Toggle switches are actuated by a lever angled in one of two or more positions.

The common
light switch used in household wiring is an example of a toggle switch. Most
toggle switches will come to rest in any of their lever positions, while others have an internal
spring mechanism returning the lever to a certainnormal position, allowing for what is called
"momentary" operation.

Pushbutton switches are two-position devices actuated with a button that is pressed and
released. Most pushbutton switches have an internal spring mechanism returning the button to
its "out," or "unpressed," position, for momentary operation. Some pushbutton switches will
latch alternately on or off with every push of the button. Other pushbutton switches will stay in
their "in," or "pressed," position until the button is pulled back out. This last
type ofpushbutton switches usually have a mushroom-shaped button for easy push-pull action.

Selector switches are actuated with a rotary knob or lever of some sort to select one of two or
more positions. Like the toggle switch, selector switchescan either rest in any of their positions
or contain spring-return mechanisms for momentary operation.

A joystick switch is actuated by a lever free to move in more than one axis of motion. One or
more of several switch contact mechanisms are actuated depending on which way the lever is
pushed, and sometimes by how far it is pushed. The circle-and-dot notation on the switch
symbol represents the direction of joystick lever motion required to actuate the contact.
Joystick hand switches are commonly used for crane and robot control.
Some switches are specifically designed to be operated by the motion of a machine rather than
by the hand of a human operator. These motion-operatedswitches are commonly
called limit switches, because they are often used to limit the motion of a machine by turning
off the actuating power to a component if it moves too far. As with hand switches,
limit switches come in several varieties:

These limit switches closely resemble rugged toggle or selector hand switches fitted with a
lever pushed by the machine part. Often, the levers are tipped with a small roller bearing,
preventing the lever from being worn off by repeated contact with the machine part.

Proximity switches sense the approach of a metallic machine part either by a magnetic or highfrequency electromagnetic field. Simple proximity switchesuse a permanent magnet to actuate
a sealed switch mechanism whenever the machine part gets close (typically 1 inch or less).
More complex proximityswitches work like a metal detector, energizing a coil of wire with a
high-frequency current, and electronically monitoring the magnitude of that current. If a
metallic part (not necessarily magnetic) gets close enough to the coil, the current will increase,
and trip the monitoring circuit. The symbol shown here for the proximity switch is of the
electronic variety, as indicated by the diamond-shaped box surrounding the switch. A nonelectronic proximity switch would use the same symbol as the lever-actuated limit switch.
Another form of proximity switch is the optical switch, comprised of a light source and
photocell. Machine position is detected by either the interruption or reflection of a light beam.
Optical switches are also useful in safety applications, where beams of light can be used to
detect personnel entry into a dangerous area.
In many industrial processes, it is necessary to monitor various physical quantities
with switches. Such switches can be used to sound alarms, indicating that a process variable
has exceeded normal parameters, or they can be used to shut down processes or equipment if
those variables have reached dangerous or destructive levels. There are many different
types of process switches:

These switches sense the rotary speed of a shaft either by a centrifugal weight mechanism
mounted on the shaft, or by some kind of non-contact detectionof shaft motion such as optical
or magnetic.

Gas or liquid pressure can be used to actuate a switch mechanism if that pressure is applied to
a piston, diaphragm, or bellows, which converts pressure to mechanical force.

An inexpensive temperature-sensing mechanism is the "bimetallic strip:" a thin strip of two

metals, joined back-to-back, each metal having a different rate ofthermal expansion. When the
strip heats or cools, differing rates of thermal expansion between the two metals causes it to
bend. The bending of the strip can then be used to actuate a switch contact mechanism. Other
temperature switches use a brass bulb filled with either a liquid or gas, with a tiny tube
connecting the bulb to a pressure-sensing switch. As the bulb is heated, the gas or liquid
expands, generating a pressure increase which then actuates the switch mechanism.

A floating object can be used to actuate a switch mechanism when the liquid level in an tank
rises past a certain point. If the liquid is electrically conductive, the liquid itself can be used as
a conductor to bridge between two metal probes inserted into the tank at the required depth.
The conductivity technique is usually implemented with a special design of relay triggered by a
small amount of current through the conductive liquid. In most cases it is impractical and
dangerous to switch the full load current of the circuit through a liquid.
Level switches can also be designed to detect the level of solid materials such as wood chips,
grain, coal, or animal feed in a storage silo, bin, or hopper. A common design for this
application is a small paddle wheel, inserted into the bin at the desired height, which is slowly
turned by a small electric motor. When the solid material fills the bin to that height, the
material prevents the paddle wheel from turning. The torque response of the small motor than
trips the switch mechanism. Another design uses a "tuning fork" shaped metal prong, inserted
into the bin from the outside at the desired height. The fork is vibrated at its resonant
frequency by an electronic circuit and magnet/electromagnet coil assembly. When the bin fills
to that height, the solid material dampens the vibration of the fork, the change in vibration
amplitude and/or frequency detected by the electronic circuit.

Inserted into a pipe, a flow switch will detect any gas or liquid flow rate in excess of a certain
threshold, usually with a small paddle or vane which is pushed by the flow. Other
flow switches are constructed as differential pressure switches, measuring the pressure drop
across a restriction built into the pipe.

Another type of level switch, suitable for liquid or solid material detection, is the nuclear
switch. Composed of a radioactive source material and a radiation detector, the two are
mounted across the diameter of a storage vessel for either solid or liquid material. Any
height of material beyond the level of the source/detector arrangement will attenuate the
strength of radiation reaching the detector. This decrease in radiation at the detector can be
used to trigger a relay mechanism to provide a switch contact for measurement, alarm point,
or even control of the vessel level.

Both source and detector are outside of the vessel, with no intrusion at all except the radiation
flux itself. The radioactive sources used are fairly weak and pose no immediate health threat to
operations or maintenance personnel.
As usual, there is usually more than one way to implement a switch to monitor a physical
process or serve as an operator control. There is usually no single "perfect" switch for any
application, although some obviously exhibit certain advantages over others. Switches must be
intelligently matched to the task for efficient and reliable operation.

REVIEW:

A switch is an electrical device, usually electromechanical, used to control continuity

between two points.

Hand switches are actuated by human touch.

Limit switches are actuated by machine motion.

Process switches are actuated by changes in some physical process (temperature,

level, flow, etc.)

Electrical Faceplate Types and Dimensions

Electrical faceplates, also called wall plates or cover plates, come in an infinite array of
combinations, sizes, and shapes. However, there are some standard sizes for basic faceplates.
First, we will discuss the openings in the face plates.
Accommodated Devices

There is a wide array of devices that can be accommodated by an electrical faceplate

including: outlets, switches, motion sensors, telephone jacks, data jacks, dimmers, etc. Some
of the more common devices are shown below.

