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IndusValleyCivilization
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

TheIndusValleyCivilization(IVC)wasaBronze
Agecivilisation(33001300BCEmatureperiod
26001900BCE,preHarappanculturesstarting
c.7500BCE[3][4])innorthwestIndiansubcontinent
(includingpresentdayPakistan,northwestIndia[5])
andalsoinsomeregionsinnortheast
Afghanistan.[6][1]AlongwithAncientEgyptand
Mesopotamia,itwasoneofthreeearlycivilisationsof
theOldWorld,andthemostwidespreadamong
them,[7]coveringanareaof1.25millionkm2.[8]It
flourishedinthebasinsoftheIndusRiver,oneofthe
majorriversofAsia,andthenowdriedupSarasvati
River,[9][10]whichoncecoursedthroughnorthwest
IndiaandeasternPakistan[6]togetherwithits
tributariesflowedalongachannel,presentlyidentified
asthatoftheGhaggarHakraRiveronthebasisof
variousscientificstudies.[11][12][13]Duetothespread
ofthecivilizationalongboththerivervalleys,some
scholarsusethetermIndusSarasvati
Civilisation.[14][15]

IndusValleyCivilization

Geographicalrange Asia
Period

BronzeAge

Dates

c.3300BC1700BC[1][2]

Followedby

Vedicperiod

Atitspeak,theIndusCivilizationmayhavehada
populationofoverfivemillion.[16]InhabitantsoftheancientIndusrivervalleydevelopednew
techniquesinhandicraft(carnelianproducts,sealcarving)andmetallurgy(copper,bronze,lead,andtin).
TheInduscitiesarenotedfortheirurbanplanning,bakedbrickhouses,elaboratedrainagesystems,
watersupplysystems,andclustersoflargenonresidentialbuildings.[17]
TheIndusValleyCivilizationisalsoknownastheHarappanCivilization,afterHarappa,thefirstofits
sitestobeexcavatedinthe1920s,inwhatwasthenthePunjabprovinceofBritishIndia,andisnowin
Pakistan.[18]ThediscoveryofHarappa,andsoonafterwards,MohenjoDaro,wastheculminationof
workbeginningin1861withthefoundingoftheArchaeologicalSurveyofIndiaintheBritishRaj.[19]
ExcavationofHarappansiteshasbeenongoingsince1920,withimportantbreakthroughsoccurringas
recentlyas1999.[20]Therewereearlierandlatercultures,oftencalledEarlyHarappanandLate
Harappan,andpreHarappancultures,inthesameareaoftheHarappanCivilization.TheHarappan
civilisationissometimescalledtheMatureHarappanculturetodistinguishitfromthesecultures.
BhirranainHaryana,IndiamaybetheoldestpreHarappansite,datingbackto75706200BCE.[3][21]
By1999,over1,056citiesandsettlementshadbeenfound,ofwhich96havebeenexcavated,[22]mainly
inthegeneralregionoftheIndusandtheSarasvatiRiver[23]andtheirtributaries.Amongthesettlements
werethemajorurbancentresofHarappa,Mohenjodaro(UNESCOWorldHeritageSite),Dholavira,
GaneriwalainCholistanandRakhigarhi,[24]RakhigarhiinHaryana,India,beingthelargestIndusValley
Civilizationsitewith350hectare(3.5km2)area.[3][25][26][27]
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TheHarappanlanguageisnotdirectlyattestedanditsaffiliationisuncertainsincetheIndusscriptisstill
undeciphered.ArelationshipwiththeDravidianorElamoDravidianlanguagefamilyisfavouredbya
sectionofscholars,[28][29]whileotherssuggestanAustroasiaticlanguagerelatedtoMunda.[30]

Contents
1Discoveryandhistoryofexcavation
2Chronology
3Geography
4EarlyHarappan
5MatureHarappan
5.1Cities
5.2Authorityandgovernance
5.3Technology
5.4Artsandcrafts
5.5Tradeandtransportation
5.6Subsistence
5.7Writingsystem
5.8Religion
6CollapseandLateHarappan
7Legacy
8Historicalcontextandlinguisticaffiliation
9Seealso
10Notes
11References
12Bibliography
13Externallinks

Discoveryandhistoryofexcavation
Theruinsof
Harappa
werefirst
describedin
1842by
Charles
Massonin
his
Narrative
ofVarious
Journeysin
ExcavatedruinsofMohenjodaro,withtheGreat
Bathinthefront

EarlyHarappanPeriod,c.33002600
BCE

Balochistan,Afghanistan,andthePunjab,where
localstalkedofanancientcityextending"thirteen
cosses"(about25miles),butnoarchaeologicalinterestwouldattachtothisfornearlyacentury.[note1]

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In1856,GeneralAlexanderCunningham,laterdirectorgeneralofthearchaeologicalsurveyofnorthern
India,visitedHarappawheretheBritishengineersJohnandWilliamBruntonwerelayingtheEast
IndianRailwayCompanylineconnectingthecitiesofKarachiandLahore.Johnwrote:"Iwasmuch
exercisedinmymindhowweweretogetballastforthelineoftherailway".Theyweretoldofan
ancientruinedcitynearthelines,calledBrahminabad.Visitingthecity,hefounditfullofhardwell
burntbricks,and,"convincedthattherewasagrandquarryfortheballastIwanted",thecityof
Brahminabadwasreducedtoballast.[32]Afewmonthslater,
furthernorth,John'sbrotherWilliamBrunton's"sectionofthe
linerannearanotherruinedcity,bricksfromwhichhadalready
beenusedbyvillagersinthenearbyvillageofHarappaatthe
samesite.Thesebricksnowprovidedballastalong93miles
(150km)oftherailroadtrackrunningfromKarachito
Lahore".[32]
In187275AlexanderCunninghampublishedthefirstHarappan
seal(withanerroneousidentificationasBrahmiletters).[33]It
washalfacenturylater,in1912,thatmoreHarappansealswere
discoveredbyJ.Fleet,promptinganexcavationcampaignunder
SirJohnHubertMarshallin192122andresultinginthe
discoveryofthecivilisationatHarappabySirJohnMarshall,Rai
BahadurDayaRamSahniandMadhoSarupVats,andat
MohenjodarobyRakhalDasBanerjee,E.J.H.MacKay,andSir
JohnMarshall.By1931,muchofMohenjoDarohadbeen
excavated,butexcavationscontinued,suchasthatledbySir
MortimerWheeler,directoroftheArchaeologicalSurveyof
Indiain1944.AmongotherarchaeologistswhoworkedonIVC
sitesbeforetheindependencein1947wereAhmadHasanDani,
BrijBasiLal,NaniGopalMajumdar,andSirMarcAurelStein.
Followingtheindependence,thebulkofthearchaeologicalfinds
wereinheritedbyPakistanwheremostoftheIVCwasbased,
andexcavationsfromthistimeincludethoseledbySirMortimer
Wheelerin1949,archaeologicaladvisertotheGovernmentof
Pakistan.OutpostsoftheIndusValleycivilisationwere
excavatedasfarwestasSutkaganDorinBaluchistan,asfar
northasatShortugaiontheAmuDarya(theriver'sancientname
wasOxus)incurrentAfghanistan,asfareastasatAlamgirpur,
UttarPradesh,IndiaandasfarsouthasatMalwan,inmodern
daySurat,Gujarat,India.[34]

