), now plummeted to a point of near-nadir. Only a few
estate,
Sandviken, near
it
Although the
certain
im-
among younger
situation
is
in a state
architects.
of
flux, a
Riksfrbund
Arkitekters
SAR
(ed.),
New
mondsworth
Sweden. The Nya Bruket
abroad, but
practical design
in the
in
rationalist tradition
195
1;
G.,
Funktionalistiskt
genombrott,
Stockholm
1972.
first
time.
A new
halls
330
vil-
Switzerland
manner, which recalls the skeletal pier constructions widely used by contemporary German
department store architects. Likewise, the
of 1 8 8 3 and 1 896
were typical expressions of this folklorism. The
larger cities and their public buildings remained
untouched by this late romantic patriotism,
further averted by the growing influence of the
rational and internationally inclined professors
at
in
Zurich
in 1855.
Between
academic
Semper
founded
this
approach
favoured
by
Gottfried
the 'Bauschule' of the Polytechnikum, there was no place for a local *Art
at
Nouveau
at
Pfister
emphasized the
verti-
The Union of
Swiss
Architects
at
in
(Bund
was
190S.
held
constructive
111
19 14
in
Berne by
pavilion
Versailles
and
the
Garden
City'
in
(
icr-
(Jacques
331
Switzerland
(1927),
traditional types
by
Basle architect
at
commune'
a 'village-like
er).
332
symmetry
New
its
socio-political implications.
possibilities
first
opened up
in
the
architecture,
to
date.
The
earliest
Switzerland
(1927) by Paul Artaria and Hans
steel-skeleton construction
first
same
Schmidt - the
and, by the
women in
In
architecture
architects
ceed, this
benefited
architects
first
not suc-
The Weienhofsiedlung
(1927) in Stuttgart,
Werkbund. Swiss
architects
which
thirteen
architects
from throughout
Hochschule
militant
Switzerland. Church of
(1926-7), by Karl Moser
St Antonius, Basle
in
avant
Switzerland
designed
as
structional
economy and
functionalism.
The
architects
those
in
at
infants'
AG
Roche
in Basle
(193640) reveal an elegance which bears
witness to Salvisberg's search for style through
building for Hoffmann-La
Posener).
German and
cultural pressure.
as political
Many
regionalism; a problem-
resist it
atic
by
Italian totalitarianism
a return to
'Heimatstil'.
the concrete
employ
power
severely
during World
several
wooden
restricted
War
II.
buildings
nostalgic
vernacularism:
estate near
Wdenswil
( 1
building
activity
which
the
of all
housing
are free
Gwad
943-4) by Hans
Fischli,
Switzerland
an
as
individual
creation.
artistic
His
Church Centre
in
in St
Gallen
Heremence
plastic
Saatlen
church
in
in the
Jm
modernism, and
heightened historical
ings stood
Riva San
Switzerland. Casa
by Luigi Snozzi
Vitale.
Inferiore,
Vacchini's
schools
Locarno (1972-9)
in
Livio
'place'.
Losone (1973-7)
ar>d
Bruno
with
affinity
critically
to
architecture
the
is
reworked
'Palladianism'; an
theories of Italian
*Rational
unmistakable.
335
TAC
To
still
lere
to
sciously
restricted
in
considered 'usual'
in
AH
increasingly appropriate.
Bill.
land
builds,
Architecture, 1925-
New
burg
Altherr,
Architektur.
in
Swiss Architecture.
London
1969; Burckhardt,
Li
Suisse.
Lausanne
Adler, F.,
catalogue), Zurich
1975;
Girsberger, H., and Riege, O., Architekturjhrer
tion
T
TAC (The Architects Collaborative).
in
1945-
TAC
Founded
an architectural association
is
in
and then
as
profes-
University,
in a
after
tural styles.
31^
et
internationalisme
Tange
project
was invited
was
T.'s first
to present
in relation to
its
it
it is
same
number of public
same
potential
showed
the
developed the
full
buildings which
characteristics.
He
also
modern technology,
both
as a
ment and
prime mover
new
architecture should take in the post-war Japanese democracy, T. maintained that the new
style
of Apollo
in the
The Kagawa
Tokyo Metropolitan
sented in the
spirit-
modern
architec-
even reversed the axiom of *Functionalism, by stating that 'only the beautiful can be
functional'), and on the systematic method of
composition as represented by urban coresystems and the concept of components ^Metabolism). The Tokyo National Gymnasium
(1964) and the Yamanashi Press & Broadcasting
ture' (he
337
Tange
had virtually faded away, and his work is now
approaching the language of the so-called 'late
modern' architecture in the USA and
HY
Europe.
New
York
8/9.
Under
the
influence
of *Cubism and
*Futurism, he bcame one of the leading advocates of *Constructivism in *Russia after 191 3.
Following abstract compositions in glass, metal
and wood, he designed a project for a gigantic
Monument to the Third International (1920):
within a steel construction 300
(1,300 ft) high
were to be suspended transparent glass assembly
halls
tions.
and
Centre (1966) are among the most notable
products of this period.
In the late 1960s he drew up numerous
proposals for projects overseas, and he continued to make these overtures during the 1970s, a
period in which architectural activity in his
homeland had
suffered a decline.
However,
in
which characterized
Office Building,
his
He termed
frame
and saw
steel
it
as a celebration
In the 1920s
former works
Taut, Bruno,
Tange. Tokyo National Gymnasium
338
such syntheses of
(1964)
1938.
Trained
b.
at
Taut
und Bau-Aktiengesell-
Spar-
the
Knigsberg.
Worked
of Bruno
1903 and 1904-8 with
in the office
Mhring in Berlin in
Theodor *Fischer in Stuttgart. From 1909 he
was in practice in partnership with Franz
Hoffmann, and 1914-31 with his brother Max
*Taut in Berlin. Early works included a turbine
house at Wetter/Ruhr (1908), a convalescent
home in Bad Harzburg (1909-10), and several
apartment houses in Berlin. In 19 12 he was
appointed advisory architect to the Deutsche
Gartenstadtgesellschaft and designed garden
suburbs in Magdeburg (1913-14 and 1921) and
in Falkenburg, near Berlin (1913-14). His
in
USSR.
Hagen 19 19;
Hagen 1920;
Alpine Architektur,
Die Auflsung
der Stdte,
Die
Baukunst
in
Die neue
Europa und Amerika, Stuttgart 1929;
Architekturlehre,
Istanbul
1937; Jung-
Werkbund- Ausstellung of 19 14
in Cologne both brought him considerable
critical notice, and the latter brought him into
Taut and
1982.
Glashaus
at the
November 19 18 he signed
gramme of the Politischer Rat
tektur. In
the progeistiger
zine Frhlicht.
lived,
Whyte,
Iain
Boyd, Bruno
Cambridge
Taut, Max,
(1913-15), the
Finsterwalde (191
Koswig
and
textile
factory
at
339
Tecton
Unable
West German
professor
at
the
as a
architecture.
Hochschule
fr
leading
He was
bildende
Knste
It
became known
especially for
its
fantastically
in
the Reuter-Siedlung in
Bonn
(194952); exten-
with
own
office (together
which he played
from
emblematic of the
alism, in
Anthony Chitty
(left
Michael Dugdale (left 1934), Valentine Harding (left 1936), Godfrey Samuel (left 1935) and
Frances Skinner. In 1946, Denys *Lasdun be-
a decisive role
is
principles: in fact
it
developed
in
an intermedi-
was precarious,
between revolutionary renewal and conservaate zone, as fascinating as
it
tive tradition.
The
first
architect to notice
work
was
the
a project for a
young
gasworks,
well
Como. Both
'Novocomum'
in
340
its
Tessenow
Terragni.
Novocomum
Como
flats,
(19278)
it
is,
like his
academic
consistent 'third
*Sant'Elia.
full
geometrical legitimacies,
the historic
for
characteristic
of
Italian
*Rational
architecture
Lingeri), a
in
Rome
(with Pietro
cal creation,
garten in
Giuliani Frigerio in
Como.
1960s in the
developed by
Aldo
significant influence
Danteum
of architecture
Rationalism would
York
as
tradition
(19326)
'Pittura metafisica',
uncommonly
In 1933
Como
Five,
VML
*Eisenman.
Mario,
Labio,
1947;
Veronesi,
Giuseppe
Giulia,
Terragni,
Difficolt
Milan
politiche
'Omaggio
cronache e
Mantero,
storia
E.,
107.
Tessenow,
Heinrich,
b.
