KAS 2 PROF JELY A.

GALANG

Shamanism in
Philippines, Manipur and
Korea: A Comparative
Study
Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels;
Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea
James Albert B. Narvaez
2013-13698

James Albert B. Narvaez

2013-13698

Kas 2 WF 10-11:30 AM
Prof . Jely A. Galang

Shamanism has fascinated the minds of Western academics since the seventeenth century. The
aim of this journal review is to conclude a reliable standard to support that shamanism crossculturally exist and to show the role of shamans in the lives and practices of the people in the
society of the Filipinos, those of in Manipur and those in Korea.

Physical Description

Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea: A Comparative Study

Otojit Kshetrimayum
Indian Anthropologist, Vol. 39, No. 1/2 (Jan - Dec 2009), pp. 17-34
Published by: Indian Anthropological Association
Figure/s presented: 1
Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels
Francisco Demetrio
Filipino Folk Literature Scholar, (Nov 1973), pp. 128-154
Published by: University of the Philippines, Asian Studies Journal
Authors

Otojit Kshetrimayum is a research scholar in sociology at Delhi's

Jawaharlal Nehru University who has written several academic papers
on the phenomenal popularity of all things Korean, folk literature and
religious practices in Manipur.
Francisco R Demetrio is one of the most active scholars in the area of Philippine Folklore, his
work having appeared in a variety of journals including Asian Folklore
Studies. He is also an ordained priest and has received the The
Outstanding Filipino Award for Culture.

Summary

Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels

The journal documented the phenomenon of shamanism in the Philippines as found in the
writings of Spanish chroniclers as well as those of others up to the present. The author first
established the meaning of shamanism and its limitations to ritual functionaries of shamans that
affect the very society of people.
He reasoned that the occurrence of shamanism in the Philippines as well as in many
Southeast Asian lands is really systematized. The similarity and parallelism are seen in the
manner the shaman is called and ordained. The folly characteristic of the Philippine shaman-tobe is also borne out among the shaman candidates. The actual sance often held at night, by
women shamans, along with one or more associates, ends up with the priestess falling on the
ground, frothing at the mouthpiece, often turning rigid and unconscious. During this interval, she
is considered to be either carried away in ecstasy to regions where the divinities and the spirits or
the people of the dead dwell; or else, her body is possessed by spirits and souls of ancestors who
speak their messages to the masses through the shaman as a spiritualist.
In either case, whether the seance ends in ecstasy or possession, the shaman is the central
figure who acts as intermediary between the spirit world and the world of men while other
magical powers attributed to shamans in many parts of the world are also attested to in both
regions: control of fire, tree climbing and ritual transformation of sex.

Summary
Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea: A Comparative Study

This journal encapsulated the argument that the Maibi culture of Manipur can be
considered a variant of shamanism and not just a product of their pre-Hindu religion. It is a
tradition, which is related to folk beliefs and practices associated with animistic faith. Here, we
can see that he ascertained different definition and views on shamanism and the author used this
to construct a connection between the trends and practices of Korean shamanism and Maibism.
The findings have shown that the maibi culture has the attributes of shamanic traditions
on the basis that the maibis have the uniqueness of ecstasy or trance and possession. The similar
trend of shamanic practices that is observed between Korean shamanism and maibi culture of
Manipur has also substantiated that the latter is one of the variants of shamanism. Broadly
speaking, these rites of both Maibism and Korean Shamanism (Muism) have the same purpose
for the people and they are performed to get into trance possession; to bring well being and
prosperity of a mortal or a village; to ward away evil spirits; to cleanse the intent of a deceased
person; to comfort the spirits of a mortal who died an unnatural death etc. The author also
pointed out that the folk tradition seems to provide a consciousness that the women have their
space for power and autonomy.
Based on how the maibis of Manipur live, we can conclude that even though they
experience privileges and high social status, they are still exposed to the idea that this tradition is
engaged with social distinction and ambivalent attitude towards women just like what happened
to the maibis of Manipur and the mundangs of Korea.