MatureHarappanPeriod,c.2600
1900BCE

LateHarappanPeriod,c.19001300
BCE

SkullofIndusValleyinhabitants,
IndianMuseum

In2010,heavyfloodshitHaryanainIndiaanddamagedthe
archaeologicalsiteofJognakhera,whereancientcoppersmelting
furnaceswerefounddatingbackalmost5,000years.TheIndusValleyCivilizationsitewashitby
almost10feetofwaterastheSutlejYamunalinkcanaloverflowed.[35]

Chronology
ThematurephaseoftheHarappancivilisationlastedfromc.2600to1900BCE.Withtheinclusionof
thepredecessorandsuccessorculturesEarlyHarappanandLateHarappan,respectivelytheentire
IndusValleyCivilizationmaybetakentohavelastedfromthe33rdtothe14thcenturiesBCE.The
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earlyHarappanculturesareprecededbytheMehrgarh(c.70003300BCE),withBhirranaevendating
backto75706200BCE,accordingtoaDecember2014reportbytheArchaeologicalSurveyof
India.[3][4]
TwotermsareemployedfortheperiodisationoftheIVC:Phases
andEras.[36][37]TheEarlyHarappan,MatureHarappan,andLate
HarappanphasesarealsocalledtheRegionalisation,Integration,
andLocalisationeras,respectively,withtheRegionalizationera
reachingbacktotheNeolithicMehrgarhIIperiod,thediscovery
ofwhich"changedtheentireconceptoftheInduscivilization",
accordingtoAhmadHasanDani,professoremeritusatQuaide
AzamUniversity,Islamabad."Therewehavethewhole
sequence,rightfromthebeginningofsettledvillagelife."[38]
Dates

Phase

7570
6200
BCE

Bhirrana(aceramic
Neolithic)[3]

7000
preHarappan
5500
BCE

MehrgarhI(aceramic
Neolithic)

5500
3300

MehrgarhIIVI
(ceramicNeolithic)

3300
2800

Harappan1(Ravi
Phase)

Early
2800 Harappan
2600
2600
2450 Mature
2450 Harappan
2200 (IndusValley
2200 Civilization)
1900

Harappan2(KotDiji
Phase,NausharoI,
MehrgarhVII)

Era

EarlyFood
ProducingEra

IndusValleypottery,25001900BC

Regionalisation
Era

Harappan3A
(NausharoII)
Harappan3B

IntegrationEra

Harappan3C

1900 LateHarappan
Harappan4
1700 (CemeteryH)
Ochre
1700 Coloured
Harappan5
1300 Pottery

Localisation
Era

PaintedGrayWare,
NorthernBlack
1300
PostHarappan PolishedWare(Iron
300
Age),IndoGangetic
Tradition

Vedicperiod,
Second
urbanisation

Geography
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TheIndusValleyCivilizationencompassedmostofPakistanandpartsofnorthwesternIndia,and
Afghanistan,extendingfromPakistaniBalochistaninthewesttoUttarPradeshintheeast,northeastern
AfghanistantothenorthandMaharashtratothesouth.[39]ThegeographyoftheIndusValleyputthe
civilisationsthatarosethereinahighlysimilarsituationtothoseinEgyptandPeru,withrich
agriculturallandsbeingsurroundedbyhighlands,desert,andocean.Recently,Indussiteshavebeen
discoveredinPakistan'snorthwesternFrontierProvinceaswell.OtherIVCcoloniescanbefoundin
AfghanistanwhilesmallerisolatedcoloniescanbefoundasfarawayasTurkmenistanandinGujarat.
CoastalsettlementsextendedfromSutkaganDor[40]inWesternBaluchistantoLothal[41]inGujarat.An
IndusValleysitehasbeenfoundontheOxusRiveratShortughaiinnorthernAfghanistan,[42]inthe
GomalRivervalleyinnorthwesternPakistan,[43]atManda,JammuontheBeasRivernearJammu,[44]
India,andatAlamgirpurontheHindonRiver,only28kmfromDelhi.[45]IndusValleysiteshavebeen
foundmostoftenonrivers,butalsoontheancientseacoast,[46]forexample,Balakot,[47]andonislands,
forexample,Dholavira.[48]
ThereisevidenceofdryriverbedsoverlappingwiththeHakrachannelinPakistanandtheseasonal
GhaggarRiverinIndia.ManyIndusValleysiteshavebeendiscoveredalongtheGhaggarHakra
beds.[49]Amongthemare:Rupar,Rakhigarhi,Sothi,Kalibangan,andGanwariwala.[50]AccordingtoJ.
G.ShafferandD.A.Lichtenstein,[51]theHarappanCivilization"isafusionoftheBagor,Hakra,and
KotiDijtraditionsor'ethnicgroups'intheGhaggarHakravalleyonthebordersofIndiaand
Pakistan".[49]
Accordingtosomearchaeologists,morethan500Harappansiteshavebeendiscoveredalongthedried
upriverbedsoftheGhaggarHakraRiveranditstributaries,[52]incontrasttoonlyabout100alongthe
Indusanditstributaries[53]consequently,intheiropinion,theappellationIndusGhaggarHakra
civilisationorIndusSaraswaticivilisationisjustified.However,thesepoliticallyinspiredargumentsare
disputedbyotherarchaeologistswhostatethattheGhaggarHakradesertareahasbeenleftuntouched
bysettlementsandagriculturesincetheendoftheIndusperiodandhenceshowsmoresitesthanthose
foundinthealluviumoftheIndusvalleysecond,thatthenumberofHarappansitesalongtheGhaggar
HakrariverbedshasbeenexaggeratedandthattheGhaggarHakra,whenitexisted,wasatributaryof
theIndus,sothenewnomenclatureisredundant.[54]"HarappanCivilization"remainsthecorrectone,
accordingtothecommonarchaeologicalusageofnamingacivilisationafteritsfirstfindspot.

