Slope Stability and Sheet Pile and

Contiguous Bored Pile Walls

Hamed Niroumand
Corresponding author
Department of geotechnical engineering, Faculty of civil engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia
e-mail: niroumandh@gmail.com

Khairul Anuar Kassim, Ramli Nazir, Koohyar Faizi

Department of geotechnical engineering, Faculty of civil engineering, Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia

Behnam Adhami
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Central Tehran Branch,
Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Hossein Moayedi
Faculty of Engineering, Kermanshah University of Technology, Kermanshah, Iran

ABSTRACT
Before any construction of retaining structures it is important to understand the behavior of
the soil and the characteristic of the failure modes involved. All this basic information is to
ensure no errors happens during the design and to provide efficient and economical solution.
In the knowledge of soil mechanics there are no such site will have exactly the same condition
and characteristic. Form the view of engineering, soil is a unique material which is form by
continuous and complex process. According to Terzaghi and Peck, soil is composing of
granular aggregate particles which can be extracted by mechanical action (Craig, 1997).
Different soil condition will provide different magnitude of earth pressure against the slope
stability and the retaining structure. This research will highlight various techniques related to
shear strength of soil, slope failure mechanisms, common slope failure, factor influencing the
slope stability and the design concept of sheet pile wall and contiguous bored pile wall.

KEYWORDS: Sheet piles, Anchors, Contiguous bored pile wall, Retaining structures,
Failure mechanism

-9-

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INTRODUCTION
The understanding of the nature of shearing resistance is necessary for soil stability analysis.
The shear strength of the soil mass is the internal resistance per unit area that soil mass can offer
to resist failure and sliding along any plane inside it. The shear strength of the soil may be
represented by Mohr diagram as shown in Figure 1 below. For simplicity of analysis, it is
conventional to use a c - soil strength model as expressed in the Equation 1.

Failure envelope

c
3

Figure 1: Shear strength Mohr-Diagram.

s = n ' tan ' + c'
Where;

(1)

s = shear strength of soil

n = effective normal stress at failure

= effective angle of friction
c = apparent cohesion

SLOPE STABILITY
Slope can be defined as soil in which its surface creates certain degree with the horizontal
plane. Slopes can be categorized either natural or man-made. The effect of gravity and water are
the important factors affecting the changes in the slope stability. There are two main reasons
describing why the slope can become unstable. First is the increase in stress due to increase in
unit weight of the soil caused by water and additional surcharge which will increase the driving
force. The second is because of deterioration of soil strength due to increase in pore water
pressure and reduction of soil cohesion.

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Fundamental Concepts of Slope Stability

There are several important fundamental concepts related to slope stability which is friction,
the effect of pore water pressure and suction.

Friction
Concept of friction is important for slope analysis as shown in Figure 2. If the driving force
increases the friction resistance will also increase. These two values will keep on increasing until
a limit in which the two bodies will slide against each other. The equation for the resistance of the
potential slip surface to shear is based on the Mohr-Coulomb equation as shown in Equation 1
(Gue & Fong, 2003).

Figure 2: Friction concept (Gue & Fong, 2003).

Pore Water Pressure

Pore water pressure exists if the soil is below the ground water table. This soil is considered
saturated. The water pressure reduces the normal pressure between soil particles in contact. Thus
reducing the shear stress and corresponding shear resistance of the slope. Effect of pore water
pressure always associated with seepage force. Seepage force may reduce the resisting forces
along the failure surface. Not only that, it also increase the driving forces by increasing the unit
weight of the soil. The weight on the slope increase when water fills previously empty pore
spaces and fractures. In general, seepage forces are increased by rainfall infiltration. Rainfall
infiltration can raise the existing water table. When the water table is increase, the pore water
pressure will increase as well and will generate potential for the slope to fail. Vegetation, geology
and topography influence the amount of infiltration that can occur.

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Suction
Usually suction occurs in partially saturated soil where water is drawn out through
evaporation. Soil particles are pulling together by the vacuum effect created. This phenomena
increase the normal pressure thus increases the shear resistance.

Potential Slip Surface

Potential slip surfaces are postulate on a slope cross section in order to analyze the stability of
the concerned slope as shown in Figure 3 below. The factor of safety (FOS) will determine
whether the slope is critical or in stable condition. The slip surfaces are analyzed in term of
driving forces and resisting forces happen along the slip surface. In slope stability the main
properties of soil for slope analysis are the unit weight of the soil, , cohesion, c and the friction
angle .

