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Formulary for Composite Materials

Institute for Carbon Composites - LCC


16. Juni 2014
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus Drechsler

Lehrstuhl fr Carbon Composites

1 Micromechanics
For isotropic materials
Eiso = 2(1 + )Giso

(1)

E1 = Ef 1 f + Em (1 f ),

(2)

f
(1 f )
1
=
.
+
E2
Ef 2
Em

(3)

12 = f 12 f + m (1 f ),

(4)

f
(1 f )
1
=
.
+
G12
Gf 12
Gm

(5)

1.1 Rule of Mixtures

1.2 Square-Cylinder Model




E2 = Em

+ (1 f ) .

1 f (1 Em /Ef 2 )

(6)

Em Ef 2
.

f + (1 f ) Ef 2

(7)

1.3 Chamis Model


E2 =

Em

1.4 Circular-Cylinder-Assemblage (Hashin)


4G23 K23

E22 =

K23 + G23 +

(8)

2 G K
412
23 23
E11

with
(+)
G23

(1 + cm )f

= Gm 1 +

c3 f (1 +

()

G23 = Gm +

1
Gf,23 Gm

K23 = Km,23 +

Km,23 = Km +

f
Km,23 +2Gm
2Gm (Km,23 +Gm ) (1

f )

f
1
Kf,23 Km,23

3c2m (1f )2
)
1+c2 3f

1f
Km,23 +Gm

(9)

Ef,22
Em
Gm
, Kf,23 =
, Km =
,
3
2(1 f,32 2f,12 f,21 )
3(1 2m )

and

(10)

(11)

(12)

cf =

Kf,23
Gf,23
cm c1 cf
Km,23
c1 + cm
, c1 =
, c2 =
, cm =
, c3 =
.
Kf,23 + 2Gf,23
Km,23 + 2Gm
Gm
1 + c1 cf
c1 1

1.5 Halpin-Tsai
1 + f
(Mf /Mm ) 1
M
=
, with =
,
Mm
1 f
(Mf /Mm ) +

(13)

1 + f
(Ef 2 /Em ) 1
E2
=
, with =
,
Em
1 f
(Ef 2 /Em ) +

(14)

2 Mesomechanics
Waviness (crimp) of yarn

c=

lyarn
1.
lf abric

(15)

Fig. 1: Crimp interval for circular yarns.

Knockdown factor


= 1+2

2 

1

Ex
2(1 + xy )
Gxy

(16)

3 Macromechanics
3.1 Lamina Properties
Compliance matrix
=S

S11 S12

= S12 S22

12

(17)

0 2

66

(18)

12

with
1
E1
12
21
=
=
= S21
E1
E2

1
E2
1
=
G12

S11 =

S22 =

(19)

S12

S66

(20)

Stiffness matrix
=Q

Q11 Q12

= Q12 Q22


12

(21)

0 2

66

(22)

12

with
E1
1 12 21
12 E2
21 E1
=
=
= Q21
1 12 21
1 12 21

E2
1 12 21

Q11 =

Q22 =

Q12

Q66 = G12

(23)
(24)

3.2 Transformation of Stress and Strain


xy = T 1 12

(25)

xy = RT 1 R1 12 = T T 12

(26)

Reuter matrix R:

1 0 0

R = 0 1 0
0 0 2

(27)

Tranformation matrix with s = sin, c = cos:

c2

s2

T = s2

c2

2sc

s2

T 1 = s2

c2

2sc

sc sc c2 s2

c2

2sc

2sc

sc sc c2 s2

(28)

Transformation of Stiffness and Compliance Matrix


= T 1 Q T T
Q
= TT S T
S

(29)
(30)

