Heidegger Terminology (Wikipedia)

Heidegger (wikipedia)
Terminology
Contents
1
Introduction
1.1
Martin Heidegger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1
Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2
Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.3
The Heidegger controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.4
Inuence and reception in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.5
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.1.6
In lm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.1.7
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.1.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.1.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
Heideggerian terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.2.1
Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.2.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2.4
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.2
Special Termini
29
2.1
Aletheia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.1.1
Heidegger and aletheia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.1.2
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2.1.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.1.4
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
Angst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
2.2.1
Existentialism
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.2.2
Music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.2.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.2.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Authenticity (philosophy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.2
2.3
ii
CONTENTS
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.3.1
Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
2.3.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
2.3.3
Cultural activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.3.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.3.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
Being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.4.1
The substantial being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
2.4.2
The transcendental being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
2.4.3
Being in Islamic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
2.4.4
Being in the Age of Reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.4.5
Being in continental philosophy and existentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.4.6
Quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.4.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.4.8
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
Copula (linguistics) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.5.1
Grammatical function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.5.2
Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.5.3
Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.5.4
Additional uses of copular verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.5.5
Zero copula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.5.6
Additional copulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.5.7
Copulas in particular languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
2.5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.5.9
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.5.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
Cura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.6.1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.6.2
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
Dasein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.7.1
Heidegger's re-interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
2.7.2
Origin and inspiration
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.7.3
Karl Jaspers' Dasein and Existenz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.7.4
Other applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.7.5
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
2.7.6
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.7.7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.7.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
Ecstasy (philosophy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
CONTENTS
iii
2.8.1
Ancient Greek philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.8.2
Christian mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
2.8.3
Existential philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.4
Other uses of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.5
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
2.8.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
Existentiell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
2.9.1
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.9.2
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10 Facticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.1 Early usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.2 Heidegger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.3 Sartre and de Beauvoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.4 Recent usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.10.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
2.11 Intentionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.11.1 Modern overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
2.11.2 Dennett's taxonomy of current theories about intentionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
2.11.3 Basic intentionality types in Le Morvan
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.11.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
2.11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
2.11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.12 Metaphysics of presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.12.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.13 Ontic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
2.13.1 Usage in philosophy of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.13.2 Usage in philosophy of critical realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.13.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.13.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.14 Reective disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
2.14.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.14.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.14.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.15 Thrownness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
2.15.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
2.15.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
2.15.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
2.9
2.11.4 Mental states without intentionality
iv
CONTENTS
2.16 World disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
2.16.1 First and second order disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
2.16.2 World-disclosing arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
2.16.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
2.16.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
64
Work
65
3.1
Being and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.1.1
Heidegger's original project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.1.2
Introductory summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.1.3
Major themes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
65
3.1.4
Phenomenology in Heidegger and Husserl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.1.5
Hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.1.6
Destruction of metaphysics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.1.7
Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.1.8
Related work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.1.9
Inuence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.1.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
Appendix A
70
4.1
Analytic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.1.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.1.2
Contemporary analytic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.1.3
Topics of analytic philosophy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
4.1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.1.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.1.7
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.1.8
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
Continental philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
4.2.1
The term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.2.2
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
4.2.3
Recent Anglo-American developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.2.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.2.5
Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
82
4.2.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.2.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
Index of continental philosophy articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.2
4.3
5
Appendix B
90
CONTENTS
5.1
20th-century philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
5.1.1
Analytic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
5.1.2
Continental philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
5.1.3
Outside Academia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
5.1.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.1.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.1.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
Contemporary philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.2.1
The professionalization of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
5.2.2
The analyticcontinental divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
5.2.3
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
5.2.4
Footnotes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
5.2.5
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
5.2.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
5.2
Appendix C
99
6.1
Existentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
6.1.1
Denitional issues and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
6.1.2
Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
6.1.3
Opposition to positivism and rationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1.4
Existentialism and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1.5
Existentialism and nihilism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1.6
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.1.7
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.1.8
Inuence outside philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.1.9
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
6.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

6.1.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
6.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1.13 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.1.14 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2
Phenomenology (philosophy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

6.2.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.2
Historical overview of the use of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.3
Phenomenological terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
6.2.4
Husserl's Logische Untersuchungen (1900/1901) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.5
Transcendental phenomenology after the Ideen (1913) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.6
Realist phenomenology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.7
Existential phenomenology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.8
Eastern thought . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.9
Technoethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
vi
CONTENTS
6.2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3
Hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3.1
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3.2
Aristotle and Plato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3.3
Talmudic hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.4
Vedic hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.5
Biblical hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.6
Apostolic Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.3.7
Late antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.3.8
Medieval period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3.9
Modern period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
6.3.10 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6.3.11 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
6.3.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6.3.14 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.3.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
6.4
Psychoanalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.2
Theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
6.4.3
Psychopathology (mental disturbances) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6.4.4
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.4.5
Training and research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.4.6
Evaluation of eectiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.4.7
Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.4.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4.10 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

6.4.11 Analyses, discussions and critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.4.12 Responses to critiques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.4.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.5
Marxism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.5.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
6.5.2
Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.5.3
Classical Marxism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.5.4
Academic Marxism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.5.5
Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.5.6
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.5.7
Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.5.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
CONTENTS
6.5.9
vii
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.5.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.6
6.7
Speculative realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

6.6.1
Critique of correlationism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.6.2
Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.6.3
Controversy regarding the existence of a speculative realist movement . . . . . . . . . 162
6.6.4
Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.6.5
Internet presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.6.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6.6.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Non-philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.7.1
Role of the subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.7.2
Radical immanence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.7.3
Sans-philosophie
6.7.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.7.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.7.6
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.7.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
167
7.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Martin Heidegger
For other uses, see Heidegger (disambiguation).
Martin Heidegger (/hadr, -dr/;* [6] German:
[matin had]; 26 September 1889 26 May
1976) was a German philosopher and a seminal thinker
in the Continental tradition, particularly within the
elds of existential phenomenology and philosophical
hermeneutics. From his beginnings as a Catholic academic, he developed a groundbreaking and widely inuential philosophy.
His best known book, Being and Time (1927), is considered one of the most important philosophical works
of the 20th century.* [7] In it and later works, Heidegger maintained that our way of questioning denes our
nature. He argued that Western thinking had lost sight
of being. Finding ourselves asalways alreadymoving
within ontological presuppositions, we lose touch with our
grasp of being and its truth becomesmuddled.* [8] As a
solution to this condition, Heidegger advocated a change
in focus from ontologies based on ontic determinants to
the fundamental ontological elucidation of being-in-theworld in general, allowing it to reveal, or unconceal
itself as concealment.* [9]
Heidegger is a controversial gure, largely for his aliation with Nazism prior to 1934, for which he publicly
neither apologized nor expressed regret,* [10] although in
private he called itthe biggest stupidity of his life(die
grte Dummheit seines Lebens).* [11]
1.1.1
Biography
The Mesnerhaus in Mekirch, where Heidegger grew up
described as a psychosomatic heart condition. Heidegger was short and sinewy, with dark piercing eyes. He
enjoyed outdoor pursuits, being especially procient at
skiing.* [12]
Studying theology at the University of Freiburg while supported by the church on the understanding that he would
defend their doctrine, Heidegger broke with Catholicism
and switched to philosophy. He completed his doctoral thesis on psychologism in 1914, inuenced by NeoThomism and Neo-Kantianism, and in 1916 nished his
venia legendi with a thesis on Duns Scotus inuenced by
Heinrich Rickert and Edmund Husserl. In the two years
following, he worked rst as an unsalaried Privatdozent.
He served as a soldier during the nal year of World
War I, working behind a desk and never leaving Germany. During the 1930s, critics of Heidegger's espousal
of a Nazi-style rhetoric of martial manliness noted the
unheroic nature of his service in WW1.* [13]* [14]
Early years
Marburg
He was born in rural Mekirch, Germany. Raised a

Roman Catholic, he was the son of the sexton of the village church that adhered to the First Vatican Council of
1870, which was observed mainly by the poorer class of
Mekirch. His family could not aord to send him to
university, so he entered a Jesuit seminary, though he was
turned away within weeks because of the health requirement and what the director and doctor of the seminary
In 1923, Heidegger was elected to an extraordinary Professorship in Philosophy at the University of Marburg.
His colleagues there included Rudolf Bultmann, Nicolai
Hartmann, and Paul Natorp. Heidegger's students
at Marburg included Hans-Georg Gadamer, Hannah
Arendt, Karl Lwith, Gerhard Krger, Leo Strauss, Jacob
1
2
Klein, Gunther (Stern) Anders, and Hans Jonas. Following on from Aristotle, he began to develop in his lectures the main theme of his philosophy: the question
of the sense of being. He extended the concept of subject to the dimension of history and concrete existence,
which he found pregured in such Christian thinkers as
Saint Paul, Augustine of Hippo, Luther, and Kierkegaard.
He also read the works of Dilthey, Husserl, and Max
Scheler.* [15]
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
categories of incriminationby association with the
Nazi regime). No punitive measures against him were
proposed. This opened the way for his readmission to
teaching at Freiburg University in the winter semester of
195051.* [24] He was granted emeritus status and then
taught regularly from 1951 until 1958, and by invitation
until 1967.
Personal life
Freiburg
In 1927, Heidegger published his main work Sein und Zeit
(Being and Time). When Husserl retired as Professor of
Philosophy in 1928, Heidegger accepted Freiburg's election to be his successor, in spite of a counter-oer by Marburg. Heidegger remained at Freiburg im Breisgau for
the rest of his life, declining a number of later oers, including one from Humboldt University of Berlin. His students at Freiburg included Arendt, Gnther Anders, Hans
Jonas, Karl Lwith, Charles Malik, Herbert Marcuse and
Ernst Nolte.* [16] Emmanuel Levinas attended his lecture
courses during his stay in Freiburg in 1928.* [17]
Heidegger was elected rector of the University on 21
April 1933, and joined the National Socialist German
Workers' (Nazi) Party on 1 May.* [18] In his inaugural
address as rector on 27 May he expressed his support of
a German revolution, and in an article and a speech to
the students from the same year he also supported Adolf
Hitler.* [19] He resigned the rectorate in April 1934, but
remained a member of the Nazi party until 1945 even
though (as Julian Young asserts) the Nazis eventually prevented him from publishing.* [20]
Heidegger's stone-and-tile chalet clustered among others at Todtnauberg
Heidegger married Elfride Petri on 21 March 1917, in

a Catholic ceremony ociated by his friend Engelbert
Krebs, and a week later in a Protestant ceremony in the
presence of her parents. Their rst son, Jrg, was born in
1919. Elfride gave birth to Hermann in 1920. Heidegger knew that he was not Hermann's biological father but
According to historian Richard J. Evans, Heidegger was raised him as his son. Hermann became a historian and
*
not only a member of the Nazi party, but was enthusiastic would later serve as the executor of Heidegger's will. [25]
about participating. He wanted to position himself as the Martin Heidegger had extramarital aairs with Hannah
philosopher of the party, but the highly abstract nature Arendt and Elisabeth Blochmann, both students of his.
of his work and the opposition of Alfred Rosenberg, who Arendt was Jewish, and Blochmann had one Jewish parhimself aspired to act in that position, limited Heidegger's ent, making them subject to severe persecution by the
role. His resignation from the rectorate owed more to Nazi authorities. He helped Blochmann emigrate from
his frustration as an administrator than to any principled Germany prior to World War II and resumed contact with
opposition to the Nazis.* [21]
both of them after the war.* [26] Heidegger's letters to
Heidegger's Black Notebooks, written between 1931 and his wife contain information about several other aairs
*
1941 and rst published in 2014, contain several anti- of his. [25]
semitic statements and have led to a re-evaluation of Heidegger spent much time at his vacation home at
Heidegger's position in relation to Nazism.* [22]
Todtnauberg, on the edge of the Black Forest. He considered the seclusion provided by the forest to be the
best environment in which to engage in philosophical
Post-war
thought.* [27]
In late 1946, as France engaged in puration lgale, the
French military authorities determined that Heidegger
should be blocked from teaching or participating in any
university activities because of his association with the
Nazi Party.* [23] The denazication procedures against
Heidegger continued until March 1949 when he was nally pronounced a Mitlufer (the second lowest of ve
A few months before his death, he met with Bernhard

Welte, a Catholic priest. The exact nature of the conversation is not known, but what is known is that it included talk of Heidegger's relationship to the Catholic
Church.* [28] Heidegger died on 26 May 1976, and was
buried in the Mekirch cemetery, beside his parents and
brother.
1.1. MARTIN HEIDEGGER
3
concern with thehistory of Being, that is, the history
of the forgetting of Being, which according to Heidegger requires that philosophy retrace its footsteps through
a productive destruction of the history of philosophy.
The second intuition animating Heidegger's philosophy
derives from the inuence of Edmund Husserl, a philosopher largely uninterested in questions of philosophical
history. Rather, Husserl argued that all that philosophy
could and should be is a description of experience (hence
the phenomenological slogan,to the things themselves
). But for Heidegger, this meant understanding that experience is always already situated in a world and in ways of
being. Thus Husserl's understanding that all consciousness is "intentional" (in the sense that it is always intended
toward something, and is always aboutsomething)
is transformed in Heidegger's philosophy, becoming the
thought that all experience is grounded in care. This
is the basis of Heidegger's existential analytic, as he
develops it in Being and Time. Heidegger argues that describing experience properly entails nding the being for
whom such a description might matter. Heidegger thus
conducts his description of experience with reference to
"Dasein", the being for whom Being is a question.* [30]
Heidegger's grave in Mekirch
1.1.2
Philosophy
Being, time, and Dasein
In Being and Time, Heidegger criticized the abstract and

metaphysical character of traditional ways of grasping
human existence as rational animal, person, man, soul,
spirit, or subject. Dasein, then, is not intended as a way of
conducting a philosophical anthropology, but is rather understood by Heidegger to be the condition of possibility
for anything like a philosophical anthropology.* [31] Dasein, according to Heidegger, is care. In the course of his
existential analytic, Heidegger argues that Dasein, who
nds itself thrown into the world (Geworfenheit) amidst
things and with others, is thrown into its possibilities, including the possibility and inevitability of one's own mortality. The need for Dasein to assume these possibilities,
that is, the need to be responsible for one's own existence,
is the basis of Heidegger's notions of authenticity and resolutenessthat is, of those specic possibilities for Dasein which depend on escaping thevulgartemporality
of calculation and of public life.
Heidegger's philosophy is founded on the attempt to conjoin what he considers two fundamental insights: the rst
is his observation that, in the course of over 2,000 years of
history, philosophy has attended to all the beings that can
be found in the world (including the world itself), but has
forgotten to ask what Being itself is. Heidegger thought
the presence of things for us is not their being, but merely
them interpreted as equipment according to a particular
system of meaning and purpose. For instance, when a
hammer is eciently used to knock in nails, we cease to
be aware of it. This is termed ready to hand, and
Heidegger considers it an authentic mode, saying that the The marriage of these two observations depends on the
given (past) has presence in an oversimplied way fact that each of them is essentially concerned with time.
when reduced to possible future usefulness to us.
That Dasein is thrown into an already existing world and
Heidegger claimed philosophy and science since ancient thus into its mortal possibilities does not only mean that
Greece had reduced things to their presence, which was Dasein is an essentially temporal being; it also implies
a supercial way of understanding them. One crucial that the description of Dasein can only be carried out
source of this insight was Heidegger's reading of Franz in terms inherited from the Western tradition itself. For
Brentano's treatise on Aristotle's manifold uses of the Heidegger, unlike for Husserl, philosophical terminology
word being, a work which provoked Heidegger to could not be divorced from the history of the use of that
ask what kind of unity underlies this multiplicity of uses. terminology, and thus genuine philosophy could not avoid
Heidegger opens his magnum opus, Being and Time, with confronting questions of language and meaning. The exa citation from Plato's Sophist* [29] indicating that West- istential analytic of Being and Time was thus always only a
ern philosophy has neglected Being because it was con- rst step in Heidegger's philosophy, to be followed by the
sidered obvious, rather than as worthy of question. Hei- dismantling(Destruktion) of the history of philosophy,
degger's intuition about the question of Being is thus a that is, a transformation of its language and meaning, that
historical argument, which in his later work becomes his would have made of the existential analytic only a kind of
4
limit case(in the sense in which special relativity is a
limit case of general relativity).
degger distanced himself from existentialism see below).
That Heidegger did not write this second part of Being

and Time, and that the existential analytic was left be- Later works: The Turn
hind in the course of Heidegger's subsequent writings on
the history of being, might be interpreted as a failure to See also: Kehre
conjugate his account of individual experience with his Heidegger's later works, beginning by 1930 and largely
account of the vicissitudes of the collective human adventure that he understands the Western philosophical tradition to be. And this would in turn raise the question of
whether this failure is due to a aw in Heidegger's account of temporality, that is, of whether Heidegger was
correct to oppose vulgar and authentic time.* [32] There
are also recent critiques in this regard that were directed
at Heidegger's focus on time instead of primarily thinking about being in relation to place and space,* [33] and
to the notion of dwelling.* [34]
Being and Time
Am Feldweg in Mekirch. Heidegger often went for a walk on

the path in this eld. See the text Der Feldweg GA Nr. 13
established by the early 1940s,* [35] seem to many commentators (e.g. William J. Richardson* [36]) to at least
reect a shift of focus, if not indeed a major change in
his philosophical outlook, which is known as the turn
(die Kehre).* [37] One way this has been understood is as
a shift fromdoingtodwellingand from Being and
Time to Time and Being.* [35]* [38]* [39] However, others feel that this is to overstate the dierence. For example, in 2011 Mark Wrathall* [40] argued that Heidegger
pursued and rened the central notion of unconcealment
View from Heidegger's vacation chalet in Todtnauberg. Heideg- throughout his life as a philosopher. Its importance and
ger wrote most of Being and Time there.
continuity in his thinking, Wrathall states, shows that he
did not have a turn. A reviewer of Wrathall's book
Main article: Being and Time
stated: An ontology of unconcealment [...] means a
description and analysis of the broad contexts in which
Being and Time (German title: Sein und Zeit), published entities show up as meaningful to us, as well as the conin 1927, was Heidegger's rst academic book. He had ditions under which such contexts, or worlds, emerge and
been under pressure to publish in order to qualify for fade.* [41]
Husserl's (to whom he dedicated the work) chair at the Heidegger focuses less on the way in which the structures
University of Freiburg and the success of this work en- of being are revealed in everyday behavior, and more
sured his appointment to the post.
on the way in which behaviour itself depends on a prior
It investigates the question of Being by asking about the
being for whom Being is a question. Heidegger names
this being Dasein (see above), and the book pursues its investigation through themes such as mortality, care, anxiety, temporality, and historicity. It was Heidegger's original intention to write a second half of the book, consisting
of a "Destruktion" of the history of philosophythat is,
the transformation of philosophy by re-tracing its history
but he never completed this project.
openness to being.The essence of being human is the

maintenance of this openness. Heidegger contrasts this
openness to thewill to powerof the modern human subject, which is one way of forgetting this originary openness.
Heidegger understands the commencement of the history of Western philosophy as a brief period of authentic
openness to being, during the time of the pre-Socratics,
especially Anaximander, Heraclitus, and Parmenides.
Being and Time inuenced many thinkers, including such This was followed, according to Heidegger, by a long peexistentialist thinkers as Jean-Paul Sartre (although Hei- riod increasingly dominated by the forgetting of this ini-
tial openness, a period which commences with Plato, and scientists, workers and brutes;* [52] living under the
which occurs in dierent ways throughout Western his- last mantle of one of three ideologies, Americanism,
tory.
Marxism or Nazism* [53] (which he deemed metaphysavatars of subjectivity and institutionTwo recurring themes of Heidegger's later writings are ically identical, as
*
alized
nihilism),
[54]
and an unfettered totalitarian world
poetry and technology. Heidegger sees poetry and tech*
technology.
[52]
Supposedly,
this epoch would be ironinology as two contrasting ways of revealing.Poetry
cally
celebrated,
as
the
most
enlightened
and glorious in
reveals being in the way in which, if it is genuine poetry,
*
[55]
He
envisaged
this
abyss
to be the
human
history.
it commences something new. Technology, on the other
greatest event in the West's history because it would enhand, when it gets going, inaugurates the world of the
profoundly
dichotomous subject and object, which modern philoso- able Humanity to comprehend Being more
and primordially than the Pre-Socratics.* [56]
phy commencing with Descartes also reveals. But with
modern technology a new stage of revealing is reached,
in which the subject-object distinction is overcome even
Inuences
in the materialworld of technology. The essence of
modern technology is the conversion of the whole uniSt. Augustine of Hippo Recent scholarship has shown
verse of beings into an undierentiated standing rethat Heidegger was substantially inuenced by St. Auserve(Bestand) of energy available for any use to which
gustine of Hippo and that Being and Time would not
humans choose to put it. Heidegger described the essence
have been possible without the inuence of Augustine's
of modern technology as Gestell, orenframing.Heidegthought. Augustine's Confessions was particularly inuger does not unequivocally condemn technology: while
ential in shaping Heidegger's thought.* [57]
he acknowledges that modern technology contains grave
dangers, Heidegger nevertheless also argues that it may Augustine viewed time as relative and subjective, and that
*
constitute a chance for human beings to enter a new epoch being and time were bound up together. [58] Heidegger
in their relation to being. Despite this, some commenta- adopted similar views, e.g. that time was the horizon of
tors have insisted that an agrarian nostalgia permeates his Being: ' ...time temporalizes itself only as long as there
are human beings.'* [59]
later work.
In a 1950 lecture he formulated the famous saying
Language speaks, later published in the 1959 essays col- Aristotle and the Greeks Heidegger was inuenced
lection Unterwegs zur Sprache, and collected in the 1971 at an early age by Aristotle, mediated through Catholic
English book Poetry, Language, Thought.* [42]* [43]* [44] theology, medieval philosophy and Franz Brentano. ArisHeidegger's later works include Vom Wesen der Wahrheit totle's ethical, logical, and metaphysical works were cru(On the Essence of Truth, 1930), Der Ursprung cial to the development of his thought in the crucial pedes Kunstwerkes ("The Origin of the Work of Art", riod of the 1920s. Although he later worked less on Aris1935), Einfhrung in die Metaphysik ("Introduction to totle, Heidegger recommended postponing reading NiMetaphysics", 1935), Bauen Wohnen Denken (Build- etzsche, and to rst study Aristotle for ten to fteen
*
ing Dwelling Thinking, 1951), and Die Frage nach years. [60] In reading Aristotle, Heidegger increasingly
der Technik ("The Question Concerning Technology", contested the traditional Latin translation and scholastic
1954) and Was heisst Denken? (What Is Called Think- interpretation of his thought. Particularly important (not
ing?" 1954). Also Beitrge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereig- least for its inuence upon others, both in their interprenis) (Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)), com- tation of Aristotle and in rehabilitating a neo-Aristotelian
*
posed in the years 193638 but not published until 1989, practical philosophy) [61] was his radical reinterpretation of Book Six of Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics and
on the centennial of Heidegger's birth.
several books of the Metaphysics. Both informed the argument of Being and Time. Heidegger's thought is original in being an authentic retrieval of the past, a repetition
Heidegger and the ground of History
of the possibilities handed down by the tradition.* [62]
Heidegger believed the Western world to be on a trajectory headed for total war,* [45] and on the brink of
profound nihilism* [46] (the rejection of all religious
and moral principles),* [47] which would be the purest
and highest revelation of Being itself,* [48] oering a
horrifying crossroads of either salvation or the end of
metaphysics and modernity;* [49] rendering the West a
wasteland populated by tool-using brutes, characterized
by an unprecedented ignorance and barbarism* [50] in
which everything is permitted.* [51] He thought the latter possibility would degenerate mankind generally into
The idea of asking about being may be traced back via

Aristotle to Parmenides. Heidegger claimed to have revived the question of being, the question having been
largely forgotten by the metaphysical tradition extending from Plato to Descartes, a forgetfulness extending
to the Age of Enlightenment and then to modern science and technology. In pursuit of the retrieval of
this question, Heidegger spent considerable time reecting on ancient Greek thought, in particular on Plato,
Parmenides, Heraclitus, and Anaximander, as well as on
the tragic playwright Sophocles.* [63]
6
Dilthey Heidegger's very early project of developing
a hermeneutics of factical lifeand his hermeneutical
transformation of phenomenology was inuenced in part
by his reading of the works of Wilhelm Dilthey.
Of the inuence of Dilthey, Hans-Georg Gadamer writes
the following: As far as Dilthey is concerned, we all
know today what I have known for a long time: namely
that it is a mistake to conclude on the basis of the citation
in Being and Time that Dilthey was especially inuential
in the development of Heidegger's thinking in the mid1920s. This dating of the inuence is much too late.
He adds that by the fall of 1923 it was plain that Heidegger felt the clear superiority of Count Yorck over the
famous scholar, Dilthey.Gadamer nevertheless makes
clear that Dilthey's inuence was important in helping the
youthful Heidegger in distancing himself from the systematic ideal of Neo-Kantianism, as Heidegger acknowledges in Being and Time.* [64] Based on Heidegger's
earliest lecture courses, in which Heidegger already engages Dilthey's thought prior to the period Gadamer mentions astoo late, scholars as diverse as Theodore Kisiel
and David Farrell Krell have argued for the importance
of Diltheyan concepts and strategies in the formation of
Heidegger's thought.* [65]
Even though Gadamer's interpretation of Heidegger has
been questioned, there is little doubt that Heidegger
seized upon Dilthey's concept of hermeneutics. Heidegger's novel ideas about ontology required a gestalt formation, not merely a series of logical arguments, in order to
demonstrate his fundamentally new paradigm of thinking, and the hermeneutic circle oered a new and powerful tool for the articulation and realization of these ideas.
have broken with Husserl, bases his hermeneutics on an account of time that not only parallels Husserl's account in many ways but
seems to have been arrived at through the
same phenomenological method as was used
by Husserl.... The dierences between Husserl
and Heidegger are signicant, but if we do
not see how much it is the case that Husserlian phenomenology provides the framework
for Heidegger's approach, we will not be able
to appreciate the exact nature of Heidegger's
project in Being and Time or why he left it unnished.* [67]
Daniel O. Dahlstrom saw Heidegger's presentation of
his work as a departure from Husserl as unfairly misrepresenting Husserl's own work. Dahlstrom concluded
his consideration of the relation between Heidegger and
Husserl as follows:
Heidegger's silence about the stark similarities between his account of temporality
and Husserl's investigation of internal timeconsciousness contributes to a misrepresentation of Husserl's account of intentionality.
Contrary to the criticisms Heidegger advances
in his lectures, intentionality (and, by implication, the meaning of 'to be') in the nal analysis is not construed by Husserl as sheer presence (be it the presence of a fact or object, act
or event). Yet for all its dangerous closenessto what Heidegger understands by temporality, Husserl's account of internal timeconsciousness does dier fundamentally. In
Husserl's account the structure of protentions
is accorded neither the nitude nor the primacy
that Heidegger claims are central to the original
future of ecstatic-horizonal temporality.* [68]
Husserl There is disagreement over the degree of inuence that Husserl had on Heidegger's philosophical development, just as there is disagreement about the degree to which Heidegger's philosophy is grounded in
phenomenology. These disagreements centre upon how
much of Husserlian phenomenology is contested by HeiKierkegaard Heideggerians
regarded
Sren
degger, and how much this phenomenology in fact inKierkegaard as, by far, the greatest philosophical
forms Heidegger's own understanding.
contributor to Heidegger's own existentialist conOn the relation between the two gures, Gadamer wrote: cepts.* [69] Heidegger's concepts of anxiety (Angst)
When asked about phenomenology, Husserl was quite and mortality draw on Kierkegaard and are indebted
right to answer as he used to in the period directly after to the way in which the latter lays out the importance
World War I: 'Phenomenology, that is me and Heideg- of our subjective relation to truth, our existence in the
ger'.Nevertheless, Gadamer noted that Heidegger was face of death, the temporality of existence, and the
no patient collaborator with Husserl, and that Heidegger's importance of passionate armation of one's individual
rash ascent to the top, the incomparable fascination he being-in-the-world.
aroused, and his stormy temperament surely must have
made Husserl, the patient one, as suspicious of Heidegger as he always had been of Max Scheler's volcanic re. Hlderlin and Nietzsche Friedrich Hlderlin and
Friedrich Nietzsche were both important inuences on
*
[66]
Heidegger,* [70] and many of his lecture courses were
Robert J. Dostal understood the importance of Husserl to devoted to one or the other, especially in the 1930s and
be profound:
1940s. The lectures on Nietzsche focused on fragments
posthumously published under the title The Will to Power,
Heidegger himself, who is supposed to
rather than on Nietzsche's published works. Heidegger
read The Will to Power as the culminating expression of instances Heidegger even appropriated wholesale and alWestern metaphysics, and the lectures are a kind of dia- most verbatim major ideas from the German translations
logue between the two thinkers.
of Daoist and Zen Buddhist classics. This clandestine texThe fundamental dierences between the philosophical tual appropriation of non-Western spirituality, the extent
delineations of Heidegger and Adorno can be found in of which has gone undiscovered for so long, seems quite
their contrasting views of Hlderlin's poetical works and unparalleled, with far-reaching implications* for our futo a lesser extend in their divergent views on German ture interpretation of Heideggers work. [75]
romanticism in general. For Heidegger, Hlderlin expressed the intuitive necessity of metaphysical concepts
as a guide for ethical paradigms, devoid of reection,
while Adorno on the other hand pointed exactly at the dialectic reection of historical situations, the sociological
interpretations of future outcomes, and therefore opposing the liberating principles of intuitive concepts, exactly
because they negatively surpass the perception of societal realities.* [71] Nevertheless, it was Heidegger's rationalization and later work on Hlderlin's poems as well
as on Parmenides (For to be aware and to be are the
same. B 3) and his consistent understanding of Nietzsche's thought that formed the foundation of postmodern
existentialism.* [72]
Islam Research has been done on the relationships

between Western philosophy and the history of ideas
in Islam. Some of these scholars interested in Arabic
philosophical medieval sources are inuenced by Heidegger's work, including numerous recent studies by
Nader El-Bizri.* [76] It is claimed the works of counterenlightenment philosophers such as Heidegger, along
with Friedrich Nietzsche and Joseph de Maistre, inuenced Iran's Shia Islamists, notably Ali Shariati, and the
thinker Ahmad Fardid. This included the construction of
the ideological foundations of the Iranian Revolution and
modern political Islam.* [77]* [78]
This is also the case for the lecture courses devoted to

the poetry of Friedrich Hlderlin, which became an in- 1.1.3 The Heidegger controversy
creasingly central focus of Heidegger's work and thought.
Heidegger grants to Hlderlin a singular place within the Main article: Heidegger and Nazism
history of being and the history of Germany, as a herald
whose thought is yet to be heardin Germany or the
West. Many of Heidegger's works from the 1930s onwards include meditations on lines from Hlderlin's po- The rectorate
etry, and several of the lecture courses are devoted to the
reading of a single poem (see, for example, Hlderlin's
Hymn The Ister).
Heidegger and Eastern thought
Some writers on Heidegger's work see possibilities within
it for dialogue with traditions of thought outside of Western philosophy, particularly East Asian thinking. Despite
perceived dierences between Eastern and Western philosophy, some of Heidegger's later work, particularlyA
Dialogue on Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer, does show an interest in initiating such a dialogue.* [73] Heidegger himself had contact with a number of leading Japanese intellectuals, including members
of the Kyoto School, notably Hajime Tanabe and Kuki
Shz. It has also been claimed that a number of elements within Heidegger's thought bear a close parallel to
Eastern philosophical ideas, particularly Zen Buddhism
and Taoism. Reinhard May records Chang Chung-Yuan
saying that Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher
who not only intellectually understands but has intuitively
grasped Taoist thought.* [74] May sees great inuence
of Taoism and Japanese scholars in Heidegger's work, although this inuence is not acknowledged by the author.
He asserts: The investigation concludes that Heideggers work was signicantly inuenced by East Asian
sources. It can be shown, moreover, that in particular
The University of Freiburg, where Heidegger was Rector from

April 21, 1933, to April 23, 1934
Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor of Germany on

January 30, 1933. Heidegger was elected rector of the
University of Freiburg on April 21, 1933, and assumed
the position the following day. On May 1, he joined the
Nazi Party.
Heidegger delivered his inaugural address, the Rektoratsrede, on Die Selbstbehauptung der Deutschen Universitt(The Self-assertion of the German University)
on 27 May.
His tenure as rector was fraught with diculties from

the outset. Some National Socialist education ocials
viewed him as a rival, while others saw his eorts as comical. Some of Heidegger's fellow National Socialists also
ridiculed his philosophical writings as gibberish. He nally oered his resignation on 23 April 1934, and it was
accepted on 27 April. Heidegger remained a member of
both the academic faculty and of the Nazi Party until the
end of the war.
Philosophical historian Hans Sluga wrote:
Though as rector he prevented students
from displaying an anti-Semitic poster at the
entrance to the university and from holding a
book burning, he kept in close contact with
the Nazi student leaders and clearly signaled to
them his sympathy with their activism.* [79]
privileges thus did not involve any specic action on Heidegger's part.* [82]
Heidegger had by then broken o contact with Husserl,
other than through intermediaries. Heidegger later
claimed that his relationship with Husserl had already become strained after Husserl publicly settled accounts
with Heidegger and Max Scheler in the early 1930s.* [83]
Heidegger did not attend his former mentor's cremation
in 1938. In 1941, under pressure from publisher Max
Niemeyer, Heidegger agreed to remove the dedication to
Husserl from Being and Time (restored in post-war editions).* [84]
Heidegger's behavior towards Husserl has evoked controversy. Arendt initially suggested that Heidegger's behavior precipitated Husserl's death. She called Heidegger a
potential murderer.However, she later recanted her accusation.* [85]
In 1939, only a year after Husserl's death, Heidegger

In 1945, Heidegger wrote of his term as rector, giving the wrote in his Black Notebooks: The more original and
writing to his son Hermann; it was published in 1983:
inceptive the coming decisions and questions become, the
more inaccessible will they remain to this [Jewish] 'race'.
(Thus, Husserls step toward phenomenological observaThe rectorate was an attempt to see sometion, and his rejection of psychological explanations and
thing in the movement that had come to power,
historiological reckoning of opinions, are of enduring imbeyond all its failings and crudeness, that was
portanceyet it never reaches into the domains of esmuch more far-reaching and that could perhaps
sential decisions.,* [86] seeming to imply that Husserl's
one day bring a concentration on the Germans'
philosophy was limited purely because he was Jewish.
Western historical essence. It will in no way be
denied that at the time I believed in such possibilities and for that reason renounced the actual
Post-rectorate period
vocation of thinking in favor of being eective in an ocial capacity. In no way will what
After the failure of Heidegger's rectorship, he withdrew
was caused by my own inadequacy in oce be
from most political activity, without canceling his memplayed down. But these points of view do not
bership in the NSDAP (Nazi Party). Nevertheless, refcapture what is essential and what moved me
erences to National Socialism continued to appear in his
to accept the rectorate.* [80]
work.
Treatment of Husserl
Beginning in 1917, German-Jewish philosopher Edmund
Husserl championed Heidegger's work, and helped him
secure the retiring Husserl's chair in Philosophy at the
University of Freiburg.* [81]
On 6 April 1933, the Reichskommissar of Baden
Province, Robert Wagner, suspended all Jewish government employees, including present and retired faculty at
the University of Freiburg. Heidegger's predecessor as
Rector formally notied Husserl of his enforced leave
of absenceon 14 April 1933.
Heidegger became Rector of the University of Freiburg
on 22 April 1933. The following week the national Reich
law of 28 April 1933, replaced Reichskommissar Wagner's decree. The Reich law required the ring of Jewish professors from German universities, including those,
such as Husserl, who had converted to Christianity. The
termination of the retired professor Husserl's academic
The most controversial such reference occurred during a

1935 lecture which was published in 1953 as part of the
book Introduction to Metaphysics. In the published version, Heidegger refers to the inner truth and greatness
of the National Socialist movement (die innere Wahrheit
und Gre dieser Bewegung), but he then adds a qualifying statement in parentheses:namely, the confrontation
of planetary technology and modern humanity(nmlich
die Begegnung der planetarisch bestimmten Technik und
des neuzeitlichen Menschen). However, it subsequently
transpired that this qualication had not been made during the original lecture, although Heidegger claimed that
it had been. This has led scholars to argue that Heidegger
still supported the Nazi party in 1935 but that he did not
want to admit this after the war, and so he attempted to
silently correct his earlier statement.* [87]
In private notes written in 1939, Heidegger took a
strongly critical view of Hitler's ideology;* [88] however,
in public lectures, he seems to have continued to make
ambiguous comments which, if they expressed criticism
of the regime, did so only in the context of praising its Der Spiegel interview
ideals. For instance, in a 1942 lecture, published posthumously, Heidegger said of recent German classics schol- On 23 September 1966, Heidegger was interviewed by
arship:
Rudolf Augstein and Georg Wol for Der Spiegel magazine, in which he agreed to discuss his political past
provided that the interview be published posthumously.
(It was published ve days after his death, on 31 May
In the majority of research results,the
1976.)* [94] In the interview, Heidegger defended his enGreeks appear as pure National Socialists.
tanglement with National Socialism in two ways: rst, he
This overenthusiasm on the part of academics
argued that there was no alternative, saying that he was
seems not even to notice that with such retrying to save the university (and science in general) from
sultsit does National Socialism and its hisbeing politicized and thus had to compromise with the
torical uniqueness no service at all, not that it
Nazi administration. Second, he admitted that he saw an
needs this anyhow.* [89]
awakening(Aufbruch) which might help to nd anew
national and social approach,but said that he changed
An important witness to Heidegger's continued allegiance his mind about this in 1934, largely prompted by the vito National Socialism during the post-rectorship period olence of the Night of the Long Knives.
is his former student Karl Lwith, who met Heidegger
In his interview Heidegger defended as double-speak his
in 1936 while Heidegger was visiting Rome. In an ac1935 lecture describing theinner truth and greatness of
count set down in 1940 (though not intended for publithis movement.He armed that Nazi informants who
cation), Lwith recalled that Heidegger wore a swastika
observed his lectures would understand that by movepin to their meeting, though Heidegger knew that Lwith
menthe meant National Socialism. However, Heidegwas Jewish. Lwith also recalled that Heideggerleft no
ger asserted that his dedicated students would know this
doubt about his faith in Hitler", and stated that his support
statement was no eulogy for the NSDAP. Rather, he
for National Socialism was in agreement with the essence
meant it as he expressed it in the parenthetical clariof his philosophy.* [90]
cation later added to Introduction to Metaphysics (1953),
namely, the confrontation of planetary technology and
modern humanity.
Post-war period
The Lwith account from 1936 has been cited to contradict the account given in the Der Spiegel interview in
two ways: that he did not make any decisive break with
National Socialism in 1934, and that Heidegger was willing to entertain more profound relations between his philosophy and political involvement. The Der Spiegel interviewers did not bring up Heidegger's 1949 quotation
comparing the industrialization of agriculture to the extermination camps. In fact, the interviewers were not in
possession of much of the evidence now known for Hei*
In his postwar thinking, Heidegger distanced himself degger's Nazi sympathies. [95]
from Nazism, but his critical comments about Nazism
seem scandalousto some since they tend to equate
the Nazi war atrocities with other inhumane practices re- 1.1.4 Inuence and reception in France
lated to rationalisation and industrialisation, including the
treatment of animals by factory farming. For instance in Heidegger was one of the most inuential philosophers of
a lecture delivered at Bremen in 1949, Heidegger said: the 20th century, and his ideas have penetrated into many
Agriculture is now a motorized food industry, the same areas, but in France there is a very long and particular
thing in its essence as the production of corpses in the gas history of reading and interpreting his work.
chambers and the extermination camps, the same thing
as blockades and the reduction of countries to famine, Existentialism and pre-war inuence
the same thing as the manufacture of hydrogen bombs.
*
[92]
Heidegger's inuence on French philosophy began in the
After the end of World War II, Heidegger was summoned
to appear at a denazication hearing. Heidegger's former
lover Arendt spoke on his behalf at this hearing, while
Jaspers spoke against him. The result of the hearings was
that Heidegger was forbidden to teach between 1945 and
1951. One consequence of this teaching ban was that
Heidegger began to engage far more in the French philosophical scene.* [91]
In 1967 Heidegger met with the Jewish poet Paul Celan, a

concentration camp survivor. Celan visited Heidegger at
his country retreat and wrote an enigmatic poem about
the meeting, which some interpret as Celan's wish for
Heidegger to apologize for his behavior during the Nazi
era.* [93]
1930s, when Being and Time, What is Metaphysics?"

and other Heideggerian texts were read by Jean-Paul
Sartre and other existentialists, as well as by thinkers such
as Alexandre Kojve, Georges Bataille and Emmanuel
Levinas.* [96] Because Heidegger's discussion of ontology (the study of being) is rooted in an analysis of the
10
mode of existence of individual human beings (Da-sein,

or there-being), his work has often been associated with
existentialism. The inuence of Heidegger on Sartre's
Being and Nothingness is marked, but Heidegger felt that
Sartre had misread his work, as he argued in later texts
such as theLetter on Humanism'.In that text, intended
for a French audience, Heidegger explained this misreading in the following terms:
Sartre's key proposition about the priority
of existentia over essentia [that is, Sartre's statement thatexistence precedes essence"] does,
however, justify using the name existentialismas an appropriate title for a philosophy of
this sort. But the basic tenet ofexistentialism
has nothing at all in common with the statement
from Being and Time [that the 'essence' of
Dasein lies in its existence"]apart from the
fact that in Being and Time no statement about
the relation of essentia and existentia can yet be
expressed, since there it is still a question of
preparing something precursory.* [97]
Derrida and deconstruction

