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Seismic methods
Seismic methods may be classified into two major
divisions depending on the energy source of the seismic
waves;
One in
O
i which
hi h the
th natural
t
l shock
h k waves from
f
earthquakes
th
k
are interior, is called earthquake seismology.
The other, in which the seismic waves are generated by
artificial explosions at selected sites to obtain
information about regional or local structures, is called
exploration seismology.
seismology
3
Seismic Prospecting
Definition
Wave propagation
Rayy p
paths:
Lines that show the
direction that the
seismic wave is
propagating
p
p g
g and are
perpendicular to the
wave front.
Wave- front:
Is a surface of
constant wave, the
leading edge of a
wave disturbance.
Elastic
El
ti wave energy spreads
d outt from
f
a point
i t
source as an expanding sphere of energy
Characteristics of Waves
Measurements of a wave
f = 1/T unitit is
i Hertz
H t (number
(
b off
repetitions/sec)
Exploration
E
l ti seismology
i
l
iis concerned
d with
ith elastic
l ti
deformation. Velocities in earth materials depend on
physical properties of earth materials such as densities
and elastic moduli.
Modulus = stress/strain
The higher the value of the modulus, the stronger the
material and the smaller the strain produced by a
material,
given stress
Elastic constants include:
Bulk modulus
Shear Modulus
Youngs
g modulus
Poissons Ratio
P = Pressure
V= Volume
K = P (volume stress)8
v/v (volume strain)
Denoted by S or sometimes ,
is defined as
the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain.
10
Poisson s ratio ( , or )
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Seismic Waves
Surface waves
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Seismic Waves
Body waves
Compressional
p
(longitudinal, primary or
P-waves))
13
Body
B d waves
Primary (P) waves
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Seismic Waves
Body waves :
(
transverse (shear,
secondary or S-waves)
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Body waves
Secondary (S) waves
16
Surface
Su
ace Waves
a es
Their amplitude
p
at the surface of the Earth can be very
y
large, but decays quickly with depth.
17
Seismic Waves
Surface waves
Love waves:
are essentiallyy horizontallyy
polarized shear waves (SH
waves)
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Seismic Waves
Surface waves :
Raleigh waves
Also known as the RayleighLamb Wave or "ground roll
Particle moves in a circle or
ellipse like water waves, but
in opposite direction
If one measures particles
deeper in the material, the
particles move slower
slower, then
reach a "no movement"
depth.
Its velocity is slower than
Love waves
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Air
332
--
Water
1400-1500
--
Petroleum
1300-1400
--
Steel
6100
3500
Concrete
3600
2000
Granite
5500-5900
2800-3000
Basalt
6400
3200
Sandstone
1400-4300
700-2800
Limestone
5900-6100
2800-3000
Sand (Unsat.)
200-1000
80-400
Sand (Sat.)
800-2200
320-880
Clay
1000-2500
400-1000
600-1000
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21
E l
Exploration
ti Seismology
S i
l
22
Seismic reflection
The travel time to each geophone for the direct
wave in the first layer is simply
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24
The
Th travel
t
l time
ti
for
f the
th reflected
fl t d wave for
f a 22
layer model can be expressed as follows.
Where :
t is the travel time
h1 is the depth to the first interface (thickness of the first layer
V1 is the velocity of seismic waves in the first layer
25
The equation
q
in the last slide can be
re-formatted as
Seismic refraction
Seismic refraction only consider the first arrivals -so
so
simple and easy to use
The detection depth is about 1/4 to 1/10 of your
geophone spread
27
28
Refracted arrival
Direct wave
Direct wave
Critically
refracted wave
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31
32
3 layers 2 interfaces
33
34
35
Determining
g depth
1. Using intercept time time at x =0
F one interface
For
i t f
2 layers
l
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Determining Depth
Trave
el Time (millisec
conds)
Depth
Layer1
y
L2
Layer2
y
L1
Xco
V2 -V1
V2 V1
V2+V1
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Velocity Model
38
Field Procedures
Equipment:
Seismic energy
gy Source - apparatus
pp
for delivering
g
39
Field Procedures
This device consists of a mass hanging on a spring. When the ground moves,
the mass (because it has inertia) remains motionless.