Electrical Outlets
Openings: 1-11/32" W x 1-1/8" H

Toggle or Switch
Opening: 13/32" W x 15/16" H

Decorative or Rocker
Opening: 1-1/4" W x 2-1/2" H

Telephone or Data
Opening: Varies

Gangs
Gangs refer to the number of vertical groups of openings that are accommodated. The devices
can change between gangs. For instance, in a 4 gang electrical box, one could have any
combination of devices (1 toggle switch and 3 duplex outlets; or 2 toggle switches and 2
duplex outlets; or 1 toggle switch, 2 duplex outlets, and 1 tele/data; etc).
Electrical faceplates come in 1-gang up to 10-gang. Shown below are 1-gang through 4-gang

1-Gang
Shown: Single Duplex

2-Gang
Shown: Double Duplex

3-Gang
Shown: Triple Toggle

4-Gang
Shown: Quadruple Duplex

Standard Size Electrical Faceplates

All standard size faceplates are 4-1/2" in height. Widths are listed below. Please note that
these sizes are standard; however, your faceplates may not match.
Gangs
1-Gang
3-Gang
5-Gang
7-Gang
9-Gang

Width
2-3/4"
6-3/8"
10"
13-5/8"
17-1/4"

Gangs
2-Gang
4-Gang
6-Gang
8-Gang
10-Gang

2004 CSI Masterspec Division

Medium-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 10 00
Low-Voltage Electrical Distribution: 26 20 00

Width
4-1/2"
8-3/16"
11-13/16"
15-7/16"
19-1/16"

Light Fixture (Luminaire) Components

The diagram below identifies the components of a light fixture, also known as a luminaire. The
diagram shows a recessed can fixture, but the components apply to all light fixtures. Keep in
mind that some of the components are optional and will not be found on every luminaire.
Descriptions of the components can be found below the diagram.

Wiring
Electrical wiring, which provides power to the luminaire. Depicted here is flexible conduit, but it
can also be hard piped based on electrical codes.
Junction Box
The junction box provides a location to connect the wiring that comes from the power source
with the internal wiring for the light fixture. Shown is a box attached to the top of the fixture;
however, this is sometimes a separate box and sometimes the connection is made inside the
fixture.
Lamp Holder

The lamp holder or light socket is the receptacle that the lamp screws into.
Lamp
The lamp, often referred to as the light bulb, emits light when connected to a power source.
The lamp is often sold separately from the fixture. It is important to use lamps in a wattage
that are recommended for the fixture to prevent damage or possible fire.
Reflector
The reflector provides a reflective surface to direct or spread the light from the lamp out into
the space. Parabolic reflectors focus light toward a point, while elliptical reflectors spread light.
Lens
The lens is a transparent or translucent material used to direct or diffuse light. In addition, the
lens protects the lamp; however, it can also trap heat, which can be problematic.
Trim
The trim or flange is a decorative element that is detachable. This piece is installed after the
finished wall or ceiling material is installed. Since ceiling materials require a space between the
fixture and the material, the trim piece is used to cover this space and provide a clean finish.
2004 CSI Masterspec Division
Interior Lighting Fixtures, Lamps, And Ballasts: 26 51 13
Light Distribution Curves
Luminaire and lamp manufacturers provide candlepower (or luminous intensity) distribution
curves for their fixtures. The curves provide the designer with important information about the
way light is distributed from the fixture and also how that light falls upon a surface.
Candlepower Distribution Curve

The image above is a candle power distribution curve, which provides information on how light
is emitted from a lamp or light fixture. The diagram represents a section cut through the fixture
and shows the intensity of light emitted in each direction. The portion of the graph above the
horizontal 90-270 line indicates light that shines above the fixture (indirect), while the portion
of the graph below represents light shining down (direct). The straight lines radiating from the
center point identify the angle of the light emitted while the circles represent the intensity. For
instance, point A above shows that the intensity of light at 80 is approximately 110
candlepower. Point B shows that at 30 you will get about 225 candlepower.
Isochart

To the left is a diagram that provides information on the distribution of light in plan. The
isochart (or iso-lux/iso-candlepower) is useful for determining how much area a light fixture can
cover. For instance, in a parking lot, the diagram at left indicates that there will be about 1/2 of

a foot-candle of light at about 18-20 feet from center. If 1/2 foot-candle is acceptable, then the
fixtures can be placed about 36-40 feet apart.

Photometric Data Files

Information about a fixture's light distribution is also generally available in a file format that
can be loaded into an analysis or rendering program and used to help better understand the
lighting within a space. There are a number of different file types, the most popular of which
are listed below.
IES is the international standard file type for providing luminaire light distribution information.
The standard was developed by the Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA),
which has simply become the Illuminating Engineering Society. IES files have a .ies file
extension.
EULUMDAT is the main format used in Europe. The standard was originally developed in
Germany, but there is currently no official documentation on the format. EULUMDAT files have
an .ldt file extension.
CIBSE is a format used primarily in Great Britain and is published by the Chartered Institute of
Building Service Engineers. CIBSE files have a .cibse file extension.
LTLI is a format occasionally used with Autodesk products such as 3ds Max. LTLI was developed
by the Danish Illuminating Laboratory and is the standard used in Scandinavian countries. LTLI
files have an .ltli file extension.
Wire Size (Gauge)
Wire thickness is measured in gauge. The table below provides conversion to inches.
AWG
Gauge

Conductor
Diameter

0000

.46

000

.4096

00

.3648

.3249

.2893

.2576

.2294

.2043

.1819

.1620

.1443

.1285

.1144

10

.1019

11

.0907

12

.0808

13

.0720

14

.0641

15

.0571

16

.0508

17

.0453

18

.0403

19

.0359

20

.0320

21

.0285

22

.0253

23

.0226

24

.0201

25

.0179

26

.0159

27

.0142

28

.0126

29

.0113

30

.0100

Ground Up or Ground Down?

There is an age-old debate about whether an electrical outlet should be mounted with the
ground pin up or down. Unfortunately, there is not a fully accepted answer. However, it is
commonly accepted that the National Electrical Code (NEC) of the United States, or NFPA 70,
does not provide any specific direction for the orientation of the outlet.

Some theories about the orientation of an outlet:

The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin up because if the plug comes
slightly loose and a metal object were to fall from above, the ground plug, which usually
does not carry current, would deflect the object so that it would not hit is live prongs. It
is accepted that this idea began in health care facilities where many tools used for
patient care are metal. The story goes that hospitals were wired by union electricians
and as the unions grew the practice spread to other types of buildings.
The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin up because this pin is longer and
the plastic around the plug is meatier, so it will help to keep the plug inserted in the
outlet.
The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin down because a person grabbing
the outlet will have their index finger at the bottom side of the plug and the index finger
sticks out further than the thumb. Having the ground down will keep a person's index
finger from touching the live pins.
The outlet should be oriented with the ground pin down because many common
household items such as nightlights, timers, and battery chargers are oriented with the
ground pin down. In addition, GFCI outlets, which have text on the reset and test
buttons, are oriented with the ground pin down (and the text readable).

A quick internet search provides comments that easily debunk any of these theories. The most
basic final answer is that it truly doesn't matter which way your outlets are oriented. Select the
strategy that best works for you.
Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow is a phenomenon where air, gas, or a liquid flows in parallel layers and there is no
mixing of layers. It is the opposite of turbulent flow, where the molecules are constantly mixing
and moving in varied ways across a space. Relative to HVAC systems, laminar flow provides a
way to maintain the clean nature of air within a space and also prevents mixing of air, which
can cause contamination. Laminar flow HVAC systems are often used in surgery suites,
laboratories, or other clean rooms.
Turbulent Flow
The diagram below shows a typical room with a supply diffuser and return grille, both of which
are in the ceiling. In this case, the air moves in an unpredictable manner as dictated by
pressure and temperature differences. Air molecules are constantly colliding and can create
contamination of the air as particles are transported around the room before eventually leaving
via the return grille.

Laminar Flow
In a laminar flow situation, as seen in the diagram below, the air move predictably and in
parallel layers from the supply diffusers in the ceiling. Since the return grilles are located low,
the air is forced down and toward the returns without having to move back through clean air to
ceiling returns. This prevents contamination since any unwanted particles are transported in a
straight line out of the room.