Figure 3: Potential slip surface (Gue & Fong, 2003).

Factor of Safety (FOS)

In the slope stability analysis, the forces acting on the slope have to be understood. The two
types of forces that play an important role in determining the stability of the slope are the driving
force which lead the slope to fail and the resisting force which hold the slope in place. Generally,
the factor of safety (FOS) is expressed in Equation 2. Slope with low FOS means the potential to
fail is higher and vice versa.
=

(2)

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where;

S = Average shear strength available along the failure surface

= Average shear stress developed along the failure surface

Driving Force
The main driving force in most land movement is gravity. Gravity does act alone, slope angle,
climate, slope materials and water contribute to the effect of gravity. Mass movement occurs
much more frequently on steep slopes than on shallow slopes. Water plays a key role in
producing slope failure. In the form of rivers and wave action, water erodes the base of slopes,
removing support, which increase driving forces. An increase in water also contributes to driving
forces that result in slope failure through the effect of pore water pressure. Besides, surcharge
above the slope also contribute to the increments of driving force.

Resisting Force
Resisting forces act oppositely of driving forces. The resistance to downslope movement is
dependent on the shear strength of the slope material. Shear strength is the function of cohesion
and internal friction. Water contributes to resisting forces when sediment pores are partially filed
with water. The thin film of water acts as a binder, making the particles cohesive.

Finite Slope
A slope is considered finite if the critical height approaches the height of the slope. (Das,
In most cases, the slip surface is in circular shape which is known as circular failure surface but in
some irregular cases, it could be non-circular failure surface as shown in Figure 4. In simplified
method, we need to make an assumption about the general shape of the surface of potential failure
when analyzing the stability of a finite slope in a homogenous soil. Table 1 below shows various
methods used to analyze the stability of finite slope together with its comments.

(a) Circular failure surface.

(b) Non-circular failure surface.

Figure 4: Circular and non-circular failure surfaces.

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Table 1: Methods of stability analysis

(Adapted from Geotechnical Control Office, 1984).
Method

Failure
surface

Bishop

Circular

Consider force and moment equilibrium for each slice.

Rigorous method assumes values for the vertical forces on
the sides of each slice until all equation are satisfied.
Simplified method assumes the resultant of the vertical
forces is zero on each slice.

(1955)

Janbu

Comments

Non-circular

Consider force and moment equilibrium for each slice.

Assumptions on line of action of interslice forces must be
made.

(1972)

Vertical interslice forces not included in routine procedure

and calculated F then corrected to allow for vertical
forces.
Morgenstem & Price

Non-circular

Consider force and moment for each slice.

Similar to Janbu generalized procedures

(1965)

More accurate than Janbu solution. No simplified method.

Sarma
(1979)

Non-circular

Modification of from Morgenstem & Price which reduces

the iterations.
Considerable reduction in computing time without loss of
accuracy.

Total Stress Analysis

Stability of the slope is analyzed based on the available shear strength of the soil and do not
consider any increase in strength after consolidation. The shear strength of the soil can be
obtained from unconsolidated undrained triaxial compression tests (UU), isotropically
consolidated undrained triaxial compression tests, (CIU), vane shear tests or piezocone.

Undrained Strength Analysis

This approach takes account of the gain in undrained shear strength as a result of
consolidation. (Ladd, 1991). This method extends the total stress analysis by using current
vertical normalized strength ratio of su / v ' where su is undrained shear strength and v is
current vertical effect stress. This method is commonly used in the analysis of short term stability.

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Effective Stress Analysis

Stability of the slope can be analyzed using effective stress approach. Pore water pressure
also can be estimated using this approach. The available shear strength along the shear plane can
be described as Equation 1. Effective stress analysis will give more conventional result (higher
FOS) compare to undrained analysis.(Ladd, 1991).

Groundwater
Groundwater occurs when a portion of precipitation runoff infiltrated into the ground and
percolate through pore spaces and fractures attain saturation or near saturation condition. Porosity
relates the percentage of pore space to the total volume and represents the capacity of material to
hold water when saturated.

Groundwater Effect
When the saturated soil below the groundwater level and in drained condition, the active and
passive pressure must be calculated in term of effective unit weight of soil, and as well as other
related parameter such as c and . The hydrostatic pressure need to be considered as additional
pressure to the active and passive soil pressure.
The groundwater table for hillslopes is generally low and fluctuates with time and rainfall
events. Following is the effects of water on the slope stability and how it contributes to slope
failure;
i.
ii.
iii.