Deconstruction came to Heidegger's attention in 1967 by
way of Lucien Braun's recommendation of Jacques Derrida's work (Hans-Georg Gadamer was present at an initial discussion and indicated to Heidegger that Derrida's
work came to his attention by way of an assistant). Heidegger expressed interest in meeting Derrida personally
after the latter sent him some of his work. There was
discussion of a meeting in 1972, but this failed to take
place. Heidegger's interest in Derrida is said by Braun
to have been considerable (as is evident in two letters, of
September 29, 1967 and May 16, 1972, from Heidegger to Braun). Braun also brought to Heidegger's attention the work of Michel Foucault. Foucault's relation to
Heidegger is a matter of considerable diculty; Foucault
acknowledged Heidegger as a philosopher whom he read
but never wrote about. (For more on this see Penser
Strasbourg, Jacques Derrida, et al., which includes reproductions of both letters and an account by Braun, " michemin entre Heidegger et Derrida).
Derrida made emphatic eorts to displace the understanding of Heidegger's work that had been prevalent
in France from the period of the ban against HeidegLetter on Humanism'" is often seen as a direct response ger teaching in German universities, which amounted to
to Sartre's 1945 lectureExistentialism is a Humanism. an almost wholesale rejection of the inuence of JeanAside from merely disputing readings of his own work, Paul Sartre and existentialist terms. In Derrida's view,
however, in Letter on Humanism,'" Heidegger asserts deconstruction is a tradition inherited via Heidegger (the
that Every humanism is either grounded in a meta- French termdconstructionis a term coined to transphysics or is itself made to be the ground of one.Hei- late Heidegger's use of the words Destruktionliterdegger's largest issue with Sartre's existential humanism allydestructionandAbbaumore literallydeis that, while it does make a humanistic 'move' in privileg- building). According to Derrida, Sartre's interpretation
ing existence over essence, the reversal of a metaphys- of Dasein and other key Heideggerian concerns is overly
ical statement remains a metaphysical statement.From psychologistic, anthropocentric, and misses the historithis point onward in his thought, Heidegger attempted to cality central to Dasein in Being and Time. Because of
think beyond metaphysics to a place where the articula- Derrida's vehement attempts torescueHeidegger from
tion of the fundamental questions of ontology were fun- his existentialist interpreters (and also from Heidegger's
damentally possible: only from this point can we restore orthodoxfollowers), Derrida has at times been repre(that is, re-give [redonner]) any possible meaning to the sented as a French Heidegger, to the extent that he,
word humanism.
his colleagues, and his former students are made to go
proxy for Heidegger's worst (political) mistakes, despite
ample evidence that the reception of Heidegger's work by
Post-war forays into France
later practitioners of deconstruction is anything but doctrinaire.
After the war, Heidegger was banned from university
teaching for a period on account of his activities as Rector of Freiburg University. He developed a number The Faras debate
of contacts in France, where his work continued to be
taught, and a number of French students visited him at Derrida, Lacoue-Labarthe, and Jean-Franois Lyotard,
Todtnauberg (see, for example, Jean-Franois Lyotard's among others, all engaged in debate and disagreement
brief account in Heidegger and the Jews, which dis- about the relation between Heidegger's philosophy and
cusses a Franco-German conference held in Freiburg in his Nazi politics. These debates included the question of
1947, one step toward bringing together French and Ger- whether it was possible to do without Heidegger's philosman students). Heidegger subsequently made several vis- ophy, a position which Derrida in particular rejected. Foits to France, and made eorts to keep abreast of devel- rums where these debates took place include the proceedopments in French philosophy by way of correspondence ings of the rst conference dedicated to Derrida's work,
with Jean Beaufret, an early French translator of Heideg- published as Les Fins de l'homme partir du travail
ger, and with Lucien Braun.
de Jacques Derrida: colloque de Cerisy, 23 juillet-2 aot

1980, Derrida'sFeu la cendre/cio' che resta del fuoco
, and the studies on Paul Celan by Lacoue-Labarthe and
Derrida which shortly preceded the detailed studies of
Heidegger's politics published in and after 1987.
When in 1987 Vctor Faras published his book Heidegger et le nazisme, this debate was taken up by many others,
some of whom were inclined to disparage so-calleddeconstructionistsfor their association with Heidegger's
philosophy. Derrida and others not only continued to defend the importance of reading Heidegger, but attacked
Faras on the grounds of poor scholarship and for what
they saw as the sensationalism of his approach. Not all
scholars agreed with this negative assessment: Richard
Rorty, for example, declared that "[Faras'] book includes
more concrete information relevant to Heidegger's relations with the Nazis than anything else available, and it
is an excellent antidote to the evasive apologetics that are
still being published.* [98]
11
book. Having nothing further to contribute to an ontology independent of human existence, Heidegger changed
the topic to Dasein. Whereas Heidegger argued that the
question of human existence is central to the pursuit of
the question of being, Husserl criticized this as reducing
phenomenology tophilosophical anthropologyand offering an abstract and incorrect portrait of the human being.* [101]
The Neo-Kantian Ernst Cassirer and Heidegger engaged
in an inuential debate located in Davos in 1929, concerning the signicance of Kantian notions of freedom
and rationality. Whereas Cassirer defended the role of
rationality in Kant, Heidegger argued for the priority of
the imagination. Dilthey's student Georg Misch wrote
the rst extended critical appropriation of Heidegger in
Lebensphilosophie und Phnomenologie. Eine Auseinandersetzung der Diltheyschen Richtung mit Heidegger und
Husserl, Leipzig 1930 (3. ed. Stuttgart 1964).
Bernard Stiegler
Left-Hegelianism and critical theory
More recently, Heidegger's thought has considerably inuenced the work of the French philosopher Bernard
Stiegler. This is evident even from the title of Stiegler's
multi-volume magnum opus, La technique et le temps (volume one translated into English as Technics and Time, 1:
The Fault of Epimetheus).* [99] Stiegler oers an original
reading of Heidegger, arguing that there can be no access
tooriginary temporalityother than via material, that is,
technical, supports, and that Heidegger recognised this in
the form of his account of world historicality, yet in the
end suppressed that fact. Stiegler understands the existential analytic of Being and Time as an account of psychic
individuation, and his later history of beingas an account of collective individuation. He understands many
of the problems of Heidegger's philosophy and politics as
the consequence of Heidegger's inability to integrate the
two.
Hegel-inuenced Marxist thinkers, especially Gyrgy

Lukcs and the Frankfurt School, associated the style and
content of Heidegger's thought with German irrationalism and criticized its political implications.
Initially members of the Frankfurt School were positively

disposed to Heidegger, becoming more critical at the beginning of the 1930s. Heidegger's student Herbert Marcuse became associated with the Frankfurt School. Initially striving for a synthesis between Hegelian Marxism and Heidegger's phenomenology, Marcuse later rejected Heidegger's thought for its false concreteness
and revolutionary conservativism.Theodor Adorno
wrote an extended critique of the ideological character
of Heidegger's early and later use of language in the Jargon of Authenticity. Contemporary social theorists associated with the Frankfurt School have remained largely
critical of Heidegger's works and inuence. In particular,
Jrgen Habermas admonishes the inuence of Heidegger
on recent French philosophy in his polemic againstpostGiorgio Agamben
modernismin The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity
Heidegger has been very inuential on the work of Italian (1985). However, recent work by philosopher and critiphilosopher Giorgio Agamben. Agamben attended sem- cal theorist Nikolas Kompridis tries to show that Heideginars in France led by Heidegger in the late 1960s.* [100] ger's insights into world disclosure are badly misunderstood and mishandled by Habermas, and are of vital importance for critical theory, oering an important way of
renewing that tradition.* [102]* [103]
1.1.5 Criticism
Heidegger's inuence upon 20th century continental philosophy is unquestioned and has produced a variety of Reception by analytic and Anglo-American philosophy
critical responses.
Criticism of Heidegger's philosophy has also come from
analytic philosophy, beginning with logical positivism. In
The Elimination of Metaphysics Through Logical AnalAccording to Husserl, Being and Time claimed to deal ysis of Language(1932), Rudolf Carnap accused Heiwith ontology but only did so in the rst few pages of the degger of oering anillusoryontology, criticizing him
Early criticisms
12
for committing the fallacy of reication and for wrongly

dismissing the logical treatment of language which, according to Carnap, can only lead to writingnonsensical
pseudo-propositions.
A strong critic of Heidegger's philosophy was the British
logical positivist A. J. Ayer. In Ayer's view, Heidegger proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence, which are completely unveriable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis. For Ayer, this sort
of philosophy was a poisonous strain in modern thought.
He considered Heidegger to be the worst example of such
philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless.
Bertrand Russell commented, expressing the sentiments
of many mid-20th-century analytic philosophers, that:
Highly eccentric in its terminology, his philosophy is extremely obscure. One cannot help
suspecting that language is here running riot.
An interesting point in his speculations is the
insistence that nothingness is something positive. As with much else in Existentialism, this
is a psychological observation made to pass for
logic.* [104]
Roger Scruton stated that: His major work Being and
Time is formidably dicultunless it is utter nonsense,
in which case it is laughably easy. I am not sure how to
judge it, and have read no commentator who even begins
to make sense of it.* [105]
The analytic tradition values clarity of expression. Heidegger, however, has on occasion appeared to take an opposing view, stating for example:
those in the crossing must in the end know
what is mistaken by all urging for intelligibility: that every thinking of being, all philosophy, can never be conrmed byfacts,i.e., by
beings. Making itself intelligible is suicide for
philosophy. Those who idolize factsnever
notice that their idols only shine in a borrowed
light. They are also meant not to notice this;
for thereupon they would have to be at a loss
and therefore useless. But idolizers and idols
are used wherever gods are in ight and so announce their nearness.* [106]
philosophical approach. These positive and negative analytic evaluations have been collected in Michael Murray
(ed.), Heidegger and Modern Philosophy: Critical Essays
(Yale University Press, 1978). Heidegger's reputation
within English-language philosophy has slightly improved
in philosophical terms in some part through the eorts of
Hubert Dreyfus, Richard Rorty, and a recent generation
of analytically oriented phenomenology scholars. Pragmatist Rorty claimed that Heidegger's approach to philosophy in the rst half of his career has much in common
with that of the latter-day Ludwig Wittgenstein. Nevertheless, Rorty asserted that what Heidegger had constructed in his writings was a myth of being rather than
an account of it.* [109]
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy states that Heidegger's writing is notoriously dicult, possibly because his thinking wasoriginaland clearly on obscure
and innovative topics.* [110]
Contemporary European reception

Even though Heidegger is considered by many observers
to be the most inuential philosopher of the 20th century in continental philosophy, aspects of his work have
been criticised by those who nevertheless acknowledge
this inuence, such as Hans-Georg Gadamer and Jacques
Derrida. Some questions raised about Heidegger's philosophy include the priority of ontology, the status of animals, the nature of the religious, Heidegger's supposed
neglect of ethics (Levinas), the body (Maurice MerleauPonty), sexual dierence (Luce Irigaray), or space (Peter
Sloterdijk).
Levinas was deeply inuenced by Heidegger, and yet became one of his ercest critics, contrasting the innity
of the good beyond being with the immanence and totality of ontology. Levinas also condemned Heidegger's
involvement with National Socialism, stating: One can
forgive many Germans, but there are some Germans it is
dicult to forgive. It is dicult to forgive Heidegger.
*
[111]
Heidegger's defenders, notably Arendt, see his support

for Nazism as arguably a personal " 'error' " (a word which
Arendt placed in quotation marks when referring to Heidegger's Nazi-era politics).* [112] Defenders think this
error was irrelevant to Heidegger's philosophy. Critics
such as Levinas,* [113] Karl Lwith,* [114] and Theodor
Apart from the charge of obscurantism, other analytic Adorno claim that Heidegger's support for National So*
philosophers considered the actual content of Heidegger's cialism revealed aws inherent in his thought. [115]
work to be either faulty and meaningless, vapid or uninteresting. However, not all analytic philosophers have
been as hostile. Gilbert Ryle wrote a critical yet pos- 1.1.6 In lm
itive review of Being and Time. Ludwig Wittgenstein
made a remark recorded by Friedrich Waismann: To
Being in the World draws on Heidegger's work to exbe sure, I can imagine what Heidegger means by beplore what it means to be human in a technologiing and anxiety* [107] which has been construed by
cal age. A number of Heidegger scholars are intersome commentators* [108] as sympathetic to Heidegger's
viewed, including Hubert Dreyfus, Mark Wrathall,

Albert Borgmann, John Haugeland and Taylor Carman.
The Ister (2004) is a lm based on Heidegger's 1942 lecture course on Friedrich Hlderlin,
and features Jean-Luc Nancy, Philippe LacoueLabarthe, Bernard Stiegler, and Hans-Jrgen Syberberg.* [116]
13
Heideggerian terminology
Hlderlin's Hymn The Ister
Ontotheology
Heidegger Gesamtausgabe
List of Nazi ideologues
The lm director Terrence Malick translated Hei Heidegger and Nazism

degger's 1929 essay "Vom Wesen des Grundes" into
Daseinsanalysis
English. It was published under the title The Essence
of Reasons (Evanston: Northwestern University
Ernst Cassirer
Press, 1969, bilingual edition). It is also frequently
said of Malick that his cinema has Heideggerian
Sous rature
sensibilities. See for instance: Marc Furstenau and
Leslie MacAvoy,Terrence Malick's Heideggerian
Hannah Arendt
Cinema: War and the Question of Being in The Thin
Black Notebooks
Red LineIn The cinema of Terrence Malick: Poetic
visions of America, 2nd ed. Edited by Hanna Patterson (London: Wallower Press 2007): 17991. See
also: Stanley Cavell, The World Viewed: Reections 1.1.9 References
on the Ontology of Film (Cambridge: Harvard Uni[1] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:Martin Heidegger
versity Press 1979): XV.
(18891976)"
The 2006 experimental short Die Entnazizierung
des MH by James T. Hong imagines Heidegger's denazication proceedings.* [117]
In the 1981 lm My Dinner with Andre, Heidegger's
theory of experiencing one's being to the fullest
is like experiencing the decay of that being towards
one's death, as a part of your experienceis quoted
by the actor Wallace Shawn, who plays himself.
1.1.7
Bibliography
Gesamtausgabe
Heidegger's collected works are published by Vittorio
Klostermann.* [118] The Gesamtausgabe was begun during Heidegger's lifetime. He dened the order of publication and dictated that the principle of editing should
beways not works.Publication has not yet been completed.
The contents are listed here: Heidegger Gesamtausgabe.
Selected works
A complete list of English translations of Heidegger's
work is available here.
1.1.8
See also
Aletheia
World disclosure
[2]The opposition of world and earth is a strife.(Heidegger

(1971), Poetry, Language, Thought, translation and introduction by Albert Hofstadter, p. 47: translation corrected
by Hubert Dreyfus; original German: "Das Gegeneinander von Welt und Erde ist ein Streit.")
[3] Heidegger's Hidden Sources: East-Asian Inuences on
His Work, Reinhard May, 1996
[4] pages 67 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[5] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[6] Heidegger. Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
[7] Lackey, Douglas. 1999. What Are the Modern Classics? The Baruch Poll of Great Philosophy in the Twentieth Century. Philosophical Forum. 30 (4): 329-46
[8] Heidegger, Martin. Poetry, Language, Thought. (New
York: Harper Modern Perennial Classics, 2001.), p. 8.
[9] Poetry, Language, Thought, p. 60.
[10] For critical readings of the interview (published in 1966 as
Only a God Can Save Us, Der Spiegel), see theSpecial
Feature on Heidegger and Nazismin Critical Inquiry 15:2
(Winter 1989), particularly the contributions by Jrgen
Habermas and Blanchot. The issue includes partial translations of Derrida's Of Spirit and Lacoue-Labarthe's Of
Spirit and Heidegger, Art, and Politics: the Fiction of the
Political.
[11] Quoted by Heinrich Wiegand Petzet, Auf einen Stern zugehen. Begegnungen und Gesprche mit Martin Heidegger
1929-1976, 1983 p. 43, and also by Frdric de Towarnicki, A la rencontre de Heidegger. Souvenirs d'un messager de la Fort-Noire, Gallimard-Arcades p. 125
14
[12] Hermann Philipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being p.

173, Notes to Chapter One, Martin Heidegger, Supplements, trans. John Van Buren p. 183.
[13] Note, however, that it was discovered later that one of the
two main sources used by Heidegger was not by Scotus,
but by Thomas of Erfurt. Thus Heidegger's 1916 doctoral thesis, Die Kategorien- und Bedeutungslehre des Duns
Scotus, should have been entitled, Die Kategorienlehre des
Duns Scotus und die Bedeutungslehre des Thomas von Erfurt. Source: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[14] Die Lehre vom Urteil im Psychologismus. Ein kritischtheoretischer Beitrag zur Logik (1914). Source: Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert, Martin Heidegger, Theologische Realenzyklopdie, XIV, 1982, p. 562
[15] Gethmann-Siefert, 1982, p. 563
[16] Richard Wolin, Heideggers Children: Hannah Arendt,
Karl Lwith, Hans Jonas, and Herbert Marcuse (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001); Samuel Fleischacker (ed.) Heidegger's Jewish Followers: Essays on
Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss, Hans Jonas, and Emmanuel
Levinas (Pittsburgh: Duquesne University Press, 2008)
[17] Levinas.sdsu.edu
[18] Charles Bambach, Heideggers Roots (Cornell University
Press, 2003, page 82)
[19] Julian Young, Heidegger, Philosophy, Nazism (Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 3, page 11).
[20] Julian Young, Heidegger, Philosophy, Nazism (Cambridge University Press, 1997, page 3)
[21] [Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich (The
Penguin Press, 2004, pages 419-422)]
[22] Thomas Assheuer (21 March 2014). Das vergiftete
Erbe. Die Zeit (in German).
[23] Provisional ruling October 5, 1946; nal ruling December
28, 1946; Hugo Ott, Martin Heidegger: A Political Life,
(Harper Collins, 1993, page 348)
[24] Rdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good and
Evil (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 373)
[25] Es ist wieder da. Die Zeit. 30 January 2014.
[26] Martin Heidegger / Elisabeth Blochmann. Briefwechsel 19181969. Joachim W. Storck, ed. Marbach am
Neckar: Deutsches Literatur-Archiv, 1989, 2nd edn.
1990.
[27] Being There, a Spring 2007 article on Heidegger's vacation home for Cabinet magazine.
[28] S.J. McGrath, Heidegger; A (Very) Critical Introduction
(Cambridge, U.K.: Erdmans, 2008), p. 10
[29] For a study on Heidegger's reading of the Sophist and
his less central interest in Plato's Timaeus and its conception of space qua khra: see: Nader El-Bizri, "On
kai khra: Situating Heidegger between the Sophist and
the Timaeus", Studia Phaenomenologica, Vol. IV, Issue 12 (2004), pp. 7398. This study is also closely
connected with an investigation of Heidegger's later reections on 'dwelling' as set in: Nader El-Bizri, 'Being
at Home Among Things: Heideggers Reections on
Dwelling', Environment, Space, Place 3 (2011), pp. 47
71. Refer also to other aspects of this research under the
section of 'Heidegger and Eastern Thought' in the main
body of the text above
[30] In everyday German, "Dasein" means existence.It is
composed of "Da" (here/there) and "Sein" (being). Dasein is transformed in Heidegger's usage from its everyday meaning to refer, rather, to that being that is there in
its world, that is, the being for whom being matters. In
later publications Heidegger writes the term in hyphenated form as Da-sein, thus emphasizing the distance from
the word's ordinary usage.
[31] Jacques Derrida describes this in the following terms:
We can see then that Dasein, though not man, is nevertheless nothing other than man.Jacques Derrida, The
Ends of Man, Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 127.
[32] Cf. Bernard Stiegler, Technics of Decision: An Interview, Angelaki 8 (2003), pp. 15467, and cf. the discussion of Stiegler's reading of Heidegger in the sub-section
Bernard Stieglerbelow.
[33] Nader El-Bizri, "On Kai Khora: Situating Heidegger between the Sophist and the Timaeus", Studia Phaenomenologica 4 (2004), pp. 7398.
[34] Nader El-Bizri, 'Being at Home Among Things: Heideggers Reections on Dwelling', Environment, Space, Place
3 (2011), 4771
[35] Wheeler, Michael (October 12, 2011). Martin Heidegger 3.1 The Turn and the Contributions to Philosophy".
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2013-0522.
[36] Richardson, William J. (1963). Heidegger. Through Phenomenology to Thought. Preface by Martin Heidegger.
The Hague: Martinus Nijho Publishers. 4th Edition
(2003). The Bronx: Fordham University Press. ISBN
0-823-22255-1; ISBN 978-08-2322-255-1.
[37] Korab-Karpowicz, W. J. (December 21, 2009). Martin
Heidegger (18891976) 1. Life and Works. Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2013-05-22.
[38] Heidegger, Martin (2002). Time and Being. On
Time and Being. Translated by Joan Stambaugh. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-32375-7; ISBN
978-02-2632-375-6.
[39] Naess, Jr., Arne D. Martin Heidegger's Later philosophy. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved 2013-06-28.
[40] Wrathall, Mark: Heidegger and Unconcealment: Truth,
Language, and History, Cambridge University Press, 2011
[41] http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=24212
[42] Lyon, James K. Paul Celan and Martin Heidegger: an unresolved conversation, 19511970, pp. 1289
[43] Philipse, Herman (1998) Heidegger's philosophy of being:

a critical interpretation, p. 205
[44] Heidegger (1971) Poetry, Language, Thought, translation
and introduction by Albert Hofstadter, pp. xxv and 187
[45] Gillespie, Michael Allen (1984). Hegel, Heidegger, and
the Ground of History. The start of the 3rd paragraph:
The University of Chicago Press. p. 133. ISBN 0-22629377-7.
15
[59] Introduction to Metaphysics, trans. by Gregory Fried and

Richard Polt (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000),
p. 89.
[60] Heidegger, What is Called Thinking? (New York: Harper
& Row, 1968), p. 73.
[61] Kelvin Knight, Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre (Cambridge: Polity Press,
2007).

the Ground of History. 2nd half: The University of
Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
[62] Sonya Sikka (1997). Forms of Transcendence: Heidegger

and Medieval Mystical Theology. SUNY Press. p. 265.
ISBN 978-0-7914-3345-4.
[47] The Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary. Bottom of

page: Oxford University Press. 1991. p. 984. ISBN 9780198612483.
[63] The Ode on Man in Sophocles' Antigone

the ground of History. End of 1st paragraph: The University of Chicago Press. p. 154. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
the Ground of History. End of 2nd paragraph: The University of Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
the Ground of History. Near end of 3rd paragraph.: The
University of Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-226-293777.
the Ground of History. Halfway through 2nd paragraph:
the Ground of History. Halfway through 3rd paragraph:
the Ground of History. End of 3rd paragraph: The University of Chicago Press. p. 157. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
the Ground of History. 2nd paragraph: The University of
Chicago Press. p. 131. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
the Ground of History. End of 3rd paragraph: The University of Chicago Press. p. 148. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
the Ground of History. End of 1st paragraph: The University of Chicago Press. p. 151. ISBN 0-226-29377-7.
[57] See The Inuence of Augustine on Heidegger: The Emergence of an Augustinian Phenomenology, ed. Craig J. N.
de Paulo (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2006.) and
also Martin Heidegger's Interpretations of Augustine: Sein
und Zeit und Ewigkeit, ed. Frederick Van Fleteren (Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2005.)
[58] Augustine of Hippo (2008). Confessions. Chadwick,
Henry transl. New York: Oxford University Press, Book
XI
[64] Hans-Georg Gadamer, Martin Heidegger's One Path

, in Theodore Kisiel & John van Buren (eds.), Reading
Heidegger from the Start: Essays in His Earliest Thought
(Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), pp. 224.
[65] In The Genesis of Heidegger's Being and Time (Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1993), Theodor Kisiel designates the rst version of the project that culminates in
Being and Time,the Dilthey draft(p. 313). David Farrell Krell comments in Daimon Life: Heidegger and LifePhilosophy (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1992) thatHeidegger's project sprouts (in
part, but in good part) from the soil of Dilthey's philosophy of factical-historical life(p. 35).
[66] Hans-Georg Gadamer,Martin Heidegger75 Years,
Heidegger's Ways (Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 18.
[67] Robert J. Dostal, Time and Phenomenology in Husserl
and Heidegger, in Charles Guignon (ed.), The Cambridge
Companion to Heidegger (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), p. 142.
[68] Daniel O. Dahlstrom, Heidegger's Critique of Husserl
, in Theodore Kisiel & John van Buren (eds.), Reading
Heidegger from the Start: Essays in His Earliest Thought
(Albany: SUNY Press, 1994), p. 244.
[69] Dreyfus, Hubert. Being-in-the-world: A Commentary on
Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I. (Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1991), Sec. Appendix.
[70] Historical Dictionary of Heidegger's Philosophy, By
Frank Schalow, Alfred Denker
[71] Oliver Garbrecht (1999).
(Dissertation Universitt
Mnchen). Rationalittskritik der Moderne Adorno und
Heidegger. p.269. Herbert Utz Verlag Wissenschaft.
ISBN 3-89675-652-4.
[72] Martin Heidegger (1954). Was heisst denken? p. 6-86.
Max Niemeyer Verlag Tbingen. ISBN 3-484-70029-7.
[73] Heidegger,A Dialogue on Language between a Japanese
and an Inquirer, in On the Way to Language (New York:
Harper & Row, 1971).
[74] Heideggers hidden sources: East Asian inuences on his
work by Reinhard May, p. 7. Translated, with a complementary essay, by Graham Parkes. 1996. London and
New York.
16
[75] Heidegger's hidden sources: East Asian inuences on his

work by Reinhard May, p. XV. Translated, with a complementary essay, by Graham Parkes. 1996. London and
New York.
[76] See for instance: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton,
N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000); Nader El-Bizri,
'Avicenna and Essentialism', Review of Metaphysics 54
(2001), 753778; Nader El-Bizri, 'Being and Necessity:
A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology', in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka
(Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), 243
261; Nader El-Bizri, 'The Labyrinth of Philosophy in Islam', Comparative Philosophy 1.2 (2010), 323; Nader
El-Bizri, 'Al-Snawiyya wa-naqd Hydighir li-trkh almtfzq', al-Maajja 21 (2010), 119140
[77] Political Islam, Iran, and the Enlightenment: Philosophies of Hope and Despair, Ali Mirsepassi. Cambridge University Press, 2010. ISBN 0-521-74590-X,
9780521745901. p. 90
[78] Iran's Islamists Inuenced By Western Philosophers,
NYU's Mirsepassi Concludes in New Book, New York
University. January 11, 2011. Accessed 2011-02-15
[79] Hans Sluga, Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics
in Nazi Germany (Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London:
Harvard University Press, 1993), p. 149.
[80] Heidegger,The Rectorate 1933/34: Facts and Thoughts
, in Gnther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers
(New York: Paragon House, 1990), p. 29.
[81] Seyla Benhabib, The Reluctant Modernism Of Hannah
Arendt (Rowman and Littleeld, 2003, p. 120.)
[82] Seyla Benhabib, The Personal is not the Political (October/November 1999 issue of Boston Review.)
[88] Martin Heidegger, Mindfulness (Continuum, 2006), section 47.

[89] Heidegger, Hlderlin's HymnThe Ister(Bloomington &
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1996), pp. 7980.
[90] Karl Lwith,My last meeting with Heidegger in Rome
, in R. Wolin, The Heidegger Controversy (MIT Press,
1993).
[91] Dominique Janicaud, Heidegger en France vol. 1 (Paris:
Albin Michel, 2001).
[92] Thomas Sheehan, Heidegger and the Nazis, a review
of Vctor Faras' Heidegger et le nazisme, in The New York
Review of Books, Vol. XXXV, n10, June 16, 1988, pp.
3847
[93] Anderson, Mark M. (1991-04-01). The Impossibility of Poetry": Celan and Heidegger in France. New
German Critique (53): 318. doi:10.2307/488241. ISSN
0094-033X. Retrieved 2011-12-13.
[94] Augstein, Rudolf; Wol, Georg; Heidegger, Martin (31
May 1976). "Nur noch ein Gott kann uns retten". Der
Spiegel: 193219. Retrieved 2013-06-14. English translation by William J. Richardson in Sheehan, Thomas, ed.
(1st edition: 1981; reprint: 2010). Heidegger. The Man
and the Thinker. Piscataway, New Jersey: Transaction
Publishers. pp. 4567. ISBN 1-412-81537-1; ISBN 97814-1281-537-6. Check date values in: |date= (help)
[95] For critical readings of the interview (published in 1966 as
Only a God Can Save Us,Der Spiegel), see theSpecial
Feature on Heidegger and Nazismin Critical Inquiry 15:2
(Winter 1989), particularly the contributions by Jrgen
Habermas and Blanchot. The issue includes partial translations of Derrida's Of Spirit and Lacoue-Labarthe's Of
Spirit and Heidegger, Art, and Politics: the Fiction of the
Political.
[83] Martin Heidegger, Der Spiegel Interview, in Gnther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), Martin Heidegger and
National Socialism: Questions and Answers (New York:
Paragon House, 1990), p. 48.
[96] On the history of the French translation of Heidegger's

What is Metaphysics?", and on its importance to the
French intellectual scene, cf. Denis Hollier, Plenty of
Nothing, in Hollier (ed.), A New History of French Literature (Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University
Press, 1989), pp. 894900.
[84] Rdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good and

Evil (Cambridge, Mass., & London: Harvard University
Press, 1998), pp. 2538.
[97] Heidegger, Letter on 'Humanism'", Pathmarks (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998),
pp. 2501.
[85] Elzbieta Ettinger,Hannah Arendt Martin Heidegger,

(New Haven, Conn., & London: Yale University Press,
1995), p. 37.
[98] Richard Rorty, review of Heidegger and Nazism in the

New Republic, quoted on the Temple University Press
promotional page for Heidegger and Nazism
[86] GA 96: 46-47 (from berlegungen XII, 24) (1939?)
[99] Bernard Stiegler, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault of

Epimetheus (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998),
part 2.
[87] Jrgen Habermas, Work and Weltanschauung: the Heidegger Controversy from a German Perspective, Critical
Inquiry 15 (1989), pp. 45254. See also J. Habermas, [100] Durantaye, Leland de la. (2009). Giorgio Agamben.
Martin Heidegger: on the publication of the lectures of
A Critical Introduction. Stanford: Stanford University
1935, in Richard Wolin, ed., The Heidegger ControPress.
versy (MIT Press, 1993). The controversial page of the
1935 manuscript is missing from the Heidegger Archives [101] See Edmund Husserl, Psychological and transcendenin Marbach; however, Habermas's scholarship leaves little
tal phenomenology and the confrontation with Heidegger
doubt about the original wording.
(19271931) (Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1997).
17
[102] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical The- [117] Zukunftsmusik.com
ory between Past and Future MIT Press, 2006.
[118] Quick reference guide to the English translations of Hei[103] Nikolas Kompridis,Disclosing Possibility: The Past and
degger
Future of Critical Theory, International Journal of Philosophical Studies, Volume 13, Issue September 3, 2005,
pages 325351.
[104] Bertrand Russell, Wisdom of the West (New York: Crescent Books, 1989), p. 303.
1.1.10 Further reading

On Being and Time
[105] Je Collins, Introducing Heidegger (Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books, 1998), p. 7.
William Blattner, Heidegger's Temporal Idealism
[106] Martin Heidegger, Contributions to Philosophy (From

Enowning) (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1999), p. 307.
Taylor Carman, Heidegger's Analytic: Interpretation,

Discourse, and Authenticity in Being and Time
[107] Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle: Conversations

Recorded by Friedrich Waismann, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1979, p. 68
Craig J. N. de Paulo, The Inuence of Augustine on

Heidegger: The Emergence of an Augustinian Phenomenology
[108] James Luchte,Under the Aspect of Time (sub specie

temporis): Heidegger, Wittgenstein, and the Place of
the Nothing,Philosophy Today, Volume 53, Number 2,
2009.
Hubert Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I
[109] Je Collins, Introducing Heidegger (Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books, 1998), p. 170.
Michael Gelven, A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Revised Edition
[110] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:Martin Heidegger

(18891976)"
E.F. Kaelin, Heidegger's Being & Time: A Reading for Readers
[111] Emmanuel Levinas, Nine Talmudic Readings (Indiana

University Press, 1990), p. xxv, translated by Annette
Aronowicz
Magda King, A Guide to Heidegger's Being and Time
[112] Hannah Arendt, Martin Heidegger At 80, New York Review of Books, 17/6, (Oct. 21, 1971), 5054; repr. in
Heidegger and Modern Philosophy ed. M. Murray (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), 293303
[113] Martin Heidegger, Emmanuel Levinas, and the Politics
of Dwelling by David J. Gauthier, Ph.D dissertation,
Louisiana State University, 2004, page 156
[114] Karl Lwith, Mein Leben in Deutschland vor und nach
1933: ein Bericht (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1986), p. 57, translated by Paula Wissing as cited by Maurice Blanchot in
Thinking the Apocalypse: a Letter from Maurice Blanchot to Catherine David, in Critical Inquiry 15:2, pp.
476477.
[115]Emmanuel Faye [in his Heidegger: The Introduction
of Nazism Into Philosophy] argues fascist and racist
ideas are so woven into the fabric of Heideggers theories that they no longer deserve to be called philosophy.
. . . Richard Wolin, the author of several books on Heidegger and a close reader of the Faye book, said he is not
convinced Heideggers thought is as thoroughly tainted
by Nazism as Mr. Faye argues. Nonetheless he recognizes how far Heideggers ideas have spilled into the
larger culture.An Ethical Question: Does a Nazi Deserve
a Place Among Philosophers? by Patricia Cohen. New
York Times. Published: November 8, 2009. (Online)
[116] TheIster.com
Theodore Kisiel, The Genesis of Heidegger's Being

and Time
Stephen Mulhall, Heidegger and Being and Time
James Luchte, Heidegger's Early Philosophy: The
Phenomenology of Ecstatic Temporality
Mark Wrathall, How to Read Heidegger
Biographies
Vctor Faras, Heidegger and Nazism, ed. by Joseph
Margolis and Tom Rockmore
Hugo Ott, Martin Heidegger: A Political Life
Otto Pggeler, Martin Heidegger's Path of Thinking,
trans. by D. Magurshak and S. Barber, Humanities
Press, 1987.
Rdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger: Between Good
and Evil
John van Buren, The Young Heidegger: Rumor of the
Hidden King
18
Politics and National Socialism

Pierre Bourdieu, The Political Ontology of Martin
Heidegger
Miguel de Beistegui, Heidegger and the Political:
Dystopias
Jacques Derrida, Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question
Vctor Faras, Heidegger and Nazism, Philadelphia,
Temple University Press, 1989.
Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger, l'introduction du
nazisme dans la philosophie : autour des sminaires
indits de 19331935, Paris, Albin Michel, 2005.
ISBN 2-226-14252-5 in French language
Tom Rockmore and Joseph Margolis (ed.), The Heidegger Case

Daniel Ross, Heidegger and the Question of the Political
Hans Sluga, Heidegger's Crisis: Philosophy and Politics in Nazi Germany
Iain Thomson, Heidegger on Ontotheology: Technology and the Politics of Education
Dana Villa, Arendt and Heidegger: the Fate of the
Political
Richard Wolin (ed.), The Heidegger Controversy
ISBN 0-262-23166-2.
Julian Young, Heidegger philosophy Nazism
Emmanuel Faye, Heidegger. The Introduction of

Nazism into Philosophy in Light of the Unpublished Other secondary literature
Seminars of 19331935, Translated by Michael B.
Jerey Andrew Barash, Martin Heidegger and the
Smith, Foreword by Tom Rockmore, Yale UniverProblem of Historical Meaning (New York: Fordsity Press, 2009, 436 p. Foreword Award: Book of
ham, 2003)
the year 2009 for Philosophy.
Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert & Otto Pggeler
(eds.), Heidegger und die praktische Philosophie,
Frankfurt a. M., Suhrkamp, 1989. in German language
Dominique Janicaud, The Shadow of That Thought
Robert Bernasconi, Heidegger in Question: The Art

of Existing
Babette Babich, Words in Blood, Like Flowers. Philosophy and Poetry, Music and Eros in Hoelderlin, Nietzsche and Heidegger (2006). ISBN 9780791468364
W.J. Korab-Karpowicz,Heidegger's Hidden Path:

From Philosophy to Politics, Review of Metaphysics, 61 (2007)
Walter A. Brogan, Heidegger and Aristotle: The

Twofoldness of Being
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Transcendence Ends

in Politics, in Typography: Mimesis, Philosophy,
Politics
Scott M. Campbell: The Early Heidegger's Philosophy of Life: Facticity, Being, and Language.
Fordham University Press, 2012. ISBN 9780823242207
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger, Art, and Politics: The Fiction of the Political
George Leaman,
Heidegger im Kontext:
Gesamtberblick zum NS-Engagement der Universittsphilosophen, Argument Verlag, Hamburg,
1993. ISBN 3-88619-205-9
Karl Lwith, Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism
Karl Lwith Heidegger's Existentialism
Jean-Franois Lyotard, Heidegger and the jews
Hugo Ott, Heidegger. A Political Life.
Gnther Neske & Emil Kettering (eds.), Martin Heidegger and National Socialism: Questions and Answers
Political Texts Rectoral Addresses
Richard Capobianco, Engaging Heidegger with a

Foreword by William J. Richardson. University of
Toronto Press, 2010.
Richard Capobianco, Heidegger's Way of Being.
University of Toronto Press, 2014.
Maxence Caron, Heidegger Pense de l'tre et origine de la subjectivit, 1760 pages, rst and only book
on Heidegger awarded by the Acadmie franaise.
Gabriel Cercel / Cristian Ciocan (eds), The
Early Heidegger (Studia Phaenomenologica I, 34),
Bucharest: Humanitas, 2001, 506 p., including letters by Heidegger and Pggeler, and articles by
Walter Biemel, Friedrich-Wilhelm von Herrmann,
Theodore Kisiel, Marion Heinz, Alfred Denker
Steven Galt Crowell, Husserl, Heidegger, and the
Space of Meaning: Paths toward Transcendental
Phenomenology

Walter A. Davis. Inwardness and Existence: Subjectivity in/and Hegel, Heidegger, Marx, and Freud.
Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989.
Jacques Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a
Note from Being and Time", in Margins of Philosophy
19
John Sallis (ed), Reading Heidegger: Commemorations, including articles by Robert Bernasconi,
Jacques Derrida, Rodolphe Gasch, and John Sallis, among others.
Reiner Schrmann, Heidegger on Being and Acting:
From Principles to Anarchy
Hubert L. Dreyfus & Mark A. Wrathall, A Companion to Heidegger (Oxford: Blackwell, 2007)
Tony See, Community without Identity: The Ontology and Politics of Heidegger
Paul Edwards, Heidegger's Confusions
Adam Sharr, Heidegger's Hut
Nader El-Bizri The Phenomenological Quest Between Avicenna and Heidegger (New York, 2000)
Bernard Stiegler, Technics and Time, 1: The Fault

of Epimetheus
Christopher Fynsk, Heidegger: Thought and Historicity
Leo Strauss,An Introduction to Heideggerian Existentialism,in The Rebirth of Classical Political Rationalism (University of Chicago: 1989).
Michael Allen Gillespie, Hegel, Heidegger, and the

Ground of History (University of Chicago Press,
1984)
Glazebrook, Trish (2000), Heidegger's Philosophy of
Science, Fordham University Press.
Patricia Altenbernd Johnson, On Heidegger
(Wadsworth Philosophers Series), Wadsworth
Publishing, 1999
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Poetry as Experience
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe, Heidegger and the Politics of Poetry
S. J. McGrath, Heidegger. A (Very) Critical Introduction
William McNeill, The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger,
Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory
William McNeill, The Time of Life: Heidegger and
Ethos
Jean-Luc Nancy, The Decision of Existence, in
The Birth to Presence
Herman Philipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being:
A Critical Interpretation
Richard Polt, Heidegger: An Introduction
Franois Raoul, Heidegger and the Subject
Franois Raoul & David Pettigrew (ed), Heidegger
and Practical Philosophy
Franois Raoul & Eric S. Nelson (ed), The
Bloomsbury Companion to Heidegger (Bloomsbury,
2013)
William J. Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought.
John Sallis, Echoes: After Heidegger
Andrzej Warminski, Readings in Interpretation:

