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1 Micromechanics
For isotropic materials
Eiso = 2(1 + )Giso
(1)
E1 = Ef 1 f + Em (1 f ),
(2)
f
(1 f )
1
=
.
+
E2
Ef 2
Em
(3)
12 = f 12 f + m (1 f ),
(4)
f
(1 f )
1
=
.
+
G12
Gf 12
Gm
(5)
E2 = Em
+ (1 f ) .
1 f (1 Em /Ef 2 )
(6)
Em Ef 2
.
f + (1 f ) Ef 2
(7)
Em
E22 =
K23 + G23 +
(8)
2 G K
412
23 23
E11
with
(+)
G23
(1 + cm )f
= Gm 1 +
c3 f (1 +
()
G23 = Gm +
1
Gf,23 Gm
K23 = Km,23 +
Km,23 = Km +
f
Km,23 +2Gm
2Gm (Km,23 +Gm ) (1
f )
f
1
Kf,23 Km,23
3c2m (1f )2
)
1+c2 3f
1f
Km,23 +Gm
(9)
Ef,22
Em
Gm
, Kf,23 =
, Km =
,
3
2(1 f,32 2f,12 f,21 )
3(1 2m )
and
(10)
(11)
(12)
cf =
Kf,23
Gf,23
cm c1 cf
Km,23
c1 + cm
, c1 =
, c2 =
, cm =
, c3 =
.
Kf,23 + 2Gf,23
Km,23 + 2Gm
Gm
1 + c1 cf
c1 1
1.5 Halpin-Tsai
1 + f
(Mf /Mm ) 1
M
=
, with =
,
Mm
1 f
(Mf /Mm ) +
(13)
1 + f
(Ef 2 /Em ) 1
E2
=
, with =
,
Em
1 f
(Ef 2 /Em ) +
(14)
2 Mesomechanics
Waviness (crimp) of yarn
c=
lyarn
1.
lf abric
(15)
Knockdown factor
= 1+2
2
1
Ex
2(1 + xy )
Gxy
(16)
3 Macromechanics
3.1 Lamina Properties
Compliance matrix
=S
S11 S12
= S12 S22
12
(17)
0 2
66
(18)
12
with
1
E1
12
21
=
=
= S21
E1
E2
1
E2
1
=
G12
S11 =
S22 =
(19)
S12
S66
(20)
Stiffness matrix
=Q
Q11 Q12
= Q12 Q22
12
(21)
0 2
66
(22)
12
with
E1
1 12 21
12 E2
21 E1
=
=
= Q21
1 12 21
1 12 21
E2
1 12 21
Q11 =
Q22 =
Q12
Q66 = G12
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
Reuter matrix R:
1 0 0
R = 0 1 0
0 0 2
(27)
c2
s2
T = s2
c2
2sc
s2
T 1 = s2
c2
2sc
sc sc c2 s2
c2
2sc
2sc
sc sc c2 s2
(28)
(29)
(30)
with
S11 = S11 cos4 + (2S12 + S66 )sin2 cos2 + S22 sin4
S12 = S12 (sin4 + cos4 ) + (S11 + S22 S66 )sin2 cos2
S22 = S11 sin4 + (2S12 + S66 )sin2 cos2 + S22 cos4
S16 = (2S11 2S12 S66 )sincos3 (2S22 2S12 S66 )sin3 cos
S26 = (2S11 2S12 S66 )sin3 cos (2S22 2S12 S66 )sincos3
S66 = 2(2S11 + 2S22 4S12 S66 )sin2 cos2 + S66 (sin4 + cos4 )
and
11 = Q11 cos4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q22 sin4
Q
12 = Q12 (sin4 + cos4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )sin2 cos2
Q
22 = Q11 sin4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q22 cos4
Q
16 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )sincos3 + (Q22 + Q12 + 2Q66 )sin3 cos
Q
26 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )sin3 cos + (Q22 + Q12 + 2Q66 )sincos3
Q
66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q66 (sin4 + cos4 )
Q
3.3 ABD-Matrix
(
n
m
"
=
)
"
# (
A B
0
B D
A B
B D
#1 (
(31)
)
"
# (
a b
n
=
b d
m
(32)
N
x
Nxy
B12
B22
B26
A12
A16
11
Mx
B12
M
B
xy
A=
B=
n
X
16
B16
0y
B26
0
B66
xy
(33)
k (zk zk1 ) =
Q
k=1
n
X
k tk
Q
k=1
n
X
(34)
1
k (z 2 z 2 ) =
k tk zk tk
Q
Q
k
k1
2 k=1
2
k=1
n
n
X
1X
k (z 3 z 3 ) =
k
D=
Q
Q
k
k1
3 k=1
k=1
tk
t3k
+ tk z k
12
2
(35)
2 !