Reduced or eliminated the apparent cohesion strength, c of the soil thus increase the risk
of failure.
Act as lubricant for the potential failure plane when there is an initial movement
although the magnitude is relatively small.
High groundwater table decrease the shear resistance in the potential failure thus
increases the risk of failure due to increased water pressure between soil particles.

Groundwater and Seepage Control

Groundwater and seepage control is a most important consideration in the stability of natural
slope. Investigation must consider the control of groundwater and seepage for both during and
construction stage (Roy, 1984). Water often causes problems in the construction industry. Most
slope failures including highways and other cut slopes caused by seepage forces, failure of
retaining structure caused by unrelieved hydrostatic pressure and failure of earth embankment
caused by excessive pore water pressure. During construction stage, groundwater and seepage
control are necessities to provide dry excavation and permit construction to proceed efficiently.

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Besides, efficient control of both groundwater and seepage can reduce lateral load on bracing in
excavation, improve support characteristic of foundation material and also increase the stability of
the slopes and hill side fills. Groundwater and seepage forces can be controlled by installing
appropriate subsoil drainage system such as weep holes to drain out excessive water and the
simplest method is planting of vegetation to reduce water seepage into the soil.

Types of Slope Failure and their Characteristic

Slope failures occur in many forms. Recognition allows the selection of slope repairing
method which will avoid, eliminate or reduce the hazard. There are various possibilities causing a
slope to fail. Slope can experience significant movement, termed slope failure or landslides when
natural or human activities cause a change in the forces act in the slope as described in previous
sections. Failure of the slope can be classified into several types due to various actions by soil
erosion agents, soil types and its behavior and also the total forces acting in the soil as well as its
direction.

Falls
This type of failure is commonly happen in steep slope. In the initial stage, a crack will form
on the slope surface follow by formation of a shear plane in which will reduce the bond strength
between soil particles. The soil mass will tend to move downward due to gravity action and
causing the soil mass to collapse. Soil erosion and weathering due to alternate hot and cold will
also contribute to this mechanism. Besides, human activities such as excavation cut and fill
without proper control will cause a slope to fail.

Soil mass collapse

Figure 5: Falls type of slope failure

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Slides
This type of failure occurs on a slope which is gentler than those in fall type of failure. Slides
refer to the occurrence where the moving soil mass is separated from the underlying and adjacent
earth by a slippage plane or a zone. The slippage plane represents the continuous surface where
the maximum shear strength of the soil has been reached and result in large displacement. This
type of failure can be categorized as rotational slide and translational slide.
Rotational slide can be circular or non-circular. Usually, the circular slide associate with
slope of homogeneous materials possessing adhesion. Relatively slow movement of soil mass
along some well define arch shaped failure surface to the toe area (Roy, 1984). Meanwhile, noncircular slide associate with slope of non-homogeneous materials. The major causes are increase
in slope inclination, effect of weather and force action due to seepage.

(a) Circular rotational slide

(b) Non-circular rotational slide

Figure 6: Rotational slide type of slope failure (Craig, 1978).

Translational or planar slide caused by slope failure of non-homogenous materials with
weakness planes. Tend to occur where the adjacent stratum is at relatively shallow depth below
the surface of the slope. The slippage occurs along the weak plane posses a downward dip. Before
total failure, tension cracks often form during slight initial displacement (Roy, 1984).
Translational slide can be obviously found in slope of coarse granular particles and this failure
can continuous over a long distance.

Slip plane

Figure 7: Translational or planar slide type of slope failure (Craig, 1978).

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Debris Slides
This type of failure involves a mass of soil moving as a unit along a steeply dipping planar surface. Debris
slides occur progressively and can develop into debris avalanches or debris flows (Roy, 1984). There are
several factors influencing the occurrence of the failure which include increase in slope inclination,
presence of force due to seepage and excessive stripping of vegetation.
Debris avalanches are very rapid movements of soil debris. Major causes are high seepage forces, heavy
rainfalls, creep and gradually yielding of soil strata. Failure is sudden and without warning and normally
occur on very steep slope. Meanwhile, debris flows are similar to debris avalanches. The different point
between them is the quantity of water in the debris flows mass cause it to flow as slurry.

Original position
Moving soil mass

Figure 8: Debris slide type of slope failure.