Hlderlin, Hegel, Heidegger
Julian Young, Heidegger's Philosophy of Art
Julian Young, Heidegger's Later Philosophy
Bastian Zimmermann, Die Oenbarung des Unverfgbaren und die Wrde des Fragens. Ethische Dimensionen der Philosophie Martin Heideggers (London: 2010) ISBN 978-1-84790-037-1
Sean McGrath and Andrzej Wierciski, ed., A Companion to HeideggersPhenomenology of Religious
Life (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2010).
Umberto Pagano, L'uomo senz'ombra. Elementi
di sociologia dell'inautentico ,(The Man with no
Shadow. Principles for a Sociology of Inauthenticity)
(Milan, 2007), FrancoAngeli, ISBN 978-88-4648523-6.
Reception in France
Jean Beaufret, Dialogue avec Heidegger, 4 vols.,
Paris: Minuit, 19731985.
Jean-Franois Courtine,
Heidegger
phnomnologie, Paris: Vrin, 1990.
et
la
John E. Drabinski and Eric S. Nelson (eds.), Between Levinas and Heidegger, Albany: SUNY Press,
2014.
Dominique Janicaud, Heidegger en France, 2vols.,
Paris: Albin Michel, 2001.
Ethan Kleinberg, Generation Existential: Heidegger's
Philosophy in France, 19271961
David Pettigrew and Franois Raoul (eds.), French
Interpretations of Heidegger: An Exceptional Reception, Albany : SUNY Press, 2006.
20
Inuence on Japanese philosophy
1.2 Heideggerian terminology
Mayeda, Graham. 2006. Time, space and ethics in Being in the worldredirects here. For the documentary
the philosophy of Watsuji Tetsur, Kuki Shz, and lm by Ruspoli, see Being in the World.
Martin Heidegger (New York: Routledge, 2006).
ISBN 0-415-97673-1 (alk. paper).
Martin Heidegger, the 20th-century German philosopher, produced a large body of work that intended a proHeidegger and Asian philosophy
found change of direction for philosophy. Such was the
depth of change that he found it necessary to introduce a
Parkes, Graham. 1987. Heidegger and Asian large number of neologisms, often connected to idiomatic
Thought. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. words and phrases in the German language.
ISBN 0-8248-1064-3.
Two of his most basic neologisms, present-at-hand and
ready-to-hand, are used to describe various attitudes toward things in the world. For Heidegger, suchattitudes
1.1.11 External links
are prior to, i.e. more basic than, the various sciences of
the individual items in the world. Science itself is an atArchival collections
titude, one that attempts a kind of neutral investigation.
Guide to the Student Notes from Lectures by Martin Other related terms are also explained below.
Heidegger. Special Collections and Archives, The Heidegger's overall analysis is quite involved, taking in
UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
a lot of the history of philosophy. See Being and Time
for a description of his overall project, and to give some
Works by Heidegger and on Heidegger (categorizacontext to these technical terms.* [1]* [2]
tion)
General information
Political Texts - Rectoral Addresses
W.J. Korab-Karpowicz, Martin Heidegger (18891976) in Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Karl Lwith, My Last Meeting with Heidegger
1.2.1 Terms
Aletheia
(Ancient Greek: )
Main article: Aletheia
(German) German Heidegger Society
Heidegger's idea of aletheia, or disclosure (ErschlossenMartin Heidegger in heit), was an attempt to make sense of how things in the
world appear to human beings as part of an opening in
intelligibility, asunclosednessorunconcealedness
Martin Heidegger, Der Spiegel Interview by Rudolf . (This is Heidegger's usual reading of aletheia as UnverAugstein and Georg Wol, 23 September 1966; borgenheit, unconcealment.)* [3] It is closely related
published May 31 1976
to the notion of world disclosure, the way in which things
get their sense as part of a holistically structured, preTimeline of German Philosophers
interpreted background of meaning. Initially, Heidegger
Human, all too human: a BBC lm of his early life, wanted aletheia to stand for a re-interpreted denition
of truth. However, he later corrected the association of
with a focus on his political involvement
aletheia with truth (see main article on aletheia for more
Heideggers Notebooks Renew Focus on Anti- information).
Semitism
Arne D. Naess, Jr.,

Encyclopdia Britannica
Works by Heidegger
Apophantic
An assertion (as opposed to a question, a doubt or a more

expressive sense) is apophantic. It is a statement that
Works by or about Martin Heidegger at Internet covers up meaning and just gives us something as presentat-hand. For Instance, The President is on vacation,
Archive
and, Salt is Sodium Chlorideare sentences that, be Some volumes of Gesamtausgabe (Klostermann) in cause of their apophantic character, can easily be pickedGerman
up and repeated in news and gossip by 'The They.' How English translations of Heidegger's works
1.2. HEIDEGGERIAN TERMINOLOGY
21
ever, the real ready-to-hand meaning and context may be the mistaken view of time as being a linear series of past,
lost.
present and future. Instead he sees it as being an ecstasy,
an outside-of-itself, of futural projections (possibilities)
and one's place in history as a part of one's generation.
Being-in-the-world
Possibilities, then, are integral to our understanding of
time; our projects, or thrown projection in-the-world, are
(German: In-der-Welt-sein)
what absorb and direct us. Futurity, as a direction toward
the future that always contains the pastthe has-been
Being-in-the-world is Heidegger's replacement for terms is a primary mode of Dasein's temporality.
such as subject, object, consciousness, and world. For Death is that possibility which is the absolute impossihim, the split of things into subject/object, as we nd in bility of Dasein. As such, it cannot be compared to any
the Western tradition and even in our language, must be other kind of ending or running outof something.
overcome, as is indicated by the root structure of Husserl For example, one's death is not an empirical event. For
and Brentano's concept of intentionality, i.e., that all con- Heidegger, death is Dasein's ownmost (it is what makes
sciousness is consciousness of something, that there is no Dasein individual), it is non-relational (nobody can take
consciousness, as such, cut o from an object (be it the one's death away from one, or die in one's place, and we
matter of a thought, or of a perception). Nor are there can not understand our own death through the death of
objects without some consciousness beholding or being other Dasein), and it is not to be outstripped. The notinvolved with them.
yetof life is always already a part of Dasein:as soon as
At the most basic level of being-in-the-world, Heidegger man comes to life, he is at once old enough to die.The
notes that there is always a mood, a mood that assails threefold condition of death is thus simultaneously one's
usin our unreecting devotion to the world. A mood ownmost potentiality-for-being, non-relational, and not
comes neither from the outsidenor from the in- to be out-stripped. Death is determinate in its inevitabilside,but arises from being-in-the-world. One may turn ity, but an authentic Being-toward-death understands the
away from a mood, but that is only to another mood; it indeterminate nature of one's own inevitable death one
is part of our facticity. Only with a mood are we per- never knows when or how it is going to come. However,
mitted to encounter things in the world. Dasein (a co- this indeterminacy does not put death in some distant,
term for being-in-the-world) has an openness to the world futural not-yet"; authentic Being-toward-death underthat is constituted by the attunement of a mood or state stands one's individual death as always already a part of
of mind. As such, Dasein is a "thrown" projection one.* [5]
(geworfen Entwurf), projecting itself onto the possibil- With average, everyday (normal) discussion of death, all
ities that lie before it or may be hidden, and interpret- this is concealed. The they-selftalks about it in a
ing and understanding the world in terms of possibilities. fugitive manner, passes it o as something that occurs at
Such projecting has nothing to do with comporting one- some time but is not yetpresent-at-handas an actuality,
self toward a plan that has been thought out. It is not a and hides its character as one's ownmost possibility, preplan, since Dasein has, as Dasein, already projected itself. senting it as belonging to no one in particular. It becomes
Dasein always understands itself in terms of possibilities. devalued redened as a neutral and mundane aspect of
As projecting, the understanding of Dasein is its possibil- existence that merits no authentic consideration. One
ities as possibilities. One can take up the possibilities of diesis interpreted as a fact, and comes to meannobody
The Theyself and merely follow along or make some dies.* [6]
more authentic understanding (see Hubert Dreyfus' book
On the other hand, authenticity takes Dasein out of the
Being-in-the-World.)
They,in part by revealing its place as a part of the They.
Heidegger states that Authentic being-toward-death calls
Being-toward-death
Dasein's individual self out of its they-self, and frees
it to re-evaluate life from the standpoint of nitude. In so
(German: Sein-zum-Tode)
doing, Dasein opens itself up for "angst,translated alternately asdreador asanxiety.Angst, as opposed
to
fear, does not have any distinct object for its dread; it
Being-toward-death is not an orientation that brings
is
rather
anxious in the face of Being-in-the-world in genDasein closer to its end, in terms of clinical death, but
*
eral
that
is, it is anxious in the face of Dasein's own self.
is rather a way of being. [4] Heideggerian terminology
Angst
is
a
shocking individuation of Dasein, when it rerefers to a process of growing through the world where
alizes
that
it
is not at home in the world, or when it comes
a certain foresight guides the Dasein towards gaining an
face
to
face
with
its ownuncanny(German Unheimlich
authentic perspective. It is provided by dread or death.
not
at
home).
In Dasein's individuation, it is open to
In the analysis of time, it is revealed as a threefold conhearing
thecall
of
conscience(German Gewissensruf),
dition of Being. Time, the present and the notion of the
which
comes
from
Dasein's
own Self when it wants to be
eternal, are modes of temporality. Temporality is the
its
Self.
This
Self
is
then
open
to truth, understood as unway we see time. For Heidegger, it is very dierent from
22
concealment (Greek aletheia). In this moment of vision,

Dasein understands what is hidden as well as hiddenness
itself, indicating Heidegger's regular uniting of opposites;
in this case, truth and untruth.* [7]
or search, and presume neutrality, we see that beneath this

there is the mood, the concern of the scientist to discover,
to reveal new ideas or theories and to attempt to level o
temporal aspects.
Being-with
Clearing
(German: Mitsein)
(German: Lichtung)
The term Being-withrefers to an ontological charac- In German the word Lichtung means a clearing, as in, for
teristic of the human being, that it is always already* [8] example, a clearing in the woods. Since its root is the
with others of its kind. This assertion is to be understood German word for light (Licht), it is sometimes also transnot as a factual statement about an individual, that he or lated as lighting,and in Heidegger's work it refers to
she is at the moment in spatial proximity to one or more the necessity of a clearing in which anything at all can apother individuals. Rather it is a statement about the be- pear, the clearing in which some thing or idea can show
ing of every human, that in the structures of its being- itself, or be unconcealed.* [13] Note the relation that this
in-the-world one nds an implicit reference to other hu- has to Aletheia (see the main article or the entry above)
mans. We all live with others, and in fact we could not and disclosure.
live without them. Humans have been called (by others,
not by Heidegger) ultrasocial* [9] and obligatorily Being, but not beings, stands out as if in a clearing, or
gregarious.* [10] Without others of our kind we could physically, as if in a space. Thus, Hubert Dreyfus writes,
not survive. Heidegger, from his phenomenological per- things* show up in the light of our understanding of bespective, calls this feature of human life Being-with ing. [14]
(Mitsein), and says it is essential to being human.* [11] We
are inauthentic when we fail to recognize how much and
Destruktion
in what ways how we think of ourselves and how we habitually behave is inuenced by our social surroundings.
Here is Martin Heidegger on philosophy as the task of
We are authentic when we pay attention to that inuence
destroying ontological concepts, in other words also inand decide for ourselves whether to go along with it or
cluding, ordinary everyday meanings of words like time,
not. Living entirely without such inuence, however, is
history, being, theory, death, mind, body, matter, logic
not an option.
etc.:
Care (or concern)
(German: Sorge)
A fundamental basis of our being-in-the-world is, for
Heidegger, not matter or spirit but care:
Dasein's facticity is such that its
Being-in-the-world has always dispersed itself or even split itself up
into denite ways of Being-in. The
multiplicity of these is indicated
by the following examples: having
to do with something, producing
something, attending to something
and looking after it, making use
of something, giving something up
and letting it go, undertaking, accomplishing, evincing, interrogating, considering, discussing, determining. . . .* [12]
All these ways of Being-in have concern (Sorge, care) as
their kind of Being. Just as the scientist might investigate
When tradition thus becomes master, it does so

in such a way that what it 'transmits' is made so
inaccessible, proximally and for the most part,
that it rather becomes concealed. Tradition
takes what has come down to us and delivers
it over to self-evidence; it blocks our access to
those primordial 'sources' from which the categories and concepts handed down to us have
been in part quite genuinely drawn. Indeed it
makes us forget that they have had such an origin, and makes us suppose that the necessity of
going back to these sources is something which
we need not even understand. (Being and Time,
p. 43)
Heidegger considers that tradition can become calcied
here and there:
If the question of Being is to have its own history made transparent, then this hardened tradition must be loosened up, and the concealments which it has brought about dissolved.
We understand this task as one in which by taking the question of Being as our clue we are to
23
destroy the traditional content of ancient ontology until we arrive at those primordial experiences in which we achieved our rst ways
of determining the nature of Beingthe ways
which have guided us ever since. (Being and
Time, p. 44)
ing no Dasein has ever been decontextualized, we are all

world-bound, submerged, entangled, and engaged with
our ontico-ontological surroundings through care, concern, and moods. Dasein has various modes of beingin-the-world, which are the subject of much of Heidegger's analysis in Being and Time. Furthermore, average
humans have a pre-ontological (general intuitive sense of
Heidegger then remarks on the positivity of his project of being) understanding of being insofar as they understand
what things are and that they are e.g.My dog is brown
Destruktion:
orToday is Sunday.Heidegger believed that this prereective understanding of being, that which determines
it has nothing to do with a vicious relativizing
entities as entities,* [15] helps constitute our unique exisof ontological standpoints. But this destruction
tence as human beings, thus the coinage of "Dasein.
is just as far from having the negative sense of
shaking o the ontological tradition. We must,
on the contrary, stake out the positive possibilDisclosure, or world disclosure
ities of that tradition, and this means keeping
it within its limits; and these in turn are given
factically in the way the question is formulated
(German: Erschlossenheit)
at the time, and in the way the possible eld for
investigation is thus bounded o. On its negaMain article: World disclosure
tive side, this destruction does not relate itself
toward the past; its criticism is aimed at 'today'
and at the prevalent way of treating the history
Hubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa write that: Acof ontology. .. But to bury the past in nullity
cording to Heidegger our nature is to be world disclosers.
(Nichtigkeit) is not the purpose of this destrucThat is, by means of our equipment and coordinated praction; its aim is positive; its negative function
tices we human beings open coherent, distinct contexts or
remains unexpressed and indirect. (Being and
worlds in which we perceive, feel, act, and think.* [16]
Time, p. 44)
Heidegger scholar Nikolas Kompridis writes: World
disclosure refers, with deliberate ambiguity, to a process
Dasein
which actually occurs at two dierent levels. At one level,
it refers to the disclosure of an already interpreted, symMain article: Dasein
bolically structured world; the world, that is, within which
we always already nd ourselves. At another level, it
Dasein is a German word and is sometimes translated as refers as much to the disclosure of new horizons of meanbeing-thereorbeing-here(da combines in its meaning as to the disclosure of previously hidden or unthema*
inghereandthere, excluding the spatial-relational tized dimensions of meaning. [17]
distinction made by the English words; Sein is the innitive, to be). It is the German form of the existential
expletive, which, like most European languages, is expressed idiomatically. Heidegger, after Nietzsche, used
the word, but as a gerund synonym forhuman beingor
human entity.A Dasein is then a new coinage for a being that is there, in a familiar world, and in a mood. Dasein also has unique capacities for language, intersubjective communication, and detached reasoning. Heidegger
does not want to get tied up with overused and ambiguous
words such as person,consciousness,soul,or
spirit,so Dasein is a new way of approaching something
all of those other words point towards, but without the
connotations. Dasein is the starting point of Heidegger's
ontology. It is typically thought to apply to humans, but it
could apply to any being that fullls the denition's characteristics which he states. What makes a being a Dasein
is as follows: Dasein is a being whose being is an issue
for itself; every Dasein has an a priori sense of mineness,or being one's self; Dasein is always thrown into
the world, meaning it nds itself within a world, mean-
Further information: Reective disclosure
Equipment
(German: das Zeug)
An object in the world with which we have meaningful
dealings.
A nearly un-translatable term, Heidegger's equipment can
be thought of as a collective noun, so that it is never appropriate to call something 'an equipment'. Instead, its
use often reects it to mean a tool, or as anin-order-to
for Dasein. Tools, in this collective sense, and in being
ready-to-hand, always exist in a network of other tools
and organizations, e.g., the paper is on a desk in a room at
a university. It is inappropriate usually to see such equipment on its own or as something present-at-hand
24
weggesprch ber das Denken* [24] (Towards an Explication of Gelassenheit: From a Conversation on a Country Path about Thinking* [25] or Toward an Emplacing Discussion [Errterung] of Releasement [Gelassenheit]: From a Country Path Conversation about Thinking).* [26] An English translation of this text was published in 1966 asConversation on a Country Path about
Thinking.* [26]* [27] He borrowed the term from the
Christian mystical tradition, proximately from Meister
Eckhart.* [25]* [28]* [29]
Ereignis
Ereignis is translated often as an event,but is better

understood in terms of something coming into view.
It comes from the German prex, er-, comparable to 're-'
in English, and Auge, eye.* [18]* [19] It is a noun coming
from a reexive verb. Note that the German prex eralso can connote an end or a fatality. A recent translation
of the word by Kenneth Maly and Parvis Emad renders
the word as enowning"; that in connection with things
that arise and appear, that they are arising 'into their own'.
Hubert Dreyfus dened the term as things coming into
Geworfenheit
themselves by belonging together.
Ereignis appears in Heidegger's later works and is not
easily summarized. The most sustained treatment of the
theme occurs in the cryptic and dicult Contributions
to Philosophy. In the following quotation he associates
it with the fundamental idea of concern from Being and
Time, the English etymology of con-cern is similar to that
of the German:
...we must return to what we call a
concern. The word Ereignis (concern) has been lifted from organically developing language. Ereignen (to concern) means, originally, to distinguish or discern
which one's eyes see, and in seeing calling to oneself, ap-propriate.
The word con-cern we shall now
harness as a theme word in the service of thought.* [20]
Main article: Thrownness

Geworfenheit describes our individual existences asbeing thrown(geworfen) into the world. For William J.
Richardson, Heidegger used this single term, thrownness,todescribe [the] two elements of the original situation, There-being's non-mastery of its own origin and
its referential dependence on other beings.* [30]
Existence
Heidegger uses this word to describe the nature of
Dasein's being. Beings unlike Dasein (chairs, shoes, etc.) The hotel Bhlerhhe Castle (the Bhl Height)
do not exist"; they are merely objectively present.
Dasein exists; chairs are objectively present.
Kehre
Two related words, existenziell and Existential, are used as
descriptive characteristics of Being. To be existenziell is a Main article: The Turn
categorical or ontic characteristic: an understanding of all
this which relates to one's existence, while an Existenzial
by 1930 and largely
is an ontological characteristic: the structure of existence. Heidegger's later works, beginning
established by the early 1940s,* [31] seem to many commentators (e.g. William J. Richardson)* [32] to at least
reect a shift of focus, if not indeed a major change in
Gelassenheit
his philosophical thinking which is known as the turn
Often translated asreleasement,* [21] Heidegger's con- (die Kehre).* [33] One way this has been understood is as
cept of Gelassenheit has been explained as the spirit of a shift fromdoingtodwellingand from Being and
disponibilit [availability] before What-Is which permits Time to Time and Being.* [31]* [34]* [35] However, othus simply to let things be in whatever may be their un- ers feel that this is to overstate the dierence. Heidegger
certainty and their mystery.* [22] Heidegger elaborated himself held between 1 and 4 December 1949 at Bremen
the idea of Gelassenheit in 1959, with a homonymous vol- Club four lectures, which were repeated in the spring of
ume which includes two texts: a 1955 talk entitled simply 1950 (25 and 26 March) unchanged at Bhlerhhe. The
Gelassenheit,* [23] and a 'conversation' (Gesprch) enti- titles were Das Ding, Das Gestell, Die Gefahr and Die
tled Zur Errterung der Gelassenheit. Aus einem Feld- Kehre. The third lecture is still unpublished, while the
25
other three lectures again unchanged were collected in a Present-at-hand

book entitled Die Technik und die Kehre and published in
1962.* [36] According to dierent sources, Die Technik
(German:
vorhanden;
und die Kehre includes the two lectures Die Frage nach
presence-at-hand)
der Technik and Die Kehre.* [37]
Ontic
Main article: ontic
Heidegger uses the term ontic, often in contrast to the
term ontological, when he gives descriptive characteristics of a particular thing and the plain factsof its
existence. What is ontic is what makes something what it
is.
Vorhandenheit
With the present-at-hand one has (in contrast toreadyto-hand) an attitude like that of a scientist or theorist,
of merely looking at or observing something. In seeing
an entity as present-at-hand, the beholder is concerned
only with the bare facts of a thing or a concept, as they
are present and in order to theorize about it. This way
of seeing is disinterested in the concern it may hold for
Dasein, its history or usefulness. This attitude is often
described as existing in neutral space without any particular mood or subjectivity. However, for Heidegger, it is
not completely disinterested or neutral. It has a mood,
and is part of the metaphysics of presence that tends to
level all things down. Through his writings, Heidegger
sets out to accomplish the Destruktion (see above) of this
metaphysics of presence.
For an individual discussing the nature ofbeing, one's

ontic could refer to the physical, factual elements that
produce and/or underlie one's own reality - the physical
brain and its substructures. Moralists raise the question
of a moral ontic when discussing whether there exists an Presence-at-hand is not the way things in the world are
external, objective, independent source or wellspring for usually encountered, and it is only revealed as a demorality that transcends culture and time.
cient or secondary mode, e.g., when a hammer breaks it
loses its usefulness and appears as merely there, presentat-hand. When a thing is revealed as present-at-hand, it
Ontological
stands apart from any useful set of equipment but soon
loses this mode of being present-at-hand and becomes
(German: ontologisch)
something, for example, that which must be repaired or
replaced.
As opposed toontic(ontisch), ontological is used when
the nature, or meaningful structure of existence is at issue.
Ready-to-hand
Ontology, a discipline of philosophy, focuses on the formal study of Being. Thus, something that is ontological
(German gribereit, zuhanden; Zuhandenheit
is concerned with understanding and investigating Being,
readiness-to-hand, handiness)
the ground of Being, or the concept of Being itself.
For an individual discussing the nature of being, the
However, in almost all cases we are involved in the world
ontological could refer to one's own rst-person, subjecin an ordinary, and more involved, way. We are usually
tive, phenomenological experience of being.
doing things with a view to achieving something. Take
By way of comparison, Harald Atmanspacher referred to for example, a hammer: it is ready-to-hand; we use it
the distinction between three perspectives when consid- without theorizing. In fact, if we were to look at it as
ering a system: (1) the ontology of one's own experience present-at-hand, we might easily make a mistake. Only
with that system, (2) one's own knowledge of the states when it breaks or something goes wrong might we see the
and observables of the system (epistemic perspective) and hammer as present-at-hand, just lying there. Even then
(3) the states and observables of the system, independent however, it may be not fully present-at-hand, as it is now
of one's own knowledge (ontic perspective).
showing itself as something to be repaired or disposed,
and therefore a part of the totality of our involvements.
In this case its Being may be seen as unreadiness-toPossibility
hand. Heidegger outlines three manners of unreadinessto-hand: Conspicuous (damaged; e.g., a lamp's wiring
(German: Mglichkeit)
has broken), Obtrusive (a part is missing which is required for the entity to function; e.g., we nd the bulb
A term used only once in a particular edition of Being is missing), Obstinate (when the entity is a hindrance to
and Time. In the text, the term appears to denote the us in pursuing a project; e.g., the lamp blocks my view of
possibility whose probability it is solely to be possible. the computer screen).
At least, if it were used in context, this is the only plausible Importantly, the present-at-hand only emerges from the
denition.
prior attitude in which we care about what is going on
26
and we see the hammer in a context or world of equipment that is handy or remote, and that is there in order
todo something. In this sense the ready-to-hand is primordial compared to that of the present-at-hand. The
term primordial here does not imply something Primitive,
but rather refers to Heidegger's idea that Being can only
be understood through what is everyday and closeto
us. Our everyday understanding of the world is necessarily essentially a part of any kind of scientic or theoretical studies of entities the present-at-hand might be.
Only by studying ouraverage-everydayunderstanding
of the world, as it is expressed in the totality of our relationships to the ready-to-hand entities of the world, can
we lay appropriate bases for specic scientic investigations into specic entities within the world.
That is what one doesor That is what people do.

Thus, das Man is not a proper or measurable entity, but
rather an amorphous part of social reality that functions
eectively in the manner that it does through this intangibility.
Das Man constitutes a possibility of Dasein's Being, and
so das Man cannot be said to be any particular someone. Rather, the existence of 'the They' is known to us
through, for example, linguistic conventions and social
norms. Heidegger states that, The theyprescribes
one's state-of-mind, and determines what and how one
'sees'".
To give examples: when one makes an appeal to what
is commonly known, one says one does not do such a
thing"; When one sits in a car or bus or reads a newspaper, one is participating in the world of 'the They'. This
is a feature of 'the They' as it functions in society, an authority that has no particular source. In a non-moral sense
Heidegger contrasts the authentic self(my owned
self) with the they self(my un-owned self).
For Heidegger in Being and Time this illustrates, in a very

practical way, the way the present-at-hand, as a present
in a nowor a present eternally (as, for example, a
scientic law or a Platonic Form), has come to dominate
intellectual thought, especially since the Enlightenment.
To understand the question of being one must be careful
not to fall into this leveling o, or forgetfulness of being, A related concept to this is that of the apophantic asserthat has come to assail Western thought since Socrates, tion.
see the metaphysics of presence.
World
Resoluteness
(German: Welt)
(German: Entschlossenheit)
Further information: World disclosure
Resoluteness refers to one's ability to uncloseone's
framework of intelligibility (i.e., to make sense of one's Heidegger gives us four ways of using the term world:
words and actions in terms of one's life as a whole), and
the ability to be receptive to the call of conscience.
1. Worldis used as an ontical concept, and signies the totality of things which can be present'The One' / 'the They'
at-hand within the world.
(German: Das Man, meaning they-self)
One of the most interesting and important 'concepts' in
Being and Time is that of Das Man, for which there is no
exact English translation; dierent translations and commentators use dierent conventions. It is often translated
as the Theyor Peopleor Anyonebut is more
accurately translated as One(as in "'one' should always arrive on time). Das Man derives from the impersonal singular pronoun man ('one', as distinct from 'I',
or 'you', or 'he', or 'she', or 'they'). Both the German man
and the English 'one' are neutral or indeterminate in respect of gender and, even, in a sense, of number, though
both words suggest an unspecied, unspeciable, indeterminate plurality. The semantic role of the word man
in German is nearly identical to that of the word one in
English.
Heidegger refers to this concept of the One in explaining
inauthentic modes of existence, in which Dasein, instead
of truly choosing to do something, does it only because
2. Worldfunctions as an ontological term, and signies the Being

of those things we have just mentioned. And indeed 'world' can become a term for any realm which
encompasses a multiplicity of entities: for instance, when one talks
of the 'world' of a mathematician,
'world' signies the realm of possible objects of mathematics.
3. Worldcan be understood
in another ontical sensenot, however, as those entities which Dasein essentially is not and which can
be encountered within-the-world,
but rather as the wherein a factical Dasein as such can be said
to 'live'. Worldhas here a

pre-ontological existentiell signication. Here again there are different possibilities: worldmay
stand for the 'public' we-world, or
one's 'own' closest (domestic) environment.
[10] de Waal, Frans. Primates and Philosophers: How Morality

Evolved. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006, p.
4.
4. Finally, worlddesignates
the ontologico-existential concept
of worldhood (Weltheit). Worldhood itself may have as its modes
whatever structural wholes any special 'worlds' may have at the time;
but it embraces in itself the a priori character of worldhood in general.* [38]
[13] Heidegger 1962, H.133
Note, it is the third denition that Heidegger normally

uses.
1.2.2
See also
Hermeneutics
Existentialism
20th-century philosophy
Continental philosophy
1.2.3
27
References
All citations referring to texts authored by Heidegger use

H.x" to refer to the original page number.
[1] Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. New York: Harper & Row,
1962.
[2] Heidegger 1962, H.6772
[3] Rodney R. Coltman, The Language of Hermeneutics:
Gadamer and Heidegger in Dialogue, SUNY Press, 1998,
p. 38.
[4] Heidegger 1962, H.247
[6] Heidegger 1962, H.253-4
[7] Heidegger 1962, H.26074
[8] By "always already" Heidegger means that every phenomenological inspection of the human being nds this
characteristic. It is not founded on something else.
[9] Haidt, Jonathan. The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. New York: Basic Books,
2006, pp. 47 .
[11] Heidegger 1962, p. 156, H.125.

[14] Hubert Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World. Cambridge: MIT

Press, 1995. p. 163
[15] Being and Time (1962), pg. 25
[16] Hubert Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, Further Reections on Heidegger, Technology and the Everyday,in
Nikolas Kompridis, ed. Philosophical Romanticism, New
York: Routledge, 2006, 265.
[17] Nikolas Kompridis, On World Disclosure: Heidegger,
Habermas and Dewey,Thesis Eleven 1994; 37; 29-45.
[18] The Emergency of Being: On Heidegger's Contributions to
Philosophy, p. 73
[19] Potentialities: Collected Essays, p. 117
[20] Martin Heidegger, Identity and Dierence, trans. Joan
Stambaugh. New York: Harper & Row, 1969.
[21] Heidegger, Martin (2010). Country Path Conversations.
Translated by Bret W. Davis. Bloomington, Indiana:
Indiana University Press. p. xi. ISBN 0-253-00439X; ISBN 978-02-5300-439-0. I have followed the established consensus in translating this term as 'releasement.'
However, it should be kept in mind that the traditional
and still commonly used German word conveys a sense of
'calm composure,' especially and originally that which accompanies an existential or religious experience of lettinggo, being-let, and letting-be.
[22] Scott, Nathan A. (1969). Negative Capability. Studies
in the New Literature and the Religious Situation. New
Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. p. xiii. Cited
in Dente, Carla; Soncini, Sara, eds. (2013). Shakespeare
and Conict. A European Perspective. Basingstoke:
Palgrave Macmillan. Note 5. ISBN 1-137-14430-0;
ISBN 978-11-3714-430-0.
[23] Heidegger, Martin (1959). Gelassenheit. Pfullingen:
Neske. 13th Edition: Klett-Cotta (Stuttgart), 2004. ISBN
3-608-91059-X; ISBN 978-36-0891-059-9.
[24] Heidegger, Martin (2002). Aus der Erfahrung des
Denkens: 1910-1976. Frankfurt: Vittorio Klostermann.
p. 37. ISBN 3-465-03201-2; ISBN 978-34-6503-201-4.
[25] Hackett, Jeremiah, ed. (2012). A Companion to Meister
Eckhart. Leiden: BRILL. p. 689. ISBN 9-004-18347-7;
ISBN 978-90-0418-347-6.
[26] Heidegger, Martin. Country Path Conversations. Translated by Bret W. Davis. p. x.
[27] Dente, Carla; Soncini, Sara, eds. (2013). Shakespeare
and Conict. A European Perspective.
28
[28] Heidegger, Martin. Country Path Conversations. Translated by Bret W. Davis. p. xi. The word Gelassenheit
[...] has a long history in German thought. It was coined
by Meister Eckhart in the thirteenth century and subsequently used by a number of other mystics, theologians,
and philosophers.
[29] (Italian) See Carlo Angelino, Il religioso nel pensiero di
Martin Heidegger, in Martin Heidegger, L'abbandono, tr.
Adriano Fabris (Genova: Il Melangolo, 1986), p. 19.
0-823-22255-1; ISBN 978-08-2322-255-1. P. 37.
[31] Wheeler, Michael (October 12, 2011). Martin Heidegger - 3.1 The Turn and the Contributions to Philosophy".
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved May 22,
2013.
[32] Richardson, William J. Heidegger. Through Phenomenology to Thought.
[33] Korab-Karpowicz, W. J. (December 21, 2009). Martin
Heidegger (18891976) - 1. Life and Works. Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved May 22, 2013.
978-02-2632-375-6.
[35] Naess, Jr., Arne D. Martin Heidegger's Later philosophy. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved June 28, 2013.
[36]
[37]
1.2.4
External links
Roderick Munday, Glossary of Terms in Being and

Time (March 2009)
Chapter 2
Special Termini
2.1 Aletheia
this interpretation, writing:
This article is about the philosophical term. For other

uses, see Aletheia (disambiguation).
To raise the question of aletheia, of disclosure as such, is not the same as raising the question of truth. For this reason, it was inadequate
and misleading to call aletheia, in the sense of
opening, truth.* [2]
Aletheia (Ancient Greek: ) is truth or disclosure

in philosophy. It was used in Ancient Greek philosophy
and revived in the 20th century by Martin Heidegger.
Heidegger gave an etymological analysis of aletheia, and

drew out an understanding of the term as 'unconcealedness'.* [3] Thus, aletheia is distinct from conceptions of
truth understood as statements which accurately describe
a state of aairs (correspondence), or statements which
t properly into a system taken as a whole (coherence).
Instead, Heidegger focused on the elucidation of how an
ontologicalworldis disclosed, or opened up, in which
2.1.1 Heidegger and aletheia
things are made intelligible for human beings in the rst
place, as part of a holistically structured background of
Further information: World disclosure
In the early to mid 20th-century, Martin Heidegger meaning.
Heidegger also wrote that "Aletheia, disclosure thought
of as the opening of presence, is not yet truth. Is aletheia
then less than truth? Or is it more because it rst grants
truth as adequatio and certitudo, because there can be no
presence and presenting outside of the realm of the opening?"* [4]
It is a Greek word variously translated asunclosedness

,unconcealedness, "disclosure" or "truth". The literal
meaning of the word isthe state of not being
hidden; the state of being evident.It also means factuality
or reality.* [1]
A painting that reveals (alethe) a whole world. Heidegger mentions this particular work of Van Gogh's in "The Origin of the
Work of Art".
Heidegger began his discourse on the reappropriation of

aletheia in his magnum opus, Being and Time (1927),* [5]
and expanded on the concept in his Introduction to Metaphysics. For more on his understanding of aletheia, see
Poetry, Language, and Thought, in particular the essay
entitled "The Origin of the Work of Art", which describes the value of the work of art as a means to open
a clearingfor the appearance of things in the world,
or to disclose their meaning for human beings.* [6] Heidegger revised his views on aletheia as truth, after nearly
forty years, in the essayThe End of Philosophy and the
Task of Thinking,in On Time and Being.
brought renewed attention to the concept of aletheia, by 2.1.2 See also

relating it to the notion of disclosure, or the way in which
things appear as entities in the world. While he initially
Epistemology
referred to aletheia as truth, specically a form that
is pre-Socratic in origin, Heidegger eventually corrected
29
30
CHAPTER 2. SPECIAL TERMINI
Metaphysics
Neorealism (art)
Reective disclosure
Truth
World disclosure
2.1.3
References
[1] . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek

English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
[2] Martin Heidegger, On Time and Being (New York:
Harper and Row, 1972), p. 70, translation amended.
The original in Zur Sache des Denkens (Tbingen: Max
Niemayer, 1969), p. 86. Cited in Nikolas Kompridis,
Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and
Future, (Boston: MIT Press, 2006), p. 188.
[3] Heidegger, M. Parmenides. Translated by Andre
Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana University Press, 1992.
[4] Martin Heidegger, On Time and Being (New York:
Harper and Row, 1972), p. 69, translation amended.
Cited in Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future, (Boston: MIT Press,
2006), p. 189.
Edvard Munch tried to represent an innite scream passing

through naturein The Scream (1893).
2.2 Angst
[5] Heidegger, M. Being and Time. translated by Joan Stambaugh, Albany, State University of New York Press, 1996.
For other uses, see Angst (disambiguation).

Angst means fear or anxiety (anguish is its Latinate
[6] According to Heidegger, artgives things their look, and equivalent, and anxious, anxiety are of similar orihuman beings their outlook.From The Origin of the gin). The word angst was introduced into English from
the Danish, Norwegian and Dutch word angst and the
Work of Art.
German word Angst. It is attested since the 19th century in English translations of the works of Kierkegaard
and Freud.* [1]* [2]* [3] It is used in English to describe an
intense feeling of apprehension, anxiety, or inner turmoil.
Babette E. Babich, From Van Goghs Museum
to the Temple at Bassae: Heideggers Truth of Art
and Schapiros Art History.Culture, Theory &
Critique. 44/2 (2003): 151-169
2.1.5
External links
In German, the technical terminology of psychology and

philosophy distinguishes between Angst and Furcht in
that Furcht is a negative anticipation regarding a concrete
threat, while Angst is a non-directional and unmotivated
emotion. In common language, however, Angst is the normal word for fear, while Furcht is an elevated synonym.* [4]
In other languages having the meaning of the Latin word

Aletheia and Other Terms for Truth in Ancient pavor for fear, the derived words dier in meaning,
Greek
e.g. as in the French anxit and peur. The word Angst
has existed since the 8th century, from the Proto-Indo Pre-Philosophical Conceptions of Truth: Homer, European root *anghu-,restraintfrom which Old High
Hesiod, Pindar, Alexandrine Poets, Thucydides
German angust developed.* [5] It is pre-cognate with the
Latin angustia,tensity, tightnessand angor,choking,
Martin Heidegger on Aletheia (Truth) as Uncon- clogging"; compare to the Ancient Greek (ankho)
cealment
strangle.
2.3. AUTHENTICITY (PHILOSOPHY)
2.2.1
Existentialism
31
international tensions and nuclear proliferation. Je Nuttall's book Bomb Culture (1968) traced angst in popular
culture to Hiroshima. Dread was expressed in works of
folk rock such as Bob Dylan's Masters of War (1963) and
A Hard Rain's a-Gonna Fall. The term often makes an
appearance in reference to punk rock, grunge, nu metal,
and works of emo where expressions of melancholy,
existential despair or nihilism predominate.
In Existentialist philosophy the term angst carries a specic conceptual meaning. The use of the term was
rst attributed to Danish philosopher Sren Kierkegaard
(18131855). In The Concept of Anxiety (also known
as The Concept of Dread, depending on the translation),
Kierkegaard used the word Angest (in common Danish,
angst, meaning dreador anxiety) to describe a
profound and deep-seated condition. Where animals are
guided solely by instinct, said Kierkegaard, human beings 2.2.3 See also
enjoy a freedom of choice that we nd both appealing and
Anger
terrifying.* [5]* [6] Kierkegaard's concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who
Anguish
followed, such as Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre
and Martin Heidegger, each of whom developed the idea
Anxiety
further in individual ways. While Kierkegaard's angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom
Byronic hero
within a religious personal belief system, later existentialists discussed conicts of personal principles, cultural
Emotion
norms, and existential despair.
Existentialism
Kafkaesque
List of emotions
Fear of death
Sehnsucht
Alienation
Sturm und Drang
Terror management theory
Ludger Gerdes, Angst, 1989
The Mean Reds

Weltschmerz
2.2.2
Music
2.2.4 References
Existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical

composition in the early twentieth century as a result
of both philosophical developments and as a reection of the war-torn times. Notable composers whose
works are often linked with the concept include Gustav
Mahler, Richard Strauss (operas Elektra and Salome),
Claude-Achille Debussy (opera Pelleas et Melisande, ballet Jeux, other works), Jean Sibelius (especially the Fourth
Symphony), Arnold Schoenberg (A Survivor from Warsaw, other works), Alban Berg, Francis Poulenc (opera
Dialogues of the Carmelites), Dmitri Shostakovich (opera
Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District, symphonies and
chamber music), Bla Bartk (opera Bluebeard's Castle, other works), and Krzysztof Penderecki (especially
Threnody to the Victims of Hiroshima).
Angst began to be discussed in reference to popular music
in the mid- to late 1950s amid widespread concerns over
[1] merriam-webster.com, angst

[2] dictionary.com angst
[3] Online Etymology Dictionary, angst
[4] Furchtand Angstin the DUDEN
[5] http://www.thefreedictionary.com/angst
[6] Marino, Gordon (March 17, 2012). The Danish Doctor of Dread. New York City: The New York Times.
Retrieved May 18, 2013.