Arguments
Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels

In Father Demetrios essay, he first introduced the connotation of the term shamanism
using the definition given by Mircea Eliade1
"The ecstatic experience is considered the religious experience par excellence (and) the
shaman, and he alone, is the great master of ecstasy."
He also identified shamanism as a religious phenomenon, that is composed of complex
ideal and practices which comprises a very ancient institution. The universality of Philippine
Shamanism is usually linked with the belief of a three-tiered world which includes supra-beings
who dwell in the sky (Upperworld); realm of the spirits of the dead who have not risen
(Underworld) and the world of men (Middleworld).2
The shaman as he defined, is said to be a psycho pomp, that is, the conductor of the soul
of the dead man to the land of the dead. And in some places, the shaman sometimes is possessed
by the spirits of the dead. And it is claimed the shaman can do this because he is himself a very
special person. He is one who even while still living in the flesh has already stepped into the
spirit-world, himself having died and then come to life again. 3 Along with these beliefs, shamans

1 Mircea Eliade, Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy (New York:Random House, Inc., 1964), p. 4.
2

Ibid., p.355

3 Ibid., pp. 365, 366, 507

believe that the pig is the most important sacrifice in their ritual because it is considered as a
moon animal.4
He construed based on his years of observations that the common worries of people in
regards to shamanism are the problem of disease, on the secret of its recovery, mystery of death
and the possibility or a fact of life after destruction. This is where the shaman acts as the psychic
equilibrium of the community who connects the realm of man with those of the gods and deities
provide answers to man's questions.5
The author categorized religious functionaries into three categories: 1) the shaman also
known as Catalonia, Anitera (Tagalog) and Babaylan (Visayan Regions). The shaman is at once
priest-sacrificer, healer, intermediary with the spirit world, prophet and seer; 2) the magician or
sorcerer who is a medicine-man, mananambal, mamumuhat, diwatero, arbolaryo; (3) the witch
or balbal, or aswang; mostly women who, in the mind of the folk, are people with a particular
kind of sickness which in turn they can give to others.6
He stated that the study will limit itself only to the religious functionary of what various
groups in the Philippines call "shaman". In line with this this he described the process of
shamanic call and consecration of various shamans in the Philippines. In the Visayas, the call to
shamanism must come directly through a sudden fit of trembling and insanity7 while for the

4 lsnegs," Anthropos, Vol. XLVIII (1953), pp. 557-568. Other writers consulted include Joseph Campbell. The Masks ofGod: Primitive
Mythology (New York: Viking Press, 1959).

5 Eliade, Recent Works on Shamanism.History of Religions. I, pp. 184-186.

6 Juan de Plasencia, "Costumbre de los Tagalo(g)s," pp. 173-196.
7 Francisco Alzina, Historia de

las Islas Bisayas, 1668-1669. Munoz pp.216-217

Isnegs and Tinguians they need to undergo in the ritual of consecration called ipuwan8 and must
approach an older shaman to become his apprentice only then he will receive the teachings of
"the people of the first times" and can receive his piling, the badge symbolizing that you are a
part of the shamanic office9.

He also narrated in the journal the ritual tree climbing as part of the shamans initiation which is
an ascension motif10; the offerings for the anitos were not only slain animals and festive dances,
but also include golden beads and chain ornaments11 and some practices only occur for about 2-3
days while others are rituals are elaborated and had to straddle for 2 consecutive weeks 12. Along
with the sex of the shamans most are women while men who aspired to become a shaman had to
ape the ways and dress of women. These men were generally called asog (bayog in Tagalog)13.
In the ritual proper a head shaman is usually assisted by another two shamans who would answer
her questions, playing the role of the spirits through possession; they consider these anitos
interceder for them to Bathala (great lord) because they believe that no one could ever speak to
him.

8 Morice Vanoverbergh, "Religion and Magic Among lsnegs," Anthropos, Vol. XLVIII (1953), pp. 557-568
9 James Fay-Cooper Cole, The Wild Tribes of Davao District, Mindanao p.302
10 Eliade, Shamanism, p. 264 ff.: cf. also Patterns in Comparative Religion.
11 Miguel de Loarca, "Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas," Vol. 5, 1582-1583 in Islands. p.129
12 Richard Arens, "The 'Tambalan' and His Medical Practices in Leyte and Samar," 1971,pp. 107-115.
13 Francisco Alzina, Historia de