Creep
Creep is generally results from gravitational forces and seepage forces. It is a slow, imperceptible
deformation of slope materials under low stress levels. Creep normally only affects the shallow part of the
slope but can be deep seated where a week zone exists. Its major surface features are parallel transverse
slope ridges.

Sheet Pile Wall

Since 20 years ago in Malaysia, sheet piles are widely used in the construction industry as a retaining
structure. Sheet piles often used to construct a retaining structure where the water table is high and to
prevent water from enter the construction site which can cause problems. Sheet pile walls can be designed
based on cantilever system or anchored system. In practice, Sheet pile walls are constructed either driven a
steel sheet into the ground and then backfill is place on the land side or driven a sheet into the ground and
soil in front of the system is then dredged. Generally, several types of sheet piles are used in construction
industry they are wooden sheet piles, pre-cast concrete sheet piles and steel sheet piles. However, steel
sheet piles are commonly used in Malaysia because of their resistance to high driving stress developed
when being driven into hard soils and they also light weight and can be reused.

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Figure 9: Steel sheet pile wall.

Lateral Earth Pressure for Sheet Pile Wall

Rankine or Coulomb theory for lateral earth pressure is the common approaches used to determine the
effective lateral forces acting on the walls. Coulomb method is recommended since a sheet pile wall is
sufficiently flexible to produce large lateral displacements so that slip occurs between wall and soil.
Friction resistance is developed from soil slip at the interface to reduce the active earth pressure coefficient,
Ka. Meanwhile, Rankine method does not consider the friction between wall and soil and this come out
with more conservative solution.

Design Concept of Anchored Sheet Pile Wall

Anchored sheet piling also known as anchored bulkheads. When the height of the retained backfill exceeds
6m, anchored sheet pile wall is suggested (Das, 1999). In this situation, anchored sheet pile wall provide an
economical solution. The use of anchored sheet pile wall tends to reduce the lateral deflection, bending
moment and depth of penetration of the pile.

Free Earth Support Method

This method assumed that the embedded depth below the dredge line is not adequate to provide static
condition below the piles. As a result, the walls are free to rotate at the point below the piles. The failure
mode is at the anchored point, and the design must make sure that the provided moment is adequate to
resist the disturbing moment.

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Anchor tie rod

Water table

Mmax
Dredge line
d
Figure 10: Free earth support method (Das, 1999).
After the embedded length, d has been calculated, the tension force in the anchored system can be
determine by using static equilibrium approach in which the total horizontal forces acting in the system
should be zero. It is recommended that the embedded length should be increase by 20% to 40% or
introducing a safety factor at the design passive earth pressure coefficient, Kp (Das, 1999) in which the
design passive earth pressure coefficient to be;

K p ( design ) =

Kp
FS

(3)

where FS = factor of safety.

Types of soil to be penetrated may influence the shape of the pressure distribution diagram. The diagram of
net pressure distribution penetrating sandy soil and clay is shown in Figure 11. Although the shape of the
pressure distribution diagram is different, the concept used to determine the moment and forces is similar
where the static equilibrium approach is applied. The length of the piles can be determined by taking the
moment about a point where tie rod is located.

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Sand

Clay

(c) Anchored sheet pile wall

penetrating clay.

(a) Anchored sheet pile wall

penetrating sand.

Figure 11: Net earth pressure distribution diagram of anchored sheet pile wall in
different soil condition (Das, 1999).

Types of Steel Sheet Piles and Advantages

There are various types of steel sheet piles available in the market for the use in construction
industry. The most commonly used steel sheet piles are the U-section, Z-section and straight web
section. The properties of the steel sheet piles can be obtained from Appendix A at the end of this
research. Following are the advantages of steel sheet pile;
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.

It is resistant to high driving stresses as developed in hard or rocky materials.

Relatively light weight.
May be reused several times.
Easier to increase pile length by welding or bolting.
Long service life either above or below water with modest protection.
Rapid construction.

Anchor
Various types of anchor generally used in sheet pile wall. The magnitude of force acting on
the anchor must be taking into consideration during the selection of anchor to be used. The
general types of anchor used in sheet pile wall are;
1. Tie backs.
2. Anchor plate and beams.
3. Anchor beam with batter piles.

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4. Vertical anchor piles.