with
S11 = S11 cos4 + (2S12 + S66 )sin2 cos2 + S22 sin4
S12 = S12 (sin4 + cos4 ) + (S11 + S22 S66 )sin2 cos2
S22 = S11 sin4 + (2S12 + S66 )sin2 cos2 + S22 cos4
S16 = (2S11 2S12 S66 )sincos3 (2S22 2S12 S66 )sin3 cos
S26 = (2S11 2S12 S66 )sin3 cos (2S22 2S12 S66 )sincos3
S66 = 2(2S11 + 2S22 4S12 S66 )sin2 cos2 + S66 (sin4 + cos4 )
and
11 = Q11 cos4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q22 sin4
Q
12 = Q12 (sin4 + cos4 ) + (Q11 + Q22 4Q66 )sin2 cos2
Q
22 = Q11 sin4 + 2(Q12 + 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q22 cos4
Q
16 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )sincos3 + (Q22 + Q12 + 2Q66 )sin3 cos
Q
26 = (Q11 Q12 2Q66 )sin3 cos + (Q22 + Q12 + 2Q66 )sincos3
Q
66 = (Q11 + Q22 2Q12 2Q66 )sin2 cos2 + Q66 (sin4 + cos4 )
Q

3.3 ABD-Matrix
(

n
m

"

=
)

"

# (

A B
0

B D

A B
B D

#1 (

(31)
)

"

# (

a b
n
=

b d
m

(32)

N
x

Nxy

A11 A12 A16 B11

B12

A22 A26 B12

B22

A26 A66 B16

B26

A12

A16

11
Mx

B12

M
B
xy

A=
B=

n
X

16

B16

0y
B26

0
B66
xy

(33)

B12 B16 D11 D12 D16

B22 B26 D12 D22 D26

B26 B66 D16 D26 D66 xy


n
X

k (zk zk1 ) =
Q

k=1
n
X

k tk
Q

k=1
n
X

(34)

1
k (z 2 z 2 ) =
k tk zk tk
Q
Q
k
k1
2 k=1
2
k=1


n
n
X
1X
k (z 3 z 3 ) =
k
D=
Q
Q
k
k1
3 k=1
k=1

tk
t3k
+ tk z k
12
2


(35)
2 !

(36)

G,
) for symmetrical and balanced laminates
CLT-Engineering constants (E,
x =
E
xy =
G

1
(A1 )

11

y =
, E

1
(A1 )22

(A1 )12
(A1 )12
1
,

=
,

=
.
xy
yx
(A1 )66 t
(A1 )22
(A1 )11

(37)

(38)

Calculation of ply deformations


n

{
}k = 0 + {} zk

(39)

4 Composite Failure
4.1 Basic UD Lamina Strength
Xt = R||+
Xc = R||
+
Yt = R

Yc = R
SL = R||
ST = R

Fiber tensile strength


Fiber compressive strength
Matrix tensile strength
Matrix compressive strength
In-plane shear strength
Transverse shear strength

4.2 Max Stress Criterion (2D)


(

< Xt for 1 > 0


|1 |
< Xc for 1 < 0

|2 |

< Yt for 2 > 0


< Yc for 2 < 0

Stress exposure fE :

(40)

|1 | |2 | |12 |
,
,
.
Xt/c Yt/c SL

fE = max

(41)

4.3 Max Strain Criterion (2D)


< f1tr for 1 > 0
|1 |
< f1cr for 1 < 0

|2 |

Stress exposure fE :

< f2tr for 2 > 0


< f2cr for 2 < 0

fr
|12 | < 12

(42)

1
2 12
fE = max f r , f r , f r .
1t/c 2t/c 12

(43)

4.4 Tsai-Wu Criterion (2D)


Failure criterion:


1
1
1
1
12

1 +

2 +
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Xt Xc
2
2

1 2

+ 2
+ 12
= 1.
Yt Yc
SL2
Xt Xc Yt Yc


(44)

Stress exposure fE for Tsai-Wu Criterion:



p
1
1
=
b b2 + a
fE
a

(45)

with
22
12
1 2
+
a=

+
|Xt Xc |
Xt Xc Yt Yc |Yt Yc |
1
1
1
b=
1

2
Xt Xc


+ 2

1
1

Yt Yc

12
SL

2

(46)



(47)

4.5 Tsai-Wu Criterion (3D)


Failure criterion:


1
1

1 +
Xt Xc


1
1
12
2 + 32
1
1

(2 + 3 ) +
+ 2
+2

2
Yt Yc
Xt Xc
Yt Yc
Yt Yc 2 Yt Yc Zt Zc 23
2 + 2
2 3
1 2 + 1 3
+ 12 2 13
+
= 1.
SL
Xt Xc Yt Yc
Yt Yc Zt Zc
(48)


Stress exposure fE for Tsai-Wu Criterion:



p
1
1
=
b b2 + a
fE
a

(49)

with
1 2 + 1 3
1
12
2 3
22
1
2 + 2
2

+2
a=

+

23
+ 12 2 13 ,
|Xt Xc |
Yt Yc 2 Yt Yc Zt Zc
SL
Xt Xc Yt Yc
Yt Yc Zt Zc |Yt Yc |


(50)
1
1
1
1

b=
2
Xt Xc


1
1
+ (2 + 3 )

Yt Yc




(51)

4.6 Hashin Criterion (2D)


12 2
=1
S
L 
1

=1
Xc
 2 

2
12 2
+
=1
Yt
SL
"
#






2 2
Yc 2
2
12 2
+
1
+
=1
2ST
2ST
Yc
SL


FF tension
FF compression
IFF tension
IFF compression

1
Xt

2

1 0
1 < 0
2 0
2 < 0.

Stress exposure fE :
FF tension

s

1
Xt

fE =

2

FF compression
fE =
IFF tension

s

fE =

2
Yt

12
SL

2

(52)

1
Xc

2

(53)

12
SL

2

(54)

IFF compression
p
1
1
= (b b2 + a),
fE
a

(55)

with

a=
1
b=
2

2
2ST
"

2

Yc
2ST

12
SL

2

2

(56)

2
.
Yc

(57)

4.7 Pucks Criterion (2D)


4.7.1 Stress exposure fE
Fiber tension
fE =

1
Rkt

Fiber compression
fE =

1
Rkc

for 1 > 0

(58)

for 1 < 0

(59)

Inter Fiber Failure Mode A (2 0)


v
u
u
ptk  2  12 2
ptk
1
t
fE =
2 +
+
2 .
t

Rk

Rk

Rk

(60)

A
R

Inter Fiber Failure Mode B (2 < 0 and 0 122 12,c
)
v
u
u 12 2  pck 2
pck
t
fE =
+
2 +
2 .

Rk

Rk

(61)

Rk

A
R

Inter Fiber Failure Mode C (2 < 0 and 0 122 > 12,c
)


fE =

where:

12
2(1 + pc )Rk

12,c = Rk 1 + 2pc ,
p

2

2
c
R

c
R
,
2(1+pc )

A =
R

2 

pc
A
R

c
R
.
2

(62)

pck
Rk .

Inclination Parameters (Recommendations)

GFRP/Epoxy
CFRP/Epoxy

ptk
0.3
0.35

pck
0.25
0.3

pt
0.2-0.25
0.25-0.3

pc
0.2-0.25
0.25-0.3

4.7.2 Fracture plane angle


v
u
u
cos f p = t

1
2(1 + pc )

 A

R 12 2

Rk 2

+1 .

(63)

4.7.3 Weakening due to 1


fE1 =
w1 =

c (a

fE0
w1

(64)

c2 (a2 s2 ) + 1 + s
(c a)2 + 1

c=

fE0
(F F )
fE

a=

1s
1 m2

s: Section of ellipse start; m: Minimum of weakening factor.


Indices:
w: weakening

0: unweakend

10

1: weakening due to 1

4.8 Puck 3D: Master Fracture Body


4.8.1 Stress Transformation

n ()

()

nt

()

c2

= sc

n1

s2
sc
0

2cs
0 0
3

2
2
(c s ) 0 0 23

0
s c

31

(65)

21

c = cos
n =

s = sin

2 + 2
nt
n1

= arctan n1
nt
: abitrary angle
f p : angle of the fracture plane
4.8.2 General Inter Fiber Failure (IFF)
For n 0 the general fracture condition is defined as:
v"
#2
u
t

 () 2  () 2
u  1
p
pt
nt
n1

fe () = t
n ()