The dictionary denition of angst at Wiktionary
32

who base their actions on external pressuresthe pressure to appear to be a certain kind of person, the pressure to adopt a particular mode of living, the pressure to
ignore one's own moral and aesthetic objections in order to have a more comfortable existence. His work also
includes characters who do not understand their own reasons for acting, or who ignore crucial facts about their own
lives in order to avoid uncomfortable truths; this connects
his work with the philosophical tradition.
Sartre is concerned also with the "vertiginous" experience

of absolute freedom. In Sartre's view, this experience,
necessary for the state of authenticity, can be so unpleasant that it leads people to inauthentic ways of living. Typically, authenticity is seen as a very general concept, not
attached to any particular political or aesthetic ideology.
This is a necessary aspect of authenticity: because it concerns a person's relation with the world, it cannot be arrived at by simply repeating a set of actions or taking up a
set of positions. In this manner, authenticity is connected
with creativity: the impetus to action must arise from the
person in question, and not be externally imposed. Heidegger takes this notion to the extreme, by speaking in
very abstract terms about modes of living (his terminology was adopted and simplied by Sartre in his philosophical works). Kierkegaard's work (e.g. Panegyric
Upon Abrahamfrom Fear and Trembling) often focuses
Philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre viewed jazz as a representation of
on biblical stories which are not directly imitable. Sartre,
freedom and authenticity. (Pictured is Johnny Hodges.)
as has been noted above, focused on inauthentic existence
as a way to avoid the paradoxical problem of appearing
to provide prescriptions for a mode of living that rejects
2.3 Authenticity (philosophy)
external dictation.* [2]
Further information: Bad faith (existentialism)
Authenticity is a technical term used in psychology as
well as existentialist philosophy and aesthetics. In existentialism, authenticity is the degree to which one is true
to one's own personality, spirit, or character, despite external pressures; the conscious self is seen as coming to
terms with being in a material world and with encountering external forces, pressures and inuences which are
very dierent from, and other than, itself. A lack of authenticity is considered in existentialism to be bad faith.
2.3.1
Theories
Existentialism
One of the greatest problems facing such abstract approaches is that the drives people call the needs of
one's inner beingare diuse, subjective and often culture bound. For this reason among others, authenticity
is often at the limitsof language; it is described as
the negative space around inauthenticity, with reference
to examples of inauthentic living.* [1] Sartre's novels are
perhaps the easiest access to this mode of describing authenticity: they often contain characters and antiheroes
Authenticity, according to Kierkegaard, is reliant on an

individual nding authentic faith and becoming true to
oneself. Kierkegaard develops the idea that news media
and the bourgeois church-Christianity present challenges
for an individual in society trying to live authentically.
Kierkegaard thus sees both the media and the church
as intervening agencies, blocking peoples way to true
experiences, authenticity, and God. * [3] His conviction lies with the idea that mass-culture creates a loss of
individual signicance, which he refers to aslevelling.
Kierkegaard views the media as supporting a society that
does not form its own opinions but utilizes the opinions
constructed by the news. Similarly, he interprets religion
as a tradition that is passively accepted by individuals,
without the inclusion of authentic thought. Kierkegaard
believes that authentic faith can be achieved by facing
reality, making a choice and then passionately sticking
with it.* [4] The goal of Kierkegaards existentialist
philosophy is to show that, in order to achieve authenticity, one must face reality and form his own opinions of
existence.
So as not to be discouraged by levelling, Kierkegaard suggests, One must make an active choice to surrender
to something that goes beyond comprehension, a leap of
faith into the religious.* [5] Even if one does not want to
put forth the eort of developing his own views, he must
2.3. AUTHENTICITY (PHILOSOPHY)
33
do so in the quest for authentic faith.
Criticisms Philosopher Jacob Golomb argues that the

existentialist
notion of authenticity is incompatible with a
Nietzsches view of authenticity is an atheist interpremorality
that
values all persons.* [13]
tation of Kierkegaard. He rejects the role of religion in
nding authenticity because he believes in nding truth
without the use of virtues. Nietzsche believes of the au- Erich Fromm
thentic man as the following: Someone who elevates himself over others in order to transcend the limits of conven- A very dierent denition of authenticity was proposed
tional morality in an attempt to decide for oneself about by Erich Fromm* [14] in the mid-1900s. He considered
good and evil, without regard for the virtueson account behavior of any kind, even that wholly in accord with soof which we hold our grandfathers in esteem.* [6] Ni- cietal mores, to be authentic if it results from personal unetzsche rejects the idea of religious virtues due to the derstanding and approval of its drives and origins, rather
lack of questioning by the individual. One must avoid than merely from conformity with the received wisdom
what he calls herding animal morality,* [7] if he is to of the society. Thus a Frommean authentic may behave
nd authenticity. Tostand aloneand avoid religiously consistently in a manner that accords with cultural norms,
constructed principles, it is essential to be strong and for the reason that those norms appear on consideration
original enough to initiate opposite estimates of value, to to be appropriate, rather than simply in the interest of
transvaluate and invert eternal valuations.
* [8] One conforming with current norms. Fromm thus considers
must be a free thinker and theorize views outside of their authenticity to be a positive outcome of enlightened and
predilections. The commonality of Kierkegaard and Ni- informed motivation rather than a negative outcome of
etzsches existential philosophies is the responsibili- rejection of the expectations of others. He described the
ties they place on the individual to take active part in the latter condition the drive primarily to escape external
shaping of ones beliefs and then to be willing to act on restraints typied by theabsolute freedomof Sartre
that belief.* [9] For Nietzsche, the secular mentality is asthe illusion of individuality,* [15] as opposed to the
a form of weakness and, for authenticity to be achieved, genuine individuality that results from authentic living.
one must truly transcend conventional morality.
Other perspectives
Existential journalism Existential philosophers like
Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Heidegger use rationality
and the rejection of societally constructed norms to decipher authenticity. For an existential journalist, the
same mentality is needed in order to produce an authentic work. Merrill believes that authentic journalism can
exist if the journalist is true to ones self and rejects
conformism. There are traditions that exist in media and
news outlets that prevent journalists from achieving authenticity. Like Kierkegaard
s view of media and church,
Merrill believes that journalists are gladly sacricing
individual authenticity to adapt nicely to the highly regimented, depersonalized corporate structure.* [10] Journalists are restricted byinstitutional red tapeand, thus,
cannot achieve authenticity. It is benecial for a journalist to adhere to the red tapebecause his work will be
published.
Actively shaping ones own belief and then acting upon
that belief is a laborious task. A journalist that hesitates
in writing a story because it is not within the norm is
unable to achieve authenticity because of the notion that
following the norm is more valuable than being authentic. The contention is, however, thatindividual freedom
and courage to act is more valuable than collective adherence to journalistic codes of conduct.* [11] As journalists make conscious decisions to write authentically, they
are able to contribute more value in their work. The consequence of authentic writing is positive and ensures that
the journalist, according to Merrill,grows, matures, creates himself, and projects himself into the future.* [12]
Those who advocate social reform value the study of authenticity since it can provide a radical manifesto and
an overview of the shortcomings of social structures.
Michael Kernis and Brian Goldman dened authenticity
as the unimpeded operation of one's true or core self
in one's daily enterprise.* [16]
Writers tend to agree that authenticity is something to be
pursued as a goal intrinsic to the good life.And yet
it is often described as an intrinsically dicult state to
achieve, due in part to social pressures to live inauthentically, and in part due to a person's own character. It is
also described as a revelatory state, where one perceives
oneself, other people, and sometimes even things, in a
radically new way. Some writers argue that authenticity also requires self-knowledge, and that it alters a person's relationships with other people. Authenticity also
carries with it its own set of moral obligations, which often exist regardless of race, gender and class. The notion
of authenticity also ts into utopian ideology, which requires authenticity among its citizens to exist, or which
claims that such a condition would remove physical and
economic barriers to pursuing authenticity.
2.3.2 History
Secular and religious notions of authenticity have coexisted for centuries under dierent guises; perhaps the
earliest account of authenticity that remains popular is
Socrates' admonition that the unexamined life is not
34
worth living. In aesthetics, "authenticity" describes the

perception of art as faithful to the artist's self, rather than
conforming to external values such as historical tradition,
or commercial worth. A common denition ofauthenticityin psychology refers to the attempt to live one's
life according to the needs of one's inner being, rather
than the demands of society or one's early conditioning.* [17]* [18]* [19]
In the twentieth century, Anglo-American discussions of
authenticity often center around the writings of a few key
gures associated with existentialist philosophy, where
the term originated; because most of these writers wrote
in languages other than English, the process of translating and anthologizing has had a strong impact on the debate. Walter Kaufmann might be credited with creating
a canonof existentialist writers which include Sren
Kierkegaard, Martin Heidegger, and Jean-Paul Sartre.
For these writers, the conscious self is seen as coming to
terms with being in a material world and with encountering external forces and inuences which are very dierent
from itself; authenticity is one way in which the self acts
and changes in response to these pressures.
2.3.3
Cultural activities
thenticity.
Individuals concerned with living authentically have often led unusual lives that opposed cultural norms; the rise
of the counter-culture in the 1960s in Europe and America was seen by many as a new opportunity to live an
authentic existence. Many, however, have pointed out
that anti-authoritarianism and eccentricity does not necessarily constitute an authentic state of being. The connection of the violation of cultural norms to authenticity,
however, is strong and real, and continues today: among
artists who explicitly violate the conventions of their profession, for example. The connection of inauthenticity to
capitalism is contained in the notion of "selling out,used
to describe an artist whose work has become inauthentic
after achieving commercial success and thus becoming to
an extent integrated into an inauthentic system.
The concept of authenticity is often raised in the punk
rock and heavy metal musical subcultures, in which people or bands are criticized for their purported lack of authenticity by being labeled with the epithet "poseur".* [21]
In the metal and hardcore punk subcultures, a band that
began from a working class milieu that later signs to a major record label for a lucrative recording contract may be
deemed to have "sold out" and lost their authenticity. In
addition to the focus on authenticity in "...punk, house,
grunge, garage, and hip-hop, ideas of authenticity have
seeped into even such transparentlyinauthenticgenres
as heavy metal (Metallica), techno (Moby) and showtunes
(Rent).* [22]
Due to the dierences in experiences in their history,

views of authenticity vary widely and often dier between groups and individuals.* [20] For Sartre, jazz music was a representation of freedom; this may have been
in part because jazz was associated with African American culture, and was thus in opposition to Western culture generally, which Sartre considered hopelessly inau- 2.3.4 See also
thentic. Theodor Adorno, however, another writer and
Alessandro Ferrara
philosopher concerned with the notion of authenticity,
despised jazz music because he saw it as a false rep Invented tradition
resentation that could give the appearance of authenticity but that was as much bound up in concerns with ap Akrasia
pearance and audience as many other forms of art. Heidegger in his later life associated authenticity with non Persona (psychology)
technological modes of existence, seeing technology as
Individuation
distorting a more authenticrelationship with the natural world.
Most writers on inauthenticity in the twentieth century

2.3.5 References
considered the predominant cultural norms to be inauthentic; not only because they were seen as forced on peo- [1] Golomb, Jacob (1995). In Search of Authenticity. London
ple, but also because, in themselves, they required people
and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-11946-4.
to behave inauthentically towards their own desires, obscuring true reasons for acting. Advertising, in as much as [2] Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to
Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prenit attempted to give people a reason for doing something
tice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
that they did not already possess, was a textbookexample of how Western culture distorted the individual for
external reasons. Race relations are seen as another limit [3] Kristoer Holt, Authentic Journalism? A Critical
Discussion about Existential Authenticity in Journalism
on authenticity, as they demand that the self engage with
Ethics,Journal of Mass Media Ethics 27 (2012)
others on the basis of external attributes. An early example of the connection between inauthenticity and capital- [4] Kristoer Holt, Authentic Journalism? A Critical
ism was made by Karl Marx, whose notion of "alienation"
can be linked to the later discourse on the nature of inauEthics,Journal of Mass Media Ethics 27 (2012)
2.4. BEING
[5] Kristoer Holt, Authentic Journalism? A Critical

[6] Nietzsche, F.W., & Zimmern, H. (1997). Beyond good
and evil: Prelude to a philosophy of the future. Mineola,
NY: Dover.
NY: Dover.
NY: Dover.
35

Erich Fromm. Escape from Freedom; Routledge &
Kegan Paul 1942
Lionel Trilling. Sincerity and Authenticity; ISBN 019-281166-5; Harvard UP 1974
Charles Taylor.The Ethics of Authenticity; ISBN 0674-26863-6; Harvard UP 1992
Alessandro Ferrara.Reective Authenticity; ISBN 0415-13062-X; Routledge 1998
James Leonard Park. Becoming More Authentic:
The Positive Side of Existentialism; ISBN 978-089231-105-7; Existential Books 20075th edition
[10] Merril, J.C. (1995). Existential Journalism (rev. ed.)

Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
2.4 Being

For other uses, see Being (disambiguation).
Being is an extremely broad concept encompassing

objective and subjective features of reality and existence.
[12] Merril, J.C. (1995). Existential Journalism (rev. ed.)
Anything that partakes in being is also called a being
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
, though often this use is limited to entities that have sub[13] Golomb, Jacob (1995). In Search of Authenticity: From jectivity (as in the expression "human being"). So broad
a notion has inevitably been elusive and controversial in
Kierkegaard to Camus. London: Routledge.
the history of philosophy, beginning in western philoso[14] Fromm. E., Escape from Freedom, Farrar & Rinehart phy with attempts among the pre-Socratics to deploy it
1941 (also published as Fear of FreedomRoutledge intelligibly.
UK 1942)
As an example of eorts in recent times, Martin Heidegger (who himself drew on ancient Greek sources) adopted
German terms like Dasein to articulate the topic.* [1] Sev[16] Wright, Karen (May 01, 2008). Dare to be yourself. eral modern approaches build on such continental EuroPsychology Today.
pean exemplars as Heidegger, and apply metaphysical results to the understanding of human psychology and the
[17] Wood, A. M., Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Baliousis, M.,
Joseph, S. (2008) The authentic personality: A the- human condition generally (notably in the Existentialist
oretical and empirical conceptualization, and the devel- tradition).
[15] Fromm E., Fear of Freedom, ch. 7
opment of the Authenticity Scale. Journal of Counseling Psychology 55 (3): 385399. doi:10.1037/00220167.55.3.385
[18] Authentic life. Psychology Centre Athabasca University.
[19] Existential Psychology. Eastern Illinois University.
[20] AJ Giannini (2010).Semiotic and semantic implications
of authenticity"". Psychological Reports 106 (2): 611
612.
[21] Homeward Bound. Towards a Post-Gendered Pop Music:
Television PersonalitiesMy Dark Places at the Wayback
Machine (archived December 1, 2008) My Dark Places
April 10th, 2006 by Godfre Leung (Domino, 2006).
[22] Barker, Hugh and Taylor, Yuval. Faking it: the Quest for
Authenticity in Popular Music. W.W.Norton and Co., New
York, 2007.
By contrast, in mainstream Analytical philosophy the

topic is more conned to abstract investigation, in the
work of such inuential theorists as W. V. O. Quine,
to name one of many. One most fundamental question
that continues to exercise philosophers is put by William
James: How comes the world to be here at all instead
of the nonentity which might be imagined in its place? ...
from nothing to being there is no logical bridge.* [2]
2.4.1 The substantial being

Being and the substance theorists
The decit of such a bridge was rst encountered in history by the Pre-Socratic philosophers during the process
of evolving a classication of all beings (noun). Aristotle applies the term category (perhaps not originally)
36
to ten highest-level classes. They comprise one category physics, and had already drawn his own conclusion, which
of substance (ousiae) existing independently (man, tree) he presented under the guise of asking what being is:* [3]
and nine categories of accidents, which can only exist in
something else (time, place). In Aristotle, substances are
And indeed the question which was raised
to be claried by stating their denition: a note expressof old is raised now and always, and is always
ing a larger class (the genus) followed by further notes
the subject of doubt, viz., what being is, is just
expressing specic dierences (dierentiae) within the
the question, what is substance? For it is this
class. The substance so dened was a species. For examthat some assert to be one, others more than
ple, the species, man, may be dened as an animal (genus)
one, and that some assert to be limited in numthat is rational (dierence). As the dierence is potenber, others unlimited. And so we also must
tial within the genus; that is, an animal may or may not
consider chiey and primarily and almost exbe rational, the dierence is not identical to, and may be
clusively what that is which is in this sense.
distinct from, the genus.
Applied to being the system fails to arrive at a denition
for the simple reason that no dierence can be found. The
species, the genus and the dierence are all equally being: a being is a being that is being. The genus cannot
be nothing because nothing is not a class of everything.
The trivial solution that being is being added to nothing
is only a tautology: being is being. There is no simpler
intermediary between being and non-being that explains
and classies being.
and reiterates in no uncertain terms:* [4]Nothing, then,

which is not a species of a genus will have an essence
only species will have it ....
Aristotle's theory of act and potency
One might expect a solution to follow from such certain
language but none does. Instead Aristotle launches into
a rephrasing of the problem, the Theory of Act and Potency. In the denition of man as a two-legged animal
Aristotle presumes thattwo-leggedandanimalare
parts of other beings, but as far as man is concerned, are
only potentially man. At the point where they are united
into a single being, man, the being, becomes actual, or
real. Unity is the basis of actuality:* [5] "... 'being' is being combined and one, and 'not being' is being not combined but more than one.Actuality has taken the place
of existence, but Aristotle is no longer seeking to know
what the actual is; he accepts it without question as something generated from the potential. He has found ahalfbeingor apre-being, the potency, which is fully being
as part of some other substance. Substances, in Aristotle, unite what they actually are now with everything they
might become.
2.4.2 The transcendental being

The being of Parmenides
Pre-Socratic reaction to this decit was varied. As

substance theorists they accepted a priori the hypothesis that appearances are deceiving, that reality is to be
reached through reasoning. Parmenides reasoned that if
everything is identical to being and being is a category
of the same thing then there can be neither dierences
between things nor any change. To be dierent, or to
change, would amount to becoming or being non-being;
that is, not existing. Therefore being is a homogeneous
and non-dierentiated sphere and the appearance of beings is illusory. Heraclitus, on the other hand, foreshadowed modern thought by denying existence. Reality does
not exist, it ows, and beings are an illusion upon the ow.
Some of Thomas Aquinas' propositions were reputedly

condemned by the local Bishop of Paris (not the Papal
Magisterium itself) in 1270 and 1277* [6], but his dedication to the use of philosophy to elucidate theology was so
thorough that he was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church
in 1568. Those who adopt it are called Thomists.
Thomistic analogical predication of being
In a single sentence, parallel to Aristotle's statement asserting that being is substance, St. Thomas pushes away
from the Aristotelian doctrine:* [7]Being is not a genus,
since it is not predicated univocally but only analogically.His term for analogy is Latin analogia. In the
categorical classication of all beings, all substances are
Aristotle knew of this tradition when he began his Meta- partly the same: man and chimpanzee are both animals
2.4. BEING
and the animal part in man is the sameas the animal
part in chimpanzee. Most fundamentally all substances
are matter, a theme taken up by science, which postulated one or more matters, such as earth, air, re or water
(Empedocles). In today's chemistry the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen in a chimpanzee are identical
to the same elements in a man.
The original text reads, Although equivocal predications must be reduced to univocal, still in actions, the nonunivocal agent must precede the univocal agent. For the
non-univocal agent is the universal cause of the whole
species, as for instance the sun is the cause of the generation of all men; whereas the univocal agent is not the
universal ecient cause of the whole species (otherwise
it would be the cause of itself, since it is contained in the
species), but is a particular cause of this individual which
it places under the species by way of participation. Therefore the universal cause of the whole species is not an univocal agent; and the universal cause comes before the particular cause. But this universal agent, whilst it is not univocal, nevertheless is not altogether equivocal, otherwise
it could not produce its own likeness, but rather it is to be
called an analogical agent, as all univocal predications are
reduced to one rst non-univocal analogical predication,
which is being.* [8]
If substance is the highest category and there is no substance, being, then the unity perceived in all beings by
virtue of their existing must be viewed in another way. St.
Thomas chose the analogy: all beings are like, or analogous to, each other in existing. This comparison is the
basis of his Analogy of Being. The analogy is said of being in many dierent ways, but the key to it is the real
distinction between existence and essence. Existence is
the principle that gives reality to an essence not the same
in any way as the existence: If things having essences
are real, and it is not of their essence to be, then the reality of these things must be found in some principle other
than (really distinct from) their essence.* [9] Substance
can be real or not. What makes an individual substance
a man, a tree, a planet real is a distinct act, a to
be, which actuates its unity. An analogy of proportion
is therefore possible:* [9]essence is related to existence
as potency is related to act.
Existences are not things; they do not themselves exist,
they lend themselves to essences, which do not intrinsically have them. They have no nature; an existence receives its nature from the essence it actuates. Existence
is not being; it gives being here a customary phrase is
used, existence is a principle (a source) of being, not a
previous source, but one which is continually in eect.
The stage is set for the concept of God as the cause of all
existence, who, as the Almighty, holds everything actual
without reason or explanation as an act purely of will.
37
The transcendentals
Aristotle's classicatory scheme had included the ve
predicables, or characteristics that might be predicated
of a substance. One of these was the property, an essential universal true of the species, but not in the denition (in modern terms, some examples would be grammatical language, a property of man, or a spectral pattern
characteristic of an element, both of which are dened
in other ways). Pointing out that predicables are predicated univocally of substances; that is, they refer to the
same thingfound in each instance, St. Thomas argued
that whatever can be said about being is not univocal, because all beings are unique, each actuated by a unique
existence. It is the analogous possession of an existence
that allows them to be identied as being; therefore, being
is an analogous predication.
Whatever can be predicated of all things is universal-like
but not universal, category-like but not a category. St.
Thomas called them (perhaps not originally) the transcendentia, "transcendentals", because theyclimb abovethe
categories, just as being climbs above substance. Later
academics also referred to them as the properties of
being.* [10] The number is generally three or four.
2.4.3 Being in Islamic philosophy

The nature ofbeinghas also been debated and explored
in Islamic philosophy, notably by Ibn Sina (=Avicenna),
Suhrawardi, and Mulla Sadra.* [11]
A modern linguistic approach which notices that Persian
language has exceptionally developed two kinds of "ises,
i.e. ast (is, as a copula) and hast (as an existentialis
) examines the linguistic properties of the two lexemes in
the rst place, then evaluates how the statements made by
other languages with regard to being can stand the test of
Persian frame of reference.
It is noticed that the original language of the source, e.g.
Greek, German and English, has only one word for two
concepts, ast and hast, or, like Arabic, has no word at all
for either word. It therefore exploits the Persian hast (existential is) versus ast (predicative is or copula) to address
both Western and Islamic ontological arguments on being
and existence.* [12]
(See also The Philosophical Outcomes of Persian treatment of Indo-European copula) This linguistic method
shows the scope of confusion created by languages which
cannot dierentiate between existential be and copula. It manifests, for instance, that the main theme of
Heidegger's Being and Time is ast (is-ness) rather than
hast (existence). When, in the beginning of his book,
Heidegger claims that people always talk about existence in their everyday language, without knowing what
it means, the example he resorts to is: the sky is blue
which in Persian can be ONLY translated with the use of
the copula ast, and says nothing about being or existence.
In the same manner, the linguistic method addresses the
38
ontological works written in Arabic. Since Arabic, like
Latin in Europe, had become the ocial language of
philosophical and scientic works in the so-called Islamic
World, the early Persian or Arab philosophers had diculty discussing being or existence, since the Arabic language, like other Semitic languages, had no verb for either
predicative be(copula) or existential be. So if
you try to translate the aforementioned Heidegger's example into Arabic it appears as ( viz. The
Sky-- blue) with no linking isto be a sign of existential statement. To overcome the problem, when translating the ancient Greek philosophy, certain words were
coined like aysa (from Arabic laysa 'not') for
'is'. Eventually the Arabic verb wajada (to nd) prevailed, since it was thought that whatever is existent, is to
be "found" in the world. Hence existence or Being was
called wujud (Cf. Swedish nns [found]> there exist; also the Medieval Latin coinage of exsistere 'standing
out (there in the world)' > appear> exist).
Now, with regard to the fact that Persian, as the mother
tongue of both Avicenna and Sadr, was in conict with
either Greek or Arabic in this regard, these philosophers should have been warned implicitly by their mother
tongue not to confuse two kinds of linguistic beings (viz.
copula vs. existential). In fact when analyzed thoroughly,
copula, or Persian ast ('is') indicates an ever-moving chain
of relations with no xed entity to hold onto (every entity,
say A, will be dissolved intoA is Band so on, as soon
as one tries to dene it). Therefore, the whole reality or
what we see as existence (foundin our world) resembles an ever changing world of ast (is-ness) owing in
time and space. On the other hand, while Persian ast can
be considered as the 3rd person singular of the verb 'to
be', there is no verb but an arbitrary one supporting hast
('is' as an existential be= exists) has neither future nor
past tense and nor a negative form of its own: hast is just
a single untouchable lexeme. It needs no other linguistic element to be complete (Hast. is a complete sentence
meaning s/he it exists). In fact, any manipulation of
the arbitrary verb, e.g. its conjugation, turns hast back
into a copula. (For detailed discussion, see General Features and Persian sections of IE Copula)
Eventually from such linguistic analyses, it appears
that while ast (is-ness) would resemble the world of
Heraclitus, hast (existence) would rather approaches a
metaphysical concept resembling the Parmenidas's interpretation of existence.
In this regard, Avicenna, who was a rm follower of
Aristotle, could not accept either Heraclitian is-ness
(where only constant was change), nor Parmenidean
monist immoveable existence (the hast itself being constant). To solve the contradiction, it so appeared to
Philosophers of Islamic world that Aristotle considered
the core of existence (i.e. its substance/ essence) as a
xed constant, while its facade (accident) was prone to
change. To translate such a philosophical image into Persian it is like having hast (existence) as a unique constant
core covered by ast (is-ness) as a cloud of ever-changing

relationships. It is clear that the Persian language, deconstructs such a composite as a sheer mirage, since it is not
clear how to link the interior core (existence) with the exterior shell (is-ness). Furthermore, hast cannot be linked
to anything but itself (as it is self-referent).
The argument has a theological echos as well: assuming
that God is the Existence, beyond time and space, a question is raised by philosophers of the Islamic world as how
He, as a transcendental existence, may ever create or contact a world of is-ness in space-time.
However, Avicenna who was more philosopher than theologian, followed the same line of argumentation as that
of his ancient master, Aristotle, and tried to reconcile between ast and hast, by considering the latter as higher order of existence than the former. It is like a hierarchical order of existence. It was a philosophical Tower of
Babel that the restriction of his own mother tongue (Persian) would not allow to be built, but he could maneuver
in Arabic by giving the two concepts the same name wujud, although with dierent attributes. So, implicitly, ast
(is-ness) appears as momken-al-wujud
(contingent being), and hast (existence) as
wjeb-al-wujud(necessary being).
On the other hand, centuries later, Sadr, chose a more
radical rout, by inclining towards the reality of ast (isness), as the true mode of existence, and tried to get rid
of the concept of hast (existence as xed or immovable).
Thus, in his philosophy, the universal movement penetrates deep into the Aristotelian substance / essence, in
unison with changing accident. He called this deep existential change harekat-e jowhari (Substantial Movement). It is obvious that in such a changing existence, the whole world has to go through instantaneous
annihilation and recreation incessantly, while as Avicenna
had predicted in his remarks on Nature, such a universal change or substantial movement would eventually entail the shortening and lengthening of time as well which
has never been observed. This logical objection, which
was made on Aristotle's argumentation, could not be answered in the ancient times or medieval age, but now it
does not sound contradictory to the real nature of Time
(as addressed in relativity theory), so by a reverse argument, a philosopher may indeed deduce that everything
is changing (moving) even in the deepest core of Being.
2.4.4 Being in the Age of Reason

Although innovated in the late medieval period, Thomism
was dogmatized in the Renaissance. From roughly 1277
to 1567, it dominated the philosophic landscape. The
rationalist philosophers, however, with a new emphasis
on Reason as a tool of the intellect, brought the classical and medieval traditions under new scrutiny, exercising a new concept of doubt, with varying outcomes.
Foremost among the new doubters were the empiricists,
the advocates of scientic method, with its emphasis
on experimentation and reliance on evidence gathered
2.4. BEING
from sensory experience. In parallel with the revolutions
against rising political absolutism based on established religion and the replacement of faith by reasonable faith,
new systems of metaphysics were promulgated in the lecture halls by charismatic professors, such as Immanuel
Kant, and Hegel. The late 19th and 20th centuries featured an emotional return to the concept of existence under the name of existentialism. These philosophers were
concerned mainly with ethics and religion. The metaphysical side became the domain of the phenomenalists.
In parallel with these philosophies Thomism continued
under the protection of the Catholic Church; in particular, the Jesuit order.
39
yet it is distributed into many parts. Which is it, one or
many? Aristotle had arrived at the real distinction between matter and form, metaphysical components whose
interpenetration produces the paradox. The whole unity
comes from the substantial form and the distribution into
parts from the matter. Inhering in the parts giving them
really distinct unities are the accidental forms. The unity
of the whole being is actuated by another really distinct
principle, the existence.
If nature cannot err, then there are no paradoxes in it; to

Hobbes, the paradox is a form of the absurd, which is
inconsistency:* [17] Natural sense and imagination, are
not subject to absurdityandFor error is but a deception
... But when we make a generall assertion, unlesse it be a
true one, the possibility of it is inconceivable. And words
Empiricist doubts
whereby we conceive nothing but the sound, are those we
Rationalism and empiricism have had many denitions, call Absurd ....Among Hobbes examples are round
most concerned with specic schools of philosophy or quadrangle, immaterial substance, free subject.
*
*
groups of philosophers in particular countries, such as [16] Of the scholastics he says: [18]
Germany. In general rationalism is the predominant
school of thought in the multi-national, cross-cultural Age
Yet they will have us beleeve, that by the
of reason, which began in the century straddling 1600 as a
Almighty power of God, one body may be at
conventional date,* [13] empiricism is the reliance on senone and the same time in many places [the
sory data* [14] gathered in experimentation by scientists
problem of the universals]; and many bodies at
of any country, who, in the Age of Reason were ratioone and the same time in one place [the whole
nalists. An early professed empiricist, Thomas Hobbes,
and the parts]; ... And these are but a small
known as an eccentric denizen of the court of Charles II
part of the Incongruencies they are forced to,
of England (anold bear), published in 1651 Leviathan,
from their disputing philosophically, in stead
a political treatise written during the English civil war,
of admiring, and adoring of the Divine and Incontaining an early manifesto in English of rationalism.
comprehensible Nature ....
Hobbes said:* [15]
The real distinction between essence and existence, and
that between form and matter, which served for so long
The Latines called Accounts of mony Raas the basis of metaphysics, Hobbes identies as the
tiones ... and thence it seems to proceed that
Error of Separated Essences.* [19] The words Is, or
they extended the word Ratio, to the faculty
Bee, or Are, and the likeadd no meaning to an argument
of Reckoning in all other things....When a man
nor
do derived words such as Entity, Essence, Essenreasoneth hee does nothing else but conceive a
tially,
Essentiality, which are the names of nothing
summe totall ... For Reason ... is nothing but
*
[20]
but
are mere Signesconnecting one name or
Reckoning ... of the consequences of generall
attribute
to
another: as when we say, A man, is, a living
names agreed upon, for the marking and signibody,
wee
mean
not that the Man is one thing, the Living
fying of our thoughts ....
Body another, and the Is, or Being another: but that the
MetaIn Hobbes reasoning is the right process of drawing con- Man, and the Living Body, is the same thing;....
physiques,Hobbes
says,
is
far
from
the
possibility
of
clusions from denitions (thenames agreed upon). He
being
understood
and
isrepugnant
to
naturall
Reason.
goes on to dene error as self-contradiction of denition
*
(an absurdity, or senselesse Speech* [16]) or conclu- [21]
sions that do not follow the denitions on which they are Being to Hobbes (and the other empiricists) is the physisupposed to be based. Science, on the other hand, is the cal universe:* [22]
outcome ofright reasoning,which is based onnatural
sense and imagination, a kind of sensitivity to nature,
The world, (I mean ... the Universe, that is,
as nature it selfe cannot erre.
the whole masse of all things that are) is corpoHaving chosen his ground carefully Hobbes launches an
epistemological attack on metaphysics. The academic
philosophers had arrived at the Theory of Matter and
Form from consideration of certain natural paradoxes
subsumed under the general heading of the Unity Problem. For example, a body appears to be one thing and
reall, that is to say, Body; and hath the dimension of magnitude, namely, Length, Bredth and
Depth: also every part of Body, is likewise
Body ... and consequently every part of the
Universe is Body, and that which is not Body, is
no part of the Universe: and because the Uni-
40

verse is all, that which is no part of it is nothing;
and consequently no where.
Hobbes' view is representative of his tradition. As Aristotle oered the categories and the act of existence, and
Aquinas the analogy of being, the rationalists also had
their own system, the great chain of being, an interlocking hierarchy of beings from God to dust.
Idealist systems
Being is also understood as one's state of being,and

hence its common meaning is in the context of human
(personal) experience, with aspects that involve expressions and manifestations coming from an innate being, or personal character. Heidegger coined the term
"dasein" for this property of being in his inuential work
Being and Time (this entity which each of us is himself
we shall denote by the term 'dasein.'"* [1]), in which
he argued that being or dasein links one's sense of one's
body to one's perception of world. Heidegger, amongst
others, referred to an innate language as the foundation
of being, which gives signal to all aspects of being.
In addition to the materialism of the empiricists, under

the same aegis of Reason, rationalism produced systems
that were diametrically opposed now called idealism, 2.4.6 Quotations
which denied the reality of matter in favor of the reality
As far as we can discern, the sole purpose
of mind. By a 20th-century classication, the idealists
of
human
existence is to kindle a light of mean(Kant, Hegel and others), are considered the beginning
ing
in
the
darkness of mere being.
of continental philosophy, while the empiricists are the
Carl
Jung,
Memories, Dreams, Reections
beginning, or the immediate predecessors, of analytical
ch.
II
(1962)
philosophy.
Under the headingIndividuality in Thought and Desire
2.4.5
Being in continental philosophy and , Karl Marx (German Ideology, 1845), says:
existentialism
It depends not on consciousness, but on

Some philosophers deny that the concept ofbeinghas
being; not on thought, but on life; it depends
any meaning at all, since we only dene an object's exon the individual's empirical development and
istence by its relation to other objects, and actions it unmanifestation of life, which in turn depends on
dertakes. The term I amhas no meaning by itself; it
the conditions existing in the world.
must have an action or relation appended to it. This in
turn has led to the thought thatbeingand nothingness
2.4.7 See also
are closely related, developed in existential philosophy.
Existentialist philosophers such as Sartre, as well as
continental philosophers such as Hegel and Heidegger 2.4.8 Notes
have also written extensively on the concept of being.
[1] Heidegger, Sein und Zeit, p. 27: this entity which each
Hegel distinguishes between the being of objects (being
of us is himself ... we shall denote by the term 'Dasein'.
in itself) and the being of people (Geist). Hegel, however, did not think there was much hope for delineating a [2] James, William (1916). Some problems of philosophy: a
beginning of an introduction to philosophy. New York:
meaningof being, because being stripped of all predLongmans, Green and Co. pp. 38, 40.
icates is simply nothing.
Heidegger, in his quest to re-pose the original preSocratic question of Being, wondered at how to meaningfully ask the question of the meaning of being, since
it is both the greatest, as it includes everything that is,
and the least, since no particular thing can be said of
it. He distinguishes between dierent modes of beings:
a privative mode is present-at-hand, whereas beings in
a fuller sense are described as ready-to-hand. The one
who asks the question of Being is described as Da-sein
(there/here-being) or being-in-the-world. Sartre,
popularly understood as misreading Heidegger (an understanding supported by Heidegger's essay Letter on
Humanismwhich responds to Sartre's famous address,
Existentialism is a Humanism), employs modes of being in an attempt to ground his concept of freedom ontologically by distinguishing between being-in-itself and
being-for-itself.
[3] Aristotle. Book VII Section 1 (paragraph 1028b)".

Metaphysics.
[4] Metaphysics Chapter VII, Section 4 (paragraph 1030a).
[5] Metaphysics, Book IX, Chapter 10 (paragraph 1051b).
[6] For text of condemnations 1277 (technically still 1276
at the date, since before 25 of March) see David Pich,
La condemnation parisienne de 1277, , parallel Latin text
with his French translation, or online list Latin only with
footnotes, by Hans-Georg Lundahl,
[7] Wippel, John F. (2000). The metaphysical thought of
Thomas Aquinas: from nite being to uncreated being.
Monographs of the Society for Mediaeval and Renaissance Philosophy, No. 1. The Catholic University of
America Press. p. 75.
[8] http://www.newadvent.org/summa/1013.htm#article5
2.5. COPULA (LINGUISTICS)
41
predicate (a subject complement), such as the word is in

the sentenceThe sky is blue.The word copula derives
[10] Aersten, Jan A. (1995), Aquinas, St. Thomas, in
from the Latin noun for alinkortiethat connects
Kim, Jaegwon; Sosa, Ernest, A companion to metaphysics,
two dierent things.* [1]
Blackwell Companions to philosophy, pp. 2122
[9] Kreyche 1959, p. 70
A copula is often a verb or a verb-like word, though this

is not universally the case.* [2] A verb that is a copula
[12] Toofan, M. Zabn ast y hast?(Language: is or exists?. is sometimes called a copulative or copular verb. In
English primary education grammar courses, a copula is
Ketb-e Tehran, 2000
often called a linking verb. In other languages, copu[13] age of reason. dictionary.com. Retrieved 8 January
las show more resemblances to pronouns, as in Classical
2009.
Chinese and Guarani, or may take the form of suxes
[14] empiricism. dictionary.com. Archived from the orig- attached to a noun, as in Beja, Ket, and Inuit languages.
[11] Iranian Personalities
inal on 25 January 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2009.

[15] Hobbes 1651, pp. 18, 2122
[16] Hobbes 1651, p. 23
[17] Hobbes 1651, p. 18
[18] Hobbes 1651, p. 501.
[19] Hobbes 1651, p. 500.
[20] Hobbes 1651, pp. 498499.
Most languages have one main copula (although some,

like Spanish, Portuguese and Thai, have more than one,
and some have none). In the case of English, this is the
verb to be. While the term copula is generally used to
refer to such principal forms, it may also be used to refer
to some other verbs with similar functions, like become,
get, feel and seem in English (these may also be called
semi-copulasor pseudo-copulas).
2.5.1 Grammatical function
[21] Hobbes 1651, pp. 496497.

[22] Hobbes 1651, p. 497.
2.4.9
References
Gilson, tienne (1952). Being and Some Philosophers (2nd corrected and enlarged ed.). Toronto:
Pontical Institute of Mediaeval Studies (PIMS).
Hobbes, Thomas (1904) [1651]. Waller, Alfred
Rayney, ed. Leviathan: or, The matter, forme &
power of a commonwealth, ecclesiasticall and civill.
Cambridge: University Press.
The principal use of a copula is to link the subject of a

clause to the predicate. A copular verb is often considered
to be part of the predicate, the remainder being called
a predicative expression. A simple clause containing a
copula is illustrated below:
The book is on the table.
In this English sentence, the noun phrase the book is
the subject, the verb is serves as the copula, and the
prepositional phrase on the table is the predicative expression. The whole expression is on the table may (in
some theories of grammar) be called a predicate or a verb
phrase.
Kreyche, Robert J. (1959). First Philosophy: An Introductory Text in Metaphysics. New York: Holt, The predicative expression accompanying the copula
also known as the complement of the copula may take
Rinehart and Winston.
any of several possible forms: it may for example be a
noun or noun phrase, an adjective or adjective phrase, a
prepositional phrase (as above) or another adverb or ad2.4.10 External links
verbial phrase expressing time or location. Examples are
Corazzon, Raul (2010). Theory and History of given below (with the copula in bold and the predicative
Ontology from a Philosophical Perspective. www. expression in italics):
ontology.co. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
Mary and John are my friends.
The sky was blue.
I am taller than most people.
2.5 Copula (linguistics)
The birds and the beasts were there.
To beredirects here. For other topics, see To Be The three components (subject, copula and predicative
(disambiguation). For the Shakespeare quotation, see To expression) do not necessarily appear in that order their
be, or not to be. For the philosophical concept, see being. positioning depends on the rules for word order applicable to the language in question. In English (an SVO lanIn linguistics, a copula (plural: copulas or copulae) is guage) the ordering given is the normal one, although here
a word used to link the subject of a sentence with a too certain variation is possible:
42
In many questions and other clauses with subject They may also express membership of a class, or a subset
auxiliary inversion, the copula moves in front of the relationship:
subject: Are you happy?
She was a nurse.
In inverse copular constructions (see below) the
Dogs are carnivorous mammals.
predicative expression precedes the copula, while
the subject follows it: In the room were three men.
Similarly they may express some property, relation or position, whether permanent or temporary:
It is also possible in certain circumstances for one (or even
two) of the three components to be absent:
The trees are green.

