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AbstractAn effect of constant increase in the price of
hydrocarbon-based fuels and the resulting pollution of
environment have motivated researchers and the automobile
industry to take a serious look at electric vehicles (EV). Hybrid
technologies have also found their place in the automobile
industry. Hybrid Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
are being developed and improved constantly. An electric
vehicle plugged in a docking station that stores energy from a
solar panel array is probably the best way to charge a shortdistance commuter EV rather than connecting it to the grid.
Production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water and subsequent
use through fuel cells is another possibility of using solar energy.
A docking station consisting of solar panel array, DC-to-DC
converter and batteries was designed. Compatibility with
hydrogen electrolyzer was considered with emphasis on
efficiency. Two separate tracks for plug-in vehicle were followed:
a) Electric Energy Conversion; and, b) Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) fuel cell. Range of the vehicle, charging rate
and initial cost of the two separate tracks were calculated so that
a direct comparison could be presented.
Short distance commuters are the primary requirements for
daily transportation of most individuals. Considering an average
traveled distance of 10 miles per/day at an average speed of
30miles/hour, these vehicles and docking stations could be used in
most of the North American urban areas.
Index Terms Electric vehicle, Photovoltaic
Generation, Solar Energy, Fuel Cells, Energy Storage
Power
I. INTRODUCTION
655
C. Base of Design
1) Vehicle Base Parameters
x Curb Weight: 2932 lb = 1332.73 Kg.
x Occupancy: 2 passengers @ ~ 75Kg each.
x Slope: 4q
x Speed:
4q slope @ 10 mph = 4.4704 m/s
Constant @ 30 mph = 13.4112 m/s
x Mechanical Transmission Efficiency factor = 0.92
x Coefficient of drag (Cd) = 0.26
x Resistance Coefficient (Cr) = 0.018
x Frontal Area (A) = 58.7 x 67.9 = 3985.73 in2 = 2.57
m2
x Power required to move the vehicle at 4q slope:
P
F V
mg sin T V
4535.9 >W @
(1)
4930.3 >W @
K transmission
(2)
2) Load Design
x
Aerodynamic Drag:
Fd
Cr mg
235.33 >N @
(4)
Fr Fd V
4767.1 >W @
(5)
(3)
Traction Force:
PCS
120.16 >N @
Rolling Resistance:
Fr
Cd AV 2
PCS
Ktransmission
5181.65 >W @
(6)
3) Range
For this particular PHEV, the expected range (R) in miles
as a function of the vehicles speed (V) on a flat freeway has
been estimated according to the following expressions:
R V T
(7)
656
R K
Ebatt
Cr m g Cd A V
(8)
70
I kt
(9)
60
Where:
- C is the capacity, at a one-ampere discharge rate,
expressed in Ah
- I is the discharge current, expressed in A
- k is the Peukert constant
- t is the time of discharge, expressed in hours
Range (miles)
50
40
30
20
10
20
40
60
80
100
Speed (mph)
dE
A. Operation
The system was designed to be capable of storing energy
during day time of approximately eight (8) hours (charging
time) and to discharge this energy into the battery traction
system of the vehicle during night time within approximately
ten (10) hours.
B. Design
The system consisted of photovoltaic modules, an
electronic converter, a load controller, and a bank of batteries
with the corresponding indicator of the level of the battery
charge. An additional electronic converter with the
corresponding
load
controller
is
set
at
the
discharging/charging side towards the input of the traction
battery bank of the vehicle.
The PV set was designed to supply energy to be stored in a
valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) sealed battery bank.
Lithium-ion battery technology is under research for
medium/large-scale energy storage applications. The lead-acid
battery is the most common energy storage technology
because of its relative economic power density. The VRLA
technology presents major advantages such as reduction in
maintenance work, reduced size and weight. The main
disadvantages of this technology are: higher cost, shorter
lifetime and charging limitations due to gassing and water
depletion.
A charge controller is required to keep the system under
optimal levels of operation. The charge controller essentially
TdS PdV
(10)
657
K real
IV. TRACK 2 - SOLAR TO TRACTION BATTERY SYSTEM VIA
FUEL CELL
ln Q
'E0 RT
'G
'G0 RT ln Q
nF
E
Eth
(14)
'E
'G
'H
(11)
(12)
Fig. 5 Production Rate of Hydrogen [16]
'G
nF 'E
(13)
658
C. Base of Design
1) Vehicle Base Parameters
x Curb Weight: 2932 lb = 1332.73 Kg.
x Occupancy: 2 passengers @ ~ 75Kg each.
x Slope: 4q
x Speed:
4q slope @ 10 mph = 4.4704 m/s
Constant @ 30 mph = 13.4112 m/s
x Mechanical Transmission Efficiency factor = 0.92
x Coefficient of drag (Cd) = 0.26
x Resistance Coefficient (Cr) = 0.018
x Frontal Area (A) = 58.7 x 67.9 = 3985.73 in2 = 2.57
m2
x Power required to move the vehicle at 4q slope:
P
F V
mg sin T V
4535.9 >W @
(1)
4930.3 >W @
K transmission
(2)
2) Load Design
x
Aerodynamic Drag:
Fd
Cr mg
235.33 >N @
(4)
Fr Fd V
4767.1 >W @
(5)
(3)
Traction Force:
PCS
120.16 >N @
Rolling Resistance:
Fr
Cd AV 2
PCS
Ktransmission
5181.65 >W @
(6)
3) Range
For this particular PHEV, the expected range (R) in miles
as a function of the vehicles speed (V) on a flat freeway has
been estimated according to the following expressions:
R V T
(7)
659
station for solar charged electric and fuel cell vehicles is a real
technical possibility.
Stand alone docking stations will minimize the risk of peak
hours for electric power operators, providing a safe and cheap
energy as main vehicle driver. This is in line with US
Governments new trend towards reduced dependence on
fossil energy. The effect of the PHEV and V2G technologies
on the overall electric distribution system is a concern
nowadays, but could be ameliorated by installation of docking
facilities.
On a comparative scale, the time consumed for charging
the vehicle traction battery electrically using the batterystorage scheme was twice that of the vehicle battery charging
process using fuel cell scheme. Even for a huge one time
installation cost of the fuel cell scheme of charging, double
the output could be delivered in the same time. Also, since
clean energy is considered in the big picture, the use of solar
energy and any of the two energy conversion systems used for
the design of a docking station prove to be a viable option
taking into concern consequences on the environment and
ecosystem.
A summary of obtained results is presented in TABLE III.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
TRACK 1
SYSTEM
~ 221
~ 30.4
TRACK 2
SYSTEM
~ 221
~ 30.4
22.4
22.4
95
95
21
21
10
7.37
70
44.30
70
44.30
40,000
96,000
[21]
[22]
[23]
VIII. REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
660