EarlyHarappan
TheEarlyHarappanRaviPhase,namedafterthenearbyRaviRiver,lastedfromcirca3300BCEuntil
2800BCE.ItisrelatedtotheHakraPhase,identifiedintheGhaggarHakraRiverValleytothewest,
andpredatestheKotDijiPhase(28002600BCE,Harappan2),namedafterasiteinnorthernSindh,
Pakistan,nearMohenjoDaro.TheearliestexamplesoftheIndusscriptdatetothe3rdmillennium
BC.[55][56]
LatestdiscoveriesfromBhirrana,Haryana,inIndiasince2012onwards,byarchaeologistK.N.Dikshit
indicatethatHakrawarefromthisareadatesfromasearlyas7500BCE,[2][4][1]whichmakesBhirrana
theoldestsiteinIndusValleycivilization.[3]
ThematurephaseofearliervillageculturesisrepresentedbyRehmanDheriandAmriinPakistan.[57]
KotDijirepresentsthephaseleadinguptoMatureHarappan,withthecitadelrepresentingcentralised
authorityandanincreasinglyurbanqualityoflife.AnothertownofthisstagewasfoundatKalibangan
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inIndiaontheHakraRiver.[58]
Tradenetworkslinkedthisculturewithrelatedregionalculturesanddistantsourcesofrawmaterials,
includinglapislazuliandothermaterialsforbeadmaking.Bythistime,villagershaddomesticated
numerouscrops,includingpeas,sesameseeds,dates,andcotton,aswellasanimals,includingthewater
buffalo.EarlyHarappancommunitiesturnedtolargeurbancentresby2600BCE,fromwherethe
matureHarappanphasestarted.ThelatestresearchshowsthatIndusValleypeoplemigratedfrom
villagestocities.[59][60]

MatureHarappan
By2600BCE,theEarlyHarappancommunitiesturnedintolargeurbancentres.Suchurbancentres
includeHarappa,Ganeriwala,MohenjoDaroinmoderndayPakistan,andDholavira,Kalibangan,
Rakhigarhi,Rupar,andLothalinmoderndayIndia.[61]Intotal,
morethan1,052citiesandsettlementshavebeenfound,mainly
inthegeneralregionoftheIndusRiversandtheirtributaries.

Cities
Asophisticatedandtechnologicallyadvancedurbancultureis
evidentintheIndusValleyCivilizationmakingthemthefirst
urbancentresintheregion.Thequalityofmunicipaltown
planningsuggeststheknowledgeofurbanplanningandefficient
municipalgovernmentswhichplacedahighpriorityonhygiene,
or,alternatively,accessibilitytothemeansofreligiousritual.
AsseeninHarappa,MohenjoDaroandtherecentlypartially
excavatedRakhigarhi,thisurbanplanincludedtheworld'sfirst
knownurbansanitationsystems:seehydraulicengineeringofthe
IndusValleyCivilization.Withinthecity,individualhomesor
groupsofhomesobtainedwaterfromwells.Fromaroomthat
appearstohavebeensetasideforbathing,wastewaterwas
directedtocovereddrains,whichlinedthemajorstreets.Houses
openedonlytoinnercourtyardsandsmallerlanes.Thehouse
buildinginsomevillagesintheregionstillresemblesinsome
respectsthehousebuildingoftheHarappans.[62]
TheancientIndussystemsofsewerageanddrainagethatwere
developedandusedincitiesthroughouttheIndusregionwerefar
moreadvancedthananyfoundincontemporaryurbansitesinthe
MiddleEastandevenmoreefficientthanthoseinmanyareasof
PakistanandIndiatoday.Theadvancedarchitectureofthe
Harappansisshownbytheirimpressivedockyards,granaries,
warehouses,brickplatforms,andprotectivewalls.Themassive
wallsofInduscitiesmostlikelyprotectedtheHarappansfrom
floodsandmayhavedissuadedmilitaryconflicts.[63]

Ceremonialvessel,Harappan,2600
2450BC.LACMA

Computeraidedreconstructionof
coastalHarappansettlementatSokhta
KohnearPasni,Pakistan

Thepurposeofthecitadelremainsdebated.Insharpcontrasttothiscivilisation'scontemporaries,
MesopotamiaandAncientEgypt,nolargemonumentalstructureswerebuilt.Thereisnoconclusive
evidenceofpalacesortemplesorofkings,armies,orpriests.Somestructuresarethoughttohavebeen
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granaries.Foundatonecityisanenormouswellbuiltbath(the"GreatBath"),whichmayhavebeena
publicbath.Althoughthecitadelswerewalled,itisfarfromclearthatthesestructuresweredefensive.
Theymayhavebeenbuilttodivertfloodwaters.
Mostcitydwellersappeartohavebeentradersorartisans,wholived
withotherspursuingthesameoccupationinwelldefined
neighbourhoods.Materialsfromdistantregionswereusedinthe
citiesforconstructingseals,beadsandotherobjects.Amongthe
artefactsdiscoveredwerebeautifulglazedfaencebeads.Steatite
sealshaveimagesofanimals,people(perhapsgods),andother
typesofinscriptions,includingtheyetundecipheredwritingsystem
oftheIndusValleyCivilization.Someofthesealswereusedto
stampclayontradegoodsandmostprobablyhadotherusesaswell.
Althoughsomehouseswerelargerthanothers,IndusCivilization
citieswereremarkablefortheirapparent,ifrelative,egalitarianism.
Allthehouseshadaccesstowateranddrainagefacilities.Thisgives
theimpressionofasocietywithrelativelylowwealthconcentration,
thoughclearsociallevellingisseeninpersonaladornments.The
prehistoryofIndoIranianborderlandsshowsasteadyincreaseover
timeinthenumberanddensityofsettlements.Thepopulation
increasedinIndusplainsbecauseofhuntingandgathering.[64]

Socalled"PriestKing"statue,
MohenjoDaro,lateMature
Harappanperiod,National
Museum,Karachi,Pakistan

Authorityandgovernance
Archaeologicalrecordsprovidenoimmediateanswersforacentreofpowerorfordepictionsofpeople
inpowerinHarappansociety.But,thereareindicationsofcomplexdecisionsbeingtakenand
implemented.Forinstance,theextraordinaryuniformityofHarappanartefactsasevidentinpottery,
seals,weightsandbricks.Thesearethemajortheories:
Therewasasinglestate,giventhesimilarityinartefacts,theevidenceforplannedsettlements,the
standardisedratioofbricksize,andtheestablishmentofsettlementsnearsourcesofrawmaterial.
Therewasnosinglerulerbutseveral:Mohenjodarohadaseparateruler,Harappaanother,andso
forth.
Harappansocietyhadnorulers,andeverybodyenjoyedequalstatus.