(36)
G,
) for symmetrical and balanced laminates
CLT-Engineering constants (E,
x =
E
xy =
G
1
(A1 )
11
y =
, E
1
(A1 )22
(A1 )12
(A1 )12
1
,
=
,
=
.
xy
yx
(A1 )66 t
(A1 )22
(A1 )11
(37)
(38)
{
}k = 0 + {} zk
(39)
4 Composite Failure
4.1 Basic UD Lamina Strength
Xt = R||+
Xc = R||
+
Yt = R
Yc = R
SL = R||
ST = R
|2 |
Stress exposure fE :
(40)
|1 | |2 | |12 |
,
,
.
Xt/c Yt/c SL
fE = max
(41)
|2 |
Stress exposure fE :
fr
|12 | < 12
(42)
1
2 12
fE = max f r , f r , f r .
1t/c 2t/c 12
(43)
1
1
1
1
12
1 +
2 +
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Xt Xc
2
2
1 2
+ 2
+ 12
= 1.
Yt Yc
SL2
Xt Xc Yt Yc
(44)
(45)
with
22
12
1 2
+
a=
+
|Xt Xc |
Xt Xc Yt Yc |Yt Yc |
1
1
1
b=
1
2
Xt Xc
+ 2
1
1
Yt Yc
12
SL
2
(46)
(47)
1
1
1 +
Xt Xc
1
1
12
2 + 32
1
1
(2 + 3 ) +
+ 2
+2
2
Yt Yc
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Yt Yc 2 Yt Yc Zt Zc 23
2 + 2
2 3
1 2 + 1 3
+ 12 2 13
+
= 1.
SL
Xt Xc Yt Yc
Yt Yc Zt Zc
(48)
(49)
with
1 2 + 1 3
1
12
2 3
22
1
2 + 2
2
+2
a=
+
23
+ 12 2 13 ,
|Xt Xc |
Yt Yc 2 Yt Yc Zt Zc
SL
Xt Xc Yt Yc
Yt Yc Zt Zc |Yt Yc |
(50)
1
1
1
1
b=
2
Xt Xc
1
1
+ (2 + 3 )
Yt Yc
(51)
=1
Xc
2
2
12 2
+
=1
Yt
SL
"
#
2 2
Yc 2
2
12 2
+
1
+
=1
2ST
2ST
Yc
SL
FF tension
FF compression
IFF tension
IFF compression
1
Xt
2
1 0
1 < 0
2 0
2 < 0.
Stress exposure fE :
FF tension
s
1
Xt
fE =
2
FF compression
fE =
IFF tension
s
fE =
2
Yt
12
SL
2
(52)
1
Xc
2
(53)
12
SL
2
(54)
IFF compression
p
1
1
= (b b2 + a),
fE
a
(55)
with
a=
1
b=
2
2
2ST
"
2
Yc
2ST
12
SL
2
2
(56)
2
.
Yc
(57)
1
Rkt
Fiber compression
fE =
1
Rkc
for 1 > 0
(58)
for 1 < 0
(59)
Rk
Rk
Rk
(60)
A
R
Inter Fiber Failure Mode B (2 < 0 and 0 122 12,c
)
v
u
u 12 2 pck 2
pck
t
fE =
+
2 +
2 .
