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Design of a Docking Station for Solar Charged

Electric and Fuel Cell Vehicles


Diego M. Robalino, Ganapathy Kumar, L.O. Uzoechi, U.C. Chukwu, and Satish M. Mahajan,


AbstractAn effect of constant increase in the price of
hydrocarbon-based fuels and the resulting pollution of
environment have motivated researchers and the automobile
industry to take a serious look at electric vehicles (EV). Hybrid
technologies have also found their place in the automobile
industry. Hybrid Electric and Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
are being developed and improved constantly. An electric
vehicle plugged in a docking station that stores energy from a
solar panel array is probably the best way to charge a shortdistance commuter EV rather than connecting it to the grid.
Production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water and subsequent
use through fuel cells is another possibility of using solar energy.
A docking station consisting of solar panel array, DC-to-DC
converter and batteries was designed. Compatibility with
hydrogen electrolyzer was considered with emphasis on
efficiency. Two separate tracks for plug-in vehicle were followed:
a) Electric Energy Conversion; and, b) Proton Exchange
Membrane (PEM) fuel cell. Range of the vehicle, charging rate
and initial cost of the two separate tracks were calculated so that
a direct comparison could be presented.
Short distance commuters are the primary requirements for
daily transportation of most individuals. Considering an average
traveled distance of 10 miles per/day at an average speed of
30miles/hour, these vehicles and docking stations could be used in
most of the North American urban areas.
Index Terms Electric vehicle, Photovoltaic
Generation, Solar Energy, Fuel Cells, Energy Storage

limitations on the power delivery infrastructure. According to


American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 [2], an
additional $400 million will support efforts to add electric
technologies to vehicles.
The purpose of this work is to provide an alternative to
manufacturers and consumers to encourage the use of clean
energy systems for transportation purposes while maintaining
the brand design without significant modifications. This is
possible by using an external stand-alone power generation
system to be installed and operated at particular dwelling
units, garages or parking lots.
For the purpose of this study, the energy storage system
and the PV array are not connected to the grid. A stand-alone
solar conventional system, accessible in the market, has been
sized and evaluated for one of the automobile market leaders
which may provide an excellent baseline of study for the
future technologies.
II. TOYOTA PRIUS09
The following data is a summary of the technical
specifications of the Toyota 4-Door Prius Gas/Electric Hybrid
(ECVT), which was considered for this study [3].
TABLE I. 2009 TOYOTA PRIUS SPECIFICATIONS [3]
TRACTION BATTERY
Battery Type
Sealed Nickel-Metal Hydride (Ni-MH) [16]
Battery Power Output
28 hp (21kW)
Battery Voltage
201.6V
Hybrid System net Power
110 hp (82kW)
WEIGHTS AND CAPACITIES
Curb weight (lb.)
2932
Seating Capacity
5
Fuel tank (gal.)
11.9
Mileage Estimates (mpg 48/45/46
city/highway/combined)

Power

I. INTRODUCTION

INCE the beginning of the automotive industry, the idea


of an environmentally friendly product has motivated
manufacturers and designers. Nevertheless, it is only after the
oil crisis in the late 1970s the idea of Solar Electric Vehicles
(SEV) came into picture. A detailed history of Solar Vehicles
is presented in [1].
An SEV by itself has complex limitations due to the size
of the solar arrays, battery size and motor. The construction of
these vehicles has evolved into hybrid electric and plug-in
hybrid electric technologies (HEV & PHEV).
The power electric industry faces a continuously growing
demand, where the challenges of maintaining high reliability
indices in the system are becoming more complex due to the
The authors are with the Department of Electrical & Computer
Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, TN 38505
USA (Corresponding e-mail: dmrobalino21@tntech.edu).