Technology
ThepeopleoftheIndusCivilizationachievedgreataccuracyin
measuringlength,mass,andtime.Theywereamongthefirstto
developasystemofuniformweightsandmeasures.A
comparisonofavailableobjectsindicateslargescalevariation
acrosstheIndusterritories.Theirsmallestdivision,whichis
markedonanivoryscalefoundinLothalinGujarat,was
approximately1.704mm,thesmallestdivisioneverrecordedon
ascaleoftheBronzeAge.Harappanengineersfollowedthe
decimaldivisionofmeasurementforallpracticalpurposes,
includingthemeasurementofmassasrevealedbytheir
hexahedronweights.[65]

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Thesechertweightswereinaratioof5:2:1withweightsof0.05,0.1,0.2,0.5,1,2,5,10,20,50,100,
200,and500units,witheachunitweighingapproximately28grams,similartotheEnglishImperial
ounceorGreekuncia,andsmallerobjectswereweighedin
similarratioswiththeunitsof0.871.However,asinother
cultures,actualweightswerenotuniformthroughoutthearea.
TheweightsandmeasureslaterusedinKautilya'sArthashastra
(4thcenturyBCE)arethesameasthoseusedinLothal.[66]
Harappansevolvedsomenewtechniquesinmetallurgyand
producedcopper,bronze,lead,andtin.Theengineeringskillof
theHarappanswasremarkable,especiallyinbuildingdocks.
In2001,archaeologistsstudyingtheremainsoftwomenfrom
Mehrgarh,Pakistan,discoveredthatthepeopleoftheIndus
ValleyCivilization,fromtheearlyHarappanperiods,had
knowledgeofprotodentistry.Later,inApril2006,itwas
announcedinthescientificjournalNaturethattheoldest(and
firstearlyNeolithic)evidenceforthedrillingofhumanteethin
vivo(i.e.,inalivingperson)wasfoundinMehrgarh.Eleven
drilledmolarcrownsfromnineadultswerediscoveredina
NeolithicgraveyardinMehrgarhthatdatesfrom7,5009,000
yearsago.Accordingtotheauthors,theirdiscoveriespointtoa
traditionofprotodentistryintheearlyfarmingculturesofthat
region.[67]

ElephantsealofIndusValley,Indian
Museum

IndusValleyseals,BritishMuseum

AtouchstonebearinggoldstreakswasfoundinBanawali,whichwasprobablyusedfortestingthe
purityofgold(suchatechniqueisstillusedinsomepartsofIndia).[68]

Artsandcrafts
Varioussculptures,seals,pottery,goldjewellery,andanatomically
detailedfigurinesinterracotta,bronze,andsteatitehavebeenfoundat
excavationsites.
Anumberofgold,terracottaandstonefigurinesofgirlsindancingposes
revealthepresenceofsomedanceform.Theseterracottafigurines
includedcows,bears,monkeys,anddogs.Theanimaldepictedona
majorityofsealsatsitesofthematureperiodhasnotbeenclearly
identified.Partbull,partzebra,withamajestichorn,ithasbeenasource
ofspeculation.Asyet,thereisinsufficientevidencetosubstantiate
claimsthattheimagehadreligiousorculticsignificance,butthe
prevalenceoftheimageraisesthequestionofwhetherornottheanimals
inimagesoftheIVCarereligioussymbols.[69]
SirJohnMarshallreactedwithsurprisewhenhesawthefamousIndus
bronzestatuetteofaslenderlimbeddancinggirlinMohenjoDaro:

The"dancinggirlof
MohenjoDaro"

WhenIfirstsawthemIfounditdifficulttobelievethattheywere
prehistorictheyseemedtocompletelyupsetallestablishedideas
aboutearlyart,andculture.Modelingsuchasthiswasunknownin
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theancientworlduptotheHellenisticageofGreece,andI
thought,therefore,thatsomemistakemustsurelyhavebeenmade
thatthesefigureshadfoundtheirwayintolevelssome3000years
olderthanthosetowhichtheyproperlybelonged....Now,inthese
statuettes,itisjustthisanatomicaltruthwhichissostartlingthat
makesuswonderwhether,inthisallimportantmatter,Greek
artistrycouldpossiblyhavebeenanticipatedbythesculptorsofa
faroffageonthebanksoftheIndus.[70]
Manycrafts"suchasshellworking,ceramics,andagateandglazedsteatite
beadmaking"wereusedinthemakingofnecklaces,bangles,andother
ornamentsfromallphasesofHarappansitesandsomeofthesecraftsarestill
practisedinthesubcontinenttoday.[71]Somemakeupandtoiletryitems(a
specialkindofcombs(kakai),theuseofcollyriumandaspecialthreeinone
toiletrygadget)thatwerefoundinHarappancontextsstillhavesimilar
counterpartsinmodernIndia.[72]Terracottafemalefigurineswerefound(ca.
28002600BCE)whichhadredcolourappliedtothe"manga"(lineof
partitionofthehair).[72]
SealshavebeenfoundatMohenjoDarodepictingafigurestandingonits
head,andanothersittingcrossleggedinwhatsomecallayogalikepose(see
image,thesocalledPashupati,below).

Chanhudaro.Fragment
ofLargeDeepVessel,
circa2500B.C.E.Red
potterywithredand
blackslippainted
decoration,415/166
in.(12.515.5cm).
BrooklynMuseum

Thisfigure,sometimesknownasaPashupati,hasbeenvariouslyidentified.SirJohnMarshallidentified
aresemblancetotheHindugod,Shiva.[73]Ifthiscanbevalidated,itwouldbeevidencethatsome
aspectsofHinduismpredatetheearliesttexts,theVeda.
AharplikeinstrumentdepictedonanIndussealandtwoshellobjectsfoundatLothalindicatetheuse
ofstringedmusicalinstruments.TheHarappansalsomadevarioustoysandgames,amongthemcubical
dice(withonetosixholesonthefaces),whichwerefoundinsiteslikeMohenjoDaro.[74]