Rostock
1876,
d.
in
Leipzig,
341
Tessenow
for
rhythmic
is
evident (single-family
Neu-Dlau development
near Halle an der Saale). Formal elements which
would come to typify his later work surfaced
here: prismatically carved house forms, smooth
terrace houses for the
studied
Friedrich
342
Kassel
in
gymnastics
(Jacques-Dalcroze-Institut)
Hellerau - an axial, symmetrical layout on a
nearly square ground-plan, whose rigorous,
classically inspired formal language forgoes all
solemnity. In 1925-7 he collaborated with
Oskar Kramer on the Schsische Landesschule
in the Dresden suburb of Klotzsche, a strongly
articulated
sive effects
Tigerman
economical architectural elements. In the
Heinrich-Schtz School in Kassel and the
covered swimming pool in the Gartenstrae in
Berlin (both
1927-30), T.
moved
closer
to
contemporary *Rationalism.
The elegant remodelling of Schinkel's Neue
Wache (Guardhouse) in Berlin as a memorial to
victims of World War I dates from 1930-1.
After 1933 T.'s success was hindered by the rise
of National Socialism; his former pupil *Speer
did not even once manage to procure a commission for him.
T.
architecture of the
first
in
the
classicist traits
human
Associates; 1977)
in contact
*May's Rmerstadt
in Frankfurt
am Main
in
of *Rational architecture as
Giorgio *Grassi.
VML
D Tessenow, H., Zimmermannsarbeiten, Freiburg 1907:
Hausbau und dergleichen, Berlin
Handwerk und Kleinstadt, Berlin
1916;
protagonists
come
mestiere'
in
Cambridge,
at
break of several
343
Torroja
Torroja. Grandstands
office
partnership with
Norman
Koglin. Finally in
which
is
new
uses.
of the
attempt, in a partly ironic and shocking way, to
explore the metaphorical possibilities of architecture (*Post-Modernism), an example of
which can be seen in the Daisy House at Porter,
Ind. (1977), built for the proprietor of a striptease club; this house, with its phallic overtones,
is
reminiscent of Ledoux's project for an
T.'s
Oikema.
D Tigerman,
are expressions
AM
Stanley,
Architect's Alternatives,
Versus.
New
An
York
American
1981; Seven
cago 1976.
at the
Teenico de
(now
344
la
Instituto
is
He
came known
be-
for Algeciras
Market Hall
here the
(1933);
m (156
ft).
For
Madrid
(1935) he
designed a system of fluted grandstand roofs
with
a very extensive cantilever, counterbalanced by vertical tie rods behind the stanchions. In the same year he built the shell roof of
the Fronton Recoletos (destroyed in the Spanish Civil War), whose form derived from the
outline.
form
in the
Zarzuela racecourse,
them
into practice.
In
minded
fact
work
in practice.
AC-P/GHa
USA
Berkeley, Cal.
1958;
Eduardo Torroja,
New
York
The
Structures of
1958; Cassinello,
'Eduardo Torroja',
Fernando,
Arquitectura (Barcelona),
Cuadernos de
August 1961.
U
Ungers, Oswald Mathias,
b. Kaiseresch, Eifel,
great
projects
Museen
in
1965; reorganization
x
scheme
973; Wallraf-Richartz
1975; residential
strae,
Marburg,
Museum
development
in
Cologne,
in the Ritter-
1976).
German
practitioners of a
new
rationalistic
which
in line
FW
Schinkel.
Das
O. M. Ungers', Deutsche
Bauzeitung (Stuttgart), no. 10 (1979), pp. 15-44;
Frampton, Kenneth (ed.), O. M. Ungers: Works
pp. 132-41; 'Architekt
in
New
York
USA.
For
Architecture as
Theme,
With
345
USA
USA.
Pierpont
(1902-3),
Morgan
Library,
by McKim, Mead
&
New
York
Mills,
style).
While the
was
from European
to
as
neo-Romanesque
buildings unite
historicist
346
among
which
between 1870 and
1890. The smoothness and free ground-plans of
these houses also reflect the reform ideas of
R. N. *Shaw; but the external walls were not
clad, as in Shaw's work, in clay tiles but rather in
felt in,
White
was used
wooden
shingles.
American modernism.
Around
in the
trends.
USA
which they employed
BeauxArts and Colonial Revival modes. On the other
hand, a romantic position - whose development reached back, via Sullivan and the
strongly expressive 'heresies' of Frank Furness,
to the American version of the Gothic Revival
- developed with much vigour. On the West
numerous buildings
in
*Greene
as
well
as in
Bay Region
Style of Bernard
*Wright towers
of Sullivan, he
effervescent early
*Maybeck.
The
above
all
others.
pupil
adopted, after uncertain beginnings, a decidedly anti-classical approach, although the best
of Wright's
Wasmuth,
Thev were
work
(1910,
191
1)
by
USA.
by Bernard Maybeck
on nascent
USA. Robie
Lloyd Wright
347
USA
Rationalism and above all on the Dutch group
De *Stijl. But even the School of "^Amsterdam,
the Dutch school largely influenced by *Expressionism, was to exploit the horizontal
overhangs, the flow of internal spaces and the
expressive use of materials in Wright's work. In
the USA, however, Wright at first, like the late
Sullivan (National Farmers Bank in Owatonna,
Minn. 1907-8), received relatively little attention. At the same time, within the two major
movements of neo-classicism and neo-Romanticism, appeared the largely independent works
of Henry Bacon, Cass Gilbert, Irving *Gill,
Bertram Goodhue, George *Howe, Richard
Morris Hunt and James Gamble Rogers. The
contribution of Albert *Kahn stood apart from
these conventional architectural practices. His
American
istics:
his utilitarian,
rough buildings
are for
of
modernism.
But the breakthrough for Rationalism in
America was still several years off". While the
Tower
(1929-30)
*Hood
Rudolph
student
^Schindler.
Their
early
in
USA.
of the
new
architect such as
transition
in
*historicism
'fashion'
seven
years
of 1922 to
sheer,
expressive
New
USA
In the
particularly
final
Howe and
cultural imperialism.
orthodoxy.
arrived in the
Its first
manifestation was
The
cultural
invasion
was
so
independent
and anti-European feelings, could not avoid
responding in his own work: he built the
Kaufmann House ('Fallingwater') in 1936-9
near Mill Run, Pa., as a creative synthesis of
organic and European rationalist architectural
all
his
elements.
Style, characterized
new
life.
Amidst
all
above
all
new
this,
tradition persisted
version
notable
for
its
purity
it
in
and
349
USA
had their counterpart on the other
of the country in the refined structures of
Charles *Eames and, slightly later, of Craig
these houses
side
*Ellwood.
(SOM) - successors to the high-quality economic potential of McKim, Mead & White and
of Albert Kahn's utilitarianism
adopted the metal-and-glass formula and
played out its multifarious possibilities in countless buildings. Various other large architectural
offices pursued a similar path, including those of
Wallace K. *Harrison and Max *Abramovitz,
M. *Pei, and Eero *Saarinen (son of the
I.
inheritors
measure;
was
to live
on
in the
Paolo *Soleri.
(1956),
The exhaustion of
was
predictable;
the mid-1950s.
The
expression led to a
architect's
own
house,
New
York
USA. The
it
in
new means of
of ready experimenta-
search for
spirit
Even
at
which had
trademark of the firm, were
abandoned in favour of a heavy classicist
monumentality. Meanwhile, the later American works of Mies van der Rohe, as well as *Le
Corbusier's Carpenter Center for the Visual
Arts in Cambridge, Mass. (1961-4), remained
in their unshakable consistency untouched by
the feverish searching after novelty for its own
among
tion
others.
filigree-like
curtain-wall facades,
almost become
sake.
The
ram-
gratings, while
in
luxurious and brittle historicism with a neoGothic slant. Finally, even Paul ^Rudolph,
albeit with restraint, revealed his inclination
towards the use of heterogeneous and rich
idioms ('the new freedom'). Philipjohnson had
been, anyway, one of the first to abandon the
a
350
tural forms, as
led
by
ephemeral
as it
who,
like
a personality
manner
in so
single-minded
itself.
beyond
Kahn took
interpreted
USA
'fulfilment'
North American
Tm^MMf^
of a powerful
tradition led him to an involvement with
historical models and archetypes, which he
combined into elegant, festive compositions in
which a strong sense of geometric discipline is
the solid, ordering principles
retained.
ing,
his
slogan
'back to order'
generalized
USA.