I am your boss.
The hen is next to the cockerel.
The children are confused.
In null-subject (pro-drop) languages, the subject

may be omitted, as it may from other types of sentence. For example, in Italian, sono stanco meansI Other special uses of copular verbs are described in some
am tired, literally am tired.
of the following sections.
In non-nite clauses in languages such as English,
the subject is often absent, as in the participial Essence versus state
phrase being tired or the innitive phrase to be tired.
The same applies to most imperative sentences, such Some languages use dierent copulas, or dierent synas Be good!
tax, when denoting a permanent, essential characteristic
of something and when denoting a temporary state. For
For cases where no copula appears, see Zero copula examples of this, see the sections below on the Romance
below.
languages, Slavic languages and Irish.
Any of the three components may be omitted as a result of various general types of ellipsis. In particular,
in English, the predicative expression may be elided
in a construction similar to verb phrase ellipsis, as
in short sentences like I am; Are they? (where the
predicative expression is understood from the previous context).
Inverse copular constructions, in which the positions of
the predicative expression and the subject are reversed,
are found in various languages.* [3] These have been the
subject of much theoretical analysis, particularly in regard to the diculty of maintaining, in the case of such
sentences, the usual division into a subject noun phrase
and a predicate verb phrase. Another issue is verb agreement when both subject and predicative expression are
noun phrases (and dier in number or person): in English
the copula normally agrees with the preceding phrase,
even if it is not logically the subject, as in the cause of
the riot is (not are) these pictures of the wall. Compare
Italian la causa della rivolta sono (are, not is)
queste foto del muro.
2.5.2
Meanings
2.5.3 Forms
In many languages the principal copula is a verb, such as
English (to) be, German sein, French tre, etc. This may
inect for grammatical categories such as tense, aspect
and mood, like other verbs in the language. As a very
commonly used verb, it is likely that the copula will have
irregular inected forms; this is the case in English, where
the verb be has a number of highly irregular (suppletive)
forms, and in fact has a larger number of dierent inected forms than any other English verb (am, is, are,
was, were, etc.; see English verbs for details).
Other copulas show more resemblances to pronouns.
This is the case for Classical Chinese and Guarani, for
instance. In highly synthetic languages, copulas are often suxes, attached to a noun, that may still behave otherwise like ordinary verbs, for example -u- in Inuit languages. In some other languages, such as Beja and Ket,
the copula takes the form of suxes that attach to a noun
but are distinct from the person agreement markers used
on predicative verbs.* [4] This phenomenon is known as
nonverbal person agreement (or nonverbal subject agreement) and the relevant markers are always established as
deriving from cliticized independent pronouns.
Predicates formed using a copula may express identity For cases where the copula is omitted or takes zero form,
that the two noun phrases (subject and complement) have see Zero copula below.
the same referent or express an identical concept:
I only want to be myself.
The Morning Star is the Evening
Star.
2.5.4 Additional uses of copular verbs

A copular verb may also have other uses supplementary
to or distinct from its uses as a copula.
43
As auxiliary verbs
they express such meanings; some of them use the copular verb, possibly with an expletive pronoun like the EnThe English copular verb be can be used as an auxiliary glish there, while other languages use dierent verbs and
verb, expressing passive voice (together with the past par- constructions, like the French il y a (which uses parts of
ticiple) or expressing progressive aspect (together with the verb avoir to have, not the copula tre) or the
the present participle). For example:
Swedish nns (the passive voice of the verb forto nd
). For details, see existential clause.
The man was killed. (passive)
Relying on a unied theory of copular sentences, it has
It is raining. (progressive)
been proposed that the English there-sentences are subtypes of inverse copular constructions.* [6]
Other languages' copulas also have uses as auxiliaries. For
example, French tre can be used to express passive voice
similarly to English be, and both French tre and German
2.5.5 Zero copula
sein are used to express the perfect forms of certain verbs:
Je suis arriv. French for I have
arrived, literally I am arrived.
This last usage was formerly prevalent in English also.
The auxiliary functions of these verbs derive from their
copular function, and can be interpreted as a special case
of the copular function (the verbal form that follows it
being considered adjectival).
Another auxiliary-type usage of the copula in English is
together with the to-innitive to denote an obligatory action or expected occurrence: I am to serve you";The
manager is to resign. This can also be put into past
tense: We were to leave at 9. For forms like if I
was/were to come, see English conditional sentences.
Main article: Zero copula

In some languages, copula omission occurs within a particular grammatical context. For example, speakers of
Russian, Hungarian, Arabic, Hebrew, and Quechuan languages consistently drop the copula in present tense: Russian: , ya chelovek I (am a) person";
Hungarian: ember, s/he (is) a human"; Arabic:
an insn,I (am) a human"; Hebrew:
ani adamI (am a) human"; Southern Quechua: payqa
runams/he (is) a human. This usage is known generically as the zero copula. Note that in other tenses (sometimes in other persons besides third singular) the copula
usually reappears.
In informal speech of English, the copula may be

dropped, as in the sentence, She a nurse. This is
Existential usage
a feature of African American vernacular English but is
also used by a variety of English speakers in informal conThe English to be, and its equivalents in certain other lan- texts.* [7]
guages, also have a non-copular use as an existential verb,
meaningto exist. This use is illustrated in the follow- In Ancient Greek, when an adjective precedes a noun with
ing sentences: I want only to be, and that is enough; I think an article, the copula is understood. Thus,
therefore I am; To be or not to be, that is the question. In , the house is large,can be written
these cases the verb itself expresses a predicate (that of , large the house (is).
existence), rather than linking to a predicative expression In Quechua (Southern Quechua used for the examples)
as it does when used as a copula. In ontology it is some- zero copula is restricted to present tense in third person
times suggested that theisof existence is reducible to singular only (kan): Payqa runam "(s)he is a human";
the isof property attribution or class membership; to but: (paykuna) runakunam kanku "(they) are human.
be, Aristotle held, is to be something. However Abelard In Maori, the zero copula can be used in predicative exin his Dialectica made a reductio ad absurdum argument pressions and with continuous verbs (many of which take
against the idea that the copula can express existence.* [5] a copulative verb in many Indo-European languages)
Similar examples can be found in many other languages;
for example, the French and Latin equivalents of I think
therefore I am are Je pense, donc je suis and Cogito ergo
sum, where suis and sum are the equivalents of English
am, normally used as copulas. However other languages
prefer a dierent verb for existential use, as in the Spanish
version Pienso, luego existo (where the verb existir to
existis used rather than the copula ser or estar to be
).
He nui te whare, literallya big the house,the house

(is) big"; I te tpu te pukapuka, literallyat (past locative
particle) the table the book, the book (was) on the
table"; N Ingarangi ia, literally from England (s)he,
"(s)he (is) from England"; Kei te kai au, literally at the
(act of) eating I, I (am) eating.* [8]* [9]
Alternatively, in many cases, the particle ko can be used

as a copulative, (though not all instances of ko are used to
this eect since, like all Maori particles, ko has multiple
Another type of existential usage is in clauses of the there purposes): Ko nui te whare The house is big"; Ko te
is... or there are... type. Languages dier in the way pukapuka kei te tpuIt is the book (that is) on the table";
44
Ko au kei te kai It is me eating.
(This usage should be distinguished from the use of some

However, when expressing identity or class member- of these verbs as actionverbs, as in They look at the
ship, ko must be used: Ko tnei tku pukapuka This wall, where look denotes an action and cannot be replaced
is my book"; Ko tautahi he tone i Te Waipounamu by the basic copula are.)
Christchurch is a city in the South Island (of New Some verbs have rarer, secondary uses as copular verbs,
Zealand)"; Ko koe tku hoa You are my friend.
such as the verb fall in sentences like The zebra fell victim
to the lion.
Note that when expressing identity, ko can be placed on
either object in the clause without changing the meaning These extra copulas are sometimes calledsemi-copulas
(ko tnei tku pukapuka is the same as ko tku pukapuka or pseudo-copulas.* [11] For a list of common verbs
tnei), but not on both (ko tnei ko tku pukapuka would of this type in English, see List of English copulae.
be equivalent to saying it is this, it is my bookin English). * [10]
In Hungarian, zero copula is restricted to present tense in
third person singular and plural: ember/k emberek
s/he is a human"/"they are humans"; but: (n) ember
vagyok I am a human, (te) ember vagy you are a
human, mi emberek vagyunk we are humans, (ti)
emberek vagytok you (all) are humans. The copula
also reappears for stating locations: az emberek a hzban
vannak, the people are in the house,and for stating
time: hat ra van,it is six o'clock.However, the copula
may optionally get omitted in colloquial language: hat ra
(van), it is six o'clock.
2.5.7 Copulas in particular languages

English
The English copular verb be has eight forms (more than

any other English verb): be, am, is, are, being, was, were,
been. Additional archaic forms include art, wast, wert,
and occasionally beest (as a subjunctive). For more details see English verbs. For the etymology of the various
forms, see Indo-European copula.
The main uses of the copula in English are described in

the above sections. The possibility of copula omission is
Hungarian uses copula lenni for expressing location Itt
mentioned under Zero copula.
van Rbert Bob is here, but it is omitted in the third
person present tense for attribution or identity statements A particular construction found in English (particularly
Rbert regBob is old"; k hesekThey are hungry"; in speech) is the use of two successive copulas when only
Kati nyelvtuds Cathy is a linguist(but: Rbert reg one is necessary, as in My point is, is that.... The acceptvoltBob was old, hesek voltakThey were hungry ability of this construction is a disputed matter in English
grammar.
, Kati nyelvtuds volt Cathy was a linguist).
Further restrictions may apply before omission is permitted. For example, in the Irish language, is, the present Indo-European
tense of the copula, may be omitted when the predicate
is a noun. Ba the past/conditional cannot be deleted. If Main article: Indo-European copula
the present copula is omitted, the following pronoun , ,
iad preceding the noun is omitted as well.
In Indo-European languages, the words meaning to be
are sometimes similar to each other. Due to the high
frequency of their use, their inection retains a consid2.5.6 Additional copulas
erable degree of similarity in some cases. Thus, for
Sometimes the term copula is taken to include not only example, the English form is is a cognate of German
a language's equivalent(s) to the verb be, but also other ist, Latin est, Persian ast and Russian jest', even though
verbs or forms which serve to link a subject to a predica- the Germanic, Italic and Slavic language groups split at
tive expression (while adding semantic content of their least 3000 years ago. The origins of the copulas of
own). For example, English verbs such as become, get, most Indo-European languages can be traced back to four
feel, look, taste, smell, and seem can have this function, as Proto-Indo-European stems: *es- (*h1 es-), *sta- (*steh2 in the following sentences (where the predicative expres- ), *wes- and *bhu- (*buH-).
sion the complement of the verb is in italics):
Georgian
She became a student.
They look tired.
The milk tastes bad.
That bread smells good.
I feel bad that she can't come with
us.
As in English, the verb to be(qopna) is irregular in

Georgian (a Kartvelian language); dierent verb roots are
employed in dierent tenses. The roots -ar-, -kn-, -qav-,
and -qop- (past participle) are used in the present tense,
future tense, past tense and the perfective tenses respectively. Examples:
45
Slavic
Note that, in the last two examples (perfective and pluperfect), two roots are used in one verb compound. In
the perfective tense, the root qop (which is the expected
root for the perfective tense) is followed by the root ar,
which is the root for the present tense. In the pluperfective tense, again, the root qop is followed by the past
tense root qav. This formation is very similar to German
(an Indo-European language), where the perfect and the
pluperfect are expressed in the following way:
Some Slavic languages make a distinction between

essence and state (similar to that discussed in the above
section on the Romance languages), by putting a predicative expression denoting a state into the instrumental case,
while essential characteristics are in the nominative. This
can apply with other copula verbs as well (e.g. the verbs
forbecomeare normally used with the instrumental).
As noted above under Zero copula, Russian and other
East Slavic languages generally omit the copula in the
present tense.
Here, gewesen is the past participle of sein (to be) in

Irish
German. In both examples, as in Georgian, this participle is used together with the present and the past forms
In Irish and Scottish Gaelic, not only are there two copulas
of the verb in order to conjugate for the perfect and the
but the syntax is also changed when one is distinguishing
pluperfect aspects.
between states or situations and essential characteristics.
Describing the subject's state or situation typically uses
the normal VSO ordering with the verb b. The copula is
Persian
is used to state essential characteristics or equivalences.
In Persian the verb to be can either take the form of ast In Irish, the copula is used for things that are in a permain the form of English is or budan in the form of to be.
nent state.
Romance
Main article: Romance copula
Copulas in the Romance languages usually consist of two
dierent verbs that can be translated asto be, the main
one from the Latin esse (via Vulgar Latin essere; esse deriving from *es-), often referenced as sum, another of the
Latin verb's principal parts), and a secondary one from
stare (from *sta-), often referenced as sto, another of that
Latin verb's principal parts. The resulting distinction in
the modern forms is found in all the Iberian Romance languages, and to a lesser extent Italian, but not in French or
Romanian. The dierence is that the rst usually refers to
essential characteristics, while the second refers to states
and situations, e.g.,Bob is oldversusBob is well. A
similar division is found in the non-Romance Basque language (viz. egon and izan). (Note that the English words
just used,essentialandstate, are also cognate with
the Latin innitives esse and stare. The wordstayalso
comes from Latin stare, through Middle Frenchestai,
stem of Old Frenchester.) In Spanish and Portuguese,
the high degree of verbal inection, plus the existence
of two copulas (ser and estar), means that there are 105
(Spanish) and 110 (Portuguese)* [12] separate forms to
express the copula, compared to eight in English and one
in Chinese.
The wordisis the copula (rhymes with the English word

hiss). The pronoun used with the copula is dierent
from the normal pronoun. For a masculine singular noun,
"" is used (forheorit), as opposed to the normal
pronoun s"; for a feminine singular noun, "" is used
(forsheorit), as opposed to normal pronouns";
for plural nouns, iadis used (for theyor those
), as opposed to the normal pronoun siad.* [13]
To describe non-permanent states, to beis used, e.g.,
T m ag rith I am running.
Haitian Creole
Haitian Creole, a French-based creole language, has three
forms of the copula: se, ye, and the zero copula, no word
at all (the position of which will be indicated with , just
for purposes of illustration).
Although no textual record exists of Haitian-Creole at
its earliest stages of development from French, se is derived from French [se] (written c'est), which is the normal
French contraction of [s] (that, written ce) and the copula [e] (is, written est) (a form of the verb tre).
The derivation of ye is less obvious; but we can assume

that the French source was [ile] (he/it is, written il
est), which, in rapidly spoken French, is very commonly
In some cases, the verb itself changes the meaning of pronounced as [je] (typically written y est).
the adjective/sentence. The following examples are from The use of a zero copula is unknown in French, and it
is thought to be an innovation from the early days when
Portuguese:
46
Haitian-Creole was rst developing as a Romance-based

pidgin. Latin also sometimes used a zero copula.
Which of se / ye / is used in any given copula clause Japanese sentences may be predicated with copulas or
depends on complex syntactic factors that we can super- with verbs. However, desu may not always be a predicate.
In some cases, its only function is to make a sentence
cially summarize in the following four rules:
predicated with a stative verb more polite. However, da
1. Use (i.e., no word at all) in declarative sentences always functions as a predicate, so it cannot be combined
where the complement is an adjective phrase, preposi- with a stative verb, because sentences need only one predtional phrase, or adverb phrase:
icate. See the examples below.
2. Use se when the complement is a noun phrase.

But note that, whereas other verbs come after any
tense/mood/aspect particles (like pa to mark negation, or
te to explicitly mark past tense, or ap to mark progressive
aspect), se comes before any such particles:
There are several theories as to the origin of desu; one is

that it is a shortened form of de arimasu,
which is a polite form of de aru. In general, both
forms are used in only writing and more formal situations.
Another form, de gozaimasu, which is the
more formal version of de arimasu, in the etymological
sense a conjugation of de gozaru and an honoric sux - -masu, is also used in some situations
3. Use se where French and English have a dummy it and is very polite. Note that de aru and de gozaru are consubject:
sidered to be compounds of a particle de, and existential verbs aru and gozaru. desu may be pronounced
ssu in colloquial speech. The copula is subject to
dialectal variation throughout Japan, resulting in forms
4. Finally, use the other copula form ye in situations such as ya (in Kansai) and ja (in Hiroshima).
where the sentence's syntax leaves the copula at the end
Japanese also has two verbs corresponding to Englishto
of a phrase:
be": aru and iru. They are not copulas but existential
verbs. Aru is used for inanimate objects, including plants,
whereas iru is used for animate things like people, animals, and robots, though there are exceptions to this genThe above is, however, only a simplied analy- eralization.
sis.* [14]* [15]
Japanese
Japanese speakers, when learning English, often drop the
Japanese has copulas that would most often be translated auxiliary verbs beand do, incorrectly believing
as one of the so-called be-verbs of English.
that beis a semantically empty copula equivalent to
desuand
da.* [16]
The Japanese copula has many forms. The words da
and desu are used to predicate sentences, while na and de
are particles used within sentences to modify or connect. Korean
Japanese sentences with copulas most often equate one
thing with another, that is, they are of the formA is B. For sentences with predicate nominatives, the copula "
" (i-da) is added to the predicate nominative (with
Examples:
no space in between).
The dierence between da and desu appears simple. For

instance desu is more formal and polite than da. Thus,
many sentences such as the ones below are almost identical in meaning and dier in the speaker's politeness to
the addressee and in nuance of how assured the person is
of their statement. However, desu may never come before the end of a sentence, and da is used exclusively to
delineate subordinate clauses. In addition, da is always
declarative, never interrogative.
Some adjectives (usually color adjectives) are nominalized and used with the copula "
".
1. Without the copula "
2. With the copula "
":
":
47
the corresponding negative answer is b du, not

right.) Yet another use of is in the sh...(de) construcSome Korean adjectives are derived using the copula. tion, which is used to emphasize a particular element of
Separating these articles and nominalizing the former part the sentence; see Chinese grammarCleft sentences.
will often result in a sentence with a related, but dier- In Hokkien s acts as the copula, and /z/ is the
ent meaning. Using the separated sentence in a situation equivalent in Wu Chinese. Cantonese uses (Jyutping:
where the un-separated sentence is appropriate is usually hai6) instead of ; similarly, Hakka uses he55 .
acceptable as the listener can decide what the speaker is
trying to say using the context.
Siouan languages
Chinese
N.B. The characters used are simplied ones, and the transcriptions given in italics reect Standard Chinese pronunciation, using the pinyin system.
In Chinese languages, both states and qualities are, in general, expressed with stative verbs (SV) with no need for a
copula, e.g., in Mandarin, to be tired( li), to be
hungry( ),to be located at( zi),to be stupid
( bn) and so forth. A sentence can consist simply of
a pronoun and such a verb: for example, w (I
am hungry). Usually, however, verbs expressing qualities are qualied by an adverb (meaningvery,not
, quite, etc.); when not otherwise qualied, they are
often preceded by hn, which in other contexts means
very, but in this use often has no particular meaning.
See also Chinese adjectives, and Chinese grammar.
In Siouan languages like Lakota, in principle almost all

words according to their structure are verbs. So not
only (transitive, intransitive and so-called 'stative') verbs
but even nouns often behave like verbs and do not need
to have copulas.
For example, the word wiha refers to a man,
and the verb to-be-a-manis expressed as
wimhaa/winhaa/wiha (I am/you are/he is
a man). Yet there also is a copula hha (to be a ...) that
in most cases is used: wiha hemha/henha/hha
(I am/you are/he is a man).
In order to express the statement I am a doctor of profession,one has to say pezuta wiha hemha. But,
in order to express that that person is THE doctor (say,
that had been phoned to help), one must use another
copula iy (to be the one): peta wiha (ki) miy
yel (medicine-man DEF ART I-am-the-one MALE ASOnly sentences with a noun as the complement (e.g.this SERT).
is my sister) use the copular verbto be": sh. This
is used frequently: For example, instead of having a verb In order to refer to space (e.g., Robert is in the house),
meaning to be Chinese, the usual expression is to various verbs are used, e.g., yak (lit.: to sit) for hube a Chinese person( w sh Zhnggorn mans, or h/h (to stand upright) for inanimate objects
I am a Chinese person,I am Chinese). This sh of a certain shape. Robert is in the housecould
is sometimes called an equative verb. Another possibility be translated as Robert thimhel yak (yel), whereas
is for the complement to be just a noun modier (ending there's one restaurant next to the gas stationtranslates
in de), the noun being omitted: as owtethipi wgli-onai ki hl iskhib wa h.
wde qch sh hngs de my car is (a) red (one)".
Before the Han Dynasty, the character served as a
demonstrative pronoun meaning this(this usage survives in some idioms and proverbs, as well as in Japanese).
Some linguists believe that developed into a copula because it often appeared, as a repetitive subject, after the
subject of a sentence (in classical Chinese we can say, for
example: George W. Bush, this president of the United
Statesmeaning George W. Bush is the president of
the United States).* [17] The character appears to be
formed as a compound of characters with the meanings
of earlyand straight.
Constructed languages
The constructed language Lojban has multiple sorts of
copula. The most common, cu, is used to separate any
noun phrases before the predicate from the predicate, and
is always optional. The others may be used when the
other part of the sentence is another noun phrase, but are
sometimes viewed with distaste in the Lojban community, because all words that express a predicate can be
used as verbs. The three sentences Bob runs, Bob
is old, andBob is a reman, for instance, would all
have the same form in Lojban: "la bob. bajra", "la bob.
tolcitno", and "la bob. fagdirpre". There are several such
copulas: me turns whatever follows the word me into a
verb that means to be what it follows. For example, me
la bob. means to be Bob. Another copula is du, which
is a verb that means all its arguments are the same thing
(equal).* [18]
Another use of in modern Chinese is in combination

with the modier de to meanyesor to show agreement. For example: Question:
n de qch sh b sh hngs de? Is your car red or
not?" Response: sh de is, meaning yes, or
b shnot is, meaningno. (A more common
way of showing that the person asking the question is correct is by simply saying rightor correct, du; The E-Prime language, based on English, simply avoids
48
the issue by not having a generic copula. It requires instead a specic form such as remains, becomes,
lies, or equals.
[8] Language Maori. WALS Online. Retrieved 2014-0207.

[9] Mooreld, John (2004), Te Kkano, University of
Esperanto uses the copula much as English. The inniWaikato

tive is esti, and the whole conjugation is regular (as with
all Esperanto verbs). In addition, adjectival roots can be [10] Barlow, D. Cleve (1981), The Meaning of Ko in New
Zealand Maori, Pacic Studies 4: 124141, retrieved
turned into stative verbs: La ielo bluas. The sky is
February 7, 2014
blue.
Likewise, Ido has a copula that works as Englishto be
. Its innitive is esar, and, as is the case in Esperanto,
all of its forms are regular: The simple present is esas
for all persons; the simple past is esis, the simple future is
esos, and the imperative is esez, among a few more forms.
However, Ido also has an alternative irregular form for the
simple presentes
(
), which some Idists frown upon. The
possibility to turn adjectives and even nouns into verbs
also exist, although this is mostly done by means of an
ax, on top of the verbal endings. The ax is "-es-". So,
The sky is blue.can be said asLa cielo bluesas. As
can be seen, the sux "-es-" plus the verbal desinence "asare simply the verbto beannexed to the adjectival
or nominal root.
Interlingua speakers use copulas with the same freedom as speakers of Slavic, Germanic, and Romance languages. In addition to combinations with esser ('to be'),
expressions such as cader prede ('to fall prey') are common. Esser is stated, rather than omitted as in Russian.
2.5.8
See also
Indo-European copula
Nominal sentence
Stative verb
2.5.9
Notes
[1] See the appendix to Moro 1997 and the references cited
there for a short history of the copula.
[2] Pustet, Regina (2005). Copulas: Universals in the Categorization of the Lexicon. Oxford studies in typology and
linguistic theory. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19928180-7.
[3] See Everaert et al. 2006.
[4] Stassen, Leon (1997). Intransitive Predication. Oxford
studies in typology and linguistic theory. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-925893-2.
[5] Kneale - Kneale 1962 and Moro 1997
[6] See Moro 1997, and existential sentences and expletive
there" in Everaert et al. 2006, for a detailed discussion of
this issue and a historical survey of the major proposals.
[7] Bender, Emily (2001). Syntactic Variation and Linguistic
Competence: The Case of AAVE Copula Absence (PDF)
(Ph.D. Dissertation). Stanford University.
[11] Butler, C.S. (2003). Structure and Function: A Guide

to the Three Major Structural-Functional Theories. John
Benjamins Publishing. pp. 4256. doi:10.1075/slcs.63.
ISBN 9789027296535.
[12] Conjugao de verbos regulares e irregulares. Conjugame. 2007-09-06. Retrieved 2014-02-07.
[13] Myles Dillon and Donncha Crinn, Irish, Teach Yourself Books, Saint Paul's House, Warwick Lane London
EC4. Lesson VIII, The Copula, p. 52
[14] Howe 1990. Source for most of the Haitian data in this
article; for more details on syntactic conditions as well as
Haitian-specic copula constructions, such as se kouri m
ap kouri (It's run I progressive run;I'm really running!"),
see the grammar sketch in this publication.
[15] Valdman & Rosemond 1988.
[16] Sayuri Kusutani (Fall 2006). The English Copula Be:
Japanese LearnersConfusion (PDF). TESL Working
Paper Series 4 (2).
[17] Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1995). Outline of Classical Chinese Grammar. Vancouver: UBC Press. ISBN 0-77480541-2.
[18] Lojban For Beginners
2.5.10 References
Bram, Barli (5 July 1995). Write Well: Improving Writing Skills. Yogyakarta, Indonesia: Penerbit
Kanisius. p. 128. ISBN 978-979-497-378-3.
Everaert, Martin; van Riemsdijk, Henk (eds.)
(2006). The Blackwell Companion to Syntax,
Volumes I-V (illustrated, revised ed.). WileyBlackwell. p. 849. ISBN 978-1-4051-1485-1. (See
copular sentencesandexistential sentences and
expletive there" in Volume II.)
Howe, Catherine; Desmarattes, Jean Lionel (1990).
Haitian Creole Newspaper Reader. Dunwoody
Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-931745-59-1.
Kneale, William and Martha (1962). The Development of Logic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 019-824183-6. OCLC 373178.
Smith, Ron F; O'Connell, Loraine M. (March
2003). Editing Today Workbook (2nd ed.). WileyBlackwell. p. 264. ISBN 978-0-8138-1317-2.
2.7. DASEIN
Moro, A. (1997) The Raising of Predicates. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
Tting, A. W. (December 2003). Essay on Lakota
syntax.
49
[2] For the Latin as well as an English translation, see Martin

Heidegger, History of the Concept of Time: Prolegomena,
translated by Theodore Kisiel (Indiana University Press,
1985, originally published 1979), pp. 302303 online.
[3] Katrin Froese, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and Daoist Thought:
Crossing Paths In-between (SUNY Press, 2006), p. 188
online.
Valdman, Albert; Rosemond, Renote (1988). Ann

Pale Kreyl: An Introductory Course in Haitian Creole. Illustrations: Philippe, Pierre-Henri (Illustrated
ed.). Creole Institute, Indiana University. ISBN
2.6.2
978-0-929236-00-1.
External links
History of the Notion of Care
2.6 Cura
For other meanings, see Cura (disambiguation).
Cura is the name of a divine gure whose name means
Careor Concernin Latin. Hyginus seems to have
created both the personication and story for his Fabulae,
poem 220.
In crossing a river, Cura gathered clay and, engrossed in
thought, began to mold it. When she was thinking about
what she had already made, Jove arrived on the scene.
Cura asked him to grant it spiritus,breathorspirit.He
grants her request readily, but when she also asked to give
her creation her own name, he forbade it, insisting that it
had to carry his name. While the two were arguing, Tellus
(Earth) arose and wanted it to have her name because she
had made her body available for it.
The judgment is nally rendered by Saturn. He determines that since the spiritus was granted by Jove, he
should have it in death; Tellus, or Earth, would receive
the body she had given; because Cura, or Care, had been
the creator, she would keep her creation as long as it lived.
To resolve the debate, homo, human being,would be
the name, because it was made from humus, earth.
2.7 Dasein
Dasein (German pronunciation: [dazan]) is a German
word which meansbeing thereorpresence(German:
da there"; sein being) often translated in English
with the word existence. It is a fundamental concept
in the existential philosophy of Martin Heidegger particularly in his magnum opus Being and Time. Heidegger
uses the expression Dasein to refer to the experience of
being that is peculiar to human beings. Thus it is a form
of being that is aware of and must confront such issues
as personhood, mortality and the dilemma or paradox of
living in relationship with other humans while being ultimately alone with oneself.
2.7.1 Heidegger's re-interpretation
In German, Dasein is the vernacular term forexistence

, as in I am pleased with my existence(Ich bin mit
meinem Dasein zufrieden). The term Dasein has been
used by several philosophers before Heidegger, most notably Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, with the meaning
The story attracted the attention of Heidegger, who ob- of humanexistenceorpresence. It is derived from
*
served,The double sense of cura refers to care for some- da-sein, which literally means being-there/there-being [1]
though
Heidegger
was
adamant
that
this
was
an
inapprothing as concern, absorption in the world, but also care in
the sense of devotion.Heidegger regards the fable as a priate translation of Dasein.
naive interpretationof the philosophical concept that Dasein for Heidegger was a way of being involved with
he terms Dasein, being-in-the-worldin Section 42 of and caring for the immediate world in which one lived,
Being and Time.* [1] * [2] Heidegger's use of this fable in while always remaining aware of the contingent element
casting the female Cura as creator has been seen as an inof that involvement, of the priority of the world to the
version of the equivalent Christian myth, in which woman self, and of the evolving nature of the self itself.* [1]
is created last, with the centrality of Cura as a challenge to
the Western concept of self-suciency and "atomization" Its opposite was the forfeiture of one's individual meaning, destiny and lifespan, in favour of an (escapist) imof the individual.* [3]
mersion in the public everyday world the anonymous,
identical world of the They and the Them.* [2]
2.6.1
References
In harmony with Nietzsche's critique of the subject, as

something denable in terms of consciousness, Heideg[1] Heidegger Trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robin- ger distinguished Dasein from everyday consciousness in
son, Martin (2008). Being and Time. New York: Harper order to emphasize the critical importance Beinghas
Perennial. p. 235-244. ISBN 9780061575594.
for our understanding and interpretation of the world.
50

This entity which each of us is himself
we shall denote by the term Dasein" (Heidegger, trans. 1927/1962, p.27).* [3]
"[Dasein is] that entity which in its Being
has this very Being as an issue" (Heidegger,
trans. 1927/1962, p.68).* [3]
Heidegger sought to use the concept of Dasein to uncover the primal nature of "Being" (Sein), agreeing with
Nietzsche and Dilthey* [4] that Dasein is always a being engaged in the world: neither a subject, nor the objective world alone, but the coherence of Being-in-theworld. This ontological basis of Heidegger's work thus
opposes the Cartesianabstract agentin favour of practical engagement with one's environment.* [5] Dasein is
revealed by projection into, and engagement with, a personal world* [6] - a never-ending process of involvement
with the world as mediated through the projects of the
self.* [1]
Imamichi's teacher had oered to Heidegger in 1919, after having followed lessons with him the year before.* [14]
2.7.3 Karl Jaspers' Dasein and Existenz

For Karl Jaspers, the term "Dasein" meant existence in its
most minimal sense, the realm of objectivity and science,
in opposition to what Jaspers called "Existenz", the realm
of authentic being. Due to the drastically dierent use of
the term "Dasein" between the two philosophers, there is
often some confusion in students who begin with either
Heidegger or Jaspers and subsequently study the other.
In Philosophy (3 vols, 1932), Jaspers gave his view of the
history of philosophy and introduced his major themes.
Beginning with modern science and empiricism, Jaspers
points out that as we question reality, we confront borders that an empirical (or scientic) method can simply
not transcend. At this point, the individual faces a choice:
sink into despair and resignation, or take a leap of faith
toward what Jaspers calls Transcendence. In making this leap, individuals confront their own limitless freedom, which Jaspers calls Existenz, and can nally experience authentic existence.
Heidegger considered that language, everyday curiosity,

logical systems, and common beliefs obscure Dasein's nature from itself.* [7] Authentic choice means turning away
from the collective world of Them, to face Dasein, one's
individuality, one's own limited life-span, one's own being.* [8] Heidegger thus intended the concept of Dasein
to provide a stepping stone in the questioning of what it
2.7.4 Other applications
means to be to have one's own being, one's own death,
*
one's own truth. [9]
Eero Tarasti considered Dasein very important in ExisHeidegger also saw the question of Dasein as extending tential Semiotics.* [15]
beyond the realms disclosed by positive science or in the
Jacques Lacan turned in the 1950s to Heidegger's Dahistory of metaphysics. Scientic research is not the
sein for his characterisation of the psychoanalyst as beingonly manner of Being which this entity can have, nor is it
for-death: (etre-pour-la-mort).* [16] Similarly, he saw the
the one which lies closest. Moreover, Dasein itself has a
analysand as searching for authentic speech, as opposed
special distinctiveness as compared with other entities[...]
to the subject who loses his meaning in the objecticait is ontically distinguished by the fact that, in its very Betions of discourse...[which] will give him the wherewithal
*
ing, that Being is an issue for it. [10] Being and Time
to forget his own existence and his own death.* [17]
stressed the ontological dierence between entities and
the being of entities: Being is always the Being of an Alfred Schutz distinguished between direct and indirect
entity.* [11] Establishing this dierence is the general social experience, emphasising that in the latterMy orientation is not towards the existence (Dasein) of a conmotif running through Being and Time.
crete individual Thou. It is not towards any subjective
Some scholars disagree with this interpretation, however,
experiences now being constituted in all their uniqueness
arguing that for Heidegger "Dasein" denoted a structured
in another's mind,* [18]
*
awareness or an institutionalway of life. [12] Others
suggest that Heidegger's early insistence on the ontolog- Aleksandr Dugin usesDaseinas the basis for popularical priority of Dasein was muted in his post-war writ- izing his famous Fourth Political Theory. Dugin believes
that mankind is losing their grasp onDaseinexistence
ings.* [13]
through virtual space, communications, and technology.
Dugin proposes that through utilizingDaseinas a base,
2.7.2 Origin and inspiration
his Fourth Political Theory will become a revolutionary
and critical ideology against techno centrism in a society
Some have argued for an origin of Dasein in Chinese of spectacle.
philosophy and Japanese philosophy: according to
Tomonobu Imamichi, Heidegger's concept of Dasein was
inspired although Heidegger remained silent on this 2.7.5 Criticism
by Okakura Kakuzo's concept of das-in-der-Welt-sein
(being-in-the-worldness, worldliness) expressed in The Theodor W. Adorno criticised Heidegger's concept of
Book of Tea to describe Zhuangzi's philosophy, which Dasein as an idealistic retreat from historical reality.* [19]
2.8. ECSTASY (PHILOSOPHY)
51
Richard Rorty considered that with Dasein Heidegger was [14] Tomonubu Imamichi, In Search of Wisdom. One Philosopher's Journey, Tokyo, International House of Japan,
creating a conservative myth of being, complicit with the
2004 (quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeault at her lesson at the
Romantic elements of National Socialism.* [20]
College of France of 7 December 2006)
2.7.6
See also
Generalised other
[15] Tarasti, Eero (2000). Existential semiotics. Advances in

semiotics. Indiana University Press. p. 218. ISBN
9780253337221.
[16] E. Roudinesco, Jacques Lacan (1999) p. 249-50
Nihilism
[17] Jacques Lacan, Ecrits (1997) p. 70
Pre-Socratics
[18] Alfred Schutz, The Phenomenology of the Social World

(1997) p. 183
Primitivism
Sartre
Self-awareness
Thing-in-itself
True self and false self
2.7.7
References
[19] M. Hardt/K. Weeks eds., The Jameson Reader (2005) p.

75
[20] J. Collins/H. Selina, Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p.
170 and p. 110

Martin Heidegger (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)
[1] J. Childers/G. Hentzi eds., The Columbia Dictionary of

Modern Literary and Cultural Criticism (1995) p. 70
[2] J. Collins/H. Selina, Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p. 6481
[3] Heidegger, M. (1962). Being and time: Translated by
John Macquarrie & Edward Robinson. London: S.C.M.
Press.
2.8 Ecstasy (philosophy)

For more informal use of the term, see Ecstasy (emotion)
Ecstasy (or ekstasis; from the Ancient Greek ,

to be or stand outside oneself, a removal to elsewhere
[4] J. Collins/H. Selina, Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p. 48 from ek- out,and stasis a stand, or a stando of
[5] J. Collins/H. Selina, Heidegger for Beginners (1998) p. 61 forces) is a term used in Ancient Greek, Christian and
Existential philosophy. The dierent traditions using the
[6] H. Phillipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being (1999) p. concept have radically dierent perspectives.
220
2.8.1 Ancient Greek philosophy
According to Plotinus, ecstasy is the culmination of human possibility. He contrasted emanation (,

prohodos) from the Oneon the one handwith ecstasy
or reversion (, epistrophe) back to the One
on the other.
[9] E. Roudinesco, Jacques Lacan (2005) p. 96

[10] Heidegger, Martin. The Ontological Priority of the
Question of Being.Being and Time / Translated by John
Macquarrie & Edward Robinson. London: S.C.M., 1962.
32
[11] Heidegger, Martin. The Ontological Priority of the
Question of Being.Being and Time / Translated by John
Macquarrie & Edward Robinson. London: S.C.M., 1962.
29.
[12] See John Haugeland's articleReading Brandom Reading
Heidegger
[13] H. Phillipse, Heidegger's Philosophy of Being (1999) p. 44
This is a form of ecstasy described as the vision of, or

union with, some otherworldly entity (see religious ecstasy)a form of ecstasy that pertains to an individual
trancelike experience of the sacred or of God.
2.8.2 Christian mysticism

Among the Christian mystics, Bernard of Clairvaux,
Meister Eckhart and Teresa of vila had mystical experiences of ecstasy, or talked about ecstatic visions of God.
52

perspective of the experience of insomnia.* [3] Levinas
talked of the Other in terms of 'insomnia' and 'wakefulness'.* [4] He emphasized the absolute otherness of the
Other and established a social relationship between the
Other and one's self.* [5] Furthermore, he asserted that
ecstasy, or exteriority toward the Other, forever remains
beyond any attempt at full capture; this otherness is interminable or innite.* [6] This innitenessof the Other
would allow Levinas to derive other aspects of philosophy
as secondary to this ethic. Levinas writes:
The others that obsess me in the other do
not aect me as examples of the same genus
united with my neighbor by resemblance or
common nature, individuations of the human
race, or chips o the old block... The others
concern me from the rst. Here fraternity precedes the commonness of a genus. My relationship with the Other as neighbor gives meaning to my relations with all the others.* [7]
2.8.4 Other uses of the term
Ecstasy of Saint Teresa, 1652, by Gianlorenzo Bernini
2.8.3
Existential philosophy
The term 'ecstasy' is also used concomitantly by philosophers to refer to a heightened state of pleasure or area of
consciousness that may have been ignored by other theorists; to sexual experiences with another person, or as
a general state of intense emotional rapture. These may
include epiphany, intense consciousness toward another,
or extraordinary physical connections to others.
The term is currently used in philosophy usually to mean

outside-of-itself. One's consciousness, for example, is 2.8.5 See also
not self-enclosed, one can be conscious of an Other per Phenomenology
son, who falls well outside of one's own self. In a sense,
consciousness is usually, outside of itself,in that its
Existentialism
object (what it thinks about, or perceives) is not itself.
This is in contrast to the term enstasis which means from
Face-to-face
standing-within-oneselfwhich relates to contemplation
from the perspective of a speculator.* [1]
Noumenon
This understanding of enstasis gives way to the example
Hypostasis
of the use of theecstasyas that one can beoutside of
oneselfwith time. In temporalizing, each of the follow Theoria
ing: the past (the 'having-been'), the future (the 'not-yet')
and the present (the 'making-present') are theoutside of
Ousia
itselfof each other. The term ecstasy (German: Ekstase)
Being
has been used in this sense by Martin Heidegger who, in
his Being and Time of 1927, argued that our being-in-the Ontology
world is usually focused toward some person, task, or the
past (see also existence and Dasein). Telling someone to
Absolute (philosophy)
remain in the presentcould then be self-contradictory,
if the present only emerged as theoutside itselfof future possibilities (our projection; Entwurf) and past facts
2.8.6 References
(our thrownness; Geworfenheit).* [2]
Emmanuel Levinas disagreed with Heidegger's position
regarding ecstasy and existential temporality from the
[1] J. Glenn Friesen, Enstasy, Ecstasy and Religious Selfreection, 2001.
2.9. EXISTENTIELL
53
argues that any authentic potentialities of Dasein (the human being in this case) brought out in the existential analysis must be realized in existentiell understanding; i.e.
it is the role of the existential analysis to function as a
hermeneutic, to explicitly question Being and to interpret
its structure, but Da-sein is not acting authentically until
those interpretations are realized in Da-sein's ontic life.
Further, it is impossible to draw an absolute categorical
line between the two, in the sense that existential analysis
is itself one of da-sein's possible ways of being, it cannot
be simply extracted from and opposed to everyday life. It
arises or is chosen just as any of da-sein's other existentiell activities are. Existential analysis is, therefore, existentiell, but in a unique sense, qualitatively distinct from
[3] Nicholas Bunnin, Dachun Yang, Linyu Gu (eds), Levinas: non-theoretical, non-phenomenological behavior. On the
Chinese and Western Perspectives, John Wiley & Sons, other hand, da-sein'severydayness,or existentiell liv2009, p. 19.
ing, always already discloses an understanding of its existential structures as a condition of its very being and
[4] A-T. Tymieniecka (ed.), Phenomenology World Wide,
acting.
[2] As existentialist scholar Alphonso Lingis writes: Existential philosophy dened the new concepts of ecstasy
or of transcendence to x a distinct kind of being that
is by casting itself out of its own given place and time,
without dissipating, because at each moment it projects
itself or, more exactly, a variant of itself into another
place and time. Such a being is not ideality, dened as intuitable or reconstitutable anywhere and at any moment.
Ex-istence, understood etymologically, is not so much a
state or a stance as a movement, which is by conceiving a
divergence from itself or a potentiality of itself and casting itself into that divergence with all that it is.Lingis,
Alphonso. The Imperative,Indiana University Press,
1998.
Springer, 2003, p. 421.
[5] Nicholas Bunnin et al (eds), 2009, p. 18.

[6] Sociality is a relation ... to the innite(E. Levinas, Le
temps et l'autre, Presses universitaires de France, 1991, p.
8). Therelation with the Other[rapport autrui] is one
among the inevitable articulations of the transcendence
of time[articulations ... invitables de la transcendance
du temps] which are neither ecstasy where the Same is
absorbed in(to) the Other nor knowledge where the Other
belongs to the Same[ni extase o le Mme s'absorbe dans
l'Autre ni savoir o l'Autre appartient au Mme] (ibid., p.
13).
[7] E. Levinas, Otherwise than Being or Beyond Essence,
1981, Springer, p. 159.
2.9 Existentiell
For more information, see Heideggerian terminology.
In English translations, the word rendered "existentiell"
was, with the philosophical meaning discussed in this article, rst used by Martin Heidegger. Heidegger distinguishes between his two terms existential" and existentiell" in the Introduction to Being and Time. In the
work Being and Time, the word existentiell is used to describe an ontic understanding of beings in the world. An
existentiell understanding addresses the facts about things
in the context of the world, in terms of their existence, but
diers from the ontological understanding that however
vague is a necessary precondition for ontic understanding.
The latter is reached by going about our daily business,
interacting with things in the world, whereas existential
understanding is theoretical and ontological in character. Heidegger claims that his examination of Dasein
(human being) is an existential analysis. However, this
is not to disparage existentiell understanding--Heidegger
Though it is not commonly used in philosophy outside of

discussions of Heidegger's seminal work Being and Time,
it is important to understand Heidegger's denition of the
term if one wishes to study Being and Time.
Denition
Dasein always understands itself in terms
of its existence, in terms of its possibility to be
itself or not be itself. Dasein has either chosen
these possibilities itself, stumbled upon them,
or already grown up in them. Existence is decided only by each Dasein itself in the manner of seizing upon or neglecting such possibilities. We come to terms with the question
of existence always only through existence itself. We shall call this kind of understanding
of itself existentiell understanding. The question of existence is an onticaairof Dasein.
For this the theoretical perspicuity of the ontological structure of existence is not necessary.
The question of structure aims at the analysis
of what constitutes existence. We shall call the
coherence of these structures existentiality. Its
analysis does not have the character of an existentiell understanding but rather an existential
one. The task of an existential analysis of Dasein is prescribed with regard to its possibility
and necessity in the ontic constitution of Dasein.* [1]
Etymology
Heidegger did not coin the termexistentiell. The common German wordexistenziellis usually translated into
English asexistential. However, in Heidegger's works,
he coined the German word existenzial, giving it a
meaning distinct from the common German word existenziell. In English translations of Heidegger, then,
54
the German existenziellis transliterated as existen- 2.10.3 Sartre and de Beauvoir

tiellin English, and the German word existenzialis
transliterated asexistential, each word having its own In the mid-20th Century works of French existentialsts
Jean Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir, facticity signitechnical meaning specic to Heidegger.
es all of the concrete details against the background of
which human freedom exists and is limited. For example,
2.9.1 See also
these may include the time and place of birth, a language,
an environment, an individual's previous choices, as well
Existentialism
as the inevitable prospect of their death. For example:
currently, the situation of a person who is born without
Ontology
legs precludes their freedom to walk on the beach; if future medicine were to develop a method of growing new
Phenomenology
legs for that person, their facticity might no longer ex Heideggerian terminology
clude this activity.
2.9.2
Notes
2.10.4 Recent usage
[1] Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, Introduction, Section

4. Basic Works pg. 52, HarperCollins Publishers, 1977
It is a term that takes on a more specialized meaning in 20th century continental philosophy, especially in phenomenology and existentialism, including
Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre,
2.10 Facticity
and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Recent philosophers such
as Giorgio Agamben, Jean-Luc Nancy, and Franois RafIn philosophy, facticity (French: facticit, German: Fak- foul have taken up the notion of facticity in new ways.
tizitt) has a multiplicity of meanings from factuality Facticity plays a key part in Quentin Meillassoux's philoandcontingencyto the intractable conditions of human sophical project to challenge the thought-world relationexistence.
ship of correlationism. It is dened by him as the absence of reason for any reality; in other words, the impossibility of providing an ultimate ground for the existence
2.10.1 Early usage
of any being.* [1]
The term is rst used by German philosopher Johann
Gottlieb Fichte (1762-1814) and has a variety of mean- 2.10.5 See also
ings. It can refer to facts and factuality, as in nineteenthcentury positivism, but comes to mean that which resists
Being for itself
explanation and interpretation in Wilhelm Dilthey and
Neo-Kantianism. The Neo-Kantians contrasted facticity
with ideality, as does Jrgen Habermas in Between Facts 2.10.6 References
and Norms (Faktizitt und Geltung).
[1] Meillassoux, Quentin.Time Without Becoming. Time

Without Becoming. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
2.10.2
Heidegger
German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889-1976) discusses facticity as the "thrownness" (Geworfenheit) of individual existence, which is to say we are thrown into
the world.By this, he is not only referring to a brute
fact, or the factuality of a concrete historical situation,
e.g., born in the '80s.Facticity is something that already informs and has been taken up in existence, even
if it is unnoticed or left unattended. As such, facticity is
not something we come across and directly behold. In
moods, for example, facticity has an enigmatic appearance, which involves both turning toward and away from
it. For Heidegger, moods are conditions of thinking and
willing to which they must in some way respond. The
thrownness of human existence (or Dasein) is accordingly
disclosed through moods.