Rk
Rk
(61)
Rk
A
R
Inter Fiber Failure Mode C (2 < 0 and 0 122 > 12,c
)
fE =
where:
12
2(1 + pc )Rk
12,c = Rk 1 + 2pc ,
p
2
2
c
R
c
R
,
2(1+pc )
A =
R
2
pc
A
R
c
R
.
2
(62)
pck
Rk .
GFRP/Epoxy
CFRP/Epoxy
ptk
0.3
0.35
pck
0.25
0.3
pt
0.2-0.25
0.25-0.3
pc
0.2-0.25
0.25-0.3
1
2(1 + pc )
A
R 12 2
Rk 2
+1 .
(63)
c (a
fE0
w1
(64)
c2 (a2 s2 ) + 1 + s
(c a)2 + 1
c=
fE0
(F F )
fE
a=
1s
1 m2
0: unweakend
10
1: weakening due to 1
n ()
()
nt
()
c2
= sc
n1
s2
sc
0
2cs
0 0
3
2
2
(c s ) 0 0 23
0
s c
31
(65)
21
c = cos
n =
s = sin
2 + 2
nt
n1
= arctan n1
nt
: abitrary angle
f p : angle of the fracture plane
4.8.2 General Inter Fiber Failure (IFF)
For n 0 the general fracture condition is defined as:
v"
#2
u
t
() 2 () 2
u 1
p
pt
nt
n1
fe () = t
n ()
()
+
+
+
n
Rt
R
RA
RA
RA
()
+
n ()
+
+
n
R
RA
RA
RA
k
with
pt,c
A
R
cos2 =
pt,c
pt,c
k
2
= A cos +
sin2
Rk
R
2
nt
2 + 2
nt
n1
and
11
sin2 =
2
n1
2 + 2
nt
n1
E212
0
;
1
E2
1
G12
E1
112 21
21 E1
112 21
E
21 1
C0 =
112 21
E2
112 21
0
;
12
21
=
E1
E2
(66)
G12
12
H=
E1
E212
1
(1dm )E2
1
(1ds )G12
(67)
1
C=
D
(1 df ) E1
(1 dm ) E2
D (1 ds ) G12
(1 df ) (1 dm ) 21 E1
(1 df ) (1 dm ) 12 E2
(68)
where D = 1 (1 df ) (1 dm ) 12 21
and ds = 1 (1 df t ) (1 df c ) (1 dmt ) (1 dmc )
2
2
2
11
22
12
12
+
11 22 +
2 (1 d1 ) E1 2 (1 d2 ) E2
E1
2 (1 d6 ) G12
gM
GM
= c =
l
Z
0
G
d dt =
dM
Z
1
G dM
dfEM
dM fEM
(69)
(70)
2GM
c EM
= lcrit
2
RM
12
(71)
Transverse shear
=
(72)
Q
Iy
b(z)
e1
Neutral axis
zg =
B11
A11
(73)
shear force
second moment of area
width of beam
distance from neutral axis
height
Ze1
Sy (z) =
b()d
(74)
Shear Flux
t(z) = (z) b(z)
(75)
ny (R,0)
ny
Calculation of KT by Lekhnitskii
13
(76)
t
12 +
KT = 1 + 2
E2
(77)
G12
for a laminate
s
KT
=1+
2 p
A11 A22 (A12 )2
A11 A22 A12 +
A11
2A66
(78)
KT
=
KT
2+ 1
3 1
d
w
d
w
3
(79)
with:
d diameter of the hole
w width of the plate
nN
n0
(80)
8 Stability
8.1 Column Buckling
Fcrit
2
4
EI
L2
EI
L2
14
2
(0.7)2
EI
L2
4 2
EI
L2
C 2 EI
L2
Fcrit =
(81)
with:
C := end fixity coefficient
:= bending stiffness
EI
2
b2
2
b2
a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2 (D12 + 2D66 ) + D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a
a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2.33 (D12 + 2D66 ) + 2.441D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a
a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2.33 (D12 + 2D66 ) + 5.139 D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a
12D66
b2
2 D11
(0.5a)2
12D66
b2
1.25a2 D22
m2 a2
15
2 m2 D11
a2
12D66
b2
Requirement
b>3a
a>3b
q
4
q
4
2 D11
a2
D22
D11
D11
D22
2
b2
2 q
2
D
+
C
(D12 + 2 D66 )
11
22
b2
b2
(82)