New
Haven.
bull
the
title
Complexity
and
Contradiction
in
architecture.
USA.
New
and Rauch
USA
Corbusier and of Giuseppe *Terragni. Their
purism thus hardly expressed - any more than
did Venturi's preference for the hybrid and
impure - a social, functional, or technological
obligation. Rather, in the first instance it was an
extreme cult of form to which they paid
homage
an
in
uncommonly
elegant series of
snow-white
The
exterior.
'Greys',
Moore grew
USA.
(197 1),
USA.
Pacific
by Cesar
Sears
Tower, Chicago,
Skidmore, Owings
&
1.
(1972-4),
by
Merrill
held
Simultaneously
SOM,
at
at first
undisturbed
structural experi-
- 450
(1,500
1974 in
high - in
in
ft)
SOM
who had
aesthetic
still carried
on the technological
of Mies van der Rohe's work in the
there are
contemporary scene
concerned with
new
352
forms
in a self-effacing
manner;
Hugh Hardy,
to
restrained
traditionalism;
tecture in
America,
New
York
Utzon
1936;
Kimball,
Fiske,
American
Architecture,
&
Architecture of
America.
it,
historicalforces that
rev. ed.
shaped
1966;
Hitchcock, Henry-Russell, and Drexler, Arthur, Built in USA: Post-war architecture, New
York 1952; Mumford, Lewis, Roots of Contemporary American Architecture, New York and
Social
New
directions in
Utzon,
Jrn, b.
Copenhagen
1918.
The most
modern
exterior
U. showed early on an
attraction
Lloyd
influence of
353
Vago
Aalto was strengthened subsequently by a
period of several months working in his Helsin-
ki studio in 1946.
and Steen
worked
Eiler
for
Stockholm.
In 1952 he built his own house in Hellebaek.
The open ground-plan and free arrangement of
space was at that point something entirely new
in Danish architecture. Shortly thereafter, in
1952-3, he built a house in Holte in which a
concrete construction elevates the timber-clad
building one storey above the ground.
In 1956 he
won
first
prize in an international
complex
for the
Copenhagen
building, in
cliches.
which he strove
the principles of an
town
centre of
Farum
as
354
The major
the
part of the
sculptural building
so that a
vaerd, near
ing of architecture,
New
York
1972.
made by
to a suggestion
Vago,
eighteen
engineer).
example from
industrial buildings,
his
is
main
field
of activity,
96 1 ) While he has
tion building in
Pordenone
shown himself
to be a consistent adherent
*Rationalism,
this
( 1
building
is
of
also related to
Van de Velde
as
is
double house
in
AM
Udine (1965-6).
pp. 82-115.
b.
Antwerp
1863, d.
influence
particularly in
tracted
became
student at the
Duran
new
in Paris,
founding the
Kan' (after van
Eyck's motto) and, a year later, 'L'art independant', an association of young neo-Impressionist painters. From 1889 onwards he took part in
the international activities of the famous avantgardist Brussels group known as 'Les Vingt',
where he became interested in the synthetical
art and flowing hand of Gauguin, the English
*Arts and Crafts movement, and the socially
oriented work of William *Morris. About 1890
he became associated with the journal Van Nu
en Straks, for which he devised a revolutionary
layout, new typography and woodcut ornaments in a style derived from Gauguin.
In 1895 (two years after *Horta's Hotel
Tassel), he built his own home, 'Bloemenwerf,
at Uccle near Brussels. It is designed as an
organic whole and completely fitted out
(joinery, hardware, furniture, carpets, curtains,
dinner service, glasses, silver) in a uniform style
cultural circle
reflecting
named
English
in
'Als ik
inspiration.
ornament.'
Samuel Bing,
who
and the
art dealer
Characteristic
Van de Velde.
Weimar
(1906)
355
Van de Velde
and volume
356
is
is
Van de
by Auguste
*Perret.
He moved
192
he
Villagran Garcia
design a
a
museum, which he
modified plan,
at
ultimately built, to
work of
building
is
harmony,
free
more of carrying
experiments he had conducted at
Weimar: in 1926 he founded the Institut des
Arts Decoratifs. He was the principal of this
school until 1935; in addition, he occupied the
chair of architecture at the University of Ghent
from 1926 to 1936.
RLD
D van de Velde, H., Deblaiement d'art, Brussels
given the opportunity once
out
the
1894;
Brussels 1895;
1907;
Henry van
Champs-Elysees,
Karl Ernst,
neuen
Stil,
de Velde
Brussels
Henry van
de
et le
19 14;
Velde.
Hagen
Leipzig
Munich
Vom
>
d'art,
Theatre
Osthaus,
Leben und
1920; Casteels,
Herman,
Venturi, Robert,
b.
ied at Princeton
University.
various
including
offices,
He worked
those
of
in
Eero
Modernism).
Scott
Brown
design (*Post-
FW
in
New
Architecture,
1977;
Izenour,
S., Learning from Las Vegas, CamMass. 1972; Maxwell, Robert, and
Stern, Robert A. M., Venturi and Rauch, LonMoos, Stanislaus von, and
don
1978;
bridge,
Weinberg-Staber,
Alltag Amerikas.
M.
(eds.),
Venturi
Architektur
in
1979.
at
the
b.
Mexico City
1901.
School of the
Mexico City (today
Architecture
357
Villanueva
Architecture School of the National
University of Mexico). He himself taught there
for more than a quarter of a century and thus
the
tion
del
Mexico City
arquitecto,
laforma-
1964;
'Jose
September 1956.
b.
Croydon, Eng-
land
opened
Obrero
in Caracas.
In
float a
which
The
frank expression
uncompromising, dynamic
spirit.
HEM/GHa
Architecture
since
New
York 1955;
Carlos Raul Villanueva,
1945,
Moholy-Nagy, Sibyl,
New York 1964.
Venezuela
in Caracas, at
taught.
As was
among
typical
architects
of
his
V.'s
work was
traditions
land.
the great
with many
and sculptors, as well as in a daring use
of polychromy; and a feeling for large-scale
composition. Of V.'s most important work, the
buildings for the University City of Caracas,
:he Stadium (1950-2), with its daringly cantilevered marquees, built in shell concrete, with
exposed ribs, and the Auditorium (Aula Magna) and the Covered Plaza (Plaza Cubierta) of
1952 are the best known. The Aula Magna has a
reflected in extensive collaboration
painters
358
Voysey, Charles
Under
the influence
*Arts and Crafts movement and especially of *Morris, V. became one of the most
important figures of the English Domestic
ot the
Wachsmann
Wachsmann.
(1950-3)
as
Unmack,
Revival.
at
Coewall,
1893;
The Orchard
Norney
at
Chorley
Wood, Herts., 1 899). His elegant interiors were
influenced by Arthur Mackmurdo and rivalled
those of C. R. *Mackintosh. V.'s undoctrinaire
response to functional requirements and his
simple formal language contributed to opening
the way for the early phase of modernism in
Shackleford,
1897;
Voysey, C.
W
Wachsmann, Konrad,
Oder
was
b.
Frankfurt an der
Wachsmann
theory, practice and teaching. He always advocated that the scientific and technical resources
He came
straight
from building
in
worked
&
Academy
in
which he spent
building blocks of
at
VML
England.
to 1929 he
flats in
reinforced concrete.
lasted
from 1941
to 1948;
from
it
emerged
the
General Panel Corporation, the first fullyautomated factory for the production of prefabricated building components. In 1950, he
was appointed Professor of Design at the Illinois
Institute of Technology in Chicago and director of the Department of Advanced Building
Research.
His research concentrated on the basic
character of universal elements in building
construction which can be mass produced. His
starting point was 'modular co-ordination',
which governed the relationship of the various
building components to each other. These
components should be as simple as possible and
capable of as many different combinations as
possible. A 'universal module', identical with
the 'planning module' comprised all the modular categories (material, performance, construction, installation, etc.).
of
hangars to any required size by the
addition of tubular steel struts. He made a
special study of the nature of the connections
and joints of cellular structures such as Buckaircraft
359
Wagner
minster
geodesic
*Fuller's
domes or Le
up from similar
elements.
Wachsmann,
K., Aspekte,
Wiesbaden 1961;
Building,
in
New York
lucid, logical
was commissioned
in 1890 to
draw up
scheme
Vienna.
1961.
Wagner,
Martin,
b.
would
closed
on the
street side,
housing
siedlung', or 'Horseshoe
the
large
Britz
estate
estate')
('Hufeisenin
Berlin-
Neuklln (1925-30).
express them.