Laminar Flow Applications

While the examples above assume that the space is a room and the air is supplied by ducts,
the space can also be a desktop device used within a laboratory. No matter the application, the
goal is the same: to prevent contamination of the air by providing airflow in parallel layers that
do not mix.
Duct Shaft Layout
When sizing duct shafts, architects must account for steel supports, duct take-offs, dampers,
and insulation. The following diagrams provide general clearances, but consult with an HVAC
engineer for the needs of a particular system.
General Layout
Provide 9" from the sheet metal to the inside face of a shaft.
Provide 12" from the sheet metal to the inside face of a shaft on sides where there is a duct
take-off. See the note below for information about dampers, which can require up to 24" of
clear space.
Provide 9" between ducts (sheet metal to sheet metal).

Relative to Structure
The above diagram addressed the distance from the face of the duct to the inside face of the
shaft; however, the designer must also consider structure or deck/slab edges.
While maintaining the above dimensions, also provide a minimum of 6" from the face of the
duct/slab to the deck edge. The section diagram below shows these clearances.

Dampers
Consult with the damper manufacturer for dimensional requirements. Fire dampers generally
require 15" between the duct face and the inside face of the shaft wall. Combination Fire and
Smoke dampers can require up to 24" of clear space between the duct face and the inside face
of the shaft wall. In addition, the damper must be accessible so that the unit can be reset after
it has been closed.
Air Conditioner
How Products Are Made | 1998 | Copyright
Air Conditioner
Background
Residential and commercial space-cooling demands are increasing steadily throughout the
world as what once was considered a luxury is now seemingly a necessity. Air-conditioning
manufacturers have played a big part in making units more affordable by increasing their
efficiency and improving components and technology. The competitiveness of the industry has
increased with demand, and there are many companies providing air conditioning units and
systems.
Air conditioning systems vary considerably in size and derive their energy from many different
sources. Popularity of residential air conditioners has increased dramatically with the advent of
central air, a strategy that utilizes the ducting in a home for both heating and cooling.
Commercial air conditioners, almost mandatory in new construction, have changed a lot in the
past few years as energy costs rise and power sources change and improve. The use of natural
gas-powered industrial chillers has grown considerably, and they are used for commercial air
conditioning in many applications.
Raw Materials

Air conditioners are made of different types of metal. Frequently, plastic and other
nontraditional materials are used to reduce weight and cost. Copper or aluminum tubing,
critical ingredients in many air conditioner components, provide superior thermal properties
and a positive influence on system efficiency. Various components in an air conditioner will
differ with the application, but usually they are comprised of stainless steel and other
corrosion-resistant metals.
Self-contained units that house the refrigeration system will usually be encased in sheet metal
that is protected from environmental conditions by a paint or powder coating.
The working fluid, the fluid that circulates through the air-conditioning system, is typically a
liquid with strong thermodynamic characteristics like freon, hydrocarbons, ammonia, or water.
Design
All air conditioners have four basic components: a pump, an evaporator, a condenser, and an
expansion valve. All have a working fluid and an opposing fluid medium as well.
Two air conditioners may look entirely dissimilar in both size, shape, and configuration, yet both
function in basically the same way. This is due to the wide variety of applications and energy
sources available. Most air conditioners derive their power from an electrically-driven motor
and pump combination to circulate the refrigerant fluid. Some natural gas-driven chillers
couple the pump with a gas engine in order to give off significantly more torque.
As the working fluid or refrigerant circulates through the air-conditioning system at high
pressure via the pump, it will enter an evaporator where it changes into a gas state, taking
heat from the opposing fluid medium and operating just like a heat exchanger. The working
fluid then moves to the condenser, where it gives off heat to the atmosphere by condensing
back into a liquid. After passing through an expansion valve, the working fluid returns to a low
pressure state. When the cooling medium (either a fluid or air) passes near the evaporator,
heat is drawn to the evaporator. This process effectively cools the opposing medium, providing
localized cooling where needed in the building. Early air conditioners used freon as the working
fluid, but because of the hazardous effects freon has on the environment, it has been phased
out. Recent designs have met strict challenges to improve the efficiency of a unit, while using
an inferior substitute for freon.

The Manufacturing
Process
Creating encasement parts from galvanized sheet metal and structural steel
1 Most air conditioners start out as raw material, in the form of structural steel shapes
and sheet steel. As the sheet metal is processed into fabrication cells or work cells, it is cut,
formed, punched, drilled, sheared, and/or bent into a useful shape or form. The encasements or
wrappers, the metal that envelopes most outdoor residential units, is made of galvanized sheet
metal that uses a zinc coating to provide protection against corrosion. Galvanized sheet metal
is also used to form the bottom pan, face plates, and various support brackets throughout an
air conditioner. This sheet metal is sheared on a shear press in a fabrication cell soon after
arriving from storage or inventory. Structural steel shapes are cut and mitered on a band saw
to form useful brackets and supports.
Punch pressing the sheet metal forms
2 From the shear press, the sheet metal is loaded on a CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) punch press. The punch press has the option of receiving its computer program from a
drafting CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Drafting/Computer Aided Manufacturing) program or from
an independently written CNC program. The CAD/CAM program will transform a drafted or
modeled part on the computer into a file that can be read by the punch press, telling it where
to punch holes in the sheet metal. Dies and other punching instruments are stored in the
machine and mechanically brought to the punching arm, where it can be used to drive through
the sheet. The NC (Numerically Controlled) press brakes bend the sheet into its final form,
using a computer file to program itself. Different bending dies are used for different shapes and
configurations and may be changed for each component.