2 q
3
4 D11 D22
b2
16
(83)
9 Sandwich
Chamfer edge
corner,peak
17
3 nix
=
2 rc
(84)
18
10 Joining
10.1 Mechanical Joints
10.1.1 Huths Formula for single lap joint
t1 + t2
Cf =
2db
a
1
1
1
1
b
+
+
+
t1 E1 t2 E2 2t1 Ef
2t2 Ef
(86)
ts + tp
Cf =
2db
a
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
tp Ep ts Es 2tp Ef
2ts Ef
(87)
C : Fastener Flexibility
E : Youngs Modulus
db : fastener diameter
For
f : fastener
For
p : center plate
2
3 and b = 3
riveted metallic parts: a = 25 and b = 2.2
bolted carbon FRP parts: a = 23 and b =
4.2
ti : thickness of part i
s : side plate
t : lap thickness
e
> 3;
d
p
> 4;
d
w
> 5;
d
(88)
bear,allow 350M P a;
(89)
e : edge distance
p : pitch
w : width
d : fastener diameter
10.1.4 Bearing evaluation
Ff
bear,allow ;
db t
Ff : fastener load
db : fastener diameter
t : lap thickness
19
Shear =
Allowable
(90)
F b
Bending,Allowable
d3
(91)
d2
4
Bending = 16
For double lap joints:
bending moment arm b =
t1
2
t2
4
10.2 Bonding
Volkersen-Equation
x
x
cosh( lb ) (1 )sinh( lb )
b
=
b
2 sinh( 2 )
(1 + )cosh( 2 )
"
(92)
with
2 =
(1 + ) Gb lb2
E1 t1 tb
(93)
E1 t1
E2 t2
(94)
b =
F
lb w
(95)
and
Fig. 2: Sinus-, Cosinus- and Cotangenshyperbolicus
cosh =
ex + ex
2
sinh =
ex ex
2
(96)
For a critical joining length lb the following has to apply for the bonding index: 5.
11 Fatigue
11.1 Palmgren-Miner-Rule
Linear accumulation of fatigue damage D with number of load cycles. Failure is assumed
to occur, when the critical value of damage (usually 1) is reached:
D=
k
X
ni
i=1 Ni
20
with
ni : number of load cycles with constant periodic stress loading
Ni : to ni corresponding total number of load cycles which generate pure fatigue failure
where each ith sequence of ni cycles causes a partial damage of Di . The total damage
can be calculated by adding up the partial damages Di .
Fig. 3: Reference geometries for developing rectilinear and radial flow equations.
(97)
Kxx dp
Q
, udx =
dx
A
(98)
21
dxf
dt
(99)
x
1
xf
(100)
(101)
Qxf
KA
(102)
t(x) =
A(1 Vf )xf
Q
(103)
tfill =
A(1 Vf )L
Q
(104)
Q2
t
K(1 Vf )(A)2
(105)
t(x) =
(1 Vf )x2f
2pinj K
(106)
tfill =
(1 Vf )L2
2pinj K
(107)
p(x) =
Pressure vs. Flowrate equation
pinj =
Constant flow rate:
pinj (t) =
Constant pressure:
Q(t) = A
pinj K(1 Vf )
2t
(108)
22
(109)
(110)
tfill =
(111)
Q
Qt
)+1
pinj (t) =
ln (
4hK
(1 Vf )hri2
(112)
Constant pressure:
rf2 rf rf2 ri2
ln
2
ri
4
(1 Vf )
t(rf ) =
pinj K
tfill
r02
r0
r2 ri2
ln
0
2
ri
4
(1 Vf )
=
pinj K
(113)
(114)
E
RTC
Arrhenius dependency,
a const,
E Activation Energy,
TC Cure Temperature,
R Gas const
kD diffusion dependet kinetics rate.