978-1-4244-2544-0/08/$20.00 2009 IEEE

A. Stand-alone Solar Power Generation


The photovoltaic effect involves the direct transformation
of radiant energy into electricity without the intermediate
production of heat. The system was designed to supply all
loads with DC power at different voltage levels. The
commercially available solar panels with following
specifications were chosen:
POUTmax=200W, Vnominal=24VDC, and A1.45m2. The overall
arrangement of 20 such panels needs a total area of 29m2.
Using a reference of 1000W/m2 (1 sun) as the luminous power
at the ground level, the PV array efficiency is 13.7%. PV
arrays increase/decrease the power output based on the

655

illumination level which is not constant. In this document the


maximum power output given at 26.3V maximum power
voltage, needs to be re-formulated for a 24V operational
voltage. Therefore, the real operational power output from the
PV module is 190W (based on the IV Curve of the
manufacturer). A delivery of 3.8 kW at 24V DC was obtained
from the stand-alone power generation system.
The two separate tracks followed in this study are Solar to
Traction battery via VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid)
energy storage (Track 1) and Solar to Traction battery via Fuel
Cell (Track 2) as illustrated in Fig. 1.

C. Base of Design
1) Vehicle Base Parameters
x Curb Weight: 2932 lb = 1332.73 Kg.
x Occupancy: 2 passengers @ ~ 75Kg each.
x Slope: 4q
x Speed:
4q slope @ 10 mph = 4.4704 m/s
Constant @ 30 mph = 13.4112 m/s
x Mechanical Transmission Efficiency factor = 0.92
x Coefficient of drag (Cd) = 0.26
x Resistance Coefficient (Cr) = 0.018
x Frontal Area (A) = 58.7 x 67.9 = 3985.73 in2 = 2.57
m2
x Power required to move the vehicle at 4q slope:
P

F V

mg sin T V

4535.9 >W @

(1)

Considering Transmission Efficiency:


PT

4930.3 >W @

K transmission

(2)

2) Load Design
x

Aerodynamic Drag:

Fig. 1 Docking Station - Alternative Tracks

Fd

B. Energy Conversion & Storage


One of the greatest challenges in the construction and
design of solar vehicles was the size of the energy storage
elements. The design started from lead-acid cells to newly
developed nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), Nickel-Cadmium
(NiCd), lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium polymer (Li-poly)
batteries. All these new nickel and lithium based batteries
reduce the weight of the component, but increase the
investment cost and the future maintenance cost.
A rough comparison of some of the battery-available
technologies is summarized in TABLE II.

Cr mg

235.33 >N @

(4)

Fr  Fd V

4767.1 >W @

(5)

Considering the Transmission Efficiency:


PT

TABLE II BATTERY ROUGH COMPARISON [4]


ENERGY
EFFICIENCIE
MAX.
CYCLE
DENSITY
S
DEPTH
BATTERY
LIFE
DIS(cycles)
(Wh/Kg)
Ah%
Wh%
CHARGE
Lead acid,
20%
50
500
90
75
SLI
Lead-acid,
80%
35
2000
90
75
deep cycle
Nickel1000100%
20
70
60
cadmium
2000
Nickel-metal
1000100%
50
70
65
hydride
2000

(3)

Traction Force:
PCS

120.16 >N @

Rolling Resistance:
Fr

Cd AV 2

PCS

Ktransmission

5181.65 >W @

(6)

3) Range
For this particular PHEV, the expected range (R) in miles
as a function of the vehicles speed (V) on a flat freeway has
been estimated according to the following expressions:
R V T

(7)

where T is the total duration of the batteries. Using the


previously calculated drag and rolling resistances (3) and (4),
the final expression for range as a function of the vehicles
speed is given as [5]:

656

R K

Ebatt
Cr m g  Cd A V

(8)

For this study, the value of the vehicle efficiency  is set at


75%. Considering the use of the vehicle with fully charged
traction batteries (21kW), the calculated curve of range is
presented in Fig. 2.