3 Some brackets, fins, and sheet components are outsourced to other facilities or
companies to produce large quantities. They are brought to the assembly plant only when
needed for assembly. Many of the brackets are produced on a hydraulic or mechanical press,
where brackets of different shapes and configurations can be produced from a coiled sheet and
unrolled continuously into the machine. High volumes of parts can be produced because the
press can often produce a complex shape with one hit.
Cleaning the parts
4 All parts must be completely clean and free of dirt, oil, grease, and lubricants before
they are powder coated. Various cleaning methods are used to accomplish this necessary task.
Large solution tanks filled with a cleaning solvent agitate and knock off the oil when parts are
submersed. Spray wash systems use pressurized cleaning solutions to knock off dirt and
grease. Vapor degreasing, suspending the parts above a harsh cleansing vapor, uses an acid
solution and will leave the parts free of petroleum products. Most outsourced parts that arrive
from a vendor have already been degreased and cleaned. For additional corrosion protection,
many parts will be primed in a phosphate primer bath before entering a drying oven to prepare
them for the application of the powder coating.
Powder coating
5 Before brackets, pans, and wrappers are assembled together, they are fed through a
powder coating operation. The powder coating system sprays a paint-like dry powder onto the
parts as they are fed through a booth on an overhead conveyor. This can be done by robotic
sprayers that are programmed where to spray as each part feeds through the booth on the
conveyor. The parts are statically charged to attract the powder to adhere to deep crevices and
bends within each part. The powder-coated parts are then fed through an oven, usually with
the same conveyor system, where the powder is permanently baked onto the metal. The
process takes less than 10 minutes.
Bending the tubing for the condenser and evaporator
6 The condenser and evaporator both act as a heat exchanger in air conditioning
systems and are made of copper or aluminum tubing bent around in coil form to maximize the
distance through which the working fluid travels. The opposing fluid, or cooling fluid, passes
around the tubes as the working fluid draws away its heat in the evaporator. This is
accomplished by taking many small diameter copper tubes bent in the same shape and
anchoring them with guide rods and aluminum plates. The working fluid or refrigerant flows
through the copper tubes and the opposing fluid flows around them in between the aluminum
plates. The tubes will often end up with hairpin bends performed by NC benders, using the
same principle as the NC press brake. Each bend is identical to the next. The benders use
previously straightened tubing to bend around a fixed die with a mandrel fed through the inner
diameter to keep it from collapsing during the bend. The mandrel is raked back through the
inside of the tube when the bend has been accomplished.
7 Tubing supplied to the manufacturer in a coil form goes through an uncoiler and
straightener before being fed through the bender. Some tubing will be cut into desired lengths
on an abrasive saw that will cut several small tubes in one stroke. The aluminum plates are
punched out on a punch press and formed on a mechanical press to place divots or waves in
the plate. These waves maximize the thermodynamic heat transfer between the working fluid
and the opposing medium. When the copper tubes are finished in the bending cell, they are
transported by automatic guided vehicle (AGV) to the assembly cell, where they are stacked on
the guide rods and fed through the plates or fins.
Joining the copper tubing with the aluminum plates
8 A major part of the assembly is the joining of the copper tubing with the aluminum
plates. This assembly becomes the evaporator and is accomplished by taking the stacked
copper tubing in their hairpin configuration and mechanically fusing them to the aluminum
plates. The fusing occurs by taking a bullet, or mandrel, and feeding it through the copper
tubing to expand it and push it against the inner part of the hole of the plate. This provides a
thrifty, yet useful bond between the tubing and plate, allowing for heat transfer.
9 The condenser is manufactured in a similar manner, except that the opposing medium
is usually air, which cools off the copper or aluminum condenser coils without the plates. They
are held by brackets which support the coiled tubing, and are connected to the evaporator with

fittings or couplings. The condenser is usually just one tube that may be bent around in a
number of hairpin bends. The expansion valve, a complete component, is purchased from a
vendor and installed in the piping after the condenser. It allows the pressure of the working
fluid to decrease and re-enter the pump.
Installing the pump
10 The pump is also purchased complete I h from an outside supplier. Designed to
increase system pressure and circulate the working fluid, the pump is connected with fittings to
the system and anchored in place by support brackets and a base. It is bolted together with the
other structural members of the air conditioner and covered by the wrapper or sheet metal
encasement. The encasement is either riveted or bolted together to provide adequate
protection for the inner components.
Quality Control
Quality of the individual components is always checked at various stages of the manufacturing
process. Outsourced parts must pass an incoming dimensional inspection from a quality
assurance representative before being approved for use in the final product. Usually, each
fabrication cell will have a quality control plan to verify dimensional integrity of each part. The
unit will undergo a performance test when assembly is complete to assure the customer that
each unit operates efficiently.
The Future
Air conditioner manufacturers face the challenge of improving efficiency and lowering costs.
Because of the environmental concerns, working fluids now consist typically of ammonia or
water. New research is under way to design new working fluids and better system components
to keep up with rapidly expanding markets and applications. The competitiveness of the
industry should remain strong, driving more innovations in manufacturing and design.
The first modern air conditioning system was developed in 1902 by a young electrical engineer
named Willis Haviland Carrier. It was designed to solve a humidity problem at the SackettWilhelms Lithographing and Publishing Company in Brooklyn, N.Y. Paper stock at the plant
would sometimes absorb moisture from the warm summer air, making it difficult to apply the
layered inking techniques of the time. Carrier treated the air inside the building by blowing it
across chilled pipes. The air cooled as it passed across the cold pipes, and since cool air can't
carry as much moisture as warm air, the process reduced the humidity in the plant and
stabilized the moisture content of the paper. Reducing the humidity also had the side benefit of
lowering the air temperature -- and a new technology was born.
Carrier realized he'd developed something with far-reaching potential, and it wasn't long before
air-conditioning systems started popping up intheaters and stores, making the long, hot
summer months much more comfortable [source: Time].
The actual process air conditioners use to reduce the ambient air temperature in a room is
based on a very simple scientific principle. The rest is achieved with the application of a few
clever mechanical techniques. Actually, an air conditioner is very similar to another appliance
in your home -- the refrigerator. Air conditioners don't have the exterior housing a refrigerator
relies on to insulate its cold box. Instead, the walls in your home keep cold air in and hot air
out.
Let's move on to the next page where we'll discover what happens to all that hot air when you
use your air
Air-conditioning Basics
Air conditioners use refrigeration to chill indoor air, taking advantage of a remarkable physical
law: When a liquid converts to a gas (in a process called phase conversion), it absorbs heat.

Air conditioners exploit this feature of phase conversion by forcing special chemical compounds
to evaporate and condense over and over again in a closed system of coils.
The compounds involved are refrigerants that have properties enabling them to change at
relatively low temperatures. Air conditioners also contain fans that move warm interior air over
these cold, refrigerant-filled coils. In fact, central air conditioners have a whole system of ducts
designed to funnel air to and from these serpentine, air-chilling coils.
When hot air flows over the cold, low-pressure evaporator coils, the refrigerant inside
absorbs heat as it changes from a liquid to a gaseous state. To keep cooling efficiently, the air
conditioner has to convert the refrigerant gas back to a liquid again. To do that, a compressor
puts the gas under high pressure, a process that creates unwanted heat. All the extra heat
created by compressing the gas is then evacuated to the outdoors with the help of a second
set of coils called condenser coils, and a second fan. As the gas cools, it changes back to a
liquid, and the process starts all over again. Think of it as an endless, elegant cycle: liquid
refrigerant, phase conversion to a gas/ heat absorption, compression and phase transition back
to a liquid again.
It's easy to see that there are two distinct things going on in an air conditioner. Refrigerant is
chilling the indoor air, and the resulting gas is being continually compressed and cooled for
conversion back to a liquid again. On the next page, we'll look at how the different parts of an
air conditioner work to make all that
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The Parts of an Air Conditioner

Let's get some housekeeping topics out of the way before we tackle the unique components
that make up a standard air conditioner. The biggest job an air conditioner has to do is to cool
the indoor air. That's not all it does, though. Air conditioners monitor and regulate the air
temperature via a thermostat. They also have an onboard filter that removes airborne
particulates from the circulating air. Air conditioners function as dehumidifiers. Because
temperature is a key component of relative humidity, reducing the temperature of a volume of
humid air causes it to release a portion of its moisture. That's why there are drains and
moisture-collecting pans near or attached to air conditioners, and why air conditioners
discharge water when they operate on humid days.
Still, the major parts of an air conditioner manage refrigerant and move air in two directions:
indoors and outside:

Evaporator - Receives the liquid refrigerant

Condenser - Facilitates heat transfer

Expansion valve - regulates refrigerant flow into the evaporator

Compressor - A pump that pressurizes refrigerant

The cold side of an air conditioner contains the evaporator and a fan that blows air over the
chilled coils and into the room. The hot side contains the compressor, condenser and another
fan to vent hot air coming off the compressed refrigerant to the outdoors. In between the two
sets of coils, there's an expansion valve. It regulates the amount of compressed liquid
refrigerant moving into the evaporator. Once in the evaporator, the refrigerant experiences a
pressure drop, expands and changes back into a gas. The compressor is actually a large
electric pump that pressurizes the refrigerant gas as part of the process of turning it back into
a liquid. There are some additional sensors, timers and valves, but the evaporator, compressor,
condenser and expansion valve are the main components of an air conditioner.
Although this is a conventional setup for an air conditioner, there are a couple of variations you
should know about. Window air conditioners have all these components mounted into a
relatively small metal box that installs into a window opening. The hot air vents from the back
of the unit, while the condenser coils and a fan cool and re-circulate indoor air. Bigger air
conditioners work a little differently: Central air conditioners share a control thermostat with a
home's heating system, and the compressor and condenser, the hot side of the unit, isn't even
in the house. It's in a separate all-weather housing outdoors. In very large buildings, like hotels
and hospitals, the exterior condensing unit is often mounted somewhere on the roof.
Window and Split-system AC Units
A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units
are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame. You close the window down on the
unit, plug it in and turn it on to get cool air. If you take the cover off of an unplugged window
unit, you'll find that it contains:

A compressor

An expansion valve

A hot coil (on the outside)

A chilled coil (on the inside)

Two fans

A control unit
The fans blow air over the coils to improve their ability to dissipate heat (to the outside air) and
cold (to the room being cooled).
When you get into larger air-conditioning applications, its time to start looking at split-system
units. A split-system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system, as in
the diagram below.
The cold side, consisting of the expansion valve and the cold coil, is generally placed into
a furnace or some other air handler. The air handler blows air through the coil and routes the
air throughout the building using a series of ducts. The hot side, known as the condensing unit,
lives outside the building.
The unit consists of a long, spiral coil shaped like a cylinder. Inside the coil is a fan, to blow air
through the coil, along with a weather-resistant compressor and some control logic. This
approach has evolved over the years because it's low-cost, and also because it normally results
in reduced noise inside the house (at the expense of increased noise outside the house). Other
than the fact that the hot and cold sides are split apart and the capacity is higher (making the
coils and compressor larger), there's no difference between a split-system and a window air
conditioner.
In warehouses, large business offices, malls, big department stores and other sizeable
buildings, the condensing unit normally lives on the roof and can be quite massive.
Alternatively, there may be many smaller units on the roof, each attached inside to a small air
handler that cools a specific zone in the building.
In larger buildings and particularly in multi-story buildings, the split-system approach begins to
run into problems. Either running the pipe between the condenser and the air handler exceeds
distance limitations (runs that are too long start to cause lubrication difficulties in the
compressor), or the amount of duct work and the length of ducts becomes unmanageable. At
this point, it's time to think about a chilled-water system.

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Chilled-water and Cooling-tower AC Units
Although standard air conditioners are very popular, they can use a lot of energy and generate
quite a bit of heat. For large installations like office buildings, air handling and conditioning is
sometimes managed a little differently.

Some systems use water as part of the cooling process. The two most well-known are chilled
water systems and cooling tower air conditioners.

Chilled water systems - In a chilled-water system, the entire air conditioner is

installed on the roof or behind the building. It cools water to between 40 and 45 degrees
Fahrenheit (4.4 and 7.2 degrees Celsius). The chilled water is then piped throughout the
building and connected to air handlers. This can be a versatile system where the water pipes
work like the evaporator coils in a standard air conditioner. If it's well-insulated, there's no
practical distance limitation to the length of a chilled-water pipe.

Cooling tower technology - In all of the air conditioning systems we've described so
far, air is used to dissipate heat from the compressor coils. In some large systems, a cooling
tower is used instead. The tower creates a stream of cold water that runs through a heat
exchanger, cooling the hot condenser coils. The tower blows air through a stream of water
causing some of it to evaporate, and the evaporation cools the water stream. One of the
disadvantages of this type of system is that water has to be added regularly to make up for
liquid lost through evaporation. The actual amount of cooling that an air conditioning system
gets from a cooling tower depends on the relative humidity of the air and the barometric
pressure.
Because of rising electrical costs and environmental concerns, some other air cooling methods
are being explored, too. One is off-peak or ice-cooling technology. An off-peak cooling system
uses ice frozen during the evening hours to chill interior air during the hottest part of the day.
Although the system does use energy, the largest energy drain is when community demand for
power is at its lowest. Energy is less expensive during off-peak hours, and the lowered
consumption during peak times eases the demand on the power grid.
Another option is geo-thermal heating. It varies, but at around 6 feet (1.8 meters) underground,
the earth's temperature ranges from 45 to 75 degrees Fahrenheit (7.2 to 23.8 degrees Celsius).
The basic idea behindgeo-thermal cooling is to use this constant temperature as a heat or
cold source instead of using electricity to generate heat or cold. The most common type of geothermal unit for the home is a closed-loop system. Polyethylene pipes filled with a liquid
mixture are buried underground. During the winter, the fluid collects heat from the earth and
carries it through the system and into the building. During the summer, the system reverses
itself to cool the building by pulling heat through the pipes to deposit it underground
[source: Geo Heating].
For real energy efficiency, solar powered air conditioners are also making their debut. There
may still be some kinks to work out, but around 5 percent of all electricity consumed in the U.S.
is used to power air conditioning of one type or another, so there's a big market for energyfriendly air conditioning options [source: ACEEE].
BTU and EER
Most air conditioners have their capacity rated in British thermal units (Btu). A Btu is the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of 1 pound (0.45 kilograms) of water one
degree Fahrenheit (0.56 degrees Celsius). One Btu equals 1,055 joules. In heating and cooling
terms, one ton equals 12,000 Btu.
A typical window air conditioner might be rated at 10,000 Btu. For comparison, a typical 2,000square-foot (185.8 square meters) house might have a 5-ton (60,000-Btu) air conditioning

system, implying that you might need perhaps 30 Btu per square foot. These are rough
estimates. To size an air conditioner accurately for your specific application, you should contact
an HVAC contractor.
The energy efficiency rating (EER) of an air conditioner is its Btu rating over its wattage. As an
example, if a 10,000-Btu air conditioner consumes 1,200 watts, its EER is 8.3 (10,000 Btu/1,200
watts). Obviously, you would like the EER to be as high as possible, but normally a higher EER
is accompanied by a higher price.
Let's say you have a choice between two 10,000-Btu units. One has an EER of 8.3 and
consumes 1,200 watts, and the other has an EER of 10 and consumes 1,000 watts. Let's also
say that the price difference is $100. To determine the payback period on the more expensive
unit, you need to know approximately how many hours per year you will be operating the air
conditioner and how much a kilowatt-hour (kWh) costs in your area.
Assuming you plan to use the air conditioner six hours a day for four months of the year, at a
cost of $0.10/kWh. The difference in energy consumption between the two units is 200 watts.
This means that every five hours the less expensive unit will consume one additional kWh (or
$0.10) more than the more expensive unit.
Let's do the math: With roughly 30 days in a month, you're operating the air conditioner:
4 months x 30 days per month x 6 hours per day = 720 hours
[(720 hours x 200 watts) / (1000 watts/kilowatt)] x $0.10/kilowatt hours = $14.40
The more expensive air conditioning unit costs $100 more to purchase but less money to
operate. In our example, it'll take seven years for the higher priced unit to break even.
Energy Efficient Cooling Systems
Because of the rising costs of electricity and a growing trend to "go green," more people are
turning to alternative cooling methods to spare their pocketbooks and the environment. Big
businesses are even jumping on board in an effort to improve their public image and lower
their overhead.
Ice cooling systems are one way that businesses are combating high electricity costs during
the summer. Ice cooling is as simple as it sounds. Large tanks of water freeze into ice at night,
when energy demands are lower. The next day, a system much like a conventional air
conditioner pumps the cool air from the ice into the building. Ice cooling saves money, cuts
pollution, eases the strain on the power grid and can be used alongside traditional systems.
The downside of ice cooling is that the systems are expensive to install and require a lot of
space. Even with the high startup costs, more than 3,000 systems are in use worldwide
[source: CNN]. You can read more about ice cooling in Are Ice Blocks Better than Air
Conditioning?
An ice cooling system is a great way to save money and conserve energy, but its price tag and
space requirements limit it to large buildings. One way that homeowners can save on energy
costs is by installing geo-thermal heating and cooling systems, also known as ground source
heat pumps (GSHP). The Environmental Protection Agency recently named geo-thermal units