()
+
+

+
n
Rt
R
RA
RA
RA

For n < 0 the general fracture condition is defined as:


v
u
2
pc
u nt () 2  n1 () 2  pc
fe () = t

()
+
n ()
+
+
n
R
RA
RA
RA
k

with

pt,c

A
R

cos2 =

pt,c
pt,c
k
2

= A cos +
sin2
Rk
R

2
nt
2 + 2
nt
n1

and

11

sin2 =

2
n1
2 + 2
nt
n1

5 Damage and Material Degradation


5.1 Continuum Mechanics
Undamaged compliance matrix H0 and stiffness matrix C0
1
E1
12
H0 =
E1

E212

0
;

1
E2

1
G12

E1
112 21

21 E1
112 21

E
21 1
C0 =
112 21

E2
112 21

0
;

12
21
=
E1
E2

(66)

G12

5.2 Continuum Damage Mechanics


Damage compliance matrix
1
(1df )E1

12
H=
E1

E212

1
(1dm )E2

1
(1ds )G12

(67)

Damage stiffness matrix

1
C=
D

(1 df ) E1

(1 dm ) E2

D (1 ds ) G12

(1 df ) (1 dm ) 21 E1

(1 df ) (1 dm ) 12 E2

(68)

where D = 1 (1 df ) (1 dm ) 12 21
and ds = 1 (1 df t ) (1 df c ) (1 dmt ) (1 dmc )

5.3 Energy-based Degradation Laws


G=

2
2
2
11
22
12
12
+

11 22 +
2 (1 d1 ) E1 2 (1 d2 ) E2
E1
2 (1 d6 ) G12

gM

GM
= c =
l

Z
0

G
d dt =
dM

Z
1

G dM

dfEM
dM fEM

(69)

(70)

Critical element length


l

2GM
c EM

= lcrit
2
RM

12

(71)

6 Interlaminar Shear Stress

Transverse shear
=

with the following variables:


Q S(z)
Iy b(z)

(72)
Q
Iy
b(z)

e1

Neutral axis
zg =

B11
A11

(73)

First moment of area

shear force
second moment of area
width of beam
distance from neutral axis
height

Ze1

Sy (z) =

b()d

(74)

Shear Flux
t(z) = (z) b(z)

(75)

7 Notch Analysis - Stress Concentrations


The stress concentration factor
KT =
with:
ny (R,0)
ny

ny (R,0)
ny

stress occuring close to the hole


far field stress

Calculation of KT by Lekhnitskii

13

(76)

for an orthotropic material


v
s
!
u
u
E1
E1

t
12 +
KT = 1 + 2

E2

(77)

G12

for a laminate
s

KT

=1+



2 p
A11 A22 (A12 )2
A11 A22 A12 +
A11
2A66

(78)

Hole-Size effect - Correction factor by Peterson




KT
=
KT

2+ 1


3 1

d
w
d
w

3

(79)

with:
d diameter of the hole
w width of the plate

Strength reduction factor SR:


SR =
with:
nN
n0

nN
n0

(80)

Strength of the notched laminate


Strength of the unnotched laminate

8 Stability
8.1 Column Buckling

Fcrit

2
4

EI
L2

EI
L2

14

2
(0.7)2

EI
L2

4 2

EI
L2

General equation for critical load

C 2 EI
L2

Fcrit =

(81)

with:
C := end fixity coefficient
:= bending stiffness
EI

8.2 Plate Buckling


8.2.1 All edges supported
Support Conditions

Buckling Load Ncr


2
b2

2
b2

2
b2

a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2 (D12 + 2D66 ) + D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a

a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2.33 (D12 + 2D66 ) + 2.441D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a

a 2
D11 b2 ( m
)2 + 2.33 (D12 + 2D66 ) + 5.139 D22 ( 1b )2 ( m
)
a

8.2.2 One edge free


Support Conditions

Buckling Load Ncr


2 D11
a2

12D66
b2

2 D11
(0.5a)2

12D66
b2

1.25a2 D22
m2 a2

15

2 m2 D11
a2

12D66
b2

8.2.3 Long plate approximation


Support Conditions

Buckling Load Ncr

Requirement

b>3a

a>3b

q
4

q
4

2 D11
a2

D22
D11

D11
D22

2
b2

D11 D22 + 2 (D12 + 2D66 )

8.3 Plate buckling - "Girlandenkurve"


Ncr = K

2 q
2

D
+
C

(D12 + 2 D66 )
11
22
b2
b2

(82)