13.2 Spring-In
Analytical calculation of Spring-In due to resin shrinkage and thermal effects:
(xC zC )T
= 0
1 + xC T
= thermal + CS
23
xC zC
+ 0
1 + xC
(115)
1F E1F F + M EM (1 F )
E1F F + EM (1 F )
(116)
(117)
CSC1 =
(118)
(119)
Poisson ratio:
23 = F 23,F + (1 F )M
2
(1 M
+
EM
)
E1
M 21 EEM1 )
(1 + M 21
(120)
(121)
0
T
(122)
[A]1 {N } = {0 }
(123)
equivalent loads:
hn
{N } =
N Z2 h i
X
n=1 hn
2
24
n T dz
(124)
cos2
sin2
sin cos
1
2
2
cos
cos sin 2
y = sin
(125)
13 1
23 2
E1 T
E2 T
(126)
(127)
(128)
1X
hn [3r ]n
h n
(129)
CSCij =
(130)
{N } =
N Z2 h i
X
n=1 hn
2
CSCn sr dz
(131)
25
13 1 23 2
E1 sr
E2 sr
(132)
E1 sr
21 E1 sr
(CSC1C CSC1 ) +
(CSC2C CSC2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21
21 E1 sr
E2 sr
2 =
(CSC1C CSC1 ) +
(CSC2C CSC2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 =
(133)
(134)
1X
hn [CSC3r ]n
h n
(135)
sr = (Vrs + 1) 3 1
(136)
s
CS
iC = 0.2r CSCiC
(137)
26
(138)
1
d
2 cos1 +
2
2 2LR
D+d
2 cos1
2
2D
14.4 Braiding
nHG
NHG
v
U
d
27
(139)
2
.
NHG
(140)
(141)
l = v TC .
(142)
TC =
Length:
Braiding angle:
U
.
l
(143)
2d cos
.
b
(144)
= arctan
Number of yarns:
n=
15 Winding
15.1 Definition of geodesic line
15.1.1 Cylinder
15.1.2 Truncated cone
28
(z) 0 = q
z z0
,
r2 C 2 r0
Cc
(145)
where
Cc = r sin .
1
Cc
Cc
arccos
.
arccos
sin 0
r(z)
r0
(z) 0 =
(146)
(147)
For r0 = 0:
qN (z) =
R
> 0.
r(z)
29
(154)
R
sin2 (z) 0,
r0
(148)
(149)
R
cos 0 sin2 (z) 0,
r(z)
(150)
(151)
r0
< z < .
tan 0
if
then Bridging.
(157)
where
N : normal curvature.
Bridging in the concave toroid section
s
if
r
,
r0 + rc
then Bridging.
(158)
(159)
G
= CR = const.
N
(160)
tan || =
Line of constant sliding resistance:
tan 0 =
Safety against sliding:
SR =
1
1,
|CR |
where
CR : coefficient of deflection and 1 : coefficient of adhesion.
30
(161)
qN (z) =
(152)
rc2 (rc z + z0 )2
(153)
for
z0 z z0 + 2rc .
Normal pressure at a concave toroid section:
R r0 + rc
sin2 (z) 1 ,
rc r(z)
qN (z) =
(155)
rc2 (z z0 )2
(156)
for
z0 rc z z0 + rc .
C0
r0 CR (z z0 ) sin = C0 .
r0
(
"
1
r0
r0
CR (z z0 )
(z) 0 =
arccosh
arccosh
CR
C0
C0
r0
with
C0 = r0 sin 0 , CR 6= 0 and C0 6= 0.
31
(162)
#)
(163)