"the most energy-efficient and environmentally sensitive of all space conditioning systems"
[source: EPA].
Although it varies, at six feet underground the Earth's temperatures range from 45 to 75
degrees Fahrenheit. The basic principle behind geo-thermal cooling is to use this constant
temperature as a heat source instead of generating heat with electricity.
The most common type of geo-thermal unit for homes is the closed-loop system. Polyethylene
pipes are buried under the ground, either vertically like a well or horizontally in three- to sixfoot trenches. They can also be buried under ponds. Water or an anti-freeze/water mixture is
pumped through the pipes. During the winter, the fluid collects heat from the earth and carries
it through the system and into the building. During the summer, the system reverses itself to
cool the building by pulling heat from the building, carrying it through the system and placing it
in the ground [source: Geo Heating].
Homeowners can save 30 to 50 percent on their cooling bills by replacing their traditional HVAC
systems with ground source heat pumps. The initial costs can be up to 30 percent more, but
that money can be recouped in three to five years, and most states offer financial purchase
incentives. Another benefit is that the system lasts longer than traditional units because it's
protected from the elements and immune to theft [source: Geo Exchange].

Schematic diagram of elevator work and part on high rise buildings is to find the parts in an
elevator. By knowing the parts or labor scheme of an elevator (lift) is anarchitect will easily find
out their placement and design, especially in high-risebuilding design.
Here is a schematic diagram of the work and parts of elevators in high-rise building

Diagram Parts of Elevator for High Rise Buildings

1. Counterweight Guide Rail
2. Linear Induction Motor Secondary
3. Brakes
4. Counterweight Frame
5. Linear Induction Motor Primary
6. Idler Sheaves
7. Guide Rail
8. Cab (lift)
Machines for moving the e Elevators

by Chris Woodford. Last updated: February 14, 2012.

Hit the top button on the elevator and prepare yourself for a long ride: in just a few days you'll
be waving back from space! Elevators that can zoom up beyond Earth have certainly captured
people's imagination in the decade or so since space scientists first proposed themand it's no
wonder. But in their time ordinary office elevators probably seemed almost as radical. It wasn't
just brilliant building materials such as steel and concrete that allowed modern skyscrapers to
soar to the clouds: it was the invention, in 1861, of the safe, reliable elevator by a man named
Elisha Graves Otis of Yonkers, New York. Otis literally changed the face of the Earth by
developing a machine he humbly called an "improvement in hoisting apparatus," which allowed
cities to expand vertically as well as horizontally. That's why his invention can rightly be
described as one of the most important machines of all time. Let's take a closer look at
elevators and find out how they work!
Photo: How far will the top button take you? All the way to space? NASA is already working on
an elevator that could carry materials from the surface of Earth up to geostationary Earth orbit,
35,786km (22,241 miles) up. Illustration by artist Pat Rawling courtesy of NASA Marshall Space
Flight Center (NASA-MSFC).
What is an elevator?

Photo: A typical, modern, electronically controlled elevator. If you wait for the cars to move out
of the way, you can often see some of the workings and figure out which bits do what.
The annoying thing about elevators (if you're trying to understand them) is that their working
parts are usually covered up! From the viewpoint of someone traveling from the lobby to the
18th floor, an elevator is simply a metal box with doors that close on one floor and then open
again on another. For those of us who are more curious, the key parts of an elevator are:

One or more cars (metal boxes) that rise up and down.

Counterweights that balance the cars.

An electric motor that hoists the cars up and down, including a braking system.

A system of strong metal cables and pulleys running between the cars and the motors.

Various safety systems to protect the passengers if a cable breaks.

In large buildings, an electronic control system that directs the cars to the correct floors
using a so-called "elevator algorithm" (a sophisticated kind of mathematical logic) to
ensure large numbers of people are moved up and down in the quickest, most efficient
way (particularly important in huge, busy skyscrapers at rush hour). Intelligent systems
are programmed to carry many more people upward than downward at the beginning of
the day and the reverse at the end of the day.

How elevators use energy

Scientifically, elevators are all about energy. To get from the ground to the 18th floor walking
up stairs you have to move the weight of your body against the downward-pulling force of
gravity. The energy you expend in the process is (mostly) converted into potential energy, so
climbing stairs gives an increase in your potential energy (going up) or a decrease in your
potential energy (going down). This is an example of the law of conservation of energy in
action. You really do have more potential energy at the top of a building than at the bottom,
even if it doesn't feel any different.
To a scientist, an elevator is simply a device that increases or decreases a person's potential
energy without them needing to supply that energy themselves: the elevator gives you
potential energy when you're going up and it takes potential energy from you when you're
coming down. In theory, that sounds easy enough: the elevator won't need to use much energy
at all because it will always be getting back as much (when it goes down) as it gives out (when
it goes up). Unfortunately, it's not quite that simple. If all the elevator had were a simple hoist
with a cage passing over a pulley, it would use considerable amounts of energy lifting people
up but it would have no way of getting that energy back: the energy would simply be lost to
friction in the cables and brakes (disappearing into the air as waste heat) when the people
came back down.
levator located in the engine elevator room which is usually just above the glide rail space.
The counterweight

In practice, elevators work in a slightly different way from simple hoists. The elevator car is
balanced by a heavy counterweight that weighs roughly the same amount as the car when it's
loaded half-full. When the elevator goes up, the counterweight goes downand vice-versa,
which helps us in four ways:
1. The counterweight makes it easier for the motor to raise and lower the car
just as sitting on a see-saw makes it much easier to lift someone's weight
compared to lifting them in your arms. Thanks to the counterweight, the motor
needs to use much less force to move the car either up or down. Assuming the
car and its contents weigh more than the counterweight, all the motor has to
lift is the difference in weight between the two and supply a bit of extra force
to overcome friction in the pulleys and so on.
2. Since less force is involved, there's less strain on the cableswhich makes the
elevator a little bit safer.
3. The counterweight reduces the amount of energy the motor needs to use. This
is intuitively obvious to anyone who's ever sat on a see-saw: assuming the
see-saw is properly balanced, you can bob up and down any number of times
without ever really getting tiredquite different from lifting someone in your
arms, which tires you very quickly. This point also follows from the first one: if
the motor is using less force to move the car the same distance, it's doing less
work against the force of gravity.
4. The counterweight reduces the amount of braking the elevator needs to use.
Imagine if there were no counterweight: a heavily loaded elevator car would
be really hard to pull upwards but, on the return journey, would tend to race to
the ground all by itself if there weren't some sort of sturdy brake to stop it. The
counterweight makes it much easier to control the elevator car.
In a different design, known as a duplex counterweightless elevator, two cars are
connected to opposite ends of the same cable and effectively balance each other, doing away
with the need for a counterweight.
Photo: The counterweight rides up and down on wheels that follow guide tracks on the side of
the elevator shaft. The elevator car is at the top of this shaft (out of sight) so the
counterweight is at the bottom. When the car moves down the shaft, the counterweight moves
upand vice versa. Each car has its own counterweight so the cars can operate independently
of one another. On this picture, you can also see the doors on each floor that open and close
only when the elevator car is aligned with them.
The safety brake
Everyone who's ever traveled in an escalator has had the same thought: what if the cable
holding this thing suddenly snaps? Rest assured, there's nothing to worry about. If the cable
snaps, a variety of safety systems prevent an elevator car from crashing to the floor. This was
the great innovation that Elisha Graves Otis made back in the 1860s. His elevators weren't
simply supported by ropes: they also had a ratchet system as a backup. Each car ran between
two vertical guide rails with sturdy metal teeth embedded all the way up them. At the top of
each car, there was a spring-loaded mechanism with hooks attached. If the cable broke, the
hooks sprung outward and jammed into the metal teeth in the guide rails, locking the car
safely in position.
How the original Otis elevator worked
Thanks to the wonders of the Internet, it's really easy to look at original patent documents and
find out exactly what inventors were thinking. Here's one of the drawings Elisha Graves Otis