8.4 Plate buckling - shear loading


Ns,cr = ks

2 q
3
4 D11 D22
b2

16

(83)

9 Sandwich

Chamfer edge
corner,peak

17

3 nix
=
2 rc

(84)

9.1 Analytical Approach Shear Stress


The constant shear stress in the core can be calculated and compared to the maximum
bearable core shear stress:
Q
core,cr
(85)
core =
bd
whith the following abbreviation:
Q transverse force
d sandwich thickness
b width of sandwich panel
core,cr Maximum bearable core shear stress
core current core shear stress

18

10 Joining
10.1 Mechanical Joints
10.1.1 Huths Formula for single lap joint

t1 + t2
Cf =
2db


a

1
1
1
1
b
+
+
+
t1 E1 t2 E2 2t1 Ef
2t2 Ef

(86)

10.1.2 Huths Formula for double lap joint

ts + tp
Cf =
2db


a

1
1
1
1
+
+
+
tp Ep ts Es 2tp Ef
2ts Ef

(87)

C : Fastener Flexibility

a : empirical constant depending on the material of the parts

E : Youngs Modulus

b : empirical constant depending on the fastener type

db : fastener diameter

For

f : fastener

For

p : center plate

2
3 and b = 3
riveted metallic parts: a = 25 and b = 2.2
bolted carbon FRP parts: a = 23 and b =

For bolted metallic parts: a =

4.2

ti : thickness of part i

s : side plate
t : lap thickness

10.1.3 Design guidlines for fastener placement

e
> 3;
d

p
> 4;
d

w
> 5;
d

(88)

bear,allow 350M P a;

(89)

e : edge distance
p : pitch
w : width
d : fastener diameter
10.1.4 Bearing evaluation

Ff
bear,allow ;
db t
Ff : fastener load
db : fastener diameter
t : lap thickness

19

10.1.5 Fastener failure - shear

Shear =

Allowable

(90)

F b
Bending,Allowable
d3

(91)

d2
4

10.1.6 Fastener failure - bending

Bending = 16
For double lap joints:
bending moment arm b =

t1
2

t2
4

+ , gap distance and diameter d.

10.2 Bonding
Volkersen-Equation

x
x
cosh( lb ) (1 )sinh( lb )
b
=

b
2 sinh( 2 )
(1 + )cosh( 2 )

"

(92)

with
2 =

(1 + ) Gb lb2
E1 t1 tb

(93)

E1 t1
E2 t2

(94)

b =

F
lb w

(95)

and
Fig. 2: Sinus-, Cosinus- and Cotangenshyperbolicus

cosh =

ex + ex
2

sinh =

ex ex
2

(96)

For a critical joining length lb the following has to apply for the bonding index: 5.

11 Fatigue
11.1 Palmgren-Miner-Rule
Linear accumulation of fatigue damage D with number of load cycles. Failure is assumed
to occur, when the critical value of damage (usually 1) is reached:
D=

k
X

ni
i=1 Ni

20

with
ni : number of load cycles with constant periodic stress loading
Ni : to ni corresponding total number of load cycles which generate pure fatigue failure
where each ith sequence of ni cycles causes a partial damage of Di . The total damage
can be calculated by adding up the partial damages Di .

12 Liquid Composite Moulding

Fig. 3: Reference geometries for developing rectilinear and radial flow equations.

12.1 Basic equations for 1D Flow


Relationship between Darcy and Flow front velocity:
udx = vx = (1 Vf ) vx

(97)

Darcys law and Darcys velocity:


udx =

Kxx dp
Q

, udx =
dx
A

(98)

Flow front velocity:


vx =

21

dxf
dt

(99)

12.2 Rectlinear filling


Constant pressure injection:
p(x) = pinj

x
1
xf

(100)

Constant flowrate injection:


Q
(xf x)
AK

(101)

Qxf
KA

(102)

t(x) =

A(1 Vf )xf
Q

(103)

tfill =

A(1 Vf )L
Q

(104)

Q2
t
K(1 Vf )(A)2

(105)

t(x) =

(1 Vf )x2f
2pinj K

(106)

tfill =

(1 Vf )L2
2pinj K

(107)

p(x) =
Pressure vs. Flowrate equation

pinj =
Constant flow rate:

pinj (t) =
Constant pressure:

Q(t) = A

pinj K(1 Vf )
2t

(108)

12.3 Radial filling


Pressure vs. Flowrate equation
Q
rf
p(r) =
ln
2hK
r


Constant flow rate:

(rf2 ri2 )h(1 Vf )


t(r) =
Q

22

(109)

(110)

tfill =

(r02 ri2 )h(1 Vf )


Q

(111)

Q
Qt
)+1
pinj (t) =
ln (
4hK
(1 Vf )hri2

(112)

Constant pressure:
rf2  rf  rf2 ri2
ln

2
ri
4

(1 Vf )
t(rf ) =
pinj K
tfill

r02
r0
r2 ri2
ln
0
2
ri
4

(1 Vf )
=
pinj K

(113)

(114)

13 Process Induced Deformations


13.1 Resin Kinetics
Change in degree of conversion:
dX
= k X m (1 X)n
dt
with m,n approximation parameters,
k kinetics rate constant, k1 = k1A + k1D , where
kA = a exp

E
RTC

Arrhenius dependency,

a const,
E Activation Energy,
TC Cure Temperature,
R Gas const
kD diffusion dependet kinetics rate.
13.2 Spring-In
Analytical calculation of Spring-In due to resin shrinkage and thermal effects:
(xC zC )T
= 0
1 + xC T


= thermal + CS

23

xC zC
+ 0
1 + xC


(115)

13.3 Lamina Homogenization


Thermal expansion coefficient for a lamina in fiber direction:
1 =

1F E1F F + M EM (1 F )
E1F F + EM (1 F )

(116)

Thermal expansion coefficient for a lamina transversal to the fiber direction:


2 = F 2F + (1 F )M

(117)

Cure Shrinkage Coefficient in fiber direction:


EM (1 f )
E11f f + EM (1 f )

CSC1 =

(118)

Cure Shrinkage Coefficient transversal to fiber direction:


CSC2 = (1 F )

(119)

Poisson ratio:

23 = F 23,F + (1 F )M

2
(1 M
+

EM
)
E1

M 21 EEM1 )

(1 + M 21

(120)

Poisson ratio (linear):


23 = F 23,F + (1 F ) M

(121)

13.4 Laminate Homogenization


13.4.1 Thermal expansion coefficients

In-Plane thermal expansion coefficients of the laminate:


C =
with

0
T

(122)

[A]1 {N } = {0 }

(123)

equivalent loads:
hn

{N } =

N Z2 h i
X

n=1 hn
2

24

n T dz

(124)

Transformation of thermal coefficients:

cos2
sin2
sin cos
1

2
2
cos
cos sin 2
y = sin

2 sin cos 2 sin cos


cos2
12
xy

(125)

Thermal expansion coefficient in thickness direction for a lamina:


3r = T

13 1
23 2

E1 T
E2 T

(126)

Stresses in each layer:


E1 T
21 E1 T
(1C 1 ) +
(2C 2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21
21 E1 T
E2 T
2 =
(1C 1 ) +
(2C 2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21
1 =

(127)
(128)

Average across laminate thickness:


3C =

1X
hn [3r ]n
h n

(129)

13.4.2 Cure Skrinkage coefficients

In-Plane Cure Shrinkage Coefficients of the laminate:


0
sr

CSCij =

(130)

with sr resin strain due to cure shrinkage and


[A]1 {N } = {0 }
equivalent loads:
hn

{N } =

N Z2 h i
X

n=1 hn
2

CSCn sr dz

(131)

(CSC transformation to global coordinate system equivalent to transformation of thermal


extension coefficient)
Cure shrinkage coefficient in thickness direction for a lamina:
CSC3r = CSC2
Stresses in each layer:

25

13 1 23 2

E1 sr
E2 sr

(132)

E1 sr
21 E1 sr
(CSC1C CSC1 ) +
(CSC2C CSC2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21
21 E1 sr
E2 sr
2 =
(CSC1C CSC1 ) +
(CSC2C CSC2 )
1 12 21
1 12 21