las Islas Bisayas, 1668-1669. Munoz pp.213

For them the possession is the proof of the strong bond of familiarity and friendship
between the shaman and the deities. 14 The song, the dancing, the beat of the gongs are not done
to give pleasure to the deities, but it means to induce the state of trance, during which the spirit is
said to come and possess the shaman.15
Women and Shamanism in Manipur and Korea
Professor Otofit Kshetrimayum clearly established a definition for the term shamanism.
Shaman is originally referred to the traditional healers of Turkic-Mongol areas such as Northern
Asia (Siberia) and Mongolia. The word shamanism originated from the Turkic-Tungus word
and it literally means 'he or she who knows'. He defines it as
Shamanism is one of the traditional belief systems and is the world's oldest method of
expanding consciousness which consists of a collection of simple techniques for
accessing energy, power, vision, healing and creativity whose emerging manifestation is
being observed today in various societies.
which can be viewed through three perspectives. The first one is the 'Psychological View' which
claims trance (or ecstasy) as a stage of changed consciousness which results in possession (or the
ecstatic journey).16 Second, is the 'Religious View', which considers trance as a phenomenon of
possession created by the shaman who establishes sacred contact with the spirits. 17 The third

14 Eliade, Shamanism, p. 506 ff.: cf. also Patterns in Comparative Religion.

15 Mircea Eliade "Recent Works on Shamanism," History of Religions, (1961-1962), pp. 168-169
16 Bourguignon, Erika. 1976. Possession , San Francisco (CA): Chandler & Sharp Publishers
17 Eliade, M. 1972. Shamanism and Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy. Princeton: Princeton University Press

view pronounces that the shaman's distinctive characteristic is the condition of trance-possession
which is proposed by Kim Tae-kon.18
The journal described shaman as a type of medicine man or woman known because of its
journeys to hidden world through myth, dreams and near-death experiences. He pointed out that
a shaman is a sorcerer, healer, psycho pomp, priest, mystic, poet, and performer of miracles, but
one rarely finds a shaman in any given culture engaged in all bodily functions associated with
shamanism.19 The unpretentious ability which stern directly from his control over particular
supernatural beings to communicate with spirits does not in itself justify calling the practitioner a
'shaman'. There must also be render other distinctive traits: distinctive ritual paraphernalia, a
specialized mystical language, and operational procedures such as working for a fee.

According to statistics, a large percent of Meiteis in Manipur are Hindu but they have not even
given up their former custom of worshipping their ancestors and local deities. They even use
their pre-Hindu religion Sanamahism which incorporates a huge knowledge and philosophy
around the foundation of the world, earth, beings, and the life and destruction of people through
folklore and customs.20This is where the Maibi culture propagates because it acts as the dominant
feature of the Sanamahism which is traditionally related to folk beliefs and practices associated
with animistic faith.

18 Tae-kon, Kim. 1998. Korean Shamanism- Muism. Seoul: Jimoondang pp.171-172

19 Rogers, Spencer Lee. 1982. The Shaman: His Symbols and his Healing Power. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher pp.35-36
20 Chaki-Sircar, Manjusri. 1984. Feminism in a Traditional Society: Women of Manipur Valley. p.214

In maibism, maibis and maibas are considered as the most important functionaries of this
tradition because they are the medium between the human and the spirit. They usually act as the
priests and priestesses, givers of oracles, oral tradition preservers which they usually do through
gift offerings and bloodless sacrifices to the Lais (deities). The main difference between the
maibi and maiba is that the former is chosen by the lais through possession and ordained
completely while the latter is made and trained through his efforts and research with the help of
his spirit mother.21 The figure below shows the basic structure of maibism and the roles of maibis
and maibas in their traditional society.

21 Singh, M. Kirti. 1988. Religion and Culture of Manipur. Delhi: Manas Publication p.172

The candidacy for maibi is by being selected by the lai. Being a maibi does not depend
on the persons age and his shamanic call is evidenced by incoherent language and trembling, as
if possessed by the demon. After that she becomes a normal woman like any other and undergo a
training under their own Ima Guru (Spirit Mother) while the maiba are trained maibalon
(physician) for five or six years. After schooling himself long enough in this field, he is qualified
to be ordained as a recognized maiba.22
After recognizing the maibi culture, Prof. Otojit introduced the Korean Shamanism or Muism,
having the mundane as the counterpart of maibis and maibas of Manipur. He defined Korean
shamanism as a religious belief which is deeply rooted in the folk tradition related to the ancient
cult of communal worship rites offered to deities and infused with Buddhist tradition through
time.23
Most shamans were women, and the male shamans were called paksu mudang. Shaman
rituals or kut in Korean were performed in order to restore the peaceful and harmonious
relationship between the dead and the living depicted in the preserved ancient paintings (hwan).24
The main idea, which distinguishes Muism, is that it seeks answers to human problems
through a meeting between humanity and the spirits mediated by the shaman through elaborate
rituals, musics and dances which paved way for the development of the Korean folk culture. He
also summarized the shamanistic rites into three elements which are 1) the spirits as the object of
22 Chaki-Sircar, Manjusri. 1984. Feminism in a Traditional Society: Women of Manipur Valley
23 Tae-kon, Kim. 1998. Korean Shamanism- Muism. Seoul: Jimoond p.25
24