Otto,
architecture
Two
its
to
in Architecture,
before the
first
and the
The Stadtbahn
principles
(18889)
is
1892),
statements of Loos,
expression from a
The
Wagner,
new
typical
strict
'truthful' use
station
of
in
of materials.
the
Karlsplatz
Warchavchik
Wagner, Otto.
harmoniously around a
monumentality, the
flexible handling of space, the complete eschewal of ornament and the perfect integration
of steel and glass combine to make this building
an unmistakable landmark in the history of
zoidal plan, developing
modern architecture.
RLD
D Wagner, Otto, Moderne Architektur, Vienna
Die Baukunst unserer Zeit, Vienna
Joseph August, Otto Wagner, Munich 1914; Tietze, Hans, Otto Wagner, Vienna
1922; Otto Wagner. Das Werk des Architekten
(exhibition catalogue), Vienna 1963; Geretsegger, H., and Peintner, M., Otto Wagner, 1841IQ18. The Expanding City and the Beginning of
Modern Architecture, New York 1979.
1896 (4th
ed.:
1914); Lux,
Warchavchik, Gregori,
b. Odessa 1896, d. So
Paulo 1972. After studying at the University in
Odessa and at the Istituto Reale Superiore de
Belle Arti in Rome, he worked for several years
under Marcello *Piacentini. In 1923 he went to
Modern Movement
in Brazil.
36]
Webb
Owen, b. Tottenham,
London 1969. After studying
University of London, he worked in-
Williams,
itially as
in the 1930s
Janeiro),
November
1925;
Gregori
War-
Webb,
Philip (Speakman), b.
Oxford
183
1,
d.
in
Oxford
Webb'
362
London
at
the
Sir (Evan)
1890, d.
1930s he created
buildings of
techniques.
new
significant
in
*Great
construction
Notts. (19302)
'Sir
Owen
1969.
New
Sky,
Emilio
zation
Sousa and
the
New Jersey
Michelle
been
Stone
School of Architecture,
New-
Style
Wines.
Tilt
as
professor at
(19768)
Wright
architecture
architecture'.
work
their
They
for
are especially
the
including
Products,
retail
the
stores
Peeling
known
chain
for
Best
Project
in
AM
eccentric detail.
SITE,
,
SITE.
Woods,
Architecture as Art,
Shadrach,
New York
New York
b.
London
1980.
d.
under Candilis.
b. Richland Center,
Wisconsin 1867, d. Phoenix, Arizona 1959.
Studied engineering 1885-7 at the University of
Wisconsin in Madison and worked at the same
time for Allen D. Conover. Subsequently he
practised for a short time in the studio of John
Lyman Silsbee, who introduced him to the
principles of the Shingle Style. In addition to
were
a special
love of nature.
of the American
'founding
the
writer
naturalism of
Thomas
Jefferson.
He
of
the
derived
White.
Three other formative influences deserve
mention: the fascination and poetry of additive
and interlocking forms aroused by childhood
acquaintance with Froebel kindergarten toys;
the attraction of the open ground-plans and
crafted finish of Shingle Style houses; and the
exoticism of traditionaljapanese architecture as
represented by the reconstruction of the Ho-oden Temple as the Japanese Pavilion at the
World's Columbian Exposition held in Chicago in 1893.
The result of W.'s love of nature was his
decision to abandon the big city in favour of the
suburbs. In Oak Park, an upper-class green oasis
in the suburbs of Chicago, he established a
studio in 1889. In his first commissions he paid
homage to the single-family house as the basis of
a new, individualistic democracy for the 'Hap-
on
363
Wright
of the farmhouse
development of
free articulation
the
further
Gesamtkunstwerk,
tradition.
this
For
team of
The
artists
Willitts
House
He
used them
as a
Tomek House
in the
in Riverside,
111.
Willitts
111.
(1902)
and technicians.
in Highland Park, 111.
(1902), was typical of the Prairie Houses. The
ground-plan is cruciform, designed around a
central chimney; internal living spaces are
individually shaped but flow freely one into
another. The asymmetrical wings of the building reach out like arms and unite house and
nature on ideal axes.
In the Martin House in Buffalo, N.Y. (1904),
W. introduced a forerunner of the horizontal
bands of windows which became a prominent
fied
Wright.
elegant
(1907).
(1907-1
in
house
with
a large
The aesthetic
from the
composed building
volumes with two bay windows on the street
facade and the appended side wings which
challenge this symmetry.
During the same period as the Prairie Houses
effect derives principally
were
built,
W.
Church
in
its
expressive language.
to
a
Buffalo,
N.Y. (1904-5)
Wright
and travelled to Europe with Mrs Cheney (the
wife of a former client) as his mistress. There,
they stayed principally
at Fiesole in Italy. In
minded
independently
personalities
as
*Gropius - whose model factory at the Cologne Werkbund exhibition of 1914 reveals
clearly a direct dependence on the Park Inn
Hotel in Mason City, Iowa (1909-10) - and
even *Mies van der Rohe, whose 1923 design
for a brick house was a purified form of the
Prairie
W. founded
in
191
the Spring
to the
USA,
Green Co-
make
to
fresh
start;
construction of his
own
he began
with
the
house, Tahesin,
the
its
eponymous
demolished
in
its
was
era.
In 191 4
her
house.
The
provoked him
111.
(1905-7)
Cal. (1921-3)
to
dall
under
perforated,
were employed
in a
manner
that
W.'s masterpiece,
in
which he
realized a
and
365
Wright
Cubist and rationalist influences, was the Kaufmann House ('Fallingwater'), near Mill Run,
Pa. (1935-9)- This luxurious building is set on
and over a stream at the point where it breaks
into a waterfall. The focal point of the arrangement is, as in the Prairie Houses, the chimney
and hearth; built on the solid rock they are - like
all the building's vertical supporting elements
made of freestone. Attached to this plane are
orthogonally superimposed horizontal levels,
parallel surfaces of smooth concrete, which
extend into nature and seem almost to bridge
the small valley. A lively, complex play of
interlocking spatial penetrations is developed,
which makes radical use of the possibilities of
reinforced concrete.
rior space
is
inte-
resolved through
366
life in
crete supports,
strongly
composed complex.
From
exterior.
'becoming'.
Wright
In the meantime, W. had begun, with the
Willey House in Minneapolis (1934), his series
of Usonian Houses: small, free-standing single
houses for 'true Usonians' (Americans), often
with walls of clapboards and flat roofs covered
with wooden slats - a building type which
proved startlingly various and imaginative in
form, despite its low costs. Times had changed
since the Prairie Houses. W. held fast to the two
central principles: 'for every individual an
individual style' and 'for every place an appropriate formal language', but he abandoned the
cruciform grouping of spaces around the hearth
in favour of a freer and more economic planning. He replaced the usual closed kitchen with
working zones attached to the living spaces and
generally skylit, and incorporated all the rooms,
including the bedrooms, into the continuum of
the house. The Usonian Houses developed
from strongly orthogonal ground-plans via
various geometric structures and finally to a
confusion beyond measure of united, interpenetrating and sliding forms: W. used them as
Wright.
(1937
ff.)
Wright.
interior
showing the
later
367
Wright
medium
Among
work
in
Gordon
Solomon R. Guggenheim
York (19436, 19569) the
worshippers. In the
Museum
New
in
a gallery
within
The
Price
Tower
offices
projects for
National
tall
was
tower of
in Bartlesville, Okla.,
to earlier
Insurance
Company
Chicago,
1924; St Mark's Tower, New York, 1929) and
strives for a new formal definition of the
in
which
the
dulged
his fascination
Wright.
Price
Tower,
Bartlesville,
Okla. (1953-6)
which evokes
wams and
wig-
crowded
reflects the
one's
sells
as
capitalist
('where one
self),
Wright
was
to be urbanized,
with
at least
4,000
m2
of
The develop-
a street
network
harmony coincided
narrow, towering, variously articulated, milehigh skyscraper for 130,000 inhabitants; its 528
floors were to be served by 56 atomic-powered
lifts and countless escalators.
In an active career spanning more than sixty
years, W. developed a hitherto unknown diversity of architectural forms and ideas. His astounding capacity for self-renewal had, however, nothing in common with capricious
*eclecticism: just as Mies van der Rohe embodied the European myth of the Enlightenment, so W. developed in his tireless search for
forms 'the American myth of the pioneer, who
must always seek the new in order to find
changed relationships in himself.