1 =

(133)
(134)

Average across laminate thickness:


CSC3C =

1X
hn [CSC3r ]n
h n

(135)

Linear Cure Shrinkage Strain:


1

sr = (Vrs + 1) 3 1

(136)

s
CS
iC = 0.2r CSCiC

(137)

Effective Cure Shrinkage Strain:

14 Draping and Braiding


14.1 Kinematic Draping Simulation - Mesh Computation
(xi,j xi1,j )2 + (yi,j yi1,j )2 + (zi,j zi1,j )2 = a2i ,
(xi,j xi,j1 )2 + (yi,j yi,j1 )2 + (zi,j zi,j1 )2 = b2i ,
F (xi,j ,yi,j ,zi,j ) = 0.

26

(138)

14.2 Picture Frame Test

Material shear angle


=

 1
d 

2 cos1 +
2
2 2LR

material shear angle


d head displacement
LR side length of the frame

Fig. 4: Picture Frame Test

14.3 Bias Extension Test


Material shear angle

D+d
2 cos1
2
2D


Fig. 5: Bias Extension Test

14.4 Braiding
nHG
NHG
v
U
d

Rotational speed of the horn gear


Number of horn gears
Velocity of the mandrel
Circumference of the mandrel
Diameter

27

Braiding yarn width


Braiding angle
Angular velocity of the horn gear:
HG = 2 nHG .

(139)

2
.
NHG

(140)

Angular velocity of the carrier:


C = HG
Cycle duration of the carrier:
2
.
C

(141)

l = v TC .

(142)

TC =
Length:

Braiding angle:
U
.
l

(143)

2d cos
.
b

(144)

= arctan
Number of yarns:
n=

15 Winding
15.1 Definition of geodesic line
15.1.1 Cylinder
15.1.2 Truncated cone

15.2 Compaction pressure


15.2.1 Cylinder

28

(z) 0 = q

z z0
,
r2 C 2 r0
Cc

(145)

where
Cc = r sin .

1
Cc
Cc
arccos
.
arccos
sin 0
r(z)
r0


(z) 0 =

(146)

(147)

15.2.2 Truncated cone


15.2.3 Convex toroid section

For r0 = 0:
qN (z) =

R
> 0.
r(z)

15.2.4 Concave toroid section

29

(154)

Normal pressure at a cylinder segment:


qN (z) =

R
sin2 (z) 0,
r0

(148)

with a meridional section


r(z) = r0 for < z < .

(149)

Normal pressure at a truncated cone:


qN (z) =

R
cos 0 sin2 (z) 0,
r(z)

(150)

with a meridional section


r(z) = r0 + tan 0 (z z0 )
for
z0

(151)

r0
< z < .
tan 0

15.3 Bridging Conditions


qn (s) = N R < 0,

if

then Bridging.

(157)

where
N : normal curvature.
Bridging in the concave toroid section
s

if

|| < krit = arcsin

r
,
r0 + rc

then Bridging.

(158)

15.4 Sliding Resistance


|G |
1 .
N

(159)

G
= CR = const.
N

(160)

tan || =
Line of constant sliding resistance:
tan 0 =
Safety against sliding:
SR =

1
1,
|CR |

where
CR : coefficient of deflection and 1 : coefficient of adhesion.

30

(161)

Normal pressure at a convex toroid section:


R
r0
1
sin2 (z) > 0,
r(z)
r(z)


qN (z) =

(152)

with a meridional section


r(z) = r0 +

rc2 (rc z + z0 )2

(153)

for
z0 z z0 + 2rc .
Normal pressure at a concave toroid section:
R r0 + rc
sin2 (z) 1 ,
rc r(z)


qN (z) =

(155)

with a meridional section


r(z) = r0 + rc

rc2 (z z0 )2

(156)

for
z0 rc z z0 + rc .

Line of constant sliding resistance on a cylinder


"

C0
r0 CR (z z0 ) sin = C0 .
r0
(

"

1
r0
r0
CR (z z0 )
(z) 0 =
arccosh
arccosh

CR
C0
C0
r0
with
C0 = r0 sin 0 , CR 6= 0 and C0 6= 0.

31

(162)
#)

(163)

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