shuts down the PV array when the battery bank is fully


charged.
Deep-cycle batteries intended for photovoltaic systems are
often specified in terms of their discharge rate. Therefore, a
100Ah at a discharge rate C/10 will deliver 10A. The capacity
of the battery is also temperature dependant. The calculation
of the capacity of a lead-acid battery in terms of the rate at
which it is discharged is expressed by Peukerts Law [6]:

70

I kt

(9)

60

Where:
- C is the capacity, at a one-ampere discharge rate,
expressed in Ah
- I is the discharge current, expressed in A
- k is the Peukert constant
- t is the time of discharge, expressed in hours

Range (miles)

50
40
30
20
10

The battery bank used in this study was made up of 24


VRLA units rated at 100-Ah / 24VDC. Considering a
discharging process of 10 hours, it is expected to draw up to
10A per hour during the 10-hour period.
As indicated in [6], the thermodynamic analysis of storage
components is limited by the kinetic factor. Thus, the analysis
assumed that the cells operate at constant temperature and
pressure. The fundamental thermodynamic relation is:

20

40

60

80

100

Speed (mph)

Fig. 2. Range vs. Speed for the Case of Study

III. TRACK 1 SOLAR TO TRACTION BATTERY SYSTEM VIA


VRLA STORAGE SYSTEM

dE

A. Operation
The system was designed to be capable of storing energy
during day time of approximately eight (8) hours (charging
time) and to discharge this energy into the battery traction
system of the vehicle during night time within approximately
ten (10) hours.
B. Design
The system consisted of photovoltaic modules, an
electronic converter, a load controller, and a bank of batteries
with the corresponding indicator of the level of the battery
charge. An additional electronic converter with the
corresponding
load
controller
is
set
at
the
discharging/charging side towards the input of the traction
battery bank of the vehicle.
The PV set was designed to supply energy to be stored in a
valve-regulated lead acid (VRLA) sealed battery bank.
Lithium-ion battery technology is under research for
medium/large-scale energy storage applications. The lead-acid
battery is the most common energy storage technology
because of its relative economic power density. The VRLA
technology presents major advantages such as reduction in
maintenance work, reduced size and weight. The main
disadvantages of this technology are: higher cost, shorter
lifetime and charging limitations due to gassing and water
depletion.
A charge controller is required to keep the system under
optimal levels of operation. The charge controller essentially

TdS  PdV

(10)

Where, E is internal energy, T is temperature, S is entropy,


P is pressure, and V is volume.
C. DC to DC Conversion
The input voltage to the DC to DC converter is 48V; the
input power is 3 kW while the output of the converter was set
to a voltage of 201.6 V. The traction battery system has a
maximum output power of 21 kW.
Since a step-up converter was required, a boost type of
converter (Fig. 3) was used. Also, in a converter, energy is
expected to be conserved i.e. input power, Ps, is approximately
equal to the output power, Po. An efficiency,  of 95%, a
ripple factor, V of 10% and a switching frequency, fs, of
1.0MHz (since DC-DC converters operate more efficiently
around this frequency [7]) were applied for the system.

657

Fig. 3. Simplified Circuit for Boost Converter

After the analysis of the converter, the following


parameters were adopted for its design, namely, k of 0.762
called the duty cycle which represents the fraction of the
period the switch is on; overall periodic time, Tp of 10s; ontime, Ton and off-time, Toff of 700ns and 300ns respectively,
while the output capacitor, Cout and series input inductor, L are
400nF and 15H respectively.

F is the Faraday constant =9.649 104 C/mol, T is the


temperature in degrees Kelvin, n is the number of electrons
transferred in the fuel cell and Q is the reaction quotient. As Q
increases, reaction goes towards completion and the voltage
drops. The potential energy associated with less reactant is
lower than the potential energy associated with more
reactants. The conversion efficiency is given by [12]:

K real
IV. TRACK 2 - SOLAR TO TRACTION BATTERY SYSTEM VIA
FUEL CELL

Fig. 4 PEM Fuel Cell Mechanism [10]