W. was too stamped by his own individuality
in his architectural language to serve directly as
the inspiration for a school of disciples. His
stimulus was more fruitful, however, in the
most varied architectural movements (from
*Expressionism to ^Rationalism), the most
369
Wurster
diverse groups (from the School of
*Amster-
VML
world.
London
i960;
Storrer,
William
Allin,
Catalog,
Cambridge, Mass.
1974;
The
Complete
Gutheim,
Y
Yamasaki, Minoru, b. Seattle 1912. Studied at
the Universities of Washington (Seattle) and
Harmon;
Raymond Loewy. He
achieved interwith
George
Hellmuth and Joseph Leinweber, his partners at
the time, for the Lambert Airport at St Louis,
signer
national
Mo.
notice,
together
series
characteristic feature
dissolution
textile-like fabric,
structural
profilated
The impression of
typical
Frederick
(ed.),
Bibliography,
Architecture,
New
York
designs
1979.
is
most
Trade Center,
Stockton, Cal.
the University of
b.
from 1926;
Theodore Bernardi and Donn
partnership.
Influenced
by
was an exponent of the 'Bay
in 1945 he joined
Emmons
in
*Maybeck, W.
Region Style', the Californian variant of Regionalism. He became known for his town and
country houses, which are distinguished by
their modesty, adaptation to environment and
consideration of locally prevailing social, eco-
elongated
and with
freely articulated
wooden
a
building,
gently sloping hip
roof.
May
C,
'L'architetto
370
metal
ery
Roth
dissolved
&
by
is
grilles in the
Sales
Office
of Y.'s
New
at
later
World
Sons),
superimposed
linearity,
are
of neo-
York
1979.
Yorke,
Birmingham University
at
School of Architecture. Founder-member of
the
Group (British section of *CIAM)
and pioneer of modernism in *Great Britain,
with his reinforced-concrete houses at Gidea
Park, Essex (1933, with W. *Holford, G.
Stephenson and A. Adam) and house at Nast
Hyde, Hatfield (1935). In partnership with
Marcel *Breuer, 1935^7, and from 1944 with
Eugene Rosenberg and Cyril Mardall, which
firm was responsible for many important projects, including schools at Stevenage (19479),
Oldbury, and Pool Hill, Salop. (1955-7); aca1962.
Studied
MARS
Zehrfuss
regional planner but also an organizer of many
private institutions and the author of many fine
essays.
The
influence of Le
Corbusier was
works,
but
this influence
brutalistic
(*New
came
from the
exclusively
work.
Among
Gozu
Y.'s
Coucou
HY
Hall (1961).
Sales
Mich. (1959)
He was
the
editor
Yoshizaka, Takamasa,
Tokyo
1980. Studied at
b.
Tokyo
1917,
Waseda University
d.
in
Zanuso, Marco,
371
Sources of illustrations
Illustrations
ft
KLM
316/;
328, 330;
Acme Photo
Janeiro $ir;
W. Newbery)
315ft;
Wainwright)
Amsterdam
Architext,
13
ift,
340, (photo
127a,
Henk Snoek)
1320, (photos
46b,
85/,
240,
244,
Derdour)
Museum
ioift,
Vahlstrm)
Monuments Record,
London 22, 97; Hermann Ohlsen, Bremen 273; van
Ojen, The Hague 258a; Openbare Werken, Rotter-
dam 242;
Claesson 329;
Futagawa)
Cushing
Monumentenzorg,
Fiorelli,
Rome
239a; Ghizzoni di
Como
Scotti,
168ft, 296; Marianne Goeritz 218a/;
Julien Graux, Paris 109/; Manfred Hanisch, Essen 48;
W.
HNK
87r, 361;
Zeist
241ft,
Universitt,
Bochum
18ft;
281,
318;
Roubier
Armando
voorde
Roger-
11 oft;
Ruhr
Salas Portugal,
Mexico City
dam
157; courtesy, Hoechst AG 41; Jesper Horn, Copenhagen 80a; Franz Hubmann, Vienna 152; courtesy,
Information
Institut fr leichte
255ft, 2 57'>
372
293a,
325/,
Service,
367<r/ft,
Wrubel, Dsseldorf
Bonn-Bad Godesberg
368r; Vasari,
125.
Rome
292,
171a; Jan
Index
Figures in
main
bold type
Andersen,
indicate
to illustrations.
Aino
Aalto,
[nee
Marsio)
9,
56
Max
De (De
8)
240, 242
Adler,
Dankmar
131, 13
13, 65, 66-7,
Dimakopoulos, Lebensold
&
59
Agache, Alfred 105
Ramon
252
Albuquerque, Alexandre 50
Alder, Michael 336
Alexander, Christopher 14-15,
64
Alexander, Robert E. 246
Allegret, Jacques 108
Roy
307
T. 84
Mario Roberto 15
370
Archigram 16-17,
74, 115,
135-
The
see
Auer, Fritz 38
Augustin-Rey, A. 105
Aulenti,
Gae
173
173,
Aymonino, Maurizio 30
Azuma, Takamitsu 17, 31,
97
Architext
Bac, Ferdinand 33
13, 17, 31
Archizoom 174
Arcon 97
Arp, Hans 84, 319,
320, 358
Arquitectonica 189, 270
Artaria, Paul 333, 334, 332, 333
Art Deco 17-18, 43, 59, 74, 86,
13
Alabjan,
Allison, J.
339
Art Nouveau 19-21, 26, 34, 3940, 41-3, 77, 78, 92, 120, 121-
Allen,
Karo 289
Alba Guedarrama,
Atwood, Charles B. 66
Aubck, Carl 273
et
Sise 59,
d'Urbanisme
TAC
Adam, A. 370
Adams, C. Percy
60, 1$, 60
264, 326, J 7, 75
Architects Collaborative,
Acht,
Atelier
315
6,
Abramovitz,
Rowland
166, 23
Aslin, C.
H. 24,
70, 134, 71
ASNOVA
Association of
Contemporary
Architects, see
ATBAT
OSA
31
169
Ball,
Hugo
319
Banning, Otto
16,
Basse,
Edward 307
Battisti,
Bauhaus
373
Index
273, 275, 277, 285, 288, 310,
316, 319, 349,36
Baumann, Franz 28
Baur, Hermann 103
Bayer, Herbert 36
Bay Region Style 212-13, 347,
349, 351, 370
Bazel, Karel Petrus C. de 239
Bazzani, Cesare 168-9
BBPR
261, 283, 38
39,
Rudolf
Bxel, Winfried 39
Cadbury-Brown, H. T. 97
Caldas, Zannino 53
Camus, Renato 14
Candela, Felix 60-1, 218, 256, 61
Candilis, Georges 61-2, 70, 108,
Marc Van 44
R. 40
Mario 49,
Bosselt,
16
Guglielmo 168
Calderini,
13
Bofill,
Bhm, D.
Bhm, G.
Edward
Burling,
3H,3^
256
Behrendt, Walter C. 161, 163,
281
Behrens, Peter 21, 28, 39-41, 49,
Belling,
Capanema, Gustavo 50
Capek, Josef 76
Capek, Karel 187
Capon, C. K. 17
Capponi, Gino 169
Carcaprina, G. 280
Cardinal, Paul 60
Carloni, Tita 335
Botta,
Carter, Phillip H. 60
Carvajal, Javier 313
Braem, Renaat 43
Braghieri, Gianni 284, 173, 283
49
Carrere,
CASE
J.
M.
206
132,
(group) 249
Hugh 62-3, 97
Castren, Heikki 280
Casson, Sir
Bernardes, Sergio 52
Bernardi, Theodore 370
Bernoulli, Hans 332
Bernoully, Ludwig 142
Bestelmeyer, German 46, 123,
148
Broek,
Beyaert, Henri 42
242, 242
Brolin, Brent 271
Brown, Denise Scott 270, 357
Chhabra,
Bhavnani, Ashok
Bijvoet, Bernard
106, 241, 348
M.
181
Max
45-6, 334, 46
Billing, Hermann 339
Bindesboll, Michael G. 77
Bindesboll, Thorvald 78
Bing, Samuel 355
Bird, Walter 256
Bisogni, Salvatore 174
Blake, Peter 271
Blanc, Charles 193
Bill,
Blatter,
Robert 58
Blau, Luigi 30
374
J.
H. van den
32, 56,
Buckingham, James
Silk 155
Buigas, Carlos 312
Bunshaft, Gordon 164, 307
150,
18,
Bon
63-4, 74,
106, 210, 63
Chemetov, Paul
133
Chubby
S.