Wales

Tie rod
Sheet pile
Figure 12: Tie rod and wale.
Generally, anchor plates and beams are made up of cast concrete blocks. Tie rods are used to
attach the anchors to the sheet pile. For purpose of conveniently attaching the tie rod to the wall,
wales are placed at longitudinal direction at the front or back along the sheet pile wall as shown in
Figure 12. Wales can be designed as a beam with span equal to the length between two adjacent
tie rods.
Tie rod is an element made up of steel bar or cable. Tie rod is used to resist shear forces
developed in the structure of the sheet pile wall itself thus increasing the stability of the wall
(Das, 1999). Tie rods need to be protected against corrosion and usually it is coated with asphaltic
materials or paint.

Bearing Capacity of Tie Backs with Ground Anchor

Ground anchor normally consists of high tensile steel or tendon, one end is anchored against
bearing unit on the wall to be supported and other end is held securely in the soil by cement grout.
The ultimate load of anchor depends on the soil resistance mobilized adjacent to the fixed anchor
length. Anchors are usually prestressed in order to reduce the movement required to mobilize the
soil resistance (Craig, 1978).

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Free anchor length

Fixed anchor length, L
d

Tendon
Grouted mass

Figure 13: Ground anchors formed by pressure injection.

The ultimate resistance of an anchor is expressed by Littlejohn,1970 as;

Q f = A ' h + D L tan ' + B ' h (D 2 d 2 )

2
4

(4)

where
Qf = ultimate load capacity of anchor
A = ratio of normal pressure at interface to effective overburden pressure (within 1 to 2)
B = bearing capacity factor (Nq /B within 1.3 to 1.4, using Nq values of Berezantzev,
Khristoforov and Golubkov)
h = depth of overburden
L = fixed anchor length
D = diameter of fixed anchor
d = diameter of borehole

Contiguous Bored Pile Wall

Contiguous bored pile wall (CBP wall) is an earth retaining structure made up of series of
bored piles between which there is a gap. Close bored or contiguous piles are constructed in a line
with a clear spacing between the piles of 75mm to 100mm. The wall is not watertight and
measures may be required to prevent fines wash-out between the piles. Each pile is reinforced
with cage which is designed to resist shear and bending moment due to lateral earth pressure
result from backfill soil. The determination of the size required the characteristic of the soil being
retained. Figure 14 shows the arrangement of CBP wall.

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Reinforcement
cage

Structural pile

Pile spacing varies

(typically 75mm 100mm clear spacing)
Figure 14: Arrangement of contiguous bored pile wall.

Figure 15: Contiguous bored pile wall.

Design Concept of Contiguous Bored Pile Wall

The concept of cantilever system can be utilized in the design of contiguous bored pile wall. They can be
designed to be free standing or used in conjunction with propping mechanisms such as anchors, grouting or
raking piles as in reticulated piled wall. In the concept of cantilever system, the piles act as a cantilever
beam above the dredge line. Figure 16a and 16b show the natural lateral yielding of a cantilever wall
penetrating sandy soil and clay respectively.
The properties of the soil will affect the shape of the lateral yielding of the wall. If there is present of water,
the hydrostatic pressure has to be taken into consideration during the design. Generally, the active lateral
pressure is only from the land side (right side) and the lateral passive pressure is from the left side in Figure
16. The condition is reversed at area below the point of rotation (point O) or below the sheet pile.

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Water table

Active pressure

Passive pressure

Active pressure
O

Active pressure

Passive pressure

(a) Net earth pressure diagram of cantilever pile wall penetrating sand.

Water table

Sand

Active pressure
Dredge line
A
Active pressure

Clay
Passive pressure

(b) Net earth pressure diagram of cantilever pile wall penetrating clay.

Figure 16: Net earth pressure of cantilever pile system (Das, 1999).
For cantilever pile wall penetrating clay, the piles must be driven into a layer possessing an
undrained cohesion, c ( = 0 concept) and the pressure diagram will be like Figure 16b. (Das,
1999). The embedded length can be obtained by using the principle of static, where the total
moment of the force per unit length must be zero. In practice, the embedded length obtained
should be added by 20% to 40% for safety purposes.

Application of Contiguous Bored Pile Wall

Most pile retaining walls are installed in urban centre where space is at a premium. On inner
urban sites the cost of development land forces the designer to make maximum use of available
space or land. Besides, the CBP wall also applied in underground construction such as basement
car-parking, storage and accommodation. The CBP wall provides a robust solution for forming

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deep excavation in city centre locations where ground water retention is not a consideration. The
wall is also extensively used for highway structures. They also have also been used to retain dry
granular materials of fills. In water bearing granular soils loose are likely to occur in the gaps
between the piles. This can be prevented by providing a seal between adjacent piles.

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