The chemical reactions governing the process are:


x At the Anode: H2  2 H+ + 2ex At the Cathode: 4H+ +4e- +O2  2H2O
Incoming hydrogen is ionized at the anode resulting in free
electrons and Hydrogen ion. Transportation of ions and
electrons through the polymer electrolyte membrane results in
the formation of water at the cathode. The released electrons
contribute to the flow of electrical current.
Based on the Nernst Equation, the voltage output of the
Fuel Cell reaction is given by the following equations [12]:

ln Q

'E0  RT

'G

'G0  RT ln Q

nF

E
Eth

(14)

B. Design Analysis and Energy Conversion


The biggest challenge lies in converting water to hydrogen
using solar power. In this research, an appropriate electrolyzer
was considered to deliver the amount of hydrogen required for
the functioning of the fuel cell. Also, since a large amount of
hydrogen is required for proper charging times, it is
imperative that proper safety standards be followed for
pressurized storage considering the combustible nature of the
gas [14].
The PV array output was used to power a hydrogen
electrolyzer into which a constant flow of water is assumed.
The hydrogen production rate varies from product to product
[9]. Based on estimates of hydrogen that can be produced on a
normal day for ground luminous intensity and also for solar
array output, the electrolyzer can be customized [17].
The power requirement of the Toyota PRIUS traction
battery is 21kW at an input voltage of 201.6 V. The output
voltage of the PV array is 24 V with a current of ~158 A. The
output from the PV array can be utilized to electrolyze water
into hydrogen and oxygen. Based on requirements for
appropriate charging times and fuel cell input, the hydrogen
synthesis rate of the electrolyzer for input flow rate of water
was found to be approximately 24 scfh at 3.8 kW with an
efficiency of 70% [16]. Fig. 6 shows the hydrogen production
rate of the electrolyzer for the voltage input from the solar
panels.

A. Fuel cell thermodynamics and specifications


A Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell usually
fulfills the needs of the automotive industry [9]. The
advantages of using a PEM fuel cell as compared to other fuel
cell technologies such as Solid Oxide Fuel cells (SOFCs) and
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) are: (a) Immediate
startup time, (b) Clean fuel input, (c) low orientation
sensitivities, and (d) low operation costs [9]. A pictorial
description of the fuel cell working principle [10, [11] is given
in Fig.4.

'E

'G
'H

(11)
(12)
Fig. 5 Production Rate of Hydrogen [16]

'G

nF 'E

(13)

where G is the Gibbs free energy change, G0 is the


standard change in Gibbs free energy, E is the potential
developed across the electrodes in volts, E0 is the standard
cell potential in volts, R is the gas constant = 8.3.14 J/K-mol,

The hydrogen electrolyzer is capable of producing 192 scf


of hydrogen for 8 hours per day production which amounts to
a volume of storage = 5,430 liters of hydrogen. The produced
hydrogen is stored at 2500 psi in a K-size cylinder capable of
storing up to 6,000 liters [18].

658

illumination level which is not constant. In this document the


maximum power output given at 26.3V maximum power
voltage, needs to be re-formulated for a 24V operational
voltage. Therefore, the real operational power output from the
PV module is 190W (based on the IV Curve of the
manufacturer). A delivery of 3.8 kW at 24V DC was obtained
from the stand-alone power generation system.
The two separate tracks followed in this study are Solar to
Traction battery via VRLA (Valve Regulated Lead Acid)
energy storage (Track 1) and Solar to Traction battery via Fuel
Cell (Track 2) as illustrated in Fig. 1.