Tradeandtransportation
TheInduscivilisation'seconomyappearstohave
dependedsignificantlyontrade,whichwas
facilitatedbymajoradvancesintransport
technology.TheIVCmayhavebeenthefirst
civilisationtousewheeledtransport.[75]These
advancesmayhaveincludedbullockcartsthat
areidenticaltothoseseenthroughoutSouthAsia
today,aswellasboats.Mostoftheseboatswere
probablysmall,flatbottomedcraft,perhaps
drivenbysail,similartothoseonecanseeonthe
IndusRivertodayhowever,thereissecondary
evidenceofseagoingcraft.Archaeologistshave
ThedocksofancientLothalastheyaretoday
discoveredamassive,dredgedcanalandwhat
theyregardasadockingfacilityatthecoastal
cityofLothalinwesternIndia(Gujaratstate).Anextensivecanalnetwork,usedforirrigation,has
howeveralsobeendiscoveredbyH.P.Francfort.
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During43003200BCEofthechalcolithicperiod(copperage),theIndusValleyCivilizationarea
showsceramicsimilaritieswithsouthernTurkmenistanandnorthernIranwhichsuggestconsiderable
mobilityandtrade.DuringtheEarlyHarappanperiod(about32002600BCE),similaritiesinpottery,
seals,figurines,ornaments,etc.documentintensivecaravantradewithCentralAsiaandtheIranian
plateau.[76]
JudgingfromthedispersalofInduscivilisationartefacts,thetradenetworks,economically,integrateda
hugearea,includingportionsofAfghanistan,thecoastalregionsofPersia,northernandwesternIndia,
andMesopotamia.StudiesoftoothenamelfromindividualsburiedatHarappasuggestthatsome
residentshadmigratedtothecityfrombeyondtheIndusvalley.[77]Thereissomeevidencethattrade
contactsextendedtoCreteandpossiblytoEgypt.[78]
TherewasanextensivemaritimetradenetworkoperatingbetweentheHarappanandMesopotamian
civilisationsasearlyasthemiddleHarappanPhase,withmuchcommercebeinghandledby"middlemen
merchantsfromDilmun"(modernBahrainandFailakalocatedinthePersianGulf).[79]Suchlong
distanceseatradebecamefeasiblewiththeinnovativedevelopmentofplankbuiltwatercraft,equipped
withasinglecentralmastsupportingasailofwovenrushesorcloth.
SeveralcoastalsettlementslikeSotkagendor(astrideDashtRiver,northofJiwani),SokhtaKoh(astride
ShadiRiver,northofPasni),andBalakot(nearSonmiani)inPakistanalongwithLothalinwestern
India,testifytotheirroleasHarappantradingoutposts.Shallowharbourslocatedattheestuariesof
riversopeningintotheseaallowedbriskmaritimetradewithMesopotamiancities.

Subsistence
Somepost1980studiesindicatethatfoodproductionwaslargelyindigenoustotheIndusValley.Itis
knownthatthepeopleofMehrgarhuseddomesticatedwheatsandbarley,[80]andthemajorcultivated
cerealcropwasnakedsixrowbarley,acropderivedfromtworowbarley(seeShafferand
Liechtenstein1995,1999).ArchaeologistJimG.Shaffer(1999:245)writesthattheMehrgarhsite
"demonstratesthatfoodproductionwasanindigenousSouthAsianphenomenon"andthatthedata
supportinterpretationof"theprehistoricurbanizationandcomplexsocialorganizationinSouthAsiaas
basedonindigenous,butnotisolated,culturaldevelopments".Others,suchasDorianFuller,however,
indicatethatittooksome2000yearsbeforeMiddleEasternwheatwasacclimatisedtoSouthAsian
conditions.

Writingsystem
Between400andasmanyas600distinctIndussymbols[81]havebeenfoundonseals,smalltablets,
ceramicpotsandmorethanadozenothermaterials,includinga"signboard"thatapparentlyoncehung
overthegateoftheinnercitadeloftheInduscityofDholavira.

TenIndusSigns,dubbed
DholaviraSignboard

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TypicalIndusinscriptionsarenomorethanfourorfivecharacters
inlength,mostofwhich(asidefromtheDholavira"signboard")are
tinythelongestonasinglesurface,whichislessthan1inch
(2.54cm)square,is17signslongthelongestonanyobject(found
onthreedifferentfacesofamassproducedobject)hasalengthof
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WhiletheIndusValleyCivilizationisgenerallycharacterisedasaliteratesocietyontheevidenceof
theseinscriptions,thisdescriptionhasbeenchallengedbyFarmer,Sproat,andWitzel(2004)[82]who
arguethattheIndussystemdidnotencodelanguage,butwasinsteadsimilartoavarietyofnon
linguisticsignsystemsusedextensivelyintheNearEastandothersocieties,tosymbolisefamilies,
clans,gods,andreligiousconcepts.Othershaveclaimedonoccasionthatthesymbolswereexclusively
usedforeconomictransactions,butthisclaimleavesunexplainedtheappearanceofIndussymbolson
manyritualobjects,manyofwhichweremassproducedinmoulds.Noparallelstothesemassproduced
inscriptionsareknowninanyotherearlyancientcivilisations.[83]
Ina2009studybyP.N.Raoetal.publishedinScience,computerscientists,comparingthepatternof
symbolstovariouslinguisticscriptsandnonlinguisticsystems,includingDNAandacomputer
programminglanguage,foundthattheIndusscript'spatternisclosertothatofspokenwords,supporting
thehypothesisthatitcodesforanasyetunknownlanguage.[84][85]
Farmer,Sproat,andWitzelhavedisputedthisfinding,pointingoutthatRaoetal.didnotactually
comparetheIndussignswith"realworldnonlinguisticsystems"butratherwith"twowhollyartificial
systemsinventedbytheauthors,oneconsistingof200,000randomlyorderedsignsandanotherof
200,000fullyorderedsigns,thattheyspuriouslyclaimrepresentthestructuresofallrealworldnon
linguisticsignsystems".[86]Farmeretal.havealsodemonstratedthatacomparisonofanonlinguistic
systemlikemedievalheraldicsignswithnaturallanguagesyieldsresultssimilartothosethatRaoetal.
obtainedwithIndussigns.TheyconcludethatthemethodusedbyRaoetal.cannotdistinguishlinguistic
systemsfromnonlinguisticones.[87]
Themessagesonthesealshaveprovedtobetooshorttobedecodedbyacomputer.Eachsealhasa
distinctivecombinationofsymbolsandtherearetoofewexamplesofeachsequencetoprovidea
sufficientcontext.Thesymbolsthataccompanytheimagesvaryfromsealtoseal,makingitimpossible
toderiveameaningforthesymbolsfromtheimages.Therehave,nonetheless,beenanumberof
interpretationsofferedforthemeaningoftheseals.Theseinterpretationshavebeenmarkedby
ambiguityandsubjectivity.[87]:69
PhotosofmanyofthethousandsofextantinscriptionsarepublishedintheCorpusofIndusSealsand
Inscriptions(1987,1991,2010),editedbyAskoParpolaandhiscolleagues.Thefinal,third,volume,
republishedphotostakeninthe1920sand1930sofhundredsoflostorstoleninscriptions,alongwith
manydiscoveredinthelastfewdecades.Formerly,researchershadtosupplementthematerialsinthe
CorpusbystudyofthetinyphotosintheexcavationreportsofMarshall(1931),MacKay(1938,1943),
Wheeler(1947),orreproductionsinmorerecentscatteredsources.