submitted with his "Hoisting Apparatus" patent dated January 15, 1861. I've colored it in a little
bit so it's easier to understand:

Greatly simplified, here's how it works:

1. The elevator compartment (1, green) is raised and lowered by a hoist
and pulley system (2) and a moving counterweight (not visible in this
picture). You can see how the elevator is moving smoothly between
vertical guide bars: it doesn't just dangle stupidly from the rope!
2. The cable that does all the lifting (3, red) wraps around several
pulleys and the main winding drum. Don't forget this elevator was
invented before anyone was really using electricity: it was raised and
lowered by hand!
3. At the top of the elevator car, there's a simple mechanism made up
of spring-loaded arms and pivots (4). If the main cable (3) breaks, the
springs push out two sturdy bars called "pawls" (5) so they lock into
vertical racks of upward-pointing teeth (6) on either side. This
ratchet-like device clamps the elevator safely in place.

According to Otis, the key part of the invention was: "having the pawls and the teeth of the
racks hook formed, essentially as shown, so that the weight of the platform will, in case of the
breaking of the rope, cause the pawls and teeth to lock together and prevent the contingency
of a separation of the same."
If you'd like a more detailed explanation, nip over to the US Patent and Trademark Office and
search for patent number #31,128 (Otis, 1861). (If you prefer, you can go directly to it
here: Google Patents: US Patent #31,128.) The Otis patent also explains more fully how the
winch and pulleys work with the counterweight.
Photo: A modern elevator has much in common with the original Otis design. Here you can see
the little wheels at the edges of an elevator car that help it move smoothly up and down its
guide bars.
Did Otis invent the elevator?
No! He invented the safety elevator: he noted how ordinary elevators could fail and came up
with a better design that made them safer. The Otis elevator dates from the middle of the 19th
century, but ordinary elevators date back much furtheras far as Greek and Roman times. We
can trace them back to more general kinds of lifting equipment such as cranes, windlasses,
and capstans; ancient water-raising devices such as the shaduf (sometimes spelled shadoof),
based on a kind of swinging see-saw design, may well have inspired the use of counterweights
in early elevators and hoists.
Other safety systems

Modern elevators have multiple safety systems. Like the cables on a suspension bridge, the
cable in an elevator is made from many metal cables twisted together so a small failure of one
part of the cable isn't, initially at least, going to cause any problems. Some elevators also have
multiple, separate cables so the complete failure of one cable leaves others functioning in its
place. Elevators also have a safety braking system similar to the one Otis originally designed
with spring-loaded arms locking the car into (or onto) vertical guide rails. Even if all the cables
brake, this system will still hold the car in place or at least reduce its descent to a safe and
slow speed. Finally, if you've ever looked at a transparent glass elevator, you'll have noticed a
giant hydraulic or gas spring buffer at the bottom to cushion against an impact if the safety
brake should somehow brake. Thanks to Elisha Graves Otis, and the many talented engineers
who've followed in his footsteps, you're much safer inside an elevator than you are in a car!
Photo: Elevators don't just hang from a single cable: there are several strong cables supporting
the car in case one breaks. If the worst does happen, you'll find there's often an
emergency intercom telephone you can use inside an elevator car to call for assistance.

Escalator
n escalator is a power-driven, continuous moving stairway designed to transport passengers up
and down short vertical distances. Escalators are used around the world to move pedestrian

traffic in places where elevators would be impractical. Principal areas of usage include
shopping centers, airports, transit systems, trade centers, hotels, and public buildings. The
benefits of escalators are many. They have the capacity to move large numbers of people, and
they can be placed in the same physical space as stairs would be. They have no waiting
interval, except during very heavy traffic; they can be used to guide people towards main exits
or special exhibits; and they may be weather-proofed for outdoor use. It is estimated that there
are over 30,000 escalators in the United States, and that there are 90 billion riders traveling on
escalators each year. Escalators and their cousins, moving walkways, are powered by constant
speed alternating current motors and move at approximately 1-2 ft (0.3-0.6 m) per second. The
maximum angle of inclination of an escalator to the horizontal is 30 degrees with a standard
rise up to about 60 ft (18 m).
The invention of the escalator is generally credited to Charles D. Seeberger who, as an
employee of the Otis Elevator Company, produced the first step-type escalator manufactured
for use by the general public. His creation was installed at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, where it
won first prize. Seeberger also coined the term escalator by joining scala, which is Latin for
steps, with a diminutive form of "elevator." In 1910 Seeberger sold the original patent rights for
his invention to the Otis Elevator Company. Although numerous improvements have been
made, Seeberger's basic design remains in use today. It consists of top and bottom landing
platforms connected by a metal truss. The truss contains two tracks, which pull a collapsible
staircase through an endless loop. The truss also supports two handrails, which are coordinated
to move at the same speed as the step treads.
Components
Top and bottom landing platforms
These two platforms house the curved sections of the tracks, as well as the gears and motors
that drive the stairs. The top platform contains the motor assembly and the main drive gear,
while the bottom holds the step return idler sprockets. These sections also anchor the ends of
the escalator truss. In addition, the platforms contain a floor plate and a comb plate. The floor
plate provides a place for the passengers to stand before they step onto the moving stairs. This
plate is flush with the finished floor and is either hinged or removable to allow easy access to
the machinery below. The comb plate is the piece between the stationary floor plate and the
moving step. It is so named because its edge has a series of cleats that resemble the teeth of a
comb. These teeth mesh with matching cleats on the edges of the steps. This design is
necessary to minimize the gap between the stair and the landing, which helps prevent objects
from getting caught in the gap.