C. Base of Design
1) Vehicle Base Parameters
x Curb Weight: 2932 lb = 1332.73 Kg.
x Occupancy: 2 passengers @ ~ 75Kg each.
x Slope: 4q
x Speed:
4q slope @ 10 mph = 4.4704 m/s
Constant @ 30 mph = 13.4112 m/s
x Mechanical Transmission Efficiency factor = 0.92
x Coefficient of drag (Cd) = 0.26
x Resistance Coefficient (Cr) = 0.018
x Frontal Area (A) = 58.7 x 67.9 = 3985.73 in2 = 2.57
m2
x Power required to move the vehicle at 4q slope:
P

F V

mg sin T V

4535.9 >W @

(1)

Considering Transmission Efficiency:


PT

4930.3 >W @

K transmission

(2)

2) Load Design
x

Aerodynamic Drag:

Fig. 1 Docking Station - Alternative Tracks

Fd

B. Energy Conversion & Storage


One of the greatest challenges in the construction and
design of solar vehicles was the size of the energy storage
elements. The design started from lead-acid cells to newly
developed nickel-metal hydride (NiMH), Nickel-Cadmium
(NiCd), lithium-ion (Li-ion) or lithium polymer (Li-poly)
batteries. All these new nickel and lithium based batteries
reduce the weight of the component, but increase the
investment cost and the future maintenance cost.
A rough comparison of some of the battery-available
technologies is summarized in TABLE II.

Cr mg

235.33 >N @

(4)

Fr  Fd V

4767.1 >W @

(5)

Considering the Transmission Efficiency:


PT

TABLE II. BATTERY ROUGH COMPARISON [4]


ENERGY
EFFICIENCIE
MAX.
CYCLE
DENSITY
S
DEPTH
BATTERY
LIFE
DIS(cycles)
(Wh/Kg)
Ah%
Wh%
CHARGE
Lead acid,
20%
50
500
90
75
SLI
Lead-acid,
80%
35
2000
90
75
deep cycle
Nickel1000100%
20
70
60
cadmium
2000
Nickel-metal
1000100%
50
70
65
hydride
2000

(3)

Traction Force:
PCS

120.16 >N @

Rolling Resistance:
Fr

Cd AV 2

PCS

Ktransmission

5181.65 >W @

(6)

3) Range
For this particular PHEV, the expected range (R) in miles
as a function of the vehicles speed (V) on a flat freeway has
been estimated according to the following expressions:
R V T

(7)

where T is the total duration of the batteries. Using the


previously calculated drag and rolling resistances (3) and (4),
the final expression for range as a function of the vehicles
speed is given as [5]:

659

station for solar charged electric and fuel cell vehicles is a real
technical possibility.
Stand alone docking stations will minimize the risk of peak
hours for electric power operators, providing a safe and cheap
energy as main vehicle driver. This is in line with US
Governments new trend towards reduced dependence on
fossil energy. The effect of the PHEV and V2G technologies
on the overall electric distribution system is a concern
nowadays, but could be ameliorated by installation of docking
facilities.
On a comparative scale, the time consumed for charging
the vehicle traction battery electrically using the batterystorage scheme was twice that of the vehicle battery charging
process using fuel cell scheme. Even for a huge one time
installation cost of the fuel cell scheme of charging, double
the output could be delivered in the same time. Also, since
clean energy is considered in the big picture, the use of solar
energy and any of the two energy conversion systems used for
the design of a docking station prove to be a viable option
taking into concern consequences on the environment and
ecosystem.
A summary of obtained results is presented in TABLE III.

[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]

[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]

[20]

TABLE III. SUMMARY OF STUDIED ALTERNATIVES


PARAMETER
Input Solar Energy (for 8h) [kWh]
PV array output Energy [kWh]
Available Energy Stored in the
docking station [kWh]
DC to DC Converter efficiency [%]
Power transferred directly to vehicle
traction batteries [kW]
Charging time for vehicle traction
battery [h]
Efficiency beyond Solar Output [%]
Range @ 30 mph [miles]
Total Cost of Installation 15%
(including solar generation system)
[US$]

TRACK 1
SYSTEM
~ 221
~ 30.4

TRACK 2
SYSTEM
~ 221
~ 30.4

22.4

22.4

95

95

21

21

10

7.37

70
44.30

70
44.30

40,000

96,000

[21]

[22]

[23]

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[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]
[5]

[6]

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