Religion
ThereligionandbeliefsystemoftheIndusvalleypeoplehavereceivedconsiderableattention,
especiallyfromtheviewofidentifyingprecursorstodeitiesandreligiouspracticesofIndianreligions
thatlaterdevelopedinthearea.Howeverduetothesparsityofevidence,whichisopentovarying
interpretations,andthefactthattheIndusscriptremainsundeciphered,theconclusionsarepartly
speculativeandlargelybasedonaretrospectiveviewfromamuchlaterHinduperspective.[88][89]An
earlyandinfluentialworkintheareathatsetthetrendforHinduinterpretationsofarchaeological
evidencefromtheHarrapansites[90]wasthatofJohnMarshall,whoin1931identifiedthefollowingas
prominentfeaturesoftheIndusreligion:aGreatMaleGodandaMotherGoddessdeificationor
venerationofanimalsandplantssymbolicrepresentationofthephallus(linga)andvulva(yoni)and,
useofbathsandwaterinreligiouspractice.Marshall'sinterpretationshavebeenmuchdebated,and
sometimesdisputedoverthefollowingdecades.[91][92]
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OneIndusvalleysealshowsaseated,possiblyithyphallicand
tricephalic,figurewithahornedheaddress,surroundedbyanimals.
MarshallidentifiedthefigureasanearlyformoftheHindugod
Shiva(orRudra),whoisassociatedwithasceticism,yoga,and
lingaregardedasalordofanimalsandoftendepictedashaving
threeheads.ThesealhashencecometobeknownasthePashupati
Seal,afterPashupati(lordofthebeasts),anepithetofShiva.[91][93]
WhileMarshall'sworkhasearnedsomesupport,manycriticsand
evensupportershaveraisedseveralobjections.DorisSrinivasanhas
arguedthatthefiguredoesnothavethreefaces,oryogicposture,
andthatinVedicliteratureRudrawasnotaprotectorofwild
animals.[94][95]HerbertSullivanandAlfHiltebeitelalsorejected
ThesocalledPashupatiseal,
Marshall'sconclusions,withtheformerclaimingthatthefigurewas
showingaseatedandpossibly
female,whilethelatterassociatedthefigurewithMahisha,the
ithyphallicfigure,surroundedby
BuffaloGodandthesurroundinganimalswithvahanas(vehicles)of
animals.
[96][97]
deitiesforthefourcardinaldirections.
Writingin2002,
GregoryL.Possehlconcludedthatwhileitwouldbeappropriatetorecognisethefigureasadeity,its
associationwiththewaterbuffalo,anditspostureasoneofritualdiscipline,regardingitasaproto
Shivawouldbegoingtoofar.[93]DespitethecriticismsofMarshall'sassociationofthesealwithaproto
Shivaicon,ithasbeeninterpretedastheTirthankaraRishabhabyJains&Dr.VilasSangave[98]oran
earlyBuddhabyBuddhists.[90]HistorianslikeHeinrichZimmer,ThomasMcEvilleyareoftheopinion
thatthereexistssomelinkbetweenfirstJainTirthankaraRishabha&IndusValleycivilisation.[99][100]
MarshallhypothesizedtheexistenceofacultofMotherGoddessworshipbaseduponexcavationof
severalfemalefigurines,andthoughtthatthiswasaprecursoroftheHindusectofShaktism.However
thefunctionofthefemalefigurinesinthelifeofIndusValleypeopleremainsunclear,andPossehldoes
notregardtheevidenceforMarshall'shypothesistobe"terriblyrobust".[101]Someofthebaetyls
interpretedbyMarshalltobesacredphallicrepresentationsarenowthoughttohavebeenusedaspestles
orgamecountersinstead,whiletheringstonesthatwerethoughttosymboliseyoniweredeterminedto
bearchitecturalfeaturesusedtostandpillars,althoughthepossibilityoftheirreligioussymbolism
cannotbeeliminated.[102]ManyIndusValleysealsshowanimals,withsomedepictingthembeing
carriedinprocessions,whileothersshowchimericcreations.OnesealfromMohenjodaroshowsahalf
human,halfbuffalomonsterattackingatiger,whichmaybeareferencetotheSumerianmythofsucha
monstercreatedbygoddessArurutofightGilgamesh.[103]
IncontrasttocontemporaryEgyptianandMesopotamiancivilisations,Indusvalleylacksany
monumentalpalaces,eventhoughexcavatedcitiesindicatethatthesocietypossessedtherequisite
engineeringknowledge.[104][105]Thismaysuggestthatreligiousceremonies,ifany,mayhavebeen
largelyconfinedtoindividualhomes,smalltemples,ortheopenair.Severalsiteshavebeenproposedby
Marshallandlaterscholarsaspossiblydevotedtoreligiouspurpose,butatpresentonlytheGreatBathat
Mohenjodaroiswidelythoughttohavebeensoused,asaplaceforritualpurification.[101][106]The
funerarypracticesoftheHarappancivilisationismarkedbyitsdiversitywithevidenceofsupineburial
fractionalburialinwhichthebodyisreducedtoskeletalremainsbyexposuretotheelementsbefore
finalintermentandevencremation.[107][108]