Boudewijn Walraven National Pantheon, Regional Deities, Personal Spirits? Mushindo, Sdnjjsu, and the Nature of Korean
Shamanism p.55

folk belief; 2) the believers praying to those spirits, 3) and the shaman mediating between the
spirits and the believers.
Critiques
I would like to begin my critiques in both journals by giving the differences and clash of point of
views regarding shamanism that I have found in the journals of Prof. Ojit and Father Demetrio,
followed by the similarities and parallelism on the tradition of shamanism itself and lastly
providing a general outlook on the very context of the journal.
Definition of Shamanism
In the first article, shamanism is viewed as a religious experience that has something to
do with trances and ecstasy while the second article views it as an early form of polytheism, in
which it became the stepping stones of the society to emerge and support their living but one
foremost thing that both of them considered is that the shaman must be the very core of this
tradition.
Cosmological View, Belief of Universality and Existence of Supreme God
Korean shamanism and Maibism mutually agree that all the surrounding world is
animated, inhabited by the spirits who can influence man's life and is closely connected with the
cosmos; while that of the Philippines we also view that world is inhabited by spirits but we
consider the cosmos as three-tier world Upperworld, Underworld and the Middleworld. This
world is guided by Bathala (Philippines), hanulnim or the 'Lord of Heaven' (Korea) and Atiya
Shidaba or the 'Father Void' (Manipur).
Shamanic Call, Consecration and Apprenticeship

In the Philippines, shamanic call varies through different regions like in Visayas they
consider "sudden fit of trembling and insanity" as a sign of candidacy while for the Isnegs they
were chosen by the previous shaman or elder shaman and must be put into apprenticeship where
the shaman must learn the details of crafts, gifts suitable for deities, chants and diams (myths) to
be recited on rituals and there are also instances that they consider shamanistic call as hereditary
and must be emerge only from families of former shamans. The male maibas and female maibis
are the 'traditional priest and priestesses' of the Manipur Shamanism. The chance of becoming a
maibi is by being selected by the lai (deity). The shamanic call is evidenced by incoherent
language, trembling as if being possessed by a demon (Maibi changba) which is parallel to that
of the Philippines while that of Korea is also the same but also accompanied by forms of
misfortune (shin kamul).25 While maibis suffer from shamanic illness, they get trained in dance,
music chanting and complex ritual procedures under the supervision of their own Ima Guru
(Mother Guru).
Purpose of Shamanistic Rites
There are close resemblances among the Korean shamanistic, maibic rites and that of the
Philippines. Generally, these rites are performed to get into trance possession; to bring well being
and prosperity of an individual or a village; to ward off evil spirits; to cleanse the spirit of a
deceased person; to console the spirits of a person who died an unnatural death and also he says
and does things related to tribal concerns, for example sickness, and answers socio-psychological
functions in the community due to his re ligio-therapeutic influences.26
25 Boudewijn Walraven National Pantheon, Regional Deities, Personal Spirits? Mushindo, Sdnjjsu, and the Nature of Korean
Shamanism p. 64