Wrapped around the mass is a strand of wire. Surrounding the wire-wrapped
mass is a magnet that is fixed to the Earth.
As the earth moves
moves, the magnet moves up and down around the mass
mass. The
magnetic field of this moving magnet produces an electrical voltage in the wire.
This voltage can be amplified and recorded by a simple voltmeter. It is relatively
easy to show that the voltage recorded by the voltmeter is proportional to the
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velocity (speed) at which the ground is moving.
42
43
Field Procedures
Important notes:
A id very windy
Avoid
i d areas and
d ttraffic
ffi noise
i
45
Problems
46
Problems
Hidden L
Hidd
Layers (Blind
(Bli d Z
Zonethin layer with high velocity)
47
Applications
pp
of Seismic Refraction
Seismic Refraction;
Advantages and Limitations
Advantages
Limitations
R
Resolution
l ti lless th
than reflection
fl ti surveys
EARTHQUAKE SEISMOLOGY
What is an EARTHQUAKE?
An earthquake is the motion, shaking or trembling
of the ground produced by sudden displacement of
rock in the Earth's crust.
They result from tectonics, volcanism, landslides,
and collapse of caverns.
caverns
50
Surface waves
Body waves
51
The effect of an
earthquake may be
manifested in any of
the
h following
f ll i
forms:
f
Surface faulting,
landslides soil
landslides,
liquefaction, and
structural damage
damage.
52
Earthquake parameters
- Focus (hypocenter)
- Epicenter
- Focal Depth
- Epicenter
p ce te Distance
sta ce
53
Seismograph (Seismometer)
Earthquake Recording
- A seismograph, or seismometer, is an
instrument used to detect and record
earthquakes. Generally, it consists of a mass
attached to a fixed base.
-During
D i an earthquake,
th
k th
the b
base moves and
d
the mass does not. The motion of the base
with respect
p
to the mass is commonly
y
transformed into an electrical voltage. The
electrical voltage is recorded on paper,
magnetic tape
tape, or another recording
medium.
-This record is proportional to the motion of
the seismometer mass relative to the earth,
but it can be mathematically converted to a
record of the absolute motion of the ground
ground.
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Foreshocks
Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede
the largest earthquake (mainshock) in a series.
Not all mainshocks have foreshocks.
58
Isoseismal lines:
- An isoseismal ((line)) is a
contour or line on a map
bounding points of equal
intensity for
f a particular
earthquake.
62
Earthquake Magnitude:
The magnitude is a number that characterizes the relative size of an
earthquake.
q
Magnitude
g
is based on measurement of the maximum
motion recorded by a seismograph.
Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are
1 local
1.
l
l magnitude
it d commonly
l referred
f
d tto as "Ri
"Richter
ht magnitude,
it d
2. surface-wave magnitude (Ms),
3 body
3.
body-wave
wave magnitude (Mb)
(Mb), and
4. moment magnitude (Mw).
All magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for
any given earthquake.
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S i i it In
Seismicity
I Egypt
E
t
66
68
Ring of Fire:
The
The "Ring
Ring of Fire",
Fire , also
called the Circum-Pacific
belt, is the zone of
earthquakes
th
k surrounding
di
the Pacific Ocean--about
90% of the world's
earthquakes occur there.
The next most seismic
region (5
(5-6%
6% of
earthquakes) is the Alpide
belt (extends from
Mediterranean region,
eastward through Turkey,
Iran and northern India
Iran,
India.
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REFERENCES
-Dobrin and Savit (1986): Introduction to geophysical
prospecting4th Ed. ,McGraw Hill book company, New York,
867p.
-Reynolds, J.M., (1997): An introduction to applied and
environmental geophysics John Wiley & Sons, Chichester:
796 P.
-Sheriff, R.E. and Geldart, L.P. (1995): Hand book of exploration
seismology. Cambredge University Press. 592P.
-Telford,W.M., Gildart,L.P., Sheriff,R.E., and Keys,D.A. (1976):
Applied Geophysics , Cambridge University Press, 860 P.
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