CollapseandLateHarappan
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Around1800BCE,signsofagradualdeclinebegantoemerge,andbyaround1700BCE,mostofthe
citieswereabandoned.In1953,SirMortimerWheelerproposedthatthedeclineoftheIndus
CivilizationwascausedbytheinvasionofanIndoEuropeantribefromCentralAsiacalledthe
"Aryans".Asevidence,hecitedagroupof37skeletonsfoundinvariouspartsofMohenjoDaro,and
passagesintheVedasreferringtobattlesandforts.However,scholarssoonstartedtorejectWheeler's
theory,sincetheskeletonsbelongedtoaperiodafterthecity'sabandonmentandnonewerefoundnear
thecitadel.SubsequentexaminationsoftheskeletonsbyKennethKennedyin1994showedthatthe
marksontheskullswerecausedbyerosion,andnotviolentaggression.[109]Today,manyscholars
believethatthecollapseoftheIndusCivilizationwascausedbydroughtandadeclineintradewith
EgyptandMesopotamia.[110]Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatimmigrationbynewpeoples,deforestation,
floods,orchangesinthecourseoftherivermayhavecontributedtothecollapseoftheIVC.[111]
Previously,itwasalsobelievedthatthedeclineoftheHarappancivilisationledtoaninterruptionof
urbanlifeintheIndiansubcontinent.However,theIndusValleyCivilizationdidnotdisappearsuddenly,
andmanyelementsoftheIndusCivilizationcanbefoundinlatercultures.DavidGordonWhitecites
threeothermainstreamscholarswho"haveemphaticallydemonstrated"thatVedicreligionispartially
derivedfromtheIndusValleyCivilizations.[112]
CurrentarchaeologicaldatasuggeststhatthematerialcultureclassifiedasLateHarappanmayhave
persisteduntilatleastc.1000900BCEandwaspartiallycontemporaneouswiththePaintedGreyWare
culture.[113]HarvardarchaeologistRichardMeadowpointstothelateHarappansettlementofPirak,
whichthrivedcontinuouslyfrom1800BCEtothetimeoftheinvasionofAlexandertheGreatin325
BCE.[110]
RecentarchaeologicalexcavationsindicatethatthedeclineofHarappadrovepeopleeastward.After
1900BCE,thenumberofsitesinIndiaincreasedfrom218to853.ExcavationsintheGangeticplain
showthaturbansettlementbeganaround1200BCE,onlyafewcenturiesafterthedeclineofHarappa
andmuchearlierthanpreviouslyexpected.[110]Archaeologistshaveemphasisedthat,justasinmost
areasoftheworld,therewasacontinuousseriesofculturaldevelopments.Theselink"thesocalledtwo
majorphasesofurbanizationinSouthAsia".[113]
ApossiblenaturalreasonfortheIVC'sdeclineisconnectedwithclimatechange[114]thatisalso
signalledfortheneighbouringareasoftheMiddleEast:TheIndusvalleyclimategrewsignificantly
cooleranddrierfromabout1800BCE,linkedtoageneralweakeningofthemonsoonatthattime.
Alternatively,acrucialfactormayhavebeenthedisappearanceofsubstantialportionsoftheGhaggar
Hakrariversystem.Atectoniceventmayhavedivertedthesystem'ssourcestowardtheGangesPlain,
thoughthereiscompleteuncertaintyaboutthedateofthisevent,asmostsettlementsinsideGhaggar
Hakrariverbedshavenotyetbeendated.Theactualreasonfordeclinemightbeanycombinationof
thesefactors.A2004paperindicatedthattheisotopesofsedimentscarriedbytheGhaggarHakra
systemoverthelast20thousandyearsdonotcomefromtheglaciatedHigherHimalayabuthaveaSub
Himalayansource.Theyspeculatedthattheriversystemwasrainfedinsteadandthuscontradictedthe
ideaofaHarappantimemighty"Sarasvati"river.[115]Recentgeologicalresearchbyagroupledby
PeterCliftinvestigatedhowthecoursesofrivershavechangedinthisregionsince8000yearsago,to
testwhetherclimateorriverreorganisationsareresponsibleforthedeclineoftheHarappan.UsingUPb
datingofzirconsandgrainstheyfoundthatsedimentstypicaloftheBeas,SutlejandYamunarivers
(HimalayantributariesoftheIndus)areactuallypresentinformerGhaggarHakrachannels.However,
sedimentcontributionsfromtheseglacialfedriversstoppedatleastby10,000yearsago,wellbeforethe
developmentoftheInduscivilisation.[116]

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AresearchteamledbythegeologistLiviuGiosanoftheWoodsHoleOceanographicInstitutionalso
concludedthatclimatechangeintheformoftheeasterwardmigrationofthemonsoonsledtothe
declineoftheIVC.[117]Theteam'sfindingswerepublishedinPNASinMay2012.[118][119]Accordingto
theirtheory,thesloweastwardmigrationofthemonsoonsacrossAsiainitiallyallowedthecivilisation
todevelop.Themonsoonsupportedfarmingledtolargeagriculturalsurpluses,whichinturnsupported
thedevelopmentofcities.TheIVCresidentsdidnotdevelopirrigationcapabilities,relyingmainlyon
theseasonalmonsoons.Asthemonsoonskeptshiftingeastward,thewatersupplyfortheagricultural
activitiesdriedup.TheresidentsthenmigratedtowardstheGangesbasinintheeast,wherethey
establishedsmallervillagesandisolatedfarms.Thesmallsurplusproducedinthesesmallcommunities
didnotallowdevelopmentoftrade,andthecitiesdiedout.[120]ThereisalsoaHarappansitecalled
RojdiinRajkotdistrictofSaurashtra.ItsexcavationstartedunderarchaeologicalteamfromGujarat
StateDepartmentofArchaeologyandUniversityofMuseumoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniainthe
year198283.[121]

Legacy
IntheaftermathoftheIndusCivilization'scollapse,regionalculturesemerged,tovaryingdegrees
showingtheinfluenceoftheIndusCivilization.IntheformerlygreatcityofHarappa,burialshavebeen
foundthatcorrespondtoaregionalculturecalledtheCemeteryHculture.Atthesametime,theOchre
ColouredPotterycultureexpandedfromRajasthanintotheGangeticPlain.TheCemeteryHculturehas
theearliestevidenceforcremationapracticedominantinHinduismtoday.

Historicalcontextandlinguisticaffiliation
TheIVChasbeententativelyidentifiedwiththetoponymMeluhhaknownfromSumerianrecordsthe
SumerianscalledthemMeluhhaites.[122]Ithasbeencomparedinparticularwiththecivilisationsof
Elam(alsointhecontextoftheElamoDravidianhypothesis)andwithMinoanCrete(becauseof
isolatedculturalparallelssuchastheubiquitousgoddessworshipanddepictionsofbullleaping).[123]
Themature(Harappan)phaseoftheIVCiscontemporarytotheEarlyandMiddleBronzeAgeinthe
AncientNearEast,inparticulartheOldElamiteperiod,EarlyDynastictoUrIIIMesopotamia,
PrepalatialMinoanCreteandOldKingdomtoFirstIntermediatePeriodEgypt.
AfterthediscoveryoftheIVCinthe1920s,itwasimmediatelyassociatedwiththeindigenousDasyu
inimicaltotheRigvedictribesinnumeroushymnsoftheRigveda.MortimerWheelerinterpretedthe
presenceofmanyunburiedcorpsesfoundinthetoplevelsofMohenjoDaroasthevictimsofawarlike
conquest,andfamouslystatedthat"Indrastandsaccused"ofthedestructionoftheIVC.Theassociation
oftheIVCwiththecitydwellingDasyusremainsalluringbecausetheassumedtimeframeofthefirst
IndoAryanmigrationintoIndiacorrespondsneatlywiththeperiodofdeclineoftheIVCseeninthe
archaeologicalrecord.Thediscoveryoftheadvanced,urbanIVChoweverchangedthe19thcentury
viewofearlyIndoAryanmigrationasan"invasion"ofanadvancedcultureattheexpenseofa
"primitive"aboriginalpopulationtoagradualacculturationofnomadic"barbarians"onanadvanced
urbancivilisation,comparabletotheGermanicmigrationsaftertheFallofRome,ortheKassite
invasionofBabylonia.Thismoveawayfromsimplistic"invasionist"scenariosparallelssimilar
developmentsinthinkingaboutlanguagetransferandpopulationmovementingeneral,suchasinthe
caseofthemigrationoftheprotoGreekspeakersintoGreece,ortheIndoEuropeanizationofWestern
Europe.