26 Ulysses B. Aparece., Lunas: The Mother of All Sukdan Shamans Curing Rituals, p. 135

Ritual Paraphernalias and Dances

The instruments used by Filipino shamans during rituals were generally bells,
kettledrums, large gongs, bamboo trumpets; also there are Chinese plates that were used along
with the piling or seashells for striking the plates. On the other hand, the divine instruments of
the mudangs are myongdo (mirror), divine bells, and the divine swords. While in the case of the
maibis , it is the brass bell that is the divine instrument. The brass bell is wrapped with a white
cloth at the handle. A maibi never attends a ritual without her bell. The bell is considered to be
the navel of the Atiya Shidaba , the creator from which all the lives generate.
Class Distinction and Gender Issues
All these three countries have their own stories on gender issues of shamans. In the
Philippines, we have many types of shamans such as sexless (impotent) man called the manang
bali. The same class is also attested to among the early Tagalogs (bayog), and the early Bisayans
(asog).27 These are usually women or men who pose as women. They assume the tone of voice,
mannerisms and dress of females. Some even go so far as to "marry" and live with young men in
the village. We can also observe these in Manipur and Korea, for instances mundangs and maibis
put on women's dress in the ritual and use language consisting of everyday feminine expressions.
This tendency underlines the fact that the majority of shamans is female. 28 Class distinctions can
be seen in the tradition of Korean shamanism and Maibism because they rank shamans or
mundangs to different classes based on their social status.
Shaman Bigotry and Discrimination
27 Salazar, Zeus., Ang Babaylan sa Kasaysayan ng Pilipinas p.23, 1999
28 Kilsong, Ch'oe. 1984. "Male and Female in Korean Folk Belief" Asian Folklore Studies , vol. 43: 227-233

In the case of the Filipino shamans, by the time of Spanish colonization there is a dispute
between Spanish friars and shaman leaders29 because the colonizers view that the female baylan,
as an extreme opposite of the Virgin Mary, embodied religious evil-for example, her worship of
idols and sacrificial offerings were judged to be the work of the devil. In this sense, the baylan
represent the opposite of Christian order and they were the symbols of social vice as well as of
religious evil.30
Contrariwise, in Korean shamanism there is no discrimination based on sex, age or
inheritance in shamanism. Most Korean women, especially in the rural areas and lower classes,
believe in shamanism because of this equality, but this change in the time of the Joseon dynasty,
mundangs had low social status and were members of the ch'ommin (literally meaning despised
people) which also included servants and slaves in government offices and rest houses.31
For the people of Manipur, they view a maibi 's life as a life which promised her immense
freedom in the extra-domestic domain, considerable social status, and the prospect of a better
livelihood. However, a maibi is never called a 'proper' or 'woman'. Nor do people accept her role
comfortably.32
Shamanism as Feminist Subculture

29 Alfred W. McCoy, Baylan: Animist Religion and Philippine Peasant Ideology p.160
30 Carolyn Brewer, Shamanism, Catholicism and Gender Relations in Colonial Philippines, pp.116-118
31 Kilsong, Ch'oe. 1984. "Male and Female in Korean Folk Belief," Asian Folklore Studies , vol. 43: 227-233
32 Chaki-Sircar, Manjusri. 1984. Feminism in a Traditional Society: Women of Manipur Valley. New Delhi: Shakti Books.p.213-214

They have explained that spirit possession is a kind of expression of rebellion or a way of
escapism of oppressed females in patriarchal society. Shamanism seemingly provides women
with more independence, strengthen their birth relationship bonds, acts as a tool for catharsis and
mostly construct an atmosphere of solidarity. Opinions start to arise, clients range from a strong
faith in her power to the concession that "there might be something in it (shamanism)." 33 They
have explained that spirit possession is a kind of expression of rebellion or a way of escapism of
oppressed females in patriarchal society. Shamanism seemingly provides women with more
independence, strengthen their birth relationship bonds, acts as a tool for catharsis and mostly
construct an atmosphere of solidarity.

Conclusion
Being a shaman is a great customary responsibility that caters the development of the
people along with its society. We read in our history textbooks that these shamans are the
companions of political leaders in making decisions, especially in cases of political-military
issues and economic issues. Shamanism brought our culture to what it is today. It flourishes our
traditions because these folk practices have been the core function of the society.
Nowadays, there still exist shamans in different parts of our countries and they are still
influencing the society and its way of life. From being a faith healer to intermediary in the other
world, we cannot deny that they strongly have an effect on our past, then we can conclude that
shamanism cross-culturally exist not only in the Philippines but also in other parts of Asia just
like Manipur and Korea. Our ancestors have greatly depended on the way of life and practices of
these shamans and through by studying them and comparing them with other emerging
33 Richard W. Lieban, Shamanism and Social Control in a Philippine City Journal of the Folklore Institute, Vol. 2, No. 1p.51

shamanism culture we might answer why do our descendants live like that in the past, how did
they face trials and problems inside their place and how does belief in shamanism changed their
way of thinking and basis for choosing what to do in their lives.

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