J. Van Buren (Trans.), Martin Heidegger. Ontology-The Hermeneutics of Facticity.
Heidegger, Martin. Being And Time.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Essays in Existentialism.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism Is A Humanism.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness.
Raoul, Franois and Eric Sean Nelson (eds.). Rethinking Facticity.
Meillassoux, Quentin. After Finitude: An Essay on
the Necessity of Contingency.
2.11. INTENTIONALITY
2.11 Intentionality
This article is about the philosophical term. For the idea
of doing something with a goal, see Intention. For the
property of phrases, see Intension.
Intentionality is a philosophical concept dened by the
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy as the power of
minds to be about, to represent, or to stand for, things,
properties and states of aairs.* [1] The term refers to
the ability of the mind to form representations and should
not be confused with intention. The term dates from
medieval Scholastic philosophy, but was resurrected by
Franz Brentano and adopted by Edmund Husserl. The
earliest theory of intentionality is associated with St.
Anselm's ontological argument for the existence of God
and his tenets distinguishing between objects that exist in
the understanding and objects that exist in reality.* [2]
55
Brentano coined the expressionintentional inexistence
to indicate the peculiar ontological status of the contents
of mental phenomena. According to some interpreters
thein-" ofin-existenceis to be read as locative, i.e.
as indicating that an intended object [...] exists in or
has in-existence, existing not externally but in the psychological state,(Jacquette 2004, p. 102), while others are
more cautious, arming that: It is not clear whether
in 1874 this [...] was intended to carry any ontological
commitment,(Chrudzimski and Smith 2004, p. 205).
A major problem within intentionality discourse is that

participants often fail to make explicit whether or not they
use the term to imply concepts such as agency or desire,
i.e. whether it involves teleology. Dennett (see below) explicitly invokes teleological concepts in the intentional
stance. However, most philosophers use intentionality
to mean something with no teleological import. Thus, a
thought of a chair can be about a chair without any implication of an intention or even a belief relating to the chair.
Intentionality should not be confused with intensionality, For philosophers of language, intentionality is largely an
a related concept from logic and semantics.
issue of how symbols can have meaning. This lack of
clarity may underpin some of the dierences of view indicated below.
2.11.1
Modern overview
The concept of intentionality was reintroduced in 19thcentury contemporary philosophy by the philosopher and
psychologist Franz Brentano in his work Psychology from
an Empirical Standpoint (1874). Brentano described intentionality as a characteristic of all acts of consciousness,
psychicalor mentalphenomena, by which it could
be set apart from physicalor naturalphenomena.
Every mental phenomenon is characterized
by what the Scholastics of the Middle Ages
called the intentional (or mental) inexistence
of an object, and what we might call, though
not wholly unambiguously, reference to a
content, direction towards an object (which
is not to be understood here as meaning a
thing), or immanent objectivity. Every mental
phenomenon includes something as object
within itself, although they do not all do so in
the same way. In presentation something is
presented, in judgement something is armed
or denied, in love loved, in hate hated, in
desire desired and so on. This intentional
in-existence is characteristic exclusively of
mental phenomena. No physical phenomenon
exhibits anything like it. We could, therefore,
dene mental phenomena by saying that they
are those phenomena which contain an object
intentionally within themselves.
Franz Brentano, Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, edited by Linda L. McAlister
(London: Routledge, 1995), pp. 8889.
To bear out further the diversity of sentiment evoked

from the notion of intentionality, Husserl followed on
Brentano, and gave intentionality more widespread attention, both in continental and analytic philosophy.* [3]
In contrast to Brentano's view, French philosopher JeanPaul Sartre (Being and Nothingness) identied intentionality with consciousness, stating that the two were indistinguishable.* [4] German philosopher Martin Heidegger
(Being and Time), dened intentionality as "care" (Sorge),
a sentient condition where an individual's existence, facticity, and being in the world identies their ontological
signicance, in contrast to that which is the mere ontic
(thinghood).* [5]
Other 20th-century philosophers such as Gilbert Ryle and
A.J. Ayer were critical of Husserl's concept of intentionality and his many layers of consciousness,* [6] Ryle insisting that perceiving is not a process* [7] and Ayer that
describing one's knowledge is not to describe mental processes.* [8] The eect of these positions is that consciousness is so fully intentional that the mental act has been
emptied of all content and the idea of pure consciousness
is that it is nothing* [9] (Sartre also referred toconsciousnessas "nothing").* [10]
Platonist Roderick Chisholm has revived the Brentano
thesis through linguistic analysis, distinguishing two parts
to Brentano's concept, the ontological aspect and the
psychological aspect.* [11] Chisholm's writings have attempted to summarize the suitable and unsuitable criteria of the concept since the Scholastics, arriving at a
criterion of intentionality identied by the two aspects
of Brentano's thesis and dened by the logical properties that distinguish language describing psychological
phenomena from language describing non-psychological
56
phenomena.* [12] Chisholm's criteria for the intentional
use of sentences are: existence independence, truth-value
indierence, and referential opacity.* [13]
In current articial intelligence and philosophy of mind,
intentionality is sometimes linked with questions of semantic inference with both skeptical and supportive adherents.* [14] John Searle argued for this position with the
Chinese room thought experiment, according to which no
syntactic operations that occurred in a computer would
provide it with semantic content.* [15] Others are more
skeptical of the human ability to make such an assertion,
arguing that the kind of intentionality that emerges from
self-organizing networks of automata will always be undecidable because it will never be possible to make our
subjective introspective experience of intentionality and
decision making coincide with our objective observation
of the behavior of a self-organizing machine.* [16]

Eliminative Materialism, supported by W.V.
Quine (1960) and Churchland (1981)
Realism, advocated by Jerry Fodor (1975), as well
as Burge, Dretske, Kripke, and the early Hilary Putnam
those who adhere to the Quinean double standard.
Proponents of the eliminative materialism, understand
intentional idiom, such as belief, desire, and the
like, to be replaceable either with behavioristic language
(e.g. Quine) or with the language of neuroscience (e.g.
Churchland).
Holders of realism argue that there is a deeper fact of the

matter to both translation and belief attribution. In other
words, manuals for translating one language into another
cannot be set up in dierent yet behaviorally identical
ways and ontologically there are intentional objects. Famously, Fodor has attempted to ground such realist claims
2.11.2 Dennett's taxonomy of current the- about intentionality in a language of thought. Dennett
ories about intentionality
comments on this issue, Fodorattempt[s] to make these
irreducible realities acceptable to the physical sciences by
Daniel Dennett oers a taxonomy of the current theo- grounding them (somehow) in the 'syntax' of a system
ries about intentionality in Chapter 10 of his book The of physically realized mental representations(Dennett
Intentional Stance. Most, if not all, current theories on 1987, 345).
intentionality accept Brentano's thesis of the irreducibilThose who adhere to the so-called Quinean double stanity of intentional idiom. From this thesis the following
dard (namely that ontologically there is nothing intenpositions emerge:
tional, but that the language of intentionality is indispensable), accept Quine's thesis of the indeterminacy of rad intentional idiom is problematic for science;
ical translation and its implications, while the other positions so far mentioned do not. As Quine puts it, indeter intentional idiom is not problematic for science, minacy of radical translation is the thesis that manuals
which is divided into:
for translating one language into another can be set up in
divergent ways, all compatible with the totality of speech
Eliminative Materialism;
dispositions, yet incompatible with one another(Quine
1960, 27). Quine (1960) and Wilfrid Sellars (1958) both
Realism;
comment on this intermediary position. One such impli Quinean double standard (see below) which is
cation would be that there is, in principle, no deeper fact
divided into:
of the matter that could settle two interpretative strate adherence to Normative Principle (epis- gies on what belief to attribute to a physical system. In
other words, the behavior (including speech dispositions)
temology), which is divided into:
who makes an Assumption of Ratio- of any physical system, in theory, could be interpreted
by two dierent predictive strategies and both would be
nality;
equally warranted in their belief attribution. This cate who follows the Principle of Charity;
gory can be seen to be a medial position between the re adherence to Projective Principle.
alists and the eliminativists since it attempts to blend attributes of both into a theory of intentionality. Dennett,
Roderick Chisholm (1956), G.E.M. Anscombe (1957), for example, argues in True Believers (1981) that intenPeter Geach (1957), and Charles Taylor (1964) all ad- tional idiom (or "folk psychology") is a predictive strathere to the former position, namely that intentional idiom egy and if such a strategy successfully and voluminously
is problematic and cannot be integrated with the natural predicts the actions of a physical system, then that physsciences. Members of this category also maintain realism ical system can be said to have those beliefs attributed to
in regard to intentional objects, which may imply some it. Dennett calls this predictive strategy the intentional
stance.
kind of dualism (though this is debatable).
The latter position, which maintains the unity of inten- They are further divided into two theses:
tionality with the natural sciences, is further divided into
adherence to the Normative Principle
three standpoints:
2.11. INTENTIONALITY
adherence to the Projective Principle
Advocates of the former, the Normative Principle, argue
that attributions of intentional idioms to physical systems
should be the propositional attitudes that the physical system ought to have in those circumstances (Dennett 1987,
342). However, exponents of this view are still further
divided into those who make an Assumption of Rationality and those who adhere to the Principle of Charity.
Dennett (1969, 1971, 1975), Cherniak (1981, 1986), and
the more recent work of Putnam (1983) recommend the
Assumption of Rationality, which unsurprisingly assumes
that the physical system in question is rational. Donald
Davidson (1967, 1973, 1974, 1985) and Lewis (1974)
defend the Principle of Charity.
57
A further form argues that some unusual states of consciousness are non-intentional, although an individual
might live a lifetime without experiencing them. Robert
K.C. Forman argues that some of the unusual states of
consciousness typical of mystical experience are Pure
Consciousness Events in which awareness exists, but
has no object, is not awareness ofanything.
Intentionality and self-consciousness
Several authors have attempted to construct philosophical

models describing how intentionality relates to the human
capacity to be self-conscious. Cedric Evans contributed
greatly to the discussion with his The Subject of SelfConsciousnessin 1970. He centered his model on the
The latter is advocated by Grandy (1973) and Stich idea that executive attention need not be propositional in
*
(1980, 1981, 1983, 1984), who maintain that attributions form. [20]
of intentional idioms to any physical system (e.g. humans,
artifacts, non-human animals, etc.) should be the propositional attitude (e.g. belief,desire, etc.) that one 2.11.5 See also
would suppose one would have in the same circumstances
2.11.6 References
(Dennett 1987, 343).
2.11.3
Basic intentionality types in Le

Morvan
Working on the intentionality of vision, belief, and

knowledge, Pierre Le Morvan (2005)* [17] has distinguished between three basic kinds of intentionality that
he dubs transparent, translucent, and opaque
respectively. The threefold distinction may be explained
as follows. Let's call theintendumwhat an intentional
state is about, and the intenderthe subject who is in
the intentional state. An intentional state is transparent if
it satises the following two conditions: (i) it is genuinely
relational in that it entails the existence of not just the intender but the intendum as well, and (ii) substitutivity of
identicals applies to the intendum (i.e. if the intentional
state is about a, and a = b, then the intentional state is
about b as well). An intentional state is translucent if it
satises (i) but not (ii). An intentional state is opaque if
it satises neither (i) nor (ii).
2.11.4
Mental states without intentionality
The claim that all mental states are intentional is called

intentionalism, the contrary being anti-intentionalism.
[1] Jacob, P. (Aug 31, 2010).Intentionality. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
[2] Chisholm, Roderick M. (1967). Intentionality. The
Encyclopedia of Philosophy 4: 201.
[3] Smith, David Woodru. Husserl. New York: Routledge.
p. 10. ISBN 0-415-28974-2.
[4] Jean-Paul Sartre (2012). Being and Nothingness. Open
Road Media. ISBN 1453228551.
[5] Martin Heidegger (1967). Being and Time. John Wiley &
Sons. p. 84. ISBN 0631197702.
[6] Ayer, A.J. (1984). More of My Life. New York: HarperCollins. p. 26. ISBN 0-19-281878-3.
[7] Locke, Don (2002). Perception: And Our Knowledge Of
The External World, Volume 3. London: Routledge. p.
28. ISBN 0-415-29562-9.
[8] Macdonald, Graham. Alfred Jules Ayer. Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP). Metaphysics Research
Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 28 December
2012.
[9] Siewert, Charles. Consciousness and Intentionality.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP). Metaphysics
Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University. Retrieved 28
December 2012.
Some anti-intentionalism, such as that of Ned Block, is [10] Franchi, Leo. Sartre and Freedom (PDF). Retrieved
28 December 2012.
based on the argument that phenomenal conscious experience or qualia is also a vital component of conscious- [11] Byrne, Alex. Intentionality. Philosophy of Science:
ness, and that it is not intentional. (The latter claim is
An Encyclopedia. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
itself disputed by Michael Tye.)* [18]
Retrieved 28 December 2012.
Another form of anti-intentionalism associated with John
Searle regards phenomenality itself as the mark of the
mentaland sidelines intentionality.* [19]
[12] Bechtel, William (1988). Philosophy of Mind: An

Overview for Cognitive Science. Hillsdale NJ: Erlbaum.
pp. 4447. ISBN 978-0805802214.
58
[13] Horosz, William and Tad S. Clements (1986). Religion

and Human Purpose: A Cross Disciplinary Approach.
New York: Springer. p. 35. ISBN 978-9024730001.
Davidson, Donald. Truth and Meaning. Synthese, XVII, pp. 30423. 1967.
[14] Might the Singularity never occur?". Singularity FAQ.

Singularity Institute. Retrieved 28 December 2012.
Dennett, Daniel C. (1989). The Intentional Stance.

The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-54053-7
[15] Marconi, Diego (1996). On the Referential Competence

of Some Machines, in Integration of Natural Language
and Vision Processing: Theory and Grounding Representations, Volume 3, edited by Paul Mc Kevitt. New York:
Springer. p. 31. ISBN 978-9401072335.
Dreyfus, Georges. Is Perception Intentional? (A

Preliminary Exploration of Intentionality in Indian
Philosophy).2006.
[16] Atlan, H. (1991). Ends and Means in Machine-Like

Systems, in New Perspectives on Cybernetics: SelfOrganization, Autonomy and Connectionism, edited by
Gertrudis Van de Vijver. New York: Sringer. p. 39. ISBN
978-9048141074.
[17] Pierre Le Morvan (2005). Intentionality: Transparent,
Translucent, And Opaque(PDF). Journal of Philosophical Research 30: 283302. doi:10.5840/jpr20053039.
Retrieved 21 December 2012.
[18] Michael Tye (1995). A Representational Theory of
Pains and their Phenomenal Character. Philosophical
Perspectives 9: 22339. doi:10.2307/2214219. Retrieved
21 December 2012. [T]he phenomenal character of my
pain intuitively is something that is given to me via introspection of what I experience in having the pain. But
what I experience is what my experience represents. So,
phenomenal character is representational.
[19] Pierre Jacob (Aug 31, 2010). Is intentionality exhibited by all mental phenomena?". Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
[20] C.O. Evans (1970). The Subject of Consciousness.
Mental States. Retrieved 21 December 2012.
2.11.7
Further reading
Brentano, Franz (1874). Psychologie vom empirischen Standpunkte Leipzig, Duncker & Humblot
(Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint, Routledge, 1973.
Chisholm, Roderick M. (1967).Intentionalityin
The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Macmillan. ISBN
978-0-02-894990-1
Chisholm, Roderick M. (1963). Notes on the
Logic of Believingin Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. Vol. 24: p. 195-201. Reprinted in
Marras, Ausonio. Ed. (1972) Intentionality, mind,
and language. ISBN 0-252-00211-3
Chisholm, Roderick M. (1957). Perceiving: A
Philosophical Study. Cornell University Press.
ISBN 978-0-8014-0077-3
Chrudzimski, Arkadiusz and Barry Smith (2004)
Brentanos Ontology: from Conceptualism to
Reismin Jacquette (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Brentano ISBN 0-521-00765-8
Fodor, J. The Language of Thought. Harvard

University Press. 1980. ISBN 0-674-51030-5
Husserl, Edmund (1962). Ideas: General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology. Collier Books. ISBN
978-0-415-29544-4
Husserl, Edmund. Logical Investigations. ISBN
978-1-57392-866-3
Jacquette, Dale (2004)Brentanos Concept of Intentionalityin Jacquette (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Brentano ISBN 0-521-00765-8
Le Morvan, Pierre (2005). Intentionality: Transparent, Translucent, and Opaque. The Journal of
Philosophical Research, 30, p. 283-302.
Malle, B. F., Moses, L. J., & Baldwin, D. A. (Eds.)
(2003). Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations
of Social Cognition. The MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262-63267-6.
Mohanty, Jitendra Nath (1972). The Concept of Intentionality: A Critical Study. St. Louis, MO: Warren H. Green, 1972. ISBN 978-0-87527-115-6
Perler, Dominik (ed.) (2001), Ancient and Medieval
Theories of Internationality, Leiden, Brill. ISBN
978-9-00412-295-6
Quine, W.V. (1960). Word and Object. The MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-67001-2.
Sajama, Seppo & Kamppinen, Matti. Historical
Introduction to Phenomenology. New York, NY:
Croom Helm, 1987. ISBN 0-7099-4443-8
Stich, Stephen. Relativism, Rationality, and the
Limits of Intentional Description. Pacic Philosophical Quarterly, 65, pp. 21135. 1984.
Williford, Kenneth. The Intentionality of Consciousness and Consciousness of Intentionality. In
G. Forrai and G. Kampis, eds., Intentionality: Past
and Future. Amsterdam: Rodopi, pp. 143156.
2005. ISBN 90-420-1817-8
2.13. ONTIC
2.11.8
External links
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Intentionality
Consciousness and Intentionality
Ancient Theories of Intentionality
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
Intentionality
Collective Intentionality
59
The presence to which Heidegger refers is both a presence as in a nowand also a presence as in an eternal
present, as one might associate with God or theeternal
laws of science. This hypostatized (underlying) belief in
presence is undermined by novel phenomenological ideas,
such that presence itself does not subsist, but comes about
primordially through the action of our futural projection,
our realization of nitude and the reception or rejection
of the traditions of our time.
2.12.1 References
[1] Being and Time, 6, 26
[2] Physics, Book IV, part 11
2.12 Metaphysics of presence
[3] Being and Time, 6, 26

[4]Ousia and Gramm: Note on a Note from 'Being and
The concept of the metaphysics of presence is an imTime,'" in Margins of Philosophy,29-67: 61

portant consideration in deconstruction. Deconstructive
interpretation holds that the entire history of Western
philosophy with its language and traditions has empha- 2.13 Ontic
sized the desire for immediate access to meaning, and
thus built a metaphysics or ontotheology based on priviIn philosophy, ontic (from the Greek , genitive :
leging presence over absence.
of that which is) is physical, real, or factual existence.
In Being and Time (1927), Martin Heidegger argues that
Onticdescribes what is there, as opposed to the nature
the concept of time prevalent in all Western thought has
or properties of that being. To illustrate:
largely remained unchanged since the denition oered
by Aristotle in the Physics. Heidegger says, Aristotle's
Roger Bacon, observing that all languages are built
essay on time is the rst detailed Interpretation of this
upon a common grammar, stated that they share
phenomenon [time] which has come down to us. Every
a foundation of ontically anchored linguistic strucsubsequent account of time, including Henri Bergson's,
tures.
has been essentially determined by it.* [1] Aristotle de Martin Heidegger posited the concept of Sorge, or
ned time as the number of movement in respect of
caring, as the fundamental concept of the intentional
before and after.* [2] By dening time in this way Arisbeing, and presupposed an ontological signitotle privileges what is present-at-hand, namely theprescance that distinguishes ontological being from mere
enceof time. Heidegger argues in response that enthinghoodof an ontic being. He uses the German
tities are grasped in their Being as 'presence'; this means
word "Dasein" for a being that is capable of ontolthat they are understood with regard to a denite mode
ogy, that is, recursively comprehending properties
of time the 'Present'".* [3] Central to Heidegger's own
of the very fact of its own Being. For Heidegphilosophical project is the attempt to gain a more auger, onticalsignies concrete, specic realities,
thentic understanding of time. Heidegger considers time
whereas ontologicalsignies deeper underlying
to be the unity of three ecstases, the past, the present and
structures of reality. Ontological objects or subjects
the future.
have an ontical dimension, but they also include asDeconstructive thinkers, like Jacques Derrida, describe
pects of being like self-awareness, evolutionary vestheir task as the questioning or deconstruction of this
tiges, future potentialities, and networks of relationmetaphysical tendency in Western philosophy. Derrida
ship.* [1]* [2]
writes,Without a doubt, Aristotle thinks of time on the
Nicolai Hartmann distinguishes among ontology,
basis of ousia as parousia, on the basis of the now, the
ontics, and metaphysics: (i) ontology concerns the
point, etc. And yet an entire reading could be organized
categorical analysis of entities by means of the
that would repeat in Aristotle's text both this limitation
knowledge categories able to classify them, (ii) onand its opposite.* [4] This argument is largely based on
the earlier work of Heidegger, who in Being and Time
tics refers to a pre-categorical and pre-objectual conclaimed that the theoretical attitude of pure presence is
nection which is best expressed in the relation to
parasitical upon a more originary involvement with the
transcendent acts, and (iii) metaphysics is that part
world in concepts such as the ready-to-hand and beingof ontics or that part of ontology which concerns the
with. Friedrich Nietzsche is a more distant, but clear,
residue of being that cannot be rationalized further
inuence as well.
according to categories.
60
2.13.1
Usage in philosophy of science
Harald Atmanspacher writes extensively about the philosophy of science, especially as it relates to Chaos theory,
determinism, causation, and stochasticity. He explains
that "ontic states describe all properties of a physical system exhaustively. ('Exhaustive' in this context means that
an ontic state is 'precisely the way it is,' without any reference to epistemic knowledge or ignorance.)" *
In an earlier paper, Atmanspacher portrays the dierence
between an epistemic perspective of a system, and an ontic perspective:
Philosophical discourse traditionally distinguishes between ontology and epistemology
and generally enforces this distinction by keeping the two subject areas separated. However,
the relationship between the two areas is of
central importance to physics and philosophy
of physics. For instance, many measurementrelated problems force us to consider both
our knowledge of the states and observables
of a system (epistemic perspective) and its
states and observables, independent of such
knowledge (ontic perspective). This applies to
quantum systems in particular.*
2.13.2
Usage in philosophy of critical realism
The British philosopher Roy Bhaskar, who is closely associated with the philosophical movement of Critical Realism writes:
I dierentiate the 'ontic' ('ontical' etc.) from
the 'ontological'. I employ the former to refer
to
1. whatever pertains to being generally,
rather than some distinctively philosophical (or scientic) theory of it (ontology),
so that in this sense, that of the ontic1 , we
can speak of the ontic presuppositions of
a work of art, a joke or a strike as much
as a theory of knowledge; and, within this
rubric, to
2. the intransitive objects of some specic,
historically determinate, scientic investigation (or set of such investigations),
the ontic2 .
The ontic2 is always specied, and only identied, by its relation, as the intransitive object(s)
of some or other (denumerable set of) particular transitive process(es) of enquiry. It is cognitive process-, and level-specic; whereas the
ontological (like the ontic1 ) is not.*
Writing in the Bhaskar mailing list archive, Ruth Gro

oers this expansion of Bhaskar's note above:
"'ontic2 ' is an abstract way of denoting the
object-domain of a particular scientic area,
eld, or inquiry. E.g.: molecules feature in the
ontic2 of chemistry. He's just saying that the
scientic undertaking ITSELF is not one of the
objects of said, most narrowly construed, immediate object-domain. So chemistry itself is
not part of the ontic2 of chemistry.
2.13.3 See also

Ding an sich
Ontologism
Physical ontology
Substance theory
2.13.4 References
[1] Ontico-Ontological Distinction. Blackwell Reference.
Retrieved 26 February 2015.
[2] Duy, Michael. The Ontological and the Ontic. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
1. ^ Atmanspacher, Dr. H., and Primas, H., 2003

[2005],Epistemic and Ontic Quantum Realities",
in Khrennikov, A (Ed.), Foundations of Probability
and Physics (American Institute of Physics 2005, pp
4961, Originally published in Time, Quantum and
Information, edited by Lutz Castell and Otfried Ischebeck, Springer, Berlin, 2003, pp 301321
2. ^ Atmanspacher, Harald (2001) Determinism Is Ontic, Determinability is Epistemic (University of Pittsburgh Archives)
3. ^ Bhaskar, R.A., 1986, Scientic Realism and Human Emancipation (London: Verso), pp 36 and 37,
as quoted by Howard Engelskirchen in the Bhaskar
mailing list archive
2.14 Reective disclosure

Reective disclosure is a term coined by philosopher
Nikolas Kompridis. It denotes practices through which
we can imagine and articulate meaningful alternatives to
current social and political conditions (for example, by
uncovering possibilities that were previously suppressed
or untried, or by refocusing a problem in a way that makes
something previously unintelligible, intelligble) in order
to regenerate hope and condence in the future, oering
2.15. THROWNNESS
ways to go on dierently with our institutions, traditions
and ideals.
61
[2] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future (Cambridge: MIT Press,
2006), xi.
In his book Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future, Kompridis describes a set of het- [3] Charles Taylor, Philosophical Arguments, pp. 12, 15.
erogeneous social practices he believes can be a source
of signicant ethical, political, and cultural transfor- [4] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future (Cambridge: MIT Press,
mation.* [1] Highlighting the work of theorists such as
2006), 137; 264.
Hannah Arendt, Charles Taylor, Michel Foucault and
others, Kompridis calls such practices examples of reective disclosureafter Martin Heidegger's insights into 2.14.3 External links
the phenomenon of world disclosure. He also argues that
social criticism or critique, and in particular critical the Critique and Disclosure - The MIT Press
ory, ought to incorporate Heidegger's insights about this
Nikolas Kompridis - Critique and Disclosure: Critphenomenon and reorient itself around practices of reical Theory between Past and Future - Reviewed by
ective disclosure if it is, as he puts it, to have a future
Fred Dallmayr
worthy of its past.* [2]
Kompridis contrasts this with much of what is today
calledcritical theory,which he argues has ignored the
utopian concerns that previously animated that tradition,
in favour of a Habermasian self-understanding that restricts itself to clarifying the procedures by which we can
reach agreement in modern democratic societies.
Disclosing Possibility: The Past and Future of Critical Theory by Nikolas Kompridis
2.15 Thrownness
These practices, according to Kompridis, constitute what

Charles Taylor calls a new departmentof reason* [3]
which is distinct from instrumental reason, from reason understood merely as the slave of the passions
(Hume), and from the idea of reason as public justication (Rawls). In contrast to theories of social and political change that emphasize socio-historical contradictions
(i.e., Marxist and neo-Marxist), theories of recognition
and self-realization, and theories that try to make sense
of change in terms of processes that are outside the scope
of human agency, Kompridis' paradigm for critical theory, with reective disclosure at the centre, is to help reopen the future by disclosing alternative possibilities for
speech and action, self-critically expanding what he calls
the normative and logical space of possibility.* [4]
2.14.1
See also
Critical theory
Frankfurt School
Immanent critique
Into this world we're thrown /

Like a dog without a bone
(Jim Morrison, "Riders on the Storm", 1971)* [1]
Nikolas Kompridis
Thrownness (German: Geworfenheit) is a concept introduced by German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889
1976) to describe our individual existences as being
World disclosingarguments
thrown(geworfen) into the world. Geworfen denotes
Receptivity
the arbitrary or inscrutable nature of Dasein that connects the past with the present. The past, through Beingtoward-Death, becomes a part of Dasein. Awareness and
2.14.2 References
acknowledgment of the arbitrariness of Dasein is charac[1] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical The- terized as a state of thrown-nessin the present with
ory between Past and Future (Cambridge: MIT Press, all its attendant frustrations, suerings, and demands that
2006), 3436.
one does not choose, such as social conventions or ties of
World disclosure
62
kinship and duty. The very fact of one's own existence

is a manifestation of thrown-ness. The idea of the past
as a matrix not chosen, but at the same time not utterly
binding or deterministic, results in the notion of Geworfenheit a kind of alienation that human beings struggle against,* [2] and that leaves a paradoxical opening for
freedom:
[T]he thrower of the PROJECT is THROWN
in his own throw. How can we account for this
freedom? We cannot. It is simply a fact, not
caused or grounded, but the condition of all
causation and grounding.* [3]
For William J. Richardson, Geworfenheit must be understood in a purely ontological sense as wishing to signify the matter-of-fact character of human nitude.* [4]
That's why thrownnessis the best English word for
Geworfenheit. Otherattractive translations as 'abandon,'
'dereliction,' 'dejection,' etc. [...] are [dangerous because]
too rich with ontic, anthropological connotations. We retain 'thrown-ness' as closest to the original and, perhaps,
least misleading.* [5]
2.15.1
See also
Facticity in Heidegger
2.15.2
References
[1] Critchley, Simon (June 29, 2009). "Being and Time, part
4: Thrown into this world. The Guardian (Manchester).
Retrieved May 27, 2013. As Jim Morrisson intoned many
decades ago, 'Into this world we're thrown'. Thrownness
(Geworfenheit) is the simple awareness that we always nd
ourselves somewhere, namely delivered over to a world.
0-823-22255-1; ISBN 978-08-2322-255-1. p. 37.
[3] Inwood, Michael J. (1999). A Heidegger Dictionary.
Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley. ISBN 0-631-19095-3;
ISBN 978-06-3119-095-0.
Mcdonough, Richard M. (2006). Martin Heidegger's

Being and Time. Bern: Peter Lang. ISBN 0-82045554-7; ISBN 978-08-2045-554-9.
King, Magda (2001). A guide to Heidegger's Being and time. Albany, New York: SUNY Press.
p. 171. ISBN 0-791-49148-X; ISBN 978-07-9149148-5.
2.16 World disclosure

World disclosure (German: Erschlossenheit) is a phenomenon described by the German philosopher Martin
Heidegger in his landmark book Being and Time. It has
also been discussed by philosophers such as John Dewey,
Jrgen Habermas, Nikolas Kompridis and Charles Taylor.* [1] It refers to how things become intelligible and
meaningfully relevant to human beings, by virtue of being part of an ontological world i.e., a pre-interpreted
and holistically structured background of meaning. This
understanding is said to be rst disclosed to human beings
through their practical day-to-day encounters with others,
with things in the world, and through language.
Some philosophers have also described how this ontological understanding can be re-disclosed in various
ways (including through innovative forms of philosophical argument), such as Ian Hacking and Nikolas Kompridis.
2.16.1 First and second order disclosure

The idea of disclosure supposes that the meaning of a
word or thing depends upon the context in which we encounter it, including the way of life of which it is a part.
For example, a table is part of a context with other things
that give it its sense or purpose e.g. chairs, food, a
teapot, pencils, books and we rst learn about it through
our everyday experience of it in particular contexts. Its
meaning is givento us by virtue of its connection to
various activities (e.g. writing, eating, conversation), and
by qualities (e.g. conviviality) that give it value in relation
to such activities. These constitute part of itsconditions
of intelligibility.
[4] Richardson, William J. Heidegger. Through Phenomenology to Thought. p. 37.
The implication is that we are always already thrown

into these conditions, that is, thrown into a prior under[5] Richardson, William J. Heidegger. Through Phenomenol- standing of the things which we encounter on a daily baogy to Thought. p. 37.
sis an understanding that is already somewhat meaningful and coherent. However, our understanding cannot be
made fully conscious or knowable at one time, since this
background understanding isn't itself an object:
Heidegger, Martin (1996). Being and Time. A
Translation ofSein und Zeit. Translated by Joan
Stambaugh (7th ed.). Albany, New York: SUNY
Press. ISBN 1-438-40632-0; ISBN 978-14-3840632-9.
According to Nikolas Kompridis, the initial disclosure of

an ontological world is said to be pre-reectiveor
rst-order disclosure.* [3] However, this so-called rstorder disclosure is not xed, as it can vary across historical time and cultural space. As well, Kompridis has de-
2.16. WORLD DISCLOSURE

scribed a kind of second-order or reective disclosure.
Whereas rst-order disclosure involves an implicit, unconscious and largely passive relation to meaning, reective disclosure is an explicit re-working of meaning and
the terms used to make sense of ourselves and the world,
through the refocusingor de-centeringof our understanding. Reective disclosure is thus a way of acting
back upon conditions of intelligibility, in order to clarify
or reshape our background understanding. Because of
this, reective disclosure also aects conditions of possibility by impacting on such basic questions as what
counts as a thing, what counts as true/false, and what it
makes sense to do.* [4]
While some philosophers, notably Jrgen Habermas and
Richard Rorty, claim that disclosure is an aesthetic phenomenon (supposedly, neither rational nor cognitive, and
therefore not philosophical), disclosive arguments have
been employed in many contexts that are not primarily
considered literary or aesthetic,and some philosophers have argued for the importance of disclosure's (not
to mention, aesthetics') place in human reason, most notably Nikolas Kompridis and Charles Taylor.* [5]* [6]
2.16.2
World-disclosing arguments
World-disclosing arguments are a family of philosophical argument described by Nikolas Kompridis in his
book Critique and Disclosure.* [8] According to Kompridis, these arguments have distinctive forms, sometimes
called styles of reasoning,* [9] that start with a disclosive approach instead of, or in addition to methods that
are deductive, inductive, etc.* [10]* [11] According to disclosure theorists, these forms of argument attempt to reveal features of a wider ontological or cultural-linguistic
understanding (or world,in a specically ontological
sense), in order to clarify or transform the background
of meaning and logical spaceon which an argument
implicitly depends.* [12]* [13] A major example of this
type of argument is said to be that of immanent critique,
although it is not the only kind.* [14]
63
or belief (the taken-for-granted position of the observer
in normal science). The second refers to the consciousness of the degree to which our interpretations, valuations, our practices, and traditions are temporally indexedand subject to historical change. This timeresponsive(as opposed toevidence-responsive) fallibilism consists in an expectant openness to some future
possibility. According to Kompridis, world-disclosing arguments are fallible in both senses of the word.* [17]
Major examples of world disclosing arguments in philosophy are said to include:
Transcendentalarguments, in which an understanding of some feature of experience is shown
to logically entail certain necessary conceptual presuppositions (e.g. Kant's transcendental self; Heidegger's elucidation of ontological being in Being
and Time);
Dialectical arguments, where the premises argued
from are shown to be logically weaker than the argument's conclusion (e.g. Hegel's master-slave dialectic and T.W. Adorno's Dialectic of Enlightenment);
Historical ontologies, such as those articulated by
Michel Foucault (the historical ontology of power),
Jacques Derrida (the historical ontology of meaning) and philosopher of science Ian Hacking (scientic revolutions); and
Forms of argument that, through the use of
hermeneutic arguments and creative redescriptions
of our practices and cultural paradigms, re-disclose
the background of cultural meaning and logical
space of possibility.* [18]
Other modern philosophers who are said to employ world-disclosing arguments include Hans-Georg
Gadamer, George Herbert Mead and Maurice MerleauPonty.
In deductive arguments, the testof the argument's

success are said to be its formal validity and soundness. 2.16.3 See also
However, in a world-disclosing argument, the primary
Aletheia
criterion for success is the solution of a problem that
could not be successfully dealt with under some previ Reective disclosure
ous understanding or paradigm, for example, after an
epistemological crisis (see Paradigm shift). It is therefore said to be possibility disclosing rather thantruth Martin Heidegger
preservingortruth-tracking.* [15] Theclaimmade
Hubert Dreyfus
by such an argument is that of a new insight, resulting
from the adoption of a new stance or perspective that re Ian Hacking
veals, or discloses a new possibility for thinking and act*
ing. [16]
Nikolas Kompridis
Nikolas Kompridis has described two kinds of fallibilism
Charles Taylor
in this regard. The rst consists in being open to new evidence that could disprove some previously held position
Receptivity
64
2.16.4
References
[1] Nikolas Kompridis, On World Disclosure: Heidegger,

Habermas and Dewey,Thesis Eleven, Vol. 37, No. 1,
29-45 (1994).
[2] Stephen Mulhall. Heidegger and Being and Time, Routledge, 1996. p. 96
[3] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future, MIT Press, 2006.
[14] "[Immanent] critique and reective disclosure are practically indistinguishable, and that is because they are structurally homologous.Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and
Disclosure (MIT Press, 2006), 254-255.
[15]Since we are not dealing with deductive or inductive
styles of reasoning (which are truth-preserving, not possibility disclosing), we cannot know in advance what form
[they] will take.Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 174.
[5] Fred Dallmayr, "Critique and Disclosure: Critical Theory

between Past and Future, University of Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews.
[16] "[S]uccessful critique depends not just on showing that x

is a disguised eect of y, which eect in turn requires
the exclusion or repression of r. For this to be shown in
the rst place, critique needs to nd the normative stance,
the new interpretive perspective, in light of which what
is familiar is defamiliarized, seen again, as if for the rst
time.Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure (MIT
Press, 2006), 254-255. See also The test of disclosure
in the same volume, 139-146.
[6] Charles Taylor, Philosophical Arguments (Harvard University Press, 1997), 12; 15.
[17] Nikolas Kompridis,Two kinds of fallibilism, Critique

and Disclosure (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2006), 181.
[7] Ludwig Wittgenstein, On Certainty (Oxford: Blackwell,

1975), 107.
[18] Nikolas Kompridis, World Disclosing Arguments?" in

Critique and Disclosure, Cambridge:MIT Press (2006),
118-121.
[4] Hubert Dreyfus, Being and Power: Heidegger and Foucault,in International Journal of Philosophical Studies 4,
1 (March 1996): 4. cited in Nikolas Kompridis, Critique
and Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past and Future,
MIT Press, 2006. p.126
[8] Nikolas Kompridis, Critique and Disclosure (MIT Press,

2006)
[9] Ian Hacking, Styles of Scientic Reasoning, John Rajchman and Cornel West, eds., Post-analytic Philosophy (New
York:Columbia University Press, 1985), pp.145-65.
[10] We can use the worddisclosurefor this, following Heidegger. And along with this goes a conception of critical reasoning, of especial relevance for moral thinking,
that focuses on the nature of transitions in our thought.
Charles Taylor, Philosophical Arguments (Harvard, 1995),
15.
[11] "[D]eductive, inductive, or abductive [logic does] not
count as a style of reasoning. This is as it should be
People everywhere make inductions, draw inferences to
the best explanation, make deductions; those are not peculiarly scientic styles of thinking.Ian Hacking, Historical
Ontology (Harvard, 2002), 90.
[12] "[T]hrough a clarication of the conditions of intentionality, we come to a better understanding of what we are as
knowing agents and hence also as language beings and
thereby gain insight into some of the crucial anthropological questions that underpin our moral and spiritual beliefs
What reection in this direction would entail is already
fairly well known. It involvesour being able to articulate the background of our lives perspicuously.Charles
Taylor, Philosophical Arguments(Harvard, 1995), 1415.
[13] "[World disclosing] arguments cannot assume that the logical space necessary to rendering visible the inferential relations between the premises and the conclusions already
exists; rather, their success depends on the degree to which
they can expand existing logical space in order to make
room for the conclusions to which they lead.Nikolas
Kompridis, World Disclosing Arguments?" in Critique
and Disclosure (MIT Press, 2006), 119.
Chapter 3
Work
3.1 Being and Time
comes to an end with our death. Therefore, if

we want to understand what it means to be an
authentic human being, then it is essential that
we constantly project our lives onto the horizon of our death, what Heidegger calls 'beingtowards-death'.* [2]
Sein und Zeitredirects here. For the episode of The