103
169, 297. 65
Max
Brck, P. 40
Burgee, John 181, 267,
63,63
Chareau, Pierre
80
Brust, Alfred 128
Bryggman, Erik 9, 56-7, 99,
100, 235, 57
Brel,
Chalk, Warren 16
Chamberlin, Powell and
268
Index
Christiansen, H. 40
Christoph
& Unmack
359
CIAM
Durand, Jean-Nicolas-Louis
Dushkin, Alexander 28g
Dutert, Ferdinand 117
337,370
Ciriani, Henri 109
Daem,
Cirici, Christian
323
CIRPAC 68, 69, 313
Ciucci, Giorgio 30
CLASP 70-1, 134, 71
Ray 85
Easton, Murray 132
Eberle, Dieter 30
Eben, Wils 140
Ecker, Dietrich 29
&
Mann, John
Mendenhall 260
Eckmann, Otto 92
D'Aronco, Raimondo
Cocke, P. L. 17
Coderch, Jose Antonio 313
Conder, Neville 63
Condor, Josiah 176
Amyas
133, 132
77, 168,
De
Werkbund
81, 82
Eicholzer, Hubert 28
Eiermann, Egon 83, 889, 126,
Diamond, Jack
264, 345, 88
59, 59
Coop Himmelblau
Cooper, Sir Edwin
131
Dissing,
Hans
35, 72,
Philip 23
Cubism 17-18,
58
Dudok, W. M. 84-5,
Cutting,
Heywood
64
199, 282
167
Ekelund, Hilding 99, 100
Elhanani, Arieh 167
Ellwood, Craig 90, 350
Ely-Kahn, Jacques 162, 348
Embden, Samuel Jorua van 241
Emberton, Joseph 132
241, 257,
85, 241
19,
90-1, 92,
Erith,
Raymond
Erskine,
Ertl,
Ervi,
241
August
142, 370
269
Ralph 91-2,
330, gi,
33
Robert 295
Dan
Doshi, B. V. 186
83
Domenig, Gnther
Hans 251
Eisler,
175, 175
Eitan,
Gustave 89, 8g
Eisenman, Peter 8990, 130, 141,
Eiffel,
Wilhelm 147
Dilthey,
Dowson,
131
Curjel,
29, 74-5, 75
Feo, Vittorio 30
Deininger, Wunibald 27, 28
Denecke, A. 96
Depero, Fortunato 115, 169
Depusse, Jacques 273
Deroche, Maria 108
De Rossi, Alessandro 30
Deutscher
Cowin, Douglass 3 1
Crabtree, William 132,
350, 85
Eames,
44
Daniel,
Carlo R. 137
Cloquet, Louis 43
Connell,
Ilde
Dardi, Constantino 31
Darling, Frank 58
Clerici,
104,
234, 275
Roland 29
Aarne
Estrella,
92, 100-1
Thomaz
Expressionism
51
375
Index
Eugene
Freyssinet,
Max
Fabiani,
27
Fahrenkamp, Emil
Fassler, John 310
Fathy, Hassan 96
96, 170
Colombo)
115, 169
236
Finsterlin,
Fiorentino,
Fiorini,
Fischer,
Guido 1 1
Theodor
Fisker,
Hans 334
Kay
Fleetwood,
Fletcher,
103
Norman
336
Florez, Antonio 312
Flckiger, Christian 25
Folguera, Francesco 312
Foster,
Norman
Richard 181
Foster,
Wendy
103, 283
376
Fritz,
Erwin 25
294
Ge/mer, Franz and Hubert 27
Gianola, Ivano 336
Gibberd, Sir Frederick 127, 371,
127
84, 97,
199, 282
R. Buckminster 111-12,
359-
Fuller,
Thomas
Fuller,
Futurism
Roberto 172
Gabetti,
Naum
Cities
movement
23, 28,
Dora
167, 167
GATCPAC 303
GATEPAC and GATSPAC
Glasgow School
22, 150,
207
Goldsmith,
Myron 306,
Ward
307
Gollins, Melvin,
Partnership 129
Gonzalez de Leon, T. 219, 219
Gonzalez Rul, Manuel 219
Goodden, R. Y. 97
Goodhue, Bertram 348
Philip L. 162
313
GEAM in
Geddes, Norman Bei 162
Geddes, Patrick 166
GEHAG
Goodwin,
Garnier, Charles 86
Garnier, Tony 50, 86, 105, 106,
116-18, 234-5, 276, 117
Garstenauer, Gerhard 29
Gat,
Gibson, Donald 70
Giedion, Sigfried 9, 68, 69, 161,
233, 237, 246
Giertz, L. M. 329
Gigliotti, Vittorio 267
Gilbert, Cass 18, 206, 348
Gill,
58
Gabo,
80
Edwin Maxwell
in, 133, 139, 159,
Garden
Roy
Knud
Herman
294, 293
(Luigi
Friis,
Fry,
Favazzeni, G. 129
Fehling, H. 96, 126, 129, 96
Feininger, Lyonel 16, 35, 251
Feilerer, Max 27, 28
Fenoglio, Basile 309
Fenoglio, Pietro 168, 309
Finetti,
110-
Frohnwieser, Helmut 29
Frosterus, Sigurd 98
Fillia
38, 105,
339
Gehry, Frank O. 120, 352, 120
Gelfreikh, Vladimir 289
Gellhorn, Alfred 251
Gentner, Ralph 25
George, Ernest 204
George, Henry 155
George, Walter 159
Gerber, Samuel 25
Gerne, Preston M., and
Associates 186
Gerngro/?, Heidulf 29
Index
Greene, Henry Mather 136, 137,
347, 137
Norman 310
Hardeveld, Pamo en 157
Harding, Valentine 340
Hanson,
43, 98,
122, 145, 150-1, 193, 202,
Hardy,
143-
4,
J.
'Groep
M.
32'
17
241
in,
Gro, Eugen 29
Gro-Rannsbach, Friedrich 29
Group of Six 169
Grover, William 229
Gruen, Victor 120, 141
Gunnlogsson, Halldor 79
Gutbrod, Rolf 257
Gwathmey, C. 130, 141-2, 249,
351
145
Helg, Franca 14
261
Habich, L. 40
Hablik,
Hofman,
Haus-Rucker-Co
Max
Haerdtl,
Oswald 28
Haesler,
Otto
S. 317,
352
43 334
,
Hammel, Green
Hesse, Fritz 37
Hesterberg, Rolf 25
Hilberseimer, Ludwig 37, 123,
147, 160, 163, 251, 281-2,
348, 147
historicism 49, 65, 76, 85, 101,
121, 130, 147-50, 153, 165,
168, 182, 186, 206, 231, 237,
Hagmann, John
&
Abrahamson
H3
Hankar, Paul 19, 42
Hansen, Hans Christian 78, 128
Hger,
Vlastislav 76
67
Hans
151,
53
Hoppe, Emil 27
Horiguchi, Sutemi 176
Hrmann, Ekkehard 29
Horta, Victor
42, 154
Hoste, Huibrecht 43
Hostettler, Hans 25
Hotson, Norman 60
Howard,
Sir
Howell,
Amis 156-7
Howells, John M. 68, 153, 162,
348
Hubacher, Carl 333
Hubbard, WilBam 271
Hubbell and Benes 200
Huber, P. 40
Hbschmann, Bohumil 27
Huet, Bernard 109
Huffei, Albert Van 43
Hufnagl, Viktor 29
Hlsmann, Gisberth 316, 316
Hungarian Activism 157-8, 220,
157
377
Index
Lev 288
Independent Group 308, 309
Iniguez Onzono, Jose Luis de
Ihn,
313
International Style 18, 32, 33,
37, 43, 50-1, 53, 55, 59, 71,
79, 87, 91, 148, 154, 156, 159,
160-4, 166, 179, 181, 186,
Josef 39
Israels,
Itten,
Johannes 35
Roku 176
Izenour, Steven 270, 357
Iwamoto,
79,
i74> 175
Toivo
100, 99
Jaspar, Paul 42
Jaspers,
Jaussely,
O. 50
Leon
105, 117
Le Corbusier
Jeanneret, Pierre 195, 303
Jefferson, Thomas 346, 363
Jekyll,
Gertrude 205
Johnson-Marshall, S. 135
Johnston, William 65
Jonas, Kurt 310
Jones,
Jones,
Hugh
58
22
Owen
Kada, Klaus 29
Kahn, Albert
Kandinsky, V.