The truss
The truss is a hollow metal structure that bridges the lower and upper landings. It is composed
of two side sections joined together with cross braces across the bottom and just below the
top. The ends of the truss are attached to the top and bottom landing platforms via steel or
concrete supports. The truss carries all the straight track sections connecting the upper and
lower sections.
The tracks
The track system is built into the truss to guide the step chain, which continuously pulls the
steps from the bottom platform and back to the top in an endless loop. There are actually two
tracks: one for the front wheels of the steps (called the step-wheel track) and one for the back
wheels of the steps (called the trailer-wheel track). The relative positions of these tracks cause
the steps to form a staircase as they move out from under the comb plate. Along the straight
section of the truss the tracks are at their maximum distance apart. This configuration forces
the back of one step to be at a 90-degree angle relative to the step behind it. This right angle
bends the steps into a stair shape. At the top and bottom of the escalator, the two tracks
converge so that the front and back wheels of the steps are almost in a straight line. This
causes the stairs to lay in a flat sheet-like arrangement, one after another, so they can easily
travel around the bend in the curved section of track. The tracks carry the steps down along
the underside of the truss until they reach the bottom landing, where they pass through
another curved section of track before exiting the bottom landing. At this point the tracks
separate and the steps once again assume a stair case configuration. This cycle is repeated
continually as the steps are pulled from bottom to top and back to the bottom again.
The steps
The steps themselves are solid, one-piece, die-cast aluminum. Rubber mats may be affixed to
their surface to reduce slippage, and yellow demarcation lines may be added to clearly indicate
their edges. The leading and trailing edges of each step are cleated with comb-like protrusions
that mesh with the comb plates on the top and bottom platforms. The steps are linked by a
continuous metal chain so they form a closed loop with each step able to bend in relation to its
neighbors. The front and back edges of the steps are each connected to two wheels. The rear
wheels are set further apart to fit into the back track and the front wheels have shorter axles to
fit into the narrower front track. As described above, the position of the tracks controls the
orientation of the steps.

The railing
The railing provides a convenient handhold for passengers while they are riding the escalator. It
is constructed of four distinct sections. At the center of the railing is a "slider," also known as a
"glider ply," which is a layer of a cotton or synthetic textile. The purpose of the slider layer is to
allow the railing to move smoothly along its track. The next layer, known as the tension
member, consists of either steel cable or flat steel tape. It provides the handrail with the
necessary tensile strength and flexibility. On top of tension member are the inner construction
components, which are made of chemically treated rubber designed to prevent the layers from
separating. Finally, the outer layer, the only part that passengers actually see, is the rubber
cover, which is a blend of synthetic polymers and rubber. This cover is designed to resist
degradation from environmental conditions, mechanical wear and tear, and human vandalism.
The railing is constructed by feeding rubber through a computer controlled extrusion machine
to produce layers of the required size and type in order to match specific orders. The
component layers of fabric, rubber, and steel are shaped by skilled workers before being fed
into the presses, where they are fused together. When installed, the finished railing is pulled
along its track by a chain that is connected to the main drive gear by a series of pulleys.
Design
A number of factors affect escalator design, including physical requirements, location, traffic
patterns, safety considerations, and aesthetic preferences. Foremost, physical factors like the
vertical and horizontal distance to be spanned must be considered. These factors will
determine the pitch of the escalator and its actual length. The ability of the building
infrastructure to support the heavy components is also a critical physical concern. Location is
important because escalators should be situated where they can be easily seen by the general
public. In department stores, customers should be able to view the merchandise easily.
Furthermore, up and down escalator traffic should be physically separated and should not lead
into confined spaces.
Traffic patterns must also be anticipated in escalator design. In some buildings the objective is
simply to move people from one floor to another, but in others there may be a more specific
requirement, such as funneling visitors towards a main exit or exhibit. The number of
passengers is important because escalators are designed to carry a certain maximum number
of people. For example, a single width escalator traveling at about 1.5 feet (0.45 m) per second
can move an estimated 170 persons per five-minute period. Wider models traveling at up to 2
feet (0.6 m) per second can handle as many as 450 people in the same time period. The
carrying capacity of an escalator must match the expected peak traffic demand. This is crucial

for applications in which there are sudden increases in the number of passengers. For example,
escalators used in train stations must be designed to cater for the peak traffic flow discharged
from a train, without causing excessive bunching at the escalator entrance.
Of course, safety is also major concern in escalator design. Fire protection of an escalator flooropening may be provided by adding automatic sprinklers or fireproof shutters to the opening,
or by installing the escalator in an enclosed fire-protected hall. To limit the danger of
overheating, adequate ventilation for the spaces that contain the motors and gears must be
provided. It is preferred that a traditional staircase be located adjacent to the escalator if the
escalator is the primary means of transport between floors. It may also be necessary to provide
an elevator lift adjacent to an escalator for wheelchairs and disabled persons. Finally,
consideration should be given to the aesthetics of the escalator. The architects and designers
can choose from a wide range of styles and colors for the handrails and tinted side panels.
The Manufacturing
Process
1. The first stage of escalator construction is to establish the design, as described above.
The escalator manufacturer uses this information to construct the appropriately
customized equipment. There are two types of companies that supply escalators,
primary manufacturers who actually build the equipment, and secondary suppliers that
design and install the equipment. In most cases, the secondary suppliers obtain the
necessary equipment from the primary manufacturers and make necessary
modifications for installation. Therefore, most escalators are actually assembled at the
primary manufacturer. The tracks, step chains, stair assembly, and motorized gears and
pulleys are all bolted into place on the truss before shipping.
2. Prior to installation, the landing areas must be prepared to connect to the escalator. For
example, concrete fittings must be poured, and the steel framework that will hold the
truss in place must be attached. After the escalator is delivered, the entire assembly is
uncrated and jockeyed into position between the top and bottom landing holes. There
are a variety of methods for lifting the truss assembly into place, one of which is a
scissors lift apparatus mounted on a wheeled support platform. The scissors lift is
outfitted with a locator assembly to aid in vertical and angular alignment of the
escalator. With such a device, the upper end of the truss can be easily aligned with and
then supported by a support wall associated with the upper landing. The lower end of
the truss can be subsequently lowered into a pit associated with the floor of the lower
landing. In some cases, the railings may be shipped separately from the rest of the

equipment. In such a situation, they are carefully coiled and packed for shipping. They
are then connected to the appropriate chains after the escalator is installed.
3. Make final connections for the power source and check to ensure all tracks and chains
are properly aligned.
4. Verify all motorized elements are functioning properly, that the belts and chains

An escalator is a continuously moving staircase. Each stair has a pair of wheels on each
side, one at the front of the step and one at the rear. The wheels run on two rails. At the
top and bottom of the escalator, the inner rail dips beneath the outer rail, so that the
bottom of the stair flattens, making it easier for riders to get on and off.
move smoothly and at the correct speed, and that the emergency braking system is
activated. The step treads must be far enough apart that they do not pinch or rub
against each other. However, they should be positioned such that no large gaps are
present, which could increase the chance of injury.
Quality Control

The Code of Federal Regulation (CFR) contains guidelines for escalator quality control and
establishes minimum inspection standards. As stated in the code, "elevators and escalators
shall be thoroughly inspected at intervals not exceeding one year. Additional monthly
inspections for satisfactory operation shall be conducted by designated persons." Records of
the annual inspections are to be posted near the escalator or be available at the terminal. In
addition, the code specifies that the escalator's maximum load limits shall be posted and not
exceeded. Additional safety standards can also be found in American Society of Mechanical
Engineers Handbook.
The Future
Several innovations in escalator manufacture have been made in recent years. For example,
one company recently developed a spiral staircase escalator. Another has developed an
escalator suitable for transporting wheelchairs. Such advances are likely to continue as the
industry expands to meet the changing needs of the marketplace. In addition, the industry is
expecting a growth spurt as untapped markets such as China and Hungary begin to recognize
the benefits of escalator technology.