X-Files, see Sein und Zeit (The X-Files).
Being and Time (German: Sein und Zeit) is a 1927
book by the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. Although written quickly, and though Heidegger did not
complete the project outlined in the introduction, it remains his most important work. Being and Time has
profoundly inuenced 20th-century philosophy, particularly existentialism, hermeneutics and deconstruction.
The book is dedicated to Edmund Husserl in friendship and admiration.
3.1.1
Heidegger's original project
Being and Time was originally intended to consist of two

major parts, each part consisting of three divisions.* [1]
Heidegger was forced to prepare the book for publication
when he had completed only the rst two divisions of part
one. The remaining divisions planned for Being and Time
(particularly the divisions on time and being, Immanuel
Kant, and Aristotle) were never published, although in
many respects they were addressed in one form or another
in Heidegger's other works. In terms of structure, Being
and Time remains as it was when it rst appeared in print;
it consists of the lengthy two-part introduction, followed
by Division One, thePreparatory Fundamental Analysis
of Dasein,and Division Two,Dasein and Temporality.
3.1.3 Major themes

Being
On the rst page of Being and Time, Heidegger describes
the project in the following way: our aim in the following treatise is to work out the question of the sense
of being and to do so concretely.* [3] Heidegger claims
that traditional ontology has prejudicially overlooked this
question, dismissing it as overly general, undenable, or
obvious.* [4]
Instead Heidegger proposes to understand being itself,
as distinguished from any specic entities (beings).* [5]
"'Being' is not something like a being.* [6] Being, Heidegger claims, iswhat determines beings as beings, that
in terms of which beings are already understood.* [7]
Heidegger is seeking to identify the criteria or conditions
by which any specic entity can show up at all (see world
disclosure).* [8]
If we grasp Being, we will clarify the meaning of being, or senseof being (Sinn des Seins), where
by senseHeidegger means that in terms of which
something becomes intelligible as something.* [9] According to Heidegger, as this sense of being precedes any
notions of how or in what manner any particular being or
3.1.2 Introductory summary
beings exist, it is pre-conceptual, non-propositional, and
hence pre-scientic.* [10] Thus, in Heidegger's view, funAfter acknowledging the many diculties which ac- damental ontology would be an explanation of the undercompany any attempt to summarize the book's contents, standing preceding any other way of knowing, such as the
Simon Critchley oers a compressed version of the thesis use of logic, theory, specic ontology* [11] or act of reHeidigger advances:
ective thought. At the same time, there is no access to
being other than via beings themselveshence pursuing
With that said, the basic idea of Being and
the question of being inevitably means asking about a beTime is extremely simple: being is time. That
ing with regard to its being.* [12] Heidegger argues that
a true understanding of being (Seinsverstndnis) can only
is, what it means for a human being to be is
proceed by referring to particular beings, and that the best
to exist temporally in the stretch between birth
method of pursuing being must inevitably, he says, inand death. Being is time and time is nite, it
65
66
CHAPTER 3. WORK
volve a kind of hermeneutic circle, that is (as he explains

in his critique of prior work in the eld of hermeneutics),
it must rely upon repetitive yet progressive acts of interpretation.The methodological sense of phenomenological description is interpretation.* [13]
Dasein
Thus the question Heidegger asks in the introduction to
Being and Time is: what is the being that will give access to the question of the meaning of Being? Heidegger's answer is that it can only be that being for whom
the question of Being is important, the being for whom
Being matters.* [11] As this answer already indicates, the
being for whom Being is a question is not a what, but a
who. Heidegger calls this being Dasein (an ordinary German word literally meaningbeing-therei.e. existence),
and the method pursued in Being and Time consists in the
attempt to delimit the characteristics of Dasein, in order
thereby to approach the meaning of Being itself through
an interpretation of the temporality of Dasein. Dasein is
not man,but is nothing other than manit is this
distinction that enables Heidegger to claim that Being and
Time is something other than philosophical anthropology.
of the totality of Dasein is grounded in temporality. Accordingly, a primordial mode of temporalizing of ecstatic temporality itself must
make the ecstatic project of being in general
possible. How is this mode of temporalizing
of temporality to be interpreted? Is there a way
leading from primordial time to the meaning of
being? Does time itself reveal itself as the horizon of being?* [14]
3.1.4 Phenomenology in Heidegger and

Husserl
Although Heidegger describes his method in Being and
Time as phenomenological, the question of its relation to
the phenomenology of Husserl is complex. The fact that
Heidegger believes that ontology includes an irreducible
hermeneutic (interpretative) aspect, for example, might
be thought to run counter to Husserl's claim that phenomenological description is capable of a form of scientic positivity. On the other hand, however, several
aspects of the approach and method of Being and Time
seem to relate more directly to Husserl's work.
The central Husserlian concept of the directedness of

all thoughtintentionalityfor example, while scarcely
mentioned in Being and Time, has been identied by some
with Heidegger's central notion of "Sorge" (Cura, care or
concern). However, for Heidegger, theoretical knowledge
represents only one kind of intentional behaviour, and he
asserts that it is grounded in more fundamental modes
of behaviour and forms of practical engagement with the
surrounding world. Whereas a theoretical understanding
of things grasps them according topresence,for example, this may conceal that our rst experience of a being
Time
may be in terms of its being ready-to-hand.Thus, for
instance, when someone reaches for a tool such as a hamFinally, this question of the authenticity of individual Damer, their understanding of what a hammer is is not detersein cannot be separated from thehistoricalityof Damined by a theoretical understanding of its presence, but
sein. On the one hand, Dasein, as mortal, is stretched
by the fact that it is something we need at the moment we
alongbetween birth and death, and thrown into its world,
wish to do hammering. Only a later understanding might
that is, thrown into its possibilities, possibilities which Dacome to contemplate a hammer as an object.
sein is charged with the task of assuming. On the other
hand, Dasein's access to this world and these possibilities
is always via a history and a traditionthis is the question 3.1.5 Hermeneutics
of world historicality,and among its consequences is
Heidegger's argument that Dasein's potential for authen- The total understanding of being results from an expliticity lies in the possibility of choosing a hero.
cation of the implicit knowledge of being that inheres in
Heidegger's account of Dasein passes through a dissection of the experiences of Angst and mortality, and then
through an analysis of the structure of careas such.
From there he raises the problem ofauthenticity,that
is, the potentiality or otherwise for mortal Dasein to exist
fully enough that it might actually understand being. Heidegger is clear throughout the book that nothing makes
certain that Dasein is capable of this understanding.
Thus, more generally, the outcome of the progression of

Heidegger's argument is the thought that the being of Dasein is time. Nevertheless, Heidegger concludes his work
with a set of enigmatic questions foreshadowing the necessity of a destruction (that is, a transformation) of the
history of philosophy in relation to temporality these
were the questions to be taken up in the never completed
continuation of his project:
The existential and ontological constitution
Dasein. Philosophy thus becomes a form of interpretation, but since there is no external reference point outside
being from which to begin this interpretation, the question becomes to know in which way to proceed with this
interpretation. This is the problem of the hermeneutic circle,and the necessity for the interpretation of the
meaning of being to proceed in stages: this is why Heidegger's technique in Being and Time is sometimes referred to as hermeneutical phenomenology.
This interpretative aspect of Heidegger's project had a
3.1. BEING AND TIME

profound inuence on the hermeneutic approach of his
student Hans-Georg Gadamer.
3.1.6
Destruction of metaphysics
As part of his ontological project, Heidegger undertakes

a reinterpretation of previous Western philosophy. He
wants to explain why and how theoretical knowledge
came to seem like the most fundamental relation to being. This explanation takes the form of a destructuring
(Destruktion) of the philosophical tradition, an interpretative strategy that reveals the fundamental experience of
being at the base of previous philosophies that had become entrenched and hidden within the theoretical attitude of the metaphysics of presence. This Destruktion is
not simply a negative operation but rather a positive transformation, or recovery.
In Being and Time Heidegger briey undertakes a destructuring of the philosophy of Ren Descartes, but the
second volume, which was intended to be a Destruktion of
Western philosophy in all its stages, was never written. In
later works Heidegger uses this approach to interpret the
philosophies of Aristotle, Kant, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel, and Plato, among others.
This aspect of Heidegger's work exerted a profound inuence on Jacques Derrida, although there are also important dierences between Heidegger's Destruktion and
Derrida's deconstruction.
3.1.7
Translations
So far, there are complete translations of Sein und Zeit in

numerous languages: Arabic, Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French,
Georgian, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean,
Norwegian, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Slovenian, Spanish, Swahili, Swedish, and Turkish.
3.1.8
Related work
67
The lecture courses immediately following the publication of Being and Time, such as Die Grundprobleme der Phnomenologie (The Basic Problems
of Phenomenology, 1927), and Kant und das Problem der Metaphysik (Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, 1929), elaborated some elements of the destruction of metaphysics which Heidegger intended
to pursue in the unwritten second part of Being and
Time.
Although Heidegger did not complete the project outlined
in Being and Time, later works explicitly addressed the
themes and concepts of Being and Time. Most important
among the works which do so are the following:
Heidegger's inaugural lecture upon his return to
Freiburg, "Was ist Metaphysik?" (What Is Metaphysics?", 1929), was an important and inuential
clarication of what Heidegger meant by being, nonbeing, and nothingness.
Einfhrung in die Metaphysik (An Introduction to
Metaphysics), a lecture course delivered in 1935, is
identied by Heidegger, in his preface to the seventh German edition of Being and Time, as relevant
to the concerns which the second half of the book
would have addressed.
Beitrge zur Philosophie (Vom Ereignis) (Contributions to Philosophy [From Enowning], composed
193638, published 1989), perhaps Heidegger's
most sustained attempt at reckoning with the legacy
of Being and Time.
Zeit und Sein (Time and Being),* [15]* [16] a
lecture delivered at the University of Freiburg on
January 31, 1962. This was Heidegger's most direct confrontation with Being and Time. It was followed by a seminar on the lecture, which took place
at Todtnauberg on September 1113, 1962, a summary of which was written by Alfred Guzzoni. Both
the lecture and the summary of the seminar are included in Zur Sache des Denkens (1969; translated
as On Time and Being [New York: Harper & Row,
1972]).
Being and Time is the major achievement of Heidegger's

early career, but he produced other important works from
this period:
3.1.9
The publication in 1992 of the early lecture course,
Platon: Sophistes (Plato's Sophist, 1924), made clear
the way in which Heidegger's reading of Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics was crucial to the formulation
of the thought expressed in Being and Time.
Inuence
Being and Time inuenced many philosophers and writers, among them Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss, Alexandre
Kojve, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Giorgio Agamben, JeanPaul Sartre, Emmanuel Levinas, Maurice Merleau-Ponty,
Alain Badiou, Herbert Marcuse, Jacques Derrida, Michel
Foucault and Bernard Stiegler. More specically, sev The lecture course, Prolegomena zur Geschichte des eral important philosophical works were directly inuZeitbegris (History of the Concept of Time: Prole- enced by Being and Time, although in very dierent
gomena, 1925), was something like an early version ways in each case. Most notable among the works inof Being and Time.
uenced by Being and Time are Being and Nothingness
68
CHAPTER 3. WORK
(1943) by Jean-Paul Sartre, Truth and Method (1960) [10] Sein und Zeit, pp. 89.
by Hans-Georg Gadamer, Totality and Innity (1961) by
Emmanuel Levinas, Dierence and Repetition (1968) by [11] Sein und Zeit, p. 12.
Gilles Deleuze, Being and Event (1988) by Alain Badiou, [12] Sein und Zeit, p. 7.
and Technics and Time, 1 (1994) by Bernard Stiegler.
Heidegger has become common background for the polit- [13]der methodische Sinn der Phnomenologischen Deskription ist Auslegung," Sein und Zeit, p. 37.
ical movement concerned with protection of the environment, and his narrative of the history of Being frequently [14] Sein und Zeit, p. 437.
appear when capitalism, consumerism and technology are
thoughtfully opposed.
As Michael E. Zimmerman writes in Heidegger and Deep
Ecology:
Because he criticized technological modernitys domineering attitude toward nature, and
because he envisioned a postmodern era in
which people would let things be,Heidegger has sometimes been read as an intellectual
forerunner of todaysdeep ecologymovement.* [17]
3.1.10
References
[1] Sein und Zeit, pp. 3940.

978-02-2632-375-6.
[16] Naess, Jr., Arne D. Martin Heidegger's Later philosophy. Encyclopdia Britannica. Retrieved June 28, 2013.
[17] Michael E. Zimmerman (November 2011). intellectual forerunner of todays deep ecologymovement
(PDF). Heidegger and Deep Ecology. University of Colorado Boulder. p. 1. Retrieved May 24, 2015.
3.1.11 Bibliography
Primary literature
[2] Critchley, Simon. Being and Time, part 1: Why Heidegger Matters. The Guardian. Retrieved 26 February
2015.
Martin Heidegger, Sein und Zeit, in Heidegger's

Gesamtausgabe, volume 2, ed. F.-W. von Herrmann, 1977, XIV, 586p.
[3]Die konkrete Ausarbeitung der Frage nach dem Sinn von

Seinist die Absicht der folgenden Abhandlung.Sein
und Zeit, p. 1.
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. by John

Macquarrie & Edward Robinson (London: SCM
Press, 1962).
[4] Sein und Zeit, pp. 24.
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. by Joan

Stambaugh (Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1996).
[5] In other words, being is distinguished from beings such as

physical objects or even, as Heidegger explains in his discussion of theworldhood of the World,that entire collection of things that constitutes the physical universe. To
preserve Heidegger's distinction, translators usually render Seinas being, the gerund of to be, and
Seiend(singular) and Seiendes(plural) as the verbderived nouna beingandbeings,and occasionally,
perhaps preferably, as an entityand entities."
[6] "'Sein' ist nicht so etwas wie Seiendes.Sein und Zeit, p.
4.
[7] "...das Sein, das, was Seiendes als Seiendes bestimmt, das,
woraufhin Seiendes, mag es wie immer errtert werden, je
schon verstanden ist,Sein und Zeit, p. 6.
[8] In English, using the wordexistenceinstead ofbeing
might seem more natural and less confusing, but Heidegger, who stresses the importance of the origins of words,
uses his understanding of grammar to assist in his investigation ofbeing,and he reserves the wordexistence
to describe that dening type of being that Dasein (human
consciousness) has.
[9]aus dem her etwas als etwas verstndlich wird,Sein und
Zeit, p. 151.
Martin Heidegger, Being and Time, trans. by Joan

Stambaugh, revised by Dennis J. Schmidt (Albany:
State University of New York Press, 2010).
Secondary literature
Robert Bernasconi, "'The Double Concept of Philosophy' and the Place of Ethics in Being and Time,
Heidegger in Question: The Art of Existing (New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1993).
William D. Blattner, Heidegger's Temporal Idealism
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999).
Lee Braver. A Thing of This World: a History of
Continental Anti-Realism. Northwestern University
Press: 2007.
Richard Capobianco, Engaging Heidegger with a
Foreword by William J. Richardson. University of
Toronto Press, 2010.
3.1. BEING AND TIME

Taylor Carman, Heidegger's Analytic: Interpretation,
Discourse, and Authenticity in Being and Time
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Jacques Derrida, "Ousia and Gramme: Note on a
Note from Being and Time,Margins of Philosophy
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982).
Hubert Dreyfus, Being-in-the-World: A Commentary on Heidegger's Being and Time, Division I
(Cambridge, Massachusetts, & London: MIT Press,
1990).
Hubert Dreyfus, podcast of Philosophy 185 Fall
2007 Heidegger, UC Berkeley
Hubert Dreyfus, podcast of Philosophy 189 Spring
2008 Heidegger, UC Berkeley
Christopher Fynsk, Heidegger: Thought and Historicity (Ithaca & London: Cornell University Press,
1993, expanded edn.), ch. 1.
Michael Gelven, A Commentary on Heidegger'sBeing and Time" (Northern Illinois University Press;
Revised edition, 1989).
Magda King, A Guide to Heideggers Being and
Time, edited by John Llewelyn (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2001).
Theodore Kisiel, The Genesis of Heidegger's Being
and Time (Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1993).
James Luchte, Heidegger's Early Thought: The
Phenomenology of Ecstatic Temporality (London:
Bloomsbury Publishing. 2008).
William McNeill, The Glance of the Eye: Heidegger, Aristotle, and the Ends of Theory (Albany: State
University of New York Press, 1999), ch. 34.
Jean-Luc Nancy, The Decision of Existence,
The Birth to Presence (Stanford: Stanford University
Press, 1993).
Cristian Ciocan (ed.), Translating Heidegger's Sein
und Zeit, Studia Phaenomenologica V (2005)
William J. Richardson, Heidegger: Through Phenomenology to Thought. Martinus Nijho, 1963.
3.1.12
External links
Being and time, excerpts on Google books

Arne D. Naess, Jr., Being and time on Encyclopdia
Britannica
69
Chapter 4
Appendix A
4.1 Analytic philosophy
Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a style of philosophy that became dominant in
English-speaking countries during the 20th century. In
the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, and also Scandinavia, the great majority
of university philosophy departments identify themselves
as analyticdepartments.* [1]
The term analytic philosophycan refer to:
The principle that the logical clarication of

thoughts can be achieved only by analysis of the
logical form of philosophical propositions.* [9] The
logical form of a proposition is a way of representing
it (often using the formal grammar and symbolism
of a logical system), to reduce it to simpler components if necessary, and to display its similarity with
all other propositions of the same type. However,
analytic philosophers disagree widely about the correct logical form of ordinary language.* [10]
The neglect of generalized philosophical systems

A philosophical practice* [2]* [3] characterized by
in favour of more restricted inquiries stated rigoran emphasis on argumentative clarity and precision
ously,* [11] or ordinary language.* [12]
(often achieved by means of formal logic and analysis of language) and a tendency to use, or refer to, According to a characteristic paragraph by Russell:
mathematics and the natural sciences.* [4]* [5]* [6]
Modern analytical empiricism [...] diers
from
that of Locke, Berkeley, and Hume by its
The more specic set of developments of early
incorporation
of mathematics and its develop20th-century philosophy that were the historical anment
of
a
powerful
logical technique. It is thus
tecedents of the current practice: e.g., the work
able,
in
regard
to
certain
problems, to achieve
of Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein, G. E.
denite
answers,
which
have
the quality of sciMoore, Gottlob Frege, and logical positivists. In this
ence
rather
than
of
philosophy.
It has the admore specic sense, analytic philosophy is identied
vantage,
in
comparison
with
the
philosophies
with specic philosophical traits (many of which are
of
the
system-builders,
of
being
able
to tackle
rejected by many contemporary analytic philosoits
problems
one
at
a
time,
instead
of
having
to
phers), such as:
invent at one stroke a block theory of the whole
universe. Its methods, in this respect, resemble
The logical-positivist principle that there are not
those of science. I have no doubt that, in so far
any specically philosophical facts and that the obas philosophical knowledge is possible, it is by
ject of philosophy is the logical clarication of
such methods that it must be sought; I have also
thoughts. This may be contrasted with the tradino doubt that, by these methods, many ancient
tional foundationalism, which considers philosophy
problems are completely soluble.* [13]
to be a special science (i.e. the discipline of knowledge) that investigates the fundamental reasons and Analytic philosophy is often understood in conprinciples of everything.* [7] Consequently, many trast to other philosophical traditions, most notably
analytic philosophers have considered their inquiries continental philosophies such as existentialism and
as continuous with, or subordinate to, those of the phenomenology, and also Thomism, Indian philosophy,
natural sciences. This is an attitude that begins with and Marxism.* [14]
John Locke, who described his work as that of an
underlabourerto the achievements of natural scientists such as Newton. During the twentieth cen- 4.1.1 History
tury, the most inuential advocate of the continuity
of philosophy with science was Willard Van Orman Late 19th-century English philosophy was dominated by
Quine. .* [8]
British idealism, as taught by philosophers like F. H.
70
4.1. ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY
71
Bradley and Thomas Hill Green. It was with reference

tity means that x is the same as y(x=y).
to this intellectual basis that the initiators of analytic philosophy, G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell, articulated Russell sought to resolve various philosophical problems
early analytic philosophy.
by applying such logical distinctions, most famously in his
*
Since its beginning, a basic principle of analytic philos- analysis of denite descriptions inOn Denoting. [20]
*
ophy has been conceptual clarity, [15] in the name of
which Moore and Russell rejected Hegelianism, which
they accused of obscurity.* [16]* [17] Inspired by devel- Ideal language analysis
opments of modern logic, the early Russell claimed that
the problems of philosophy can be solved by showing the Main article: Linguistic philosophy
simple constituents of complex notions.* [15] An important aspect of British idealism was logical holism- the From about 1910 to 1930, analytic philosophers like
opinion that the aspects of the world cannot be known Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein emphasized creating an
wholly without also knowing the whole world. This is ideal language for philosophical analysis, which would
closely related to the opinion that relations between items be free from the ambiguities of ordinary language that,
are actually internal relations, that is, properties internal in their opinion, often made philosophy invalid. This
to the nature of those items. Russell, along with Wittgen- philosophical trend can be termedideal-language analstein, in response promulgated logical atomism and the ysisor formalism. During this phase, Russell and
doctrine of external relations- the belief that the world Wittgenstein sought to understand language, and hence
consists of independent facts.* [18]
philosophical problems, by using formal logic to formalRussell, during his early career, along with his collabo- ize the way in which philosophical statements are made.
rator Alfred North Whitehead, was much inuenced by Wittgenstein developed a comprehensive system of logGottlob Frege, who developed predicate logic, which al- ical atomism in his Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. He
lowed a much greater range of sentences to be parsed into thereby argued that the universe is the totality of actual
logical form than was possible using the ancient Aris- states of aairs and that these states of aairs can be
totelian logic. Frege was also an inuential philosopher expressed by the language of rst-order predicate logic.
of mathematics in Germany at the beginning of the 20th Thus a picture of the universe can be construed by means
century. In contrast to Husserl's 1891 book Philosophie of expressing atomic facts in the form of atomic proposider Arithmetik, which attempted to show that the concept tions, and linking them using logical operators.
of the cardinal number derived from psychical acts of
grouping objects and counting them,* [19] Frege sought
to show that mathematics and logic have their own validity, independent of the judgments or mental states of
individual mathematicians and logicians (which were the
basis of arithmetic according to the "psychologism" of
Husserl's Philosophie). Frege further developed his philosophy of logic and mathematics in The Foundations of
Arithmetic and The Basic Laws of Arithmetic where he
provided an alternative to psychologistic accounts of the
concept of number.
Like Frege, Russell and Whitehead attempted to show
that mathematics is reducible to fundamental logical principles. Their Principia Mathematica (191013) encouraged many philosophers to renew their interest with the
development of symbolic logic. Additionally, Russell
adopted Frege's predicate logic as his primary philosophical method, a method Russell thought could expose the
underlying structure of philosophical problems. For example, the English wordishas three distinct meanings
which can be parsed in predicate logic as the following:
For the sentence 'the cat is asleep', the is of predication means that x is P(denoted as P(x))
For the sentence 'there is a cat', the is of existence
means that there is an x(x);
For the sentence 'three is half of six', the is of iden-
Logical positivism
Main article: Logical positivism
During the late 1920s, '30s, and '40s, Russell and
Wittgenstein's formalism was developed by a group of
philosophers of the Vienna Circle and the Berlin Circle,
into a doctrine known as logical positivism (or logical empiricism). Logical positivism used formal logical methods to develop an empiricist account of knowledge.* [21]
Philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach, along with other Vienna Circle members, claimed
that the truths of logic and mathematics were tautologies,
and those of science were veriable empirical claims.
These two constituted the entire universe of meaningful
judgments; anything else was nonsense. The claims of
ethics, aesthetics and theology were, accordingly, pseudostatements, neither true nor false, simply meaningless.
Karl Popper's insistence upon the role of falsication for
the philosophy of science was a reaction to what he considered the excesses of the logical positivistsalthough
his general method was essentially part of the analytic
tradition.* [22] With the coming to power of Adolf Hitler
and Nazism, many members of the Vienna and Berlin
Circles ed to Britain and America, which helped to reinforce the dominance of logical positivism and analytic
philosophy in the Anglophone countries.* [23]
72
CHAPTER 4. APPENDIX A
Logical positivists typically considered philosophy as

having a very limited function. For them, philosophy concerned the clarication of thoughts, rather than having a
distinct subject matter of its own. The positivists adopted
the verication principle, according to which every meaningful statement is either analytic or is capable of being
veried by experience. This caused the logical positivists
to reject many traditional problems of philosophy, especially those of metaphysics or ontology, as meaningless.
Ordinary-language analysis
Main article: Ordinary language philosophy
After World War II, during the late 1940s and 1950s, analytic philosophy became involved with ordinary-language
analysis. This fact resulted in two main trends. One
continued Wittgenstein's later philosophy, which diered
dramatically from his early work of the Tractatus. The
other, known as Oxford philosophy, involved J.
L. Austin. In contrast to earlier analytic philosophers
(including the early Wittgenstein) who thought philosophers should avoid the deceptive trappings of natural
language by constructing ideal languages, ordinary language philosophers claimed that ordinary language already represented a large number of subtle distinctions
that had been unrecognized by the formulation of traditional philosophical theories or problems. While schools
such as logical positivism emphasize logical terms, supposed to be universal and separate from contingent factors (such as culture, language, historical conditions), ordinary language philosophy emphasizes the use of language by ordinary people. The best-known ordinarylanguage philosophers during the 1950s were Austin and
Gilbert Ryle.
Anglophone philosophy began to incorporate a wider

range of interests, opinions, and methods.* [24] Still,
many philosophers in Britain and America still consider
themselves to beanalytic philosophers.* [1]* [4] They
have done so largely by expanding the notion ofanalytic
philosophyfrom the specic programs that dominated
Anglophone philosophy before 1960 to a much more general notion of ananalyticstyle.* [24] This interpretation
of the history is far from universally accepted, and its opponents would say that it grossly downplays the role of
Wittgenstein during the 1960s and 1970s.
Many philosophers and historians have attempted to dene or describe analytic philosophy. Those denitions
often include an emphasis on conceptual analysis: A.P.
Martinich draws an analogy between analytic philosophy's interest in conceptual analysis and analytic chemistry, which aims at determining chemical compositions.* [25] Steven D. Hales described analytic philosophy as one of three types of philosophical method practiced in the West: "[i]n roughly reverse order by number
of proponents, they are phenomenology, ideological philosophy, and analytic philosophy.* [26]
Scott Soames agrees that clarity is important: analytic
philosophy, he says, has an implicit commitmentalbeit faltering and imperfectto the ideals of clarity, rigor
and argumentationand itaims at truth and knowledge,
as opposed to moral or spiritual improvement [...] the
goal in analytic philosophy is to discover what is true, not
to provide a useful recipe for living one's life. Soames
also states that analytic philosophy is characterised bya
more piecemeal approach. There is, I think, a widespread
presumption within the tradition that it is often possible
to make philosophical progress by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range of philosophical issues
while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance
.* [27]
Ordinary-language philosophy often sought to dissolve

philosophical problems by showing them to be the result A few of the most important and active topics and
of misunderstanding ordinary language. See for exam- subtopics of analytic philosophy are summarized by the
ple Ryle (who attempted to dispose of "Descartes' myth") following sections.
and Wittgenstein, among others.
Philosophy of mind and cognitive science
4.1.2
Contemporary analytic philosophy

Main article: Philosophy of mind
Although contemporary philosophers who self-identify

as analytichave widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methods- and have often rejected the fundamental premises that dened analytic philosophy before
1960- analytic philosophy in its contemporary state is
usually considered to be dened by a particular style* [4]
characterized by precision and thoroughness about a specic topic, and resistance to imprecise or cavalier discussions of broad topics.* [24]
Motivated by the logical positivists' interest in vericationism, logical behaviorism was the most prominent theory of mind of analytic philosophy for the rst half of the
twentieth century.* [28] Behaviorists tended to opine either that statements about the mind were equivalent to
statements about behavior and dispositions to behave in
particular ways or that mental states were directly equivalent to behavior and dispositions to behave. Behaviorism
During the 1950s, logical positivism was challenged in- later became much less popular, in favor of type physuentially by Wittgenstein in the Philosophical Investiga- icalism or functionalism, theories that identied mental
tions, Quine in "Two Dogmas of Empiricism", and Sellars states with brain states. During this period, topics of the
in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind. After 1960, philosophy of mind were often related strongly to top-
73
ics of cognitive science such as modularity or innateness. phy. At present, contemporary normative ethics is domFinally, analytic philosophy has featured a certain num- inated by three schools: utilitarianism, virtue ethics, and
ber of philosophers who were dualists, and recently forms deontology.
of property dualism have had a resurgence, with David
Chalmers as the most prominent representative.* [29]
John Searle suggests that the obsession with the philosophy of language of the last century has been superseded
by an emphasis on the philosophy of mind,* [30] in which
functionalism is currently the dominant theory. In recent years, a central focus for research in the philosophy of mind has been consciousness. And while there
is a general consensus for the global neuronal workspace
model of consciousness,* [31] there are many opinions as
to the specics. The best known theories are Daniel Dennett's heterophenomenology, Fred Dretske and Michael
Tye's representationalism, and the higher-order theories
of either David M. Rosenthalwho advocates a higherorder thought (HOT) model- or David Armstrong and
William Lycanwho advocate a higher-order perception
(HOP) model. An alternative higher-order theory, the
higher-order global states (HOGS) model, is oered by
Robert van Gulick.* [32]
Ethics in analytic philosophy
Meta-ethics Twentieth-century meta-ethics has two

origins. The rst is G. E. Moore's investigation into the
nature of ethical terms (e.g. good) in his Principia Ethica
(1903), which identied the naturalistic fallacy. Along
with Hume's famous is/ought distinction, the naturalistic
fallacy was a major topic of investigation for analytical
philosophers.
The second is in logical positivism and its attitude that
statements which are unveriable are meaningless. Although that attitude was adopted originally as a means to
promote scientic investigation by rejecting grand metaphysical systems, it had the side eect of making (ethical
and aesthetic) value judgments (as well as religious statements and beliefs) meaningless. But since value judgments are of major importance in human life, it became
incumbent on logical positivism to develop an explanation of the nature and meaning of value judgements. As
a result, analytic philosophers avoided normative ethics,
and instead began meta-ethical investigations into the nature of moral terms, statements, and judgments.
Main article: Ethics
The logical positivists opined that statements about value

- including all ethical and aesthetic judgments- are
Philosophers working with the analytic tradition have non-cognitive; that is, they can not be objectively verigradually come to distinguish three major types of moral ed or falsied. Instead, the logical positivists adopted
an emotivist theory, which was that value judgments exphilosophy.
pressed the attitude of the speaker. Saying, Killing is
wrong, they thought, was equivalent to saying,Boo to
Meta-ethics the function of which is investigation of murder, or saying the wordmurderwith a particular
moral terms and concepts.
tone of disapproval.
Normative ethics the function of which is examina- While non-cognitivism was generally accepted by anation and production of normative ethical judgments. lytic philosophers, emotivism had many deciencies, and
evolved into more sophisticated non-cognitivist theories
Applied ethics the function of which is investigation such as the expressivism of Charles Stevenson, and the
of how existing normative principles should be ap- universal prescriptivism of R. M. Hare, which was based
plied to dicult or borderline cases, often cases creon J. L. Austin's philosophy of speech acts.
ated by new technology or new scientic knowledge.
These theories were not without their critics. Phillipa
Foot contributed several essays attacking all these theNormative ethics The rst half of the twentieth cen- ories. J. O. Urmson's article On Gradingcalled the
tury was marked by skepticism toward, and neglect of, is/ought distinction into question.
normative ethics. Related subjects, such as social and po- As non-cognitivism, the is/ought distinction, and the natlitical philosophy, aesthetics, and philosophy of history, uralistic fallacy began to be called into question, analytic
became only marginal topics of English-language philos- philosophers began to show a renewed interest in the traophy during this period.
ditional questions of moral philosophy. Perhaps most inDuring this time, utilitarianism was the only non-skeptical
type of ethics to remain popular. However, as the inuence of logical positivism began to decrease mid-century,
contemporary analytic philosophers began to have a renewed interest in ethics. G. E. M. Anscombes 1958
Modern Moral Philosophy sparked a revival of Aristotle's
virtue ethical approach and John Rawls's 1971 A Theory of Justice restored interest in Kantian ethical philoso-
uential in this regard was Elizabeth Anscombe, whose

monograph Intention was called by Donald Davidsonthe
most important treatment of action since Aristotle, and
is widely regarded as a masterpiece of moral psychology.
A favorite student and friend of Ludwig Wittgenstein, her
1958 articleModern Moral Philosophyintroduced the
term "consequentialism" into the philosophical lexicon,
declared theis-oughtimpasse to be unproductive, and
74
resulted in a revival of virtue ethics.

Applied ethics A signicant feature of analytic philosophy since approximately 1970 has been the emergence
of applied ethics- an interest in the application of moral
principles to specic practical issues.
Topics of special interest for applied ethics include environmental issues, animal rights, and the
many challenges created by advancing medical science.* [33]* [34]* [35]
Analytic philosophy of religion
Main article: Philosophy of religion
In Analytic Philosophy of Religion, Harris noted that
thought rooted in the Swansea tradition,and which

includes Wittgensteinians such as Rush Rhees, Peter
Winch, and D. Z. Phillips, among others. The name
contemplative philosophywas rst coined by D. Z.
Phillips in Philosophy's Cool Place, which rests on an interpretation of a passage from Wittgenstein's Culture
and Value.* [42] This interpretation was rst labeled,
Wittgensteinian Fideism,by Kai Nielsen but those who
consider themselves Wittgensteinians in the Swansea tradition have relentlessly and repeatedly rejected this construal as a caricature of Wittgenstein's considered position; this is especially true of D. Z. Phillips.* [43] Responding to this interpretation, Kai Nielsen and D. Z.
Phillips became two of the most prominent philosophers
on Wittgenstein's philosophy of religion.* [44]
Political philosophy
Liberalism Current analytic political philosophy owes

much to John Rawls, who in a series of papers from the
1950s onward (most notably Two Concepts of Rules
and Justice as Fairness) and his 1971 book A Theory of Justice, produced a sophisticated defence of a
generally liberal egalitarian account of distributive justice. This was followed soon by Rawls's colleague Robert
Nozick's book Anarchy, State, and Utopia, a defence of
free-market libertarianism. Isaiah Berlin also had a lastAs with the study of ethics, early analytic philosophy ing inuence on both analytic political philosophy and
tended to avoid the study of philosophy of religion, Liberalism with his lecture the Two Concepts of Liberty.
largely dismissing (as per the logical positivists) the
During recent decades there have also been several crisubject as part of metaphysics and therefore meaningtiques of liberalism, including the feminist critiques
less.* [37] The demise of logical positivism renewed interof Catharine MacKinnon and Andrea Dworkin, the
est in philosophy of religion, prompting philosophers like
communitarian critiques of Michael Sandel and Alasdair
William Alston, John Mackie, Alvin Plantinga, Robert
MacIntyre (though it should be noted that neither one
Merrihew Adams, Richard Swinburne, and Antony Flew
endorses the term), and the multiculturalist critiques of
not only to introduce new problems, but to re-study clasAmy Gutmann and Charles Taylor. Although not an anasical topics such as the nature of miracles, theistic argulytic philosopher, Jrgen Habermas is another important
ments, the problem of evil, (see existence of God) the ra- if controversial- author of contemporary analytic
tionality of belief in God, concepts of the nature of God,
political philosophy, whose social theory is a blend of
and many more.* [38]
social science, Marxism, neo-Kantianism, and American
Plantinga, Mackie and Flew debated the logical valid- pragmatism.
ity of the free will defense as a way to solve the probConsequentialist libertarianism also derives from the anlem of evil.* [39] Alston, grappling with the consequences
alytic tradition.
of analytic philosophy of language, worked on the nature of religious language. Adams worked on the relationship of faith and morality.* [40] Analytic epistemol- Analytical Marxism Another development of politiogy and metaphysics has formed the basis for a number cal philosophy has been the emergence of a school known
of philosophically-sophisticated theistic arguments, like as Analytical Marxism. Members of this school seek
those of the reformed epistemologists like Plantinga.
to apply the techniques of analytic philosophy, along
analytic philosophy has been a very heterogeneous 'movement'.... some forms of analytic philosophy have proven very sympathetic
to the philosophy of religion and have actually provided a philosophical mechanism for
responding to other more radical and hostile
forms of analytic philosophy.* [36]* :3
Analytic philosophy of religion has also been preoccupied with Wittgenstein, as well as his interpretation of
Sren Kierkegaard's philosophy of religion.* [41] Using
rst-hand remarks (which was later published in Philosophical Investigations, Culture and Value, and other
works), philosophers such as Peter Winch and Norman
Malcolm developed what has come to be known as
contemplative philosophy, a Wittgensteinian school of
with techniques of modern social science such as rational

choice theory to the elucidation of the theories of Karl
Marx and his successors. The best-known member of
this school is G. A. Cohen, whose 1978 work, Karl Marx's
Theory of History: A Defence, is generally considered as
representing the genesis of this school. In that book, Cohen applied the tools of logical and linguistic analysis to
the elucidation and defense of Marx's materialist concep-

tion of history. Other prominent Analytical Marxists include the economist John Roemer, the social scientist Jon
Elster, and the sociologist Erik Olin Wright. The work
of these later philosophers have furthered Cohen's work
by bringing to bear modern social science methods, such
as rational choice theory, to supplement Cohen's use of
analytic philosophical techniques in the interpretation of
Marxian theory.
75
existence's status as a property have all become major
concerns, while perennial issues such as free will, possible worlds, and the philosophy of time have been revived.* [47]* [48]
Science has also had an increasingly signicant role in

metaphysics. The theory of special relativity has had a
profound eect on the philosophy of time, and quantum physics is routinely discussed in the free will deCohen himself would later engage directly with Rawlsian bate.* [48] The weight given to scientic evidence is
political philosophy to advance a socialist theory of jus- largely due to widespread commitments among philosotice that stands in contrast to both traditional Marxism phers to scientic realism and naturalism.
and the theories advanced by Rawls and Nozick. In particular, he indicates Marx's principle of from each acPhilosophy of language
cording to his ability, to each according to his need.
Main article: Philosophy of language
Communitarianism Communitarians
such
as
Alasdair MacIntyre, Charles Taylor, Michael Walzer,
and Michael Sandel advance a critique of Liberalism that
uses analytic techniques to isolate the main assumptions
of Liberal individualists, such as Rawls, and then challenges these assumptions. In particular, Communitarians
challenge the Liberal assumption that the individual can
be considered as fully autonomous from the community
in which he lives and is brought up. Instead, they argue
for a conception of the individual that emphasizes the
role that the community plays in forming his or her
values, thought processes and opinions.
Analytic metaphysics
Main article: Metaphysics
Philosophy of language is another topic that has decreased during the last four decades, as evidenced by
the fact that few major authors of contemporary philosophy treat it as a primary research topic. Indeed,
while the debate remains erce, it is still strongly inuenced by those authors from the rst half of the century:
Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Ludwig Wittgenstein,
J.L. Austin, Alfred Tarski, and W.V.O. Quine.
In Kripke's publication Naming and Necessity, he argued inuentially that aws in common theories of proper
names are indicative of larger misunderstandings of the
metaphysics of necessity and possibility. By wedding the
techniques of modal logic to a causal theory of reference, Kripke was widely regarded as reviving theories of
essence and identity as respectable topics of philosophical
discussion.
One striking dierence with respect to early analytic philosophy was the revival of metaphysical theorizing during
the second half of the twentieth century. Philosophers
such as David Kellogg Lewis and David Armstrong developed elaborate theories on a range of topics such as
universals, causation, possibility and necessity, and abstract objects.
Another inuential philosopher, Pavel Tich intitiated

Transparent Intensional Logic, an original theory of the
logical analysis of natural languages the theory is devoted to the problem of saying exactly what it is that we
learn, know and can communicate when we come to understand what a sentence means.
Among the developments that resulted in the revival

of metaphysical theorizing were Quine's attack on the
analytic-synthetic distinction, which was generally considered to weaken Carnap's distinction between existence
questions internal to a framework and those external to
it.* [45] Important also for the revival of metaphysics was
the further development of modal logic, including the
work of Saul Kripke, who argued in Naming and Necessity and elsewhere for the existence of essences and the
possibility of necessary, a posteriori truths.* [46]
Philosophy of science
Metaphysics remains a fertile topic of research, having

recovered from the attacks of A.J. Ayer and the logical
positivists. And though many discussions are continuations of old ones, inherited from previous decades and
centuries, the debate remains active. The philosophy of
ction, the problem of empty names, and the debate over
Main article: Philosophy of science