Kromhout, Willem
Kapfinger, Otto 30
Karsten, Charles J. F. 240
Kassak, Lajos 157-8
Kaufmann, Richard 166
3*9
Kikutake, Kiyonori 179, 187,
210, 216, 187, 216
Killick, John Alexander W. 156
Kinney, A. J. 13
Henk 244
Eberhard E. 30
Koch, A. 207
Koch, Markus 30
Kocher, A. Lawrence 162
Kneissel,
Koglin,
Norman
Koolhaas,
Rem
De
43
Krier,
Krier,
Rob
378
Lambart, Bruno 38
Langner, Joachim 23
Lamni, Pier 25
Lappo, Osmo 101
Larco, Sebastiano 141
Larsson, Carl 327
in,
108,
277
Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas
130,
Adolf 30
Krohn, Gunnar 80, 80
'
352, 189
Krischanitz,
Lackner, Josef 29
Ladovsky, Nikolai A. 72, 288,
289
Lahtinen, Reijo 101
Lallerstedt, Erik 327
189-90, 244-5,
Le Corbusier
344
148-9, 189, 78
Klunder,
350, 184
Kahn, Louis
Kammerer, Marcel 27
Kampmann, Hack 78, 235
Leger, Fernand
358
Legorreta, Juan 217
Legorrete, Ricardo 219, 219
Leibl,
Wilhelm 39
Otto
28, 152
Index
Leivisk,
Juha 101
Lemmen, Georges 19
Lennox, Edward J. 58
Leo, Ludwig 126, 126
Lurcat,
Le Roith, Harold 3 1
Leroux, Morice 106
Lescaze, William 74, 156, 161,
162, 200, 349, 156
Lethaby,
R. 22, 23,
W.
Levi,
Rino
Andre
51, 53
Lima, Filgueiras 53
Limongelli, Alessandro 169
Lindegren, Yrj 100, gg
Lindgren, Armas 9, 97, 98, 293,
294, 2g3
Lindqvist, Selim A. 98, g8
Lingeri, Pietro 341
Max 166
Loewy, Raymond
Loeb,
370
Lfstrm, Kaarina 102, 102
Mackay, David
50, 52
86, 206,
19, 22,
336
217
Rob
18, 106,
210, 18
Mandrot, Helene de 68
Lukas,
Max
282
28
Lund, Frederik Christian 78
Lundsten, Bengt 280
Tommaso
Group
23, 71,
John 305
Meshishvili, V. 2gi
Metabolism
239-40, 240
276
Meyer, Hannes
M.I.A.R.
Marinho, Adhemar 51
Markelius, Sven 211, 329,
MARS
Mayhew, Clarence 64
Maymont, Paul 108
265,
359
Maclure, Samuel 58
McMillan, Louis and Robert
Mallet-Stevens,
135, 211
Mackmurdo, Arthur H.
Robert
E. S. 58
Ernst 50, 68, 123, 212, 282,
289, 316, 343, 212
Sir
May,
Matthew,
Maus, Octave 19
Maxwell, Edward and
200-1
m,
2",
370
Martienssen, Rex 310
Martin, Sir Leslie 97, 134. *35,
211, 97
Martinez de Velasco, Juan 252
in,
113,
379
Index
Moser, Werner M. 333, 334
Motherwell, Robert 64
Moya, John Hidalgo 271
Muche, Georg 35, 36
Mueller, Paul 365
Milles, Carl
Mills,
Mills,
294
Edward David
Mark 309, 30g
97,
228
Murphy/Jahn 232,
Robert 346
Minardi, Bruno 274
Mindlin, Henrique E. 52, 53
Minnucci, Gaetano 169, 221
Miquel, Louis 108
Missing Link 29, 30
Missoni. Herbert 29
Miyaki, Aiko 165
Muthesius,
Mills,
19, 118,
NARKOMPROS
119-20,
Natalini,
Modern Movement
Hermann
Miyawaki, Mayumi 17
Moberley, A. H. 132, 131
Modernisme
352, 232
288
Naumann,
Nebbia,
Friedrich 81
Ugo
114
Neo-classicism 15, 98, 122, 148,
Nielsen,
Elmar Moltke 80
Nielsen, Jrn 79
Niemeyer, Oscar
Novecento
341
OACH
Obrist,
Hermann
Oddie,
Guy
288-9
92, 336
246
Odorizzi, Karl 29
Oesterlen. Dieter 126
O'Gorman, Juan
Mondrian, Piet
Neue
Modulor
194, 228-9, 22 9
Moeller van den Brck, A. 148
Moholy-Nagy, Laszlo
9, 35, 37,
320
229, 314
Monestiroli, Antonio 130, 274
Monier, Joseph 104, 122
Montalcini, Levi 169
W. 14950,
229-30, 267, 269, 351, 352,
Moore, Charles
230, 26g
55, 109,
93, 122,
36i
249-51,
Architecture
(OMA)
189-90
218
Ohmann,
23g
320, 340
Neues Bauen
New
New
Friedrich 27, 26
O'Rorke, Brian 97
Orr, Douglas 184
Orsini-Rosenberg, Felix 30
Ortner, Launds and Manfred
144
Orum-Nielsen, A. andj. 80
OSA
288
Moser, Karl 161, 200, 231-2,
New
73, 288
stberg, Ragnar 15, 327
Osthaus, Karl Ernst 193, 356
Otis, Elisha Graves 65
126, 127,
Otto, Frei 23, 39,
191, 255, 256-7, 127, 255-7
Otto, Rolf Georg 103, 335
Oud, Jacobus Johannes Pieter 82,
83, 84, 157, 160, 240, 257-9,
276-7, 318, 319, 258,31g
162
Moriyama, Raymond 60
Moro, Peter 211
Morris, William 19, 20, 22,
23,
80, 81, 130, 158, 200-1, 231,
(MAO)
380
(N.A.U.) 178
Newman, Oscar 70
Newman, Robert
New
358
Objectivity, see Neue
Sachlichkeit
York Five 130, 141-2, 143,
146, 150, 214, 249, 341, 351-2
New
m,
Index
Owen, Robert
Ozenfant,
Pabst,
Amedee
Gordon
163, 305
Piva,
Antonio 14
Plecnik, Josef 27, 235
Plischke, Ernst A. 28
Ramirez Vazquez, P.
Ransome, James 158
Poelaert, Joseph 42
Poelzig, Hans 41, 81, 88, 92-3,
94-5, 122, 157, 264-5, 282,
155
Owings, Nathaniel
10
Claude 335
Antonio 312
Paillard,
Palacios,
Pammer, Heinz 29
Pani, Mario 217, 219
Polesello,
Poli,
Gianugo 174
Alessandro 326
Gino
Pompe, Antoine 43
Ponti, Gio 32, 169,
170, 172,
Patout, Pierre 18
Popova, Liubov 72
Portman, John 182, 266-7, 35
1,
Peichl,
266
Portoghesi, Paolo 267, 270, 320,
267
Portzamparc, Christian de 109
Posener, Julius 264, 334
Pelli,
Post-Modernism
Max
Pechstein,
Pei,
leoh
Ming
16,
251
350, 239
Perco,
Timo
268, 269
Rudolf 27
Pereira,
William 120
Peressutti,
Henry Maurice
58
143
Phillips,
M.
Prost,
Henry
S. 22, 23
Purism 71,
194,
273
6,
Picasso,
Pichler,
29
Raili 264
Pietil, Reima 10 1, 264
Quaroni, Lodovico
Quist,
Pietil,
Ramon
312
177, 365
Rechter, Yacov 167, 167
Rechter, Ze'ev 166, 167
Redig de Campos, Olavo 51
Reeth, Bob Van 44
Reichlin, Bruno 274, 278-9,
Raymond, Antonin
335, 278
50, 52,
Reifenberg, H. J. 97
Reilly, C. H. 131, 132, 133, 151,
206
Reinhart, Fabio 274, 278, 279,
335, 278
Reinius, Leif 329, 328, 329
105
Purin, Hans 30
Purini, Franco 137, 174, 274
Renzo
Wolf D.