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ItwasoftensuggestedthatthebearersoftheIVCcorrespondedtoprotoDravidianslinguistically,the
breakupofprotoDravidiancorrespondingtothebreakupoftheLateHarappanculture.[124]Today,the
DravidianlanguagefamilyisconcentratedmostlyinsouthernIndiaandnorthernandeasternSriLanka,
butpocketsofitstillremainthroughouttherestofIndiaandPakistan(theBrahuilanguage),whichlends
credencetothetheory.FinnishIndologistAskoParpolaconcludesthattheuniformityoftheIndus
inscriptionsprecludesanypossibilityofwidelydifferentlanguagesbeingused,andthatanearlyformof
DravidianlanguagemusthavebeenthelanguageoftheInduspeople.However,inaninterviewwiththe
DeccanHeraldon12August2012,AskoParpolaclarifiedhispositionbyadmittingthat"Sanskrithas
alsopreservedaveryimportantpartoftheIndusheritage"andthatevenSangamTamilhadpossible
influencesoftheBrahmins.[125]
ProtoMunda(orParaMunda)anda"lostphylum"(perhapsrelatedorancestraltotheNihali
language)[126]havebeenproposedasothercandidatesforthelanguageoftheIVC.MichaelWitzel
suggestsanunderlying,prefixinglanguagethatissimilartoAustroasiatic,notablyKhasihearguesthat
theRigveda(composedbytheIndoAryansafterthedeclineoftheHarappans)showssignsofthis
hypotheticalHarappaninfluenceintheearliesthistoriclevel,andDravidianonlyinlaterlevels,
suggestingthatspeakersofAustroasiaticweretheoriginalinhabitantsofPunjabandthattheIndo
AryansencounteredspeakersofDravidianonlyinlatertimes.[30]

Seealso
ListofIndusValleyCivilizationsites
ListofinventionsanddiscoveriesoftheIndusValleyCivilization
Cradleofcivilization
BronzeAge
IronAgeIndia
Synoptictableoftheprincipaloldworldprehistoriccultures

Notes
1. Masson:"AlongmarchprecededourarrivalatHaripah,throughjangaloftheclosestdescription....WhenI
joinedthecampIfounditinfrontofthevillageandruinousbrickcastle.Behinduswasalargecircular
mound,oreminence,andtothewestwasanirregularrockyheight,crownedwiththeremainsofbuildings,in
fragmentsofwalls,withniches,aftertheeasternmanner....Traditionaffirmstheexistencehereofacity,so
considerablethatitextendedtoChichaWatni,thirteencossesdistant,andthatitwasdestroyedbyaparticular
visitationofProvidence,broughtdownbythelustandcrimesofthesovereign."[31]Notethatthecoss,a
measureofdistanceusedfromVedicperiodtoMughaltimes,isapproximately2miles(3.2km).

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1. "ArcheologistsconfirmIndiancivilizationis2000yearsolderthanpreviouslybelieved,JasonOverdorf,
Globalpost,28November2012"(http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia
pacific/india/121116/induscivilization2000yearsoldarchaeologists).
2. "IndusValley2,000yearsolderthanthought"(http://www.hindustantimes.com/newdelhi/indusvalley2000
yearsolderthanthought/article1954601.aspx).
3. "Haryana'sBhirranaoldestHarappansite,RakhigarhiAsia'slargest:ASI"
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5. "WhatdidHarappanseat,howdidtheylook?Haryanahastheanswers"
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Egyptwerelongerlived,butcoexistedwithInduscivilizationduringitsflorescencebetween2600and1900
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courseofriver'Saraswati'inNorthWestIndiawascarriedoutusingIndianRemoteSensingSatellitedata
alongwithdigitalelevationmodel.Satelliteimagesaremultispectral,multitemporalandhaveadvantagesof
synopticview,whichareusefultodetectpalaeochannels.Thepalaeochannelsarevalidatedusinghistorical
maps,archaeologicalsites,hydrogeologicalanddrillingdata.ItwasobservedthatmajorHarappansitesof
Kalibangan(Rajasthan),BanawaliandRakhigarhi(Haryana),DholaviraandLothal(Gujarat)liealongthe
RiverSaraswati."MinistryofSpace,GovernmentofIndia.
10. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm|A.V.Shankaran.:"SaraswatiTheancientriverlostin
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11. http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704|"IndianSpaceResearchOrganization
(ISRO)hasstudiedthepalaeochannelsinNorthWestIndiaandrelatedthemtothechannelsofRiver
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12. http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm|A.V.Shankaran.:"Saraswatiwasbelievedtohavehad
threetributaries,Shatadru(Sutlej)arisingfromMountKailas,DrishadvatifromSiwalikHillsandtheold
Yamuna.Together,theyflowedalongachannel,presentlyidentifiedasthatoftheGhaggarriver,alsocalled
HakraRiverinRajasthanandNarainSindh."
13. MichelDanino:TheLostRiverOnthetrailoftheSarasvati(PenguinBooks,2010).ISBN978014
3068648
14. Citeerror:ThenamedreferenceUpinger_Singh_p.137wasinvokedbutneverdefined(seethehelp
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15. B.B.Lal,KeynoteAddress(http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/ngier/lalpaper.htm).Webpages.uidaho.edu.
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16. CharlesKahn(2005).WorldHistory:SocietiesofthePast.Portage&MainPress.
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18. Beck,RogerB.LindaBlack,LarryS.Krieger,PhillipC.Naylor,DahiaIboShabaka,(1999).World
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(http://thediplomat.com/2015/04/exploringtheindusvalleyssecrets/).Thediplomat.Retrieved18April2015.
22. Morrison,KathleenD.(Ed.)Junker,LauraL.(2002).ForagertradersinSouthandSoutheastAsia:long
termhistories(http://books.google.co.in/books?
id=6IAUKE7xv_cC&dq=oriyo+timbo&q=oriyo+timbo#v=onepage&q=sutkagendor&f=false)([Online
Ausg.]ed.).Cambridge[u.a.]:CambridgeUniv.Press.p.62.ISBN9780521016360.
23. http://164.100.47.132/LssNew/psearch/QResult15.aspx?qref=138704|"ItwasobservedthatmajorHarappan
sitesofKalibangan(Rajasthan),BanawaliandRakhigarhi(Haryana),DholaviraandLothal(Gujarat)liealong
theRiverSaraswati."MinistryofSpace,GovernmentofIndia.
24. Wright2009,p.107:Quote:"FivemajorInduscitiesarediscussedinthischapter.DuringtheUrbanperiod,
theearlytownofHarappaexpandedinsizeandpopulationandbecameamajorcenterintheUpperIndus.
OthercitiesemergingduringtheUrbanperiodincludeMohenjodarointheLowerIndus,Dholaviratothe
southonthewesternedgeofpeninsularIndiainKutch,GanweriwalainCholistan,andafifthcity,
Rakhigarhi,ontheGhaggarHakra.Rakhigarhiwillbediscussedbrieflyinviewofthelimitedpublished
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