Reacting against both the vericationism of the logical positivists as well as the critiques of the philosopher of science Karl Popper, who had suggested the
falsiability criterion on which to judge the demarcation between science and non-science, discussions of
philosophy of science during the last forty years were
dominated by social constructivist and cognitive relativist theories of science. Thomas Samuel Kuhn with
his formulation of paradigm shifts and Paul Feyerabend
with his epistemological anarchism are signicant for
these discussions.* [49] The philosophy of biology has
also undergone considerable growth, particularly due to
76
the considerable debate in recent years over the nature
of evolution, particularly natural selection.* [50] Daniel
Dennett and his 1995 book Darwin's Dangerous Idea,
which defends Neo-Darwinism, stand at the foreground
of this debate.* [51]
Epistemology
believing in determinism and therefore that free will is an
illusion (Hard Determinism) or that free will exists and
therefore determinism is false (Libertarianism).
Contextualism For epistemology, contextualism is the
treatment of the word 'knows' as context-sensitive.
Context-sensitive expressions are ones thatexpress different propositions relative to dierent contexts of use.
Deationism For epistemology, the idea that assertions

that predicate truth of a statement do not attribute a property called truth to such a statement. However, there are
Owing largely to Gettier's 1963 paper Is Justied True many competing deationist theories: redundancy theBelief Knowledge?", epistemology resurged as a topic of ory, performative theory, semantic theory, disquotaanalytic philosophy during the last 50 years. A large por- tionalism, prosententialism, and minimalism.
tion of current epistemological research is intended to Direct realism For epistemology, the idea that the world
resolve the problems that Gettier's examples presented is pretty much as common sense would have it. Furtherto the traditional justied true belief model of knowl- more, when we look at and touch things we see and feel
edge, including developing theories of justication in or- those things directly, and so perceive them as they really
der to deal with Gettier's examples, or giving alternatives are. In contrast, indirect or representative realism claims
to the justied true belief model. Other and related top- that we are directly aware only of internal representations
ics of contemporary research include debates between of the external world. Direct realism is also known by the
internalism and externalism,* [52] basic knowledge, the names, nave realism or common sense realism.
nature of evidence, the value of knowledge, epistemic
Epiphenomenalism For the philosophy of mind, epipheluck, virtue epistemology, the role of intuitions in jusnomenalism is an idea according to which some or all
tication, and treating knowledge as a primitive concept.
mental states are mere epiphenomena (side-eects or byproducts) of physical states of the world.
Aesthetics
Externalism Contrasted with internalism, externalism
names several distinct views across several branches of
Main article: Aesthetics
philosophy. For example, in moral philosophy a motivational externalist claims that there is no necessary conAs a result of attacks on the traditional aesthetic notions nection between moral judgments and moral motives. In
of beauty and sublimity from post-modern thinkers, an- epistemology, a justication externalist claims that there
alytic philosophers were slow to consider art and aes- are factors other than those which are internal to the bethetic judgment. Susanne Langer* [53] and Nelson Good- liever which can aect the justicatory status of a belief.
man* [54] addressed these problems in an analytic style In philosophy of mind, externalism is the view that the
during the 1950s and 60s. Since Goodman, aesthetics as contents of at least some of one's mental states are dea discipline for analytic philosophers has ourished.* [55] pendent in part on their relationship to the external world
Rigorous eorts to pursue analyses of traditional aes- or one's environment.
thetic concepts were performed by Guy Sircello during Functionalism For philosophy of mind, functionalism is
the 1970s and 80s, resulting in new analytic theories of a philosophical position holding that mental states (belove,* [56] sublimity,* [57] and beauty.* [58]
liefs, desires, being in pain, etc.) are constituted solely
by their functional role that is, their causal relations to
other mental states, sensory inputs, and behavioral out4.1.3 Topics of analytic philosophy
puts. Since mental states are identied by a functional
role, they are said to be multiply realizable; in other
Coherentism For epistemology, the idea has been ad- words, they are able to be manifested in various systems,
vanced both as a theory of knowledge and of justied even perhaps computers, so long as the system performs
belief. As a theory of knowledge, coherentism can be the appropriate functions.
roughly stated as follows: Someone's belief is true if
and only if it is coherent with all or most of his or her Compatibilism For metaphysics, it is the idea that free
other beliefs.As a theory of justication, coherentism will and determinism are compatible ideas and that it is
can be roughly stated: Someone's belief is justied if possible to believe both without being logically inconsisand only if it is coherent with all or most of his or her tent. Compatibilism is also known by the name, soft determinism.
other beliefs.
Incompatibilism For metaphysics, it is the idea that free Internalism Contrasted with externalism, internalism
will (and therefore moral responsibility) and determinism names several distinct views across several branches of
are logically incompatible categories. This could include philosophy. For example, in moral philosophy a motivaMain article: Epistemology

tional internalist claims that moral judgments are intrinsically motivating. In epistemology, a internalism about
justication claims that everything necessary to provide
justication for a belief must be immediately available in
an agent's conscious. In philosophy of mind, internalism
is the view that the contents of all of one's mental states
are independent of their relationship to the external world
or one's environment.
77
erties.
Quietism For metaphilosophy, the idea that the role of
philosophy is therapeutic or remedial. Quietist philosophers believe that philosophy has no positive theses to
contribute, but rather that its value is in defusing confusions in the linguistic and conceptual frameworks of other
subjects.
Reliabilism For epistemology, the idea has been adLogical atomism The theory that the world consists of vanced both as a theory of knowledge and of justied beultimate logical facts(or atoms) that cannot be lief. As a theory of knowledge, reliabilism can be roughly
broken down any further.
stated as follows: One knows that p (p stands for any
Logical positivism Logical positivism (or logical empiri- propositione.g., that the sky is blue) if and only if p is
cism) is a school of philosophy that combines empiricism, true, one believes that p is true, and one has arrived at the
the idea that observational evidence is indispensable for belief that p through some reliable process.As a theory
knowledge of the world, with a version of rationalism, the of justied belief, reliabilism can be formulated roughly
idea that our knowledge includes a component that is not as follows: One has a justied belief that p if, and only
if, the belief is the result of a reliable process.
derived from observation.
Moral particularism Moral particularism is the idea that
there are not any moral principles and that moral judgement can be found only as one decides particular cases,
either real or imagined.
Scientic realism and Scientic antirealism For the

philosophy of science, the idea that the entities described
by scientic theories (e.g., quarks, mesons, double-helix
molecules) really exist and the opposing idea that they
Naturalism Naturalism is the idea that the scientic do not exist but are rather something like a useful cmethod (hypothesize, predict, test, repeat) is the only ef- tion, social construction, etc. See also Australian realism,
fective way to investigate reality. Defended most notably Instrumentalism, and Entity realism.
by Willard Van Orman Quine with his work to reduce Substance dualism For the philosophy of mind, the idea
epistemology to psychology.
that there exist two kinds of substance: physical and nonNeopragmatism Neopragmatism, sometimes called lin- physical (the mind), and subsequently also two kinds of
guistic pragmatism, is a recent (since the 1960s) philo- properties which adhere in those respective substances.
sophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. It has been associated with a
variety of thinkers, among them Richard Rorty, Hilary
Putnam, W.V.O. Quine, Donald Davidson, and Stanley
Fish though none of these people have called themselves
neopragmatists.
Vericationism Vericationism is the idea that a statement or question only has meaning if there is some way
to determine if the statement is true, or what the answer
to the question is.
Virtue Ethics The contemporary revival of virtue theory is frequently traced to the philosopher G. E. M.
Non-cognitivism For metaethics, non-cognitivism is the Anscombe's 1958 essay, Modern Moral Philosophy and
idea that ethical sentences do not express propositions to Philippa Foot, who published a collection of essays in
and thus cannot be true or false. Examples of this idea 1978 entitled Virtues and Vices.
emotivism, Universal prescriptivism, quasi-realism, and
expressivism.
Ordinary language philosophy Ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school that approached traditional philosophical problems as rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by forgetting what words
actually mean in a language.
4.1.4 See also
Postanalytic philosophy
Scientism
Physicalism For philosophy of mind and metaphysics,
physicalism is the idea that everything which exists is no
more extensive than its physical properties; that is, that 4.1.5 Notes
there are no kinds of things other than physical things.
The term was invented by Otto Neurath in a series of early [1]Without exception, the best philosophy departments in
the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy,
20th century essays on the subject.
Property dualism For the philosophy of mind, the idea
that, although the world is constituted of just one kind
of substancethe physical kindthere exist two distinct
kinds of properties: physical properties and mental prop-
and among the leading philosophers in the United States,

all but a tiny handful would be classied as analytic
philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that
are not in the analytic traditionsuch as phenomenology, classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxism
- feel it necessary to dene their position in relation to
78
analytic philosophy.John Searle (2003) Contemporary

Philosophy in the United States in N. Bunnin and E.P.
Tsui-James (eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, 2nd ed., (Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.
[2] See, e.g., Avrum Stroll, Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 5: "[I]t is
dicult to give a precise denition of 'analytic philosophy' since it is not so much a specic doctrine as a loose
concatenation of approaches to problems.Also, see Stroll
(2000), p. 7: I think Sluga is right in saying 'it may
be hopeless to try to determine the essence of analytic
philosophy.' Nearly every proposed denition has been
challenged by some scholar. [...] [W]e are dealing with a
family resemblance concept.
[3] See Hans-Johann Glock, What Is Analytic Philosophy
(Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 205: The answer to the title question, then, is that analytic philosophy
is a tradition held together both by ties of mutual inuence
and by family resemblances.
[4] Brian Leiter (2006) webpage Analyticand ContinentalPhilosophy. Quote on the denition: "'Analytic'
philosophy today names a style of doing philosophy, not a
philosophical program or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers, crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic;
and often identify, professionally and intellectually, more
closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the
humanities.
[5] Glock, H. J. (2004). Was Wittgenstein an Analytic Philosopher?". Metaphilosophy 35 (4): 419444.
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9973.2004.00329.x.
[6] Colin McGinn, The Making of a Philosopher: My
Journey through Twentieth-Century Philosophy (HarperCollins, 2002), p. xi.: analytical philosophy [is] too
narrow a label, since [it] is not generally a matter of taking
a word or concept and analyzing it (whatever exactly that
might be). [...] This tradition emphasizes clarity, rigor,
argument, theory, truth. It is not a tradition that aims primarily for inspiration or consolation or ideology. Nor is
it particularly concerned with 'philosophy of life,' though
parts of it are. This kind of philosophy is more like science than religion, more like mathematics than poetry
though it is neither science nor mathematics.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
is, I think, a widespread presumption within the tradition

that it is often possible to make philosophical progress
by intensively investigating a small, circumscribed range
of philosophical issues while holding broader, systematic questions in abeyance. What distinguishes twentiethcentury analytical philosophy from at least some philosophy in other traditions, or at other times, is not a categorical rejection of philosophical systems, but rather the acceptance of a wealth of smaller, more thorough and more
rigorous, investigations that need not be tied to any overarching philosophical view.See also, e.g.,Philosophical
Analysis(catalogued underAnalysis, Philosophical)
in Encyclopedia of Philosophy , Vol. 1 (Macmillan, 1967),
esp. sections on Bertrand Russellat p. 97, G.E.
Mooreat p. 100, andLogical Positivismat p. 102.
[12] See, e.g., the works of G.E. Moore and J.L. Austin.
[13] A History of Western Philosophy (Simon & Schuster,
1945), p. 834.
[14] A.C. Grayling (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the
Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 2: Analytic philosophy is mainly associated with the contemporary English-speaking world, but it is by no means the
only important philosophical tradition. In this volume two
other immensely rich and important such traditions are introduced: Indian philosophy, and philosophical thought in
Europe from the time of Hegel.L.J. Cohen, The Dialogue
of Reason: An Analysis of Analytical Philosophy (Oxford
University Press, 1986), p. 5:So, despite a few overlaps,
analytical philosophy is not dicult to distinguish broadly
[...] from other modern movements, like phenomenology,
say, or existentialism, or from the large amount of philosophizing that has also gone on in the present century within
frameworks deriving from other inuential thinkers like
Aquinas, Hegel, or Marx.H.-J. Glock, What Is Analytic
Philosophy? (Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 86:
Most non-analytic philosophers of the twentieth century
do not belong to continental philosophy.
[15] Mautner, Thomas (editor) (2005) The Penguin Dictionary
of Philosophy, entry for 'Analytic philosophy, pp.223
[16] See for example Moore's A Defence of Common Sense and
Russell's critique of the Doctrine of internal relations,
[17]Analytic philosophy opposed right from its beginning

English neo-Hegelianism of Bradley's sort and similar
See Aristotle Metaphysics (Book II 993a), Kenny (1973)
ones. It did not only criticize the latter's denial of the exp. 230.
istence of an external world (anyway an unjust criticism),
but also the bombastic, obscure style of Hegel's writings.
See, e.g., Quine's papers Two Dogmas of Empiricism
Jonkers,
Peter (2003). Perspectives on Twentieth Cenand Epistemology Naturalized.
tury Philosophy:A Reply to Tom Rockmore(PDF). Ars
Disputandi 3. ISSN 1566-5399.
A.P. Martinich, Introduction,in Martinich & D. Sosa
(eds.), A Companion to Analytic Philosophy (Blackwell,
2001), p. 1: To use a general name for the kind of ana- [18] Baillie, James,Introduction to Bertrand Russellin Contemporary Analytic Philosophy, Second Edition (Prentice
lytic philosophy practiced during the rst half of the twenHall, 1997), p. 25.
tieth century, [...] 'conceptual analysis' aims at breaking
down complex concepts into their simpler components.
[19] Willard, Dallas.Husserl on a Logic that Failed. Philosophical Review 89 (1): 5253. doi:10.2307/2184863.
Wittgenstein, op. cit., 4.111
[11] Scott Soames, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth

Century Vol. 1 (Princeton UP, 2003), p. xv: There
[20] Russell, Bertrand (1905). On Denoting. Mind 14:

47393.
79
[21] Carnap, R. (1928). The Logical Structure of the World.

Felix Meiner Verlag. ISBN 0-812-69523-2. LCCN
66013604.
[37] (a notable exception is the series of Michael B. Forest's

193436 Mind articles involving the Christian doctrine of
creation and the rise of modern science).
[22] Popper, Karl R. (2002). The Logic of Scientic Discovery. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-27844-9.
[38] Peterson, Michael et al. (2003). Reason and Religious

Belief
[23] Important amongst these were Wittgenstein and Carnap.

Popper might also be included, since despite his rejection
of the term his method is similar to the analytic tradition.
[39] Mackie, John L. (1982). The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God
[24] Analytic Philosophy Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

[25] A.P. Martinich, ed. (2001). A companion to analytic philosophy. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell. pp. 15. ISBN 0631-21415-1.
[40] Adams, Robert M. (1987). The Virtue of Faith And Other

Essays in Philosophical Theology
[41] Creegan, Charles. (1989). Wittgenstein and Kierkegaard:
Religion, Individuality and Philosophical Method
[26] Hales, Steven D. (2002). Analytic philosophy : classic

readings. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
pp. 110. ISBN 0-534-51277-1.
[42] Phillips, D. Z. (1999). Philosophy's Cool Place. Cornell

University Press. The quote is from Wittgenstein's Culture
and Value (2e):My ideal is a certain coolness. A temple
providing a setting for the passions without meddling with
them.
[27] Soames, Scott (2003). The dawn of analysis (2nd print.,

1st paperb. print. ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ.
Press. pp. xiiixvii. ISBN 0-691-11573-7.
[43] Fideism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[28] Graham, George,Behaviorism, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta
(ed.).
[29] Dualism entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[30] Postrel and Feser, February 2000, Reality Principles: An
Interview with John R. Searle at http://www.reason.com/
news/show/27599.html
[31] Dennett, D. (2001). Are we explaining consciousness
yet?". Cognition 79 (12): 221237. doi:10.1016/S00100277(00)00130-X. PMID 11164029.
[44] Nielsen, Kai and D.Z. Phillips. (2005). Wittgensteinian

Fideism?
[45] S. Yablo and A. Gallois, Does Ontology Rest on a Mistake?,
Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary
Volumes, Vol. 72, (1998), pp. 229-261+263-283 rst
part
[46] Zimmerman, Dean W., Prologuein Oxford Studies in
Metaphysics, Volume 1 (Oxford University Press, 2004),
p. xix.
[47] Everett, Anthony and Thomas Hofweber (eds.) (2000),
Empty Names, Fiction and the Puzzles of Non-Existence.
[32] For summaries and some criticism of the dierent higherorder theories, see Van Gulick, Robert (2006) Mirror MirrorIs That All?" In Kriegel & Williford (eds.),
Self-Representational Approaches to Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. The nal draft is also available here . For Van Gulick's own view, see Van Gulick,
Robert. Higher-Order Global States HOGS: An Alternative Higher-Order Model of Consciousness.In Gennaro, R.J., (ed.) Higher-Order Theories of Consciousness:
An Anthology. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
[48] Van Inwagen, Peter, and Dean Zimmerman (eds.) (1998),

Metaphysics: The Big Questions.
[33] Brennan, Andrew and Yeuk-Sze Lo (2002). Environmental Ethics2, in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[52] Bonjour, Laurence, Recent Work on the Internalism

Externalism Controversyin Dancy, Sosa, and Steup
(eds.), A Companion to Epistemology, Second Edition
(Wiley-Blackwell, 2010), p. 33.
[34] Gruen, Lori (2003). "The Moral Status of Animals,in

The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[35] See Hursthouse, Rosalind (2003). Virtue Ethics3,
in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy and Donchin,
Anne (2004). "Feminist Bioethics" in The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[36] Harris, James Franklin (2002). Analytic philosophy of
religion. Dordrecht: Kluwer. ISBN 140200530X. (432
pages) (volume 3 of Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, ISSN 1568-1556)
[49] Glock 2008, p. 47.

[50] Hull, David L. and Ruse, Michael, Prefacein The
Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology (Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. xix & xx.
[51] Lennox, James G.,Darwinism and Neo-Darwinismin
Sakar and Plutynski (eds.), A Companion to the Philosophy
of Biology (Blackwell Publishing, 2008), p. 89.
[53] Susanne Langer, Feeling and Form: A Theory of Art

(1953)
[54] Nelson Goodman, Languages of Art: An Approach to a
Theory of Symbols. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1968.
2nd ed. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1976. Based on his 196061 John Locke lectures.
[55] Kivy, Peter, Introduction: Aesthetics Todayin The
Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics (Blackwell Publishing,
2004), p. 4.
80
[56] Guy Sircello, Love and Beauty. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1989.
4.2 Continental philosophy
Continental philosophy is a set of 19th- and 20thcentury philosophical traditions from mainland Europe.* [1]* [2] This sense of the term originated among
English-speaking philosophers in the second half of
[58] Guy Sircello, A New Theory of Beauty. Princeton Essays
the 20th century, who used it to refer to a range
on the Arts, 1. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,
of thinkers and traditions outside the analytic move1975.
ment. Continental philosophy includes the following movements: German idealism, phenomenology,
existentialism (and its antecedents, such as the thought of
4.1.6 References
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche), hermeneutics, structuralism,
Aristotle, Metaphysics
post-structuralism, French feminism, psychoanalytic theory, and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School and
Geach, P., Mental Acts, London 1957
related branches of Western Marxism.* [3]
Kenny, A.J.P., Wittgenstein, London 1973.
It is dicult to identify non-trivial claims that would be
[57] Guy SircelloHow Is a Theory of the Sublime Possible?"
The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, Vol. 51, No.
4 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 541-550
Analytic philosophy entry by Aaron Preston in the common to all the preceding philosophical movements.
The termcontinental philosophy, likeanalytic phiInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
losophy, lacks clear denition and may mark merely a
Wittgenstein, Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
family resemblance across disparate philosophical views.
Simon Glendinning has suggested that the term was originally more pejorative than descriptive, functioning as
a label for types of western philosophy rejected or disliked by analytic philosophers.* [4] Nonetheless, Michael
The London Philosophy Study Guide oers many
E. Rosen has ventured to identify common themes that
suggestions on what to read, depending on the stutypically characterize continental philosophy.* [5]
dent's familiarity with the subject: Frege, Russell,
and Wittgenstein
First, continental philosophers generally reject the
Dummett, Michael. The Origins of Analytical
view that the natural sciences are the only or most
Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
accurate way of understanding natural phenomena.
Press, 1993.
This contrasts with many analytic philosophers who
consider their inquiries as continuous with, or subor Hirschberger, Johannes. A Short History of Western
dinate to, those of the natural sciences. Continental
Philosophy, ed. Clare Hay. Short History of Westphilosophers often argue that science depends upon
ern Philosophy, A. ISBN 978-0-7188-3092-2
a pre-theoretical substrate of experience(a ver Hylton, Peter. Russell, Idealism, and the Emergence
sion of Kantian conditions of possible experience
of Analytic Philosophy. Oxford: Oxford University
or the phenomenological "lifeworld") and that sciPress, 1990.
entic methods are inadequate to fully understand
such conditions of intelligibility.* [6]
Soames, Scott. Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century: Volume 1, The Dawn of Analysis.
Second, continental philosophy usually considers
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003.
these conditions of possible experience as variable:
Passmore, John. A Hundred Years of Philosophy,
determined at least partly by factors such as conrevised ed. New York: Basic Books, 1966.
text, space and time, language, culture, or history. Thus continental philosophy tends toward
Weitz, Morris, ed. Twentieth Century Philosophy:
historicism. Where analytic philosophy tends to
The Analytic Tradition. New York: Free Press,
treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, ca1966.
pable of being analyzed apart from their historical
origins (much as scientists consider the history of
science inessential to scientic inquiry), continen4.1.8 External links
tal philosophy typically suggests thatphilosophical
argument cannot be divorced from the textual and
Analytic philosophy entry in the Internet Encyclopecontextual conditions of its historical emergence
dia of Philosophy
.* [7]
Analytic philosophy entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Third, continental philosophy typically holds that
Analytic philosophy at DMOZ
human agency can change these conditions of pos-
4.2. CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY

sible experience: if human experience is a contingent creation, then it can be recreated in other ways
.* [8] Thus continental philosophers tend to take a
strong interest in the unity of theory and practice,
and often see their philosophical inquiries as closely
related to personal, moral, or political transformation. This tendency is very clear in the Marxist tradition ("philosophers have only interpreted the world,
in various ways; the point, however, is to change
it"), but is also central in existentialism and poststructuralism.
81
distinctive part of their new movement.* [13] Commenting on the history of the distinction in 1945, Russell distinguished two schools of philosophy, which may be
broadly distinguished as the Continental and the British
respectively, a division he saw as operative from the
time of Locke.* [14]
Since the 1970s, however, many philosophers in America and Britain have taken interest in continental philosophers since Kant, and the philosophical traditions in many
European countries have similarly incorporated many aspects of the analyticmovement. Self-described analytic philosophy ourishes in France, including philosophers such as Jules Vuillemin, Vincent Descombes, Gilles
Gaston Granger, Franois Recanati, and Pascal Engel.
Likewise, self-describedcontinental philosopherscan
be found in philosophy departments in the United Kingdom, North America, and Australia,* [15] and some wellknown analytic philosophers claim to conduct better
scholarship on continental philosophy than self-identied
programs in continental philosophy, particularly at the
level of graduate education.* [16] Continental philosophyis thus dened in terms of a family of philosophical
traditions and inuences rather than a geographic distinction.
A nal characteristic trait of continental philosophy is an emphasis on metaphilosophy. In the wake

of the development and success of the natural sciences, continental philosophers have often sought to
redene the method and nature of philosophy.* [9]
In some cases (such as German idealism or phenomenology), this manifests as a renovation of the
traditional view that philosophy is the rst, foundational, a priori science. In other cases (such as
hermeneutics, critical theory, or structuralism), it is
held that philosophy investigates a domain that is irreducibly cultural or practical. And some continental philosophers (such as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche,
the later Heidegger, or Derrida) doubt whether any
conception of philosophy can coherently achieve its
4.2.2
stated goals.
History
The history of continental philosophy (taken in its narrower sense) is usually thought to begin with German
idealism.* [17] Led by gures like Fichte, Schelling, and
later Hegel, German idealism developed out of the work
of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s and was
closely linked with romanticism and the revolutionary
politics of the Enlightenment. Besides the central gures listed above, important contributors to German ide4.2.1 The term
alism also included Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, Gottlob
The term continental philosophy,in the above sense, Ernst Schulze, Karl Leonhard Reinhold, and Friedrich
Schleiermacher.
was rst widely used by English-speaking philosophers
to describe university courses in the 1970s, emerging as As the institutional roots of continental philosophy
a collective name for the philosophies then widespread in in many cases directly descend from those of pheFrance and Germany, such as phenomenology, existen- nomenology,* [18] Edmund Husserl has always been a
tialism, structuralism, and post-structuralism.* [11]
canonical gure in continental philosophy. Nonetheless,
However, the term (and its approximate sense) can be Husserl is also *a respected subject of study in the anfound at least as early as 1840, in John Stuart Mill's 1840 alytic tradition. [19] Husserl's notion of a noema, the
essay on Coleridge, where Mill contrasts the Kantian- non-psychological content of thought, his correspondence
inuenced thought of Continental philosophyand with Gottlob Frege, and his investigations into the naContinental philosopherswith the English empiricism ture of logic continue to generate interest among analytic
of Bentham and the 18th century generally.* [12] This philosophers.
Ultimately, the foregoing themes derive from a broadly
Kantian thesis that knowledge, experience, and reality are
bound and shaped by conditions best understood through
philosophical reection rather than exclusively empirical
inquiry.* [10]
notion gained prominence in the early 20th century as

gures such as Bertrand Russell and G.E. Moore advanced a vision of philosophy closely allied with natural
science, progressing through logical analysis. This tradition, which has come to be known broadly as analytic
philosophy, became dominant in Britain and America
from roughly 1930 onward. Russell and Moore made a
dismissal of Hegelianism and its philosophical relatives a
J.G. Merquior* [20] argued that a distinction between analytic and continental philosophies can be rst clearly
identied with Henri Bergson (1859-1941), whose wariness of science and elevation of intuition paved the way
for existentialism. Merquior wrote: the most prestigious philosophizing in France took a very dissimilar path
[from the Anglo-Germanic analytic schools]. One might
say it all began with Henri Bergson.
82
An illustration of some important dierences between

analyticand continentalstyles of philosophy can
be found in Rudolf Carnap's Elimination of Metaphysics through Logical Analysis of Language(Originally published in 1932 as "berwindung der Metaphysik
durch Logische Analyse der Sprache), a paper some
observers have described as particularly polemical. Carnap's paper argues that Heidegger's lecture What Is
Metaphysics?" violates logical syntax to create nonsensical pseudo-statements.* [21] Moreover, Carnap claimed
that many German metaphysicians of the era were similar
to Heidegger in writing statements that were not merely
false, but devoid of any meaning.
Hannah Arendt, Leo Strauss, Theodor W. Adorno, and

Walter Kaufmann are probably the most notable of this
wave, arriving in the late 1930s and early 1940s. However, philosophy departments began oering courses in
continental philosophy in the late 1960s and 1970s. With
the rise of postmodernism in the 1970s and 1980s, some
British and American philosophers became more vocally
opposed to the methods and conclusions of continental
philosophers. For example, John Searle* [22] criticized
Derrida's deconstruction for obvious and manifest intellectual weaknesses.Later, Barry Smith and assorted
signatories protested against the award of an honorary degree to Derrida by Cambridge University.* [23]
With the rise of Nazism, many of Germany's philosophers, especially those of Jewish descent or leftist or liberal political sympathies (such as many in the Vienna
Circle and the Frankfurt School), ed to the Englishspeaking world. Those philosophers who remainedif
they remained in academia at allhad to reconcile themselves to Nazi control of the universities. Others, such
as Martin Heidegger, among the most prominent German
philosophers to stay in Germany, embraced Nazism when
it came to power.
American university departments in literature, the ne

arts, lm, sociology, and political theory have increasingly incorporated ideas and arguments from continental philosophers into their curricula and research. Continental Philosophy features prominently in a number of
British and Irish Philosophy departments, for instance at
the University of Essex, Warwick and Sussex, Manchester Metropolitan, Kingston University and University
College Dublin, and in North American Philosophy departments, including the University of Hawai'i at Mnoa,
Boston College, Stony Brook University (SUNY), Vanderbilt University, DePaul University, Villanova University, the University of Guelph, The New School, Pennsylvania State University, University of Oregon, Emory
University, Duquesne University, the University of Memphis, University of King's College, and Loyola University Chicago. The most prominent organization for continental philosophy in the United States is the Society
for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy (known
as SPEP).* [24]
Both before and after World War II there was a growth

of interest in German philosophy in France. A new interest in communism translated into an interest in Marx
and Hegel, who became for the rst time studied extensively in the politically conservative French university system of the Third Republic. At the same time the phenomenological philosophy of Husserl and Heidegger became increasingly inuential, perhaps owing to its resonances with those French philosophies which placed great
stock in the rst-person perspective (an idea found in
divergent forms such as Cartesianism, spiritualism, and
Bergsonism). Most important in this popularization of
phenomenology was the author and philosopher JeanPaul Sartre, who called his philosophy existentialism.
(See 20th-century French philosophy.) Another major strain of continental thought is structuralism/poststructuralism. Inuenced by the structural linguistics
of Ferdinand de Saussure, French anthropologists such
as Claude Lvi-Strauss began to apply the structural
paradigm to the humanities. In the 1960s and '70s, poststructuralists developed various critiques of structuralism. Post-structuralist thinkers include Jacques Lacan,
Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze.
The rise of Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy can be interpreted both as a prophylactic and a therapeutic movement: on the one hand, Whitehead's life and
thought show that analytic rigor and speculative imagination can work together; on the other hand, Whiteheadian scholarship has sometimes provided bridges between
these elds.* [25]
4.2.4 See also

Analytic philosophy
Existential Thomism
Index of continental philosophy articles
4.2.3
Recent
ments
Anglo-American
develop-
Marxism
Non-philosophy
Speculative realism
From the early 20th century until the 1960s, continental
philosophers were only intermittently discussed in British
and American universities, despite an inux of continen- 4.2.5 Notes
tal philosophers, particularly German Jewish students of
Nietzsche and Heidegger, to the United States on account [1] Leiter 2007, p. 2:As a rst approximation, we might say
that philosophy in Continental Europe in the nineteenth
of the persecution of the Jews and later World War II;
4.2. CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY
83
and twentieth centuries is best understood as a connected

weave of traditions, some of which overlap, but no one of
which dominates all the others.
[15] See, e.g., Walter Brogan and James Risser (eds.), American Continental Philosophy: A Reader (Indiana University
Press, 2000).
[2] Critchley, Simon (1998),Introduction: what is continental philosophy?", in Critchley, Simon; Schroder, William,
A Companion to Continental Philosophy, Blackwell Companions to Philosophy, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, p. 4.
[16] Brian Leiter is most commonly associated with such

claims.
[3] The above list includes only those movements common

to both lists compiled by Critchley 2001, p. 13 and
Glendinning 2006, pp. 5865
[4] Glendinning 2006, p. 12.
[5] The following list of four traits is adapted from Rosen,
Michael, Continental Philosophy from Hegel, in
Grayling, A.C., Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject,
p. 665
[6] Critchley 2001, p. 115.
[7] Critchley 2001, p. 57.
[8] Critchley 2001, p. 64.
[9] Leiter 2007, p. 4: While forms of philosophical naturalism have been dominant in Anglophone philosophy, the
vast majority of authors within the Continental traditions
insist on the distinctiveness of philosophical methods and
their priority to those of the natural sciences.
[10] Continental philosophers usually identify such conditions
with the transcendental subject or self: Solomon 1988, p.
6,It is with Kant that philosophical claims about the self
attain new and remarkable proportions. The self becomes
not just the focus of attention but the entire subject-matter
of philosophy. The self is not just another entity in the
world, but in an important sense it creates the world, and
the reecting self does not just know itself, but in knowing
itself knows all selves, and the structure of any and every
possible self.
[17] Critchley 2001 and Solomon 1988 date the origins of continental philosophy a generation earlier, to the work of
Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
[18] E.g., the largest academic organization devoted to furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for
Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy.
[19] Kenny, Anthony (ed). The Oxford Illustrated History of
Western Philosophy. ISBN 0-19-285440-2
[20] Merquior, J.G. (1987). Foucault (Fontana Modern Masters series), University of California Press, ISBN 0-52006062-8.
[21] Gregory, Wanda T. Heidegger, Carnap and Quine at
the Crossroads of Language, and Abraham D. Stone.
Heidegger and Carnap on the Overcoming of Metaphysics
[22] Searle, John R.Word Turned Upside Down.New York
Times Review of Books, Volume 30, Number 16 October
27, 1983.
[23] Barry Smith et al. Open letter against Derrida receiving
an honorary doctorate from Cambridge University , The
Times (London), Saturday 9 May 1992
[24] Society for Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy
[25] See Michel Weber, Much Ado About Duckspeak ,
Balkan Journal of Philosophy, Vol. 3, Issue 1, 2011, pp.
135-142; Whitehead's creative advance from formal to
existential ontology , Logique et Analyse, 54/214, juin
2011, Special Issue on Whitehead
s Early Work, pp. 127133.
[11] Critchley 2001, p. 38.

[12] Mill, John Stuart (1950). On Bentham and Coleridge.
Harper Torchbooks. New York: Harper & Row. pp. 104,
133, 155.
[13] Russell, Bertrand (1959). My Philosophical Development.
London: Allen & Unwin. p. 62. Hegelians had all
kinds of arguments to prove this or that was not 'real'.
Number, space, time, matter, were all professedly convicted of being self-contradictory. Nothing was real, so
we were assured, except the Absolute, which could think
only of itself since there was nothing else for it to think of
and which thought eternally the sort of things that idealist
philosophers thought in their books.
[14] B. Russell, A History of Western Philosophy, (Simon &
Schuster, 1945), p. 643 and 641. Russell proposes the
following broad points of distinction between Continental
and British types of philosophy: (1) in method, deductive
system-building vs. piecemeal induction; (2) in metaphysics, rationalist theology vs. metaphysical agnosticism;
(3) in ethics, non-naturalist deontology vs. naturalist hedonism; and (4) in politics, authoritarianism vs. liberalism. Ibid., pp. 643-647.
4.2.6 References
Babich, Babette (2003).
On the AnalyticContinental Divide in Philosophy: Nietzsches Lying Truth, Heideggers Speaking Language, and
Philosophy.In: C. G. Prado, ed., A House Divided: Comparing Analytic and Continental Philosophy. Amherst, NY: Prometheus/Humanity Books.
pp. 63103.
Critchley, Simon (2001). Continental Philosophy: A
Very Short Introduction. Oxford; New York: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 0-19-285359-7.
Cutrofello, Andrew (2005). Continental Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge Contemporary Introductions to Philosophy. New York;
Abingdon: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
Glendinning, Simon (2006). The idea of continental
philosophy: a philosophical chronicle. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press Ltd.
84
Leiter, Brian; Rosen, Michael, eds. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Continental Philosophy. Oxford;
New York: Oxford University Press.
Anti-Semite and Jew
Schrift, Alan D. (2010). The History of Continental

Philosophy. Chicago; Illinois: University of Chicago
Press Press.
Aous Shakra
Solomon, Robert C. (1988). Continental philosophy

since 1750: the rise and fall of the self. Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press.
Kenny, Anthony (2007). A New History of Western Philosophy, Volume IV: Philosophy in the Modern World. New York: Oxford University Press.
4.2.7
External links
Continental philosophy at DMOZ
4.3 Index of continental philosophy

articles
This is a list of articles in continental philosophy.
Abandonment (existentialism)
Abjection
Absurdism
Achieving Our Country
Albert Camus
Alberto Moreiras
Albrecht Wellmer
Alexandru Dragomir
Alfred Adler
Allan Bloom
Alterity
Always already
Anarchism and Friedrich Nietzsche
Andr Malet (philosopher)
ngel Rama
Angst
Anguish
Antonio Caso Andrade
Apperception
Arborescent
Atheist existentialism
Aufheben
Aurel Kolnai
Authenticity (philosophy)
Autonomism
Avital Ronell
Ayyavazhi phenomenology
Bad faith (existentialism)
Barbara Herrnstein Smith
Beatriz Sarlo
Being and Nothingness
Being and Time
Being in itself
Benedetto Croce
Beyond Good and Evil
Black existentialism
Boredom
Bracketing (phenomenology)
Cahiers pour l'Analyse
Carmen Laforet
Cartesian Meditations
Charles Sanders Peirce
Christian Discourses
Christian existentialism
Christopher Norris (critic)
Citationality
Claude Lefort
Claudio Canaparo
Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka
Concluding Unscientic Postscript to Philosophical

Fragments
Answering the Question: What Is Enlightenment?
Consciousness
4.3. INDEX OF CONTINENTAL PHILOSOPHY ARTICLES
85
Constantin Noica
Eranos
Ernst Cassirer
Contributions to Philosophy (From Enowning)
Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy
Cornelius Castoriadis
Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick
Course in General Linguistics
Exceptionalism
Critical discourse analysis
Exile and the Kingdom
Critical historiography
Existential crisis
Critical pedagogy
Existential humanism
Critical theory
Existential phenomenology
Criticism of postmodernism
Existentiell
Critique of Cynical Reason
Face-to-face
Critique of Dialectical Reason
Facticity
Critique of Pure Reason
Fear and Trembling
Critiques of Slavoj iek
Ferdinand de Saussure
Cultural materialism (anthropology)
For Self-Examination
Cultural studies
FoucaultHabermas debate
Cyborg theory
Franz Rosenzweig
Dasein
Frederick C. Beiser
David Farrell Krell
Fredric Jameson
Deconstruction
French structuralist feminism
Delm Santos
French Theory
Dermot Moran
Freudo-Marxism
Discontinuity (Postmodernism)
Friedrich Nietzsche
Discourse ethics
Friedrich Nietzsche bibliography
Duality of structure
Friedrich Pollock
Ecce Homo (book)
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
Eco-criticism
Gabriel Marcel
criture fminine
Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak
Edifying Discourses in Diverse Spirits
Geist
Edith Wyschogrod
Gender studies
Edmund Husserl
Genealogy (philosophy)
Edward Said
Geocriticism
Egoist anarchism
Georey Bennington
Either/Or
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Epic and Novel
Giles Fraser
Epoch
Giorgio Agamben
86
Guy Debord
Jean Grenier
Hans-Georg Gadamer
Je Malpas
Hans Lipps
Jena romantics
Hegelianism
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Hlne Cixous
Josena Ayerza
Helene von Druskowitz
Juan-David Nasio
Henri Bergson
Judge for Yourselves!
Herbert Marcuse
Judith Butler
Hermeneutics
Juha Varto
Heteronormativity
Julia Kristeva
Heterophenomenology
Julie Rivkin
Historicity (philosophy)
Jrgen Habermas
History of Consciousness
Karl Ameriks
Honorio Delgado
Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel
Human, All Too Human
Keiji Nishitani
Humanistic psychology
L'existentialisme est un humanisme
Husserliana
Lacan at the Scene
Hypermodernity
Laura Kipnis
Idea for a Universal History with a Cosmopolitan

Purpose
Leo Strauss
Igor Pribac
Les jeux sont faits
Inuence and reception of Sren Kierkegaard
Les Temps modernes
Inuence and reception of Friedrich Nietzsche
Lewis White Beck
Instrumental rationality
Lifeworld
International Journal of iek Studies
List of critical theorists
Intersubjectivity
List of postmodern critics
Irrational Man: A Study in Existential Philosophy
List of works in critical theory
Irrealism (the arts)
Literary criticism
Jacques Derrida
Literary theory
Jacques Lacan
Lived body
James E. Faulconer
Logocentrism
James M. Edie
Logos: A Journal of Modern Society and Culture
Jan Patoka
Louis Althusser
Jean-Franois Lyotard
Louis H. Mackey
Jean-Luc Nancy
Luce Irigaray
Jean-Paul Sartre
Ludwig Landgrebe
Lon Dumont

Man's Fate
Marek Siemek
Mark Sacks
Mark Wrathall
Marshall Berman
Martin Buber
Martin Heidegger
Mary Louise Pratt
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
Max Horkheimer
Maxence Caron
Metaphor in philosophy
Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
Metaphysics of Morals
Metaphysics of presence
Michael Vavrus
Michel Foucault bibliography
Michel Henry
Mikhail Ovsyannikov
87
On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference
to Socrates
On the Genealogy of Morality
On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense
Ontic
Orientalism (book)
Orthotes
Outline of critical theory
Paul de Man
Paul R. Patton
Paul Re
Per Martin-Lf
Phenomenological Sociology
Phenomenology (philosophy)
Phenomenology of essences
Phenomenology of Perception
Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe
Philippe Nys
Philosophical Fragments
Minima Moralia
Philosophical Inquiries into the Essence of Human

Freedom
Mirror stage
Philosophy and Phenomenological Research
Modalities (sociology)
Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks
Modernism
Philosophy of dialogue
Mythologies (book)
Philosophy of Existence
Nelly Richard
Philosophy of Max Stirner
Nstor Garca Canclini

Nicola Abbagnano
Nietzsche's views on women
Nietzsche and free will
Nietzsche and Philosophy
Nietzsche contra Wagner
Nietzschean armation
Objet petit a
Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and
Sublime
Philosophy of Sren Kierkegaard

Philosophy of technology
Pirmin Stekeler-Weithofer
Post-Marxism
Post-structuralism
Postcolonialism
Posthegemony
Postmodern Christianity
Postmodern philosophy
Postmodern psychology
88
Postmodern social construction of nature
Search for a Method
Postmodern vertigo
Secondary antisemitism
Postmodernism
Self-deception
Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism
Semeiotic
Practice in Christianity
Pragmatic maxim
Prefaces
Private sphere
Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics
Public sphere
Queer heterosexuality
Queer pedagogy
Queer theory
Ranjana Khanna
Reective disclosure
Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max
Stirner
Repetition (Kierkegaard)
Repressive hypothesis
Res Extensa
Ressentiment
Richard A. Macksey
Richard Schacht
Robert C. Solomon
Robert Rowland Smith
Roger Caillois
Romanticism
Rudolf Schottlaender
Rudolf Seydel
Russian formalism
Saint Genet
Sarah Coakley
Scheler's Stratication of Emotional Life
Schizoanalysis
Schopenhauer's criticism of the proofs of the parallel postulate
Siegfried Kracauer
Situationist International
Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions
Slavoj iek
Slavoj iek bibliography
Social alienation
Socialisme ou Barbarie
Sren Kierkegaard
Sren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche
Sous rature
Spomenka Hribar
Stages on Life's Way
Stephen Mulhall
Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existential Literature
Strategic essentialism
Structural Marxism
Sturm und Drang
Sublime (philosophy)
Systemic Constellations
Telos (journal)
Teresa de Lauretis
The Absence of the Book
The Adulterous Woman
The Antichrist (book)
The Art of Being Right
The Birth of the Clinic
The Birth of Tragedy
The Blood of Others
The Book on Adler
The Case of Wagner
The Concept of Anxiety
89
The Crisis and a Crisis in the Life of an Actress
Two Ages: A Literary Review
The Existential Negation