Piano,
58, 363
Edward
Prix,
74
Prochaszka, Elsa 30
Peterhans, Walter 37
Petersen, Carl 78, 235
Piacentini,
Bruce
Prior,
Norman
Powell, Geoffrey 63
Powell and Moya 271
Powers, M. A. R. 17
Prachensky, Theodor 28
Prachensky, Wilhelm Nikolaus
28
Prampolini, Enrico 115, 169, 297
Price,
Pfeiffer,
101, 101
265
170,
219, 218
Riemerschmid, Richard
81, 92,
Riepl, Franz 29
Rietveld, Gerrit 151, 160, 240,
249, 277, 281-2, 318, 319,
320, 281
381
Index
Sabatke, Manfred 39
Sabsovich, L. 289
Riihimki, H. 280
Sacripanti,
Riezler, Walter 82
Octave Van 42
Rijsselberghe,
Maurizio 173
Senz de Oiza, Francisco 313,
3H, 3 l 4
Moshe
Safdie,
340, 360
Robbrecht, Paul 44
Robert, Emile 271
Roberto, Marcello 51, 53
Roberto, Milton 51
Robertson, Howard 132
Robertson, Mark 103
Robson, Geoffrey 304
Roche, Kevin 83, 282-3, 293,
307, 351, 282, 283
Roche, Martin 66, 67, 346, 67
Rolph,
E.
R.
58
Romany,
Rosen, Anton 78
Rosenberg, Eugene 370
Rosenvold, Aage 92
Rossi,
Ruhnau, Werner 1 1
Ruis, Antonio 252
Ruskin, John 20, 22,
R.T. 158-9
Ruusuvuori, Aarno 101
Russell,
32
Schwanzer, Karl 28
Schwarz, Rudolf 126, 264, 302,
Salomon,
J.
Massimo 174
1
Michael 282
Seddon, Thomas 358
Segal, Walter 302
Scott,
M. 310
Anthony 303
Salvisberg, Otto Rudolf 295-6,
333-4
Segrelli,
Ezio 172
Harry 302-3
Selchau, Jrgen 80
Sellier, Henri 106
Selva, Antonio 236
Semerani, Luciano 174
Semper, Gottfried 26, 113,
Seidler,
Alain 109
Alberto 113, 115, 169,
Sarfati,
Scolari,
Salvin,
Sant'Elia,
316, 126
Schweighofer, Anton 29
Schwippert, Hans 302
Sartoris,
120,
312-13,303
221
Hideo 120
Sasaki,
301
Scheerbart, Paul 128, 157, 339
Scheper, Hinnerk 36
Rudolph M.
27, 161,
131,
200, 204, 231, 294, 303, 346
343, 345
Shoosmith, A. G. 159
Shreve, Lamb and Harmon 370
Sieben, Die (group) 40
Siegel, Robert 130, 141, 142
Sierra, Manuel 313
SCHIVSKULPTARCH
(group) 288
Schlemmer, Oskar 35
Max 334
Schmid, Heinrich 27
Schmidt, Hans 332, 333, 332, 333
Schmidt, Joost 36
Schmidt, Richard E. 68, 346
Schlup,
Schultze-Naumburg, Paul
149, 236, 342
Schulze-Fielitz, Eckhard
Schumacher,
149, 342
Schuster, Ferdinand 29
Schuster, Franz 28, 343
Schut,
W.
F.
46,
1 1
244
Siitonen,
Tuomo
102, 101
Silsbee,
Jorge 271
Simounet, Roland 108
Silvetti,
Siola,
Sipari,
Umberto
Osmo
174
280
Johann
SITE (Sculpture
in the
Environment; organization)
270, 305, 352, 362-3
Sitte, Camillo 191, 252, 312, 328
Siza, Alvaro 305, 303
Skidmore, Owings & Merrill
(SOM)
Index
Leon 43
Stijnen,
Stirling,
Slater, J.
292
Smith, Ivor 248, 248
Smithson, Alison and Peter 23,
70, 134-5, 157, 246-7, 248,
308-9, 323, 247, 308
Snozzi, Luigi 274, 335, 335
Societe Francaise des Architectes
Renato
Gunta 36
Stone,
Edward Durell
162, 237,
51
9, 97, 98,
294, g8
133, 340
Telesko, Edgar 29
Thibault, L.
Thiersch,
309, 323
Tecton
Tengbom,
350,350
Stone, Michelle 362
Strengell,
309
Sonck, Lars
Stlzl,
Street,
Urbanistes 105
Soeder, Hans 282
Soeiro,
336
Studio
PER
314, 323
'Stuttgart School' 123, 282
81,
M. 310
Partners 60
Thormann,
Fritz 25
Thurnauer, G. 108
Sottsass, Ettore
174
Sousa, Emilio 362
244
Spear, Laurinda 189
Speer, Albert 124, 191, 236,
Spalt,
Sphinx group 83
Sproatt,
Henry
Rudolf
320, 326
Steinbchel-Rheinwall, R. von
28
Makoto
Swanson,
J.
17
Swiczinsky, Helmut 74
Syllas, L. M. de 17
Szyszkowitz, Michael 29
TAC
Takeyama, Minoru
Takizawa,
Mayumi
Hans 28
Rudolf 95,
g$
176
Onni 98
no,
312,
Trnkner, Erhard 39
Tribel, Jean 108
Tricht, J. van 282
Troost, Paul Ludwig 124
Tsuchiura,
Kameki
177
Ralph 285
Tyng, Anne 184, 184
Tzonis, Alexander 64
Ucha, Helio 250
Uhl, Ottokar 29
Ujvry, Erzsi 157
Ungers, Oswald Mathias 126,
186, 191, 274, 345, 345
des Artistes Modernes 64,
Taucher, Gunnar 99
Taut, Bruno 16, 81, 93, 122,
Unwin, Raymond
H9,
I5ii 157,
177, 251, 256, 280, 282, 296,
(SAR) 244
Union
123, 128-9,
344-5, 344
Traa, Cornelis van 242
Stijl,
van
240
Todt, Fritz 48
Tokyo Metropolitan Office 176
Toraldo di Francia, C. 326
Torres Clave, Josep 313
Twitchell,
17
Taller de Arquitectura 47
Tange, Kenzo 164, 165, 178-9,
338
Tarjanne,
352, 343
Tijen, Willem
Tubbs, Ralph 97
Turnbull, William 229, 351
Tusquets, Oscar 314, 323
Steineder,
Steiner,
58
A. 240
Staal, Jan Frederick 241
Stacchini, Ulisse 168
Stam, Mart 56, 74, 82, 202, 240,
316, 332, 340, 316
Stebler, Bernard 25
StefFann, Emil 126, 316-17, 316
Stegmann, Povl 78
Steib, Katharina and Wilfried
336
Staal,
Steiger,
210
155, 212, 327
353
383
Index
Vago, Pierre in, 354
Valadier, Giuseppe 236
Wachsmann, K.
Valius,
362-3, 362
Wisniewski, Edgar 302
Wittwer, Hans 37, 74, 220, 220
Valle,
359
Seppo 280
Gino 173, 299, 354~5, U3
Valle, Nani and Provino 354
Valls, Manuel 313
Van Alen, William 18, 162, 348,
Wger, Rudolf 30
Wagner, Martin 123,
163, 282,
Wagner, Otto
18
Vandenhove, Charles
44, 192
Wrle, Eugen 28
Worringer, Wilhelm 148
Wratzfeld, Gnther 30
Wright, Frank Lloyd 15,
Van de
Wallmller, Jrg 29
Wallot, Paul 102, 190, 232
Walton, George 23
Warchavchik, G. 50,
361-2
Vasconcelos, Ernani 50
Vaudremer, Joseph- Auguste 346
357-8
Villanueva, Carlos Raul 358
Villar, Francesc de Paula 118
'Vingt, Les' (group) 19, 355
Viollet-le-Duc, E. E. 34-5, 42,
43, 58, 76, 86, 104, 105, 113,
118, 148, 154, 212, 239, 275,
363
Alvaro 51
Annibale 239
Vital Brasil,
Vitellozzi,
VKHUTEMAS
(art
school) 72,
VOPRA
384
75, 279,
Fisher 129
18, 22,
363-
Webb,
Weber, Karlheinz 39
Weeber, Carel 244
Weese, Harry M. 344
Weinbrenner, Friedrich 130
Weininger, Andor 158
Weinraub, Munio 166
Weitling, Otto 175, 173
Weizenbacher, Lois 28
Wendland, Winfred 82
Werf, Frans van der 244
Werksttten fr
Handwerkskunst 81, 121
Werthgarner, Helmut 29
Westman, Carl 15, 327
Wetterling, Gunnar 328
Whitaker, Richard 229, 351
350,
370, 371
293
Yoshida, Tetsuo 176, 177
Yoshizaka, Takamasa 371
Yudell, Robert 229
Moshe
Zarhi,
Wiener Secession
167
Windinge, Bennet 78
Zwimpfer, Hans
132
103, 333
V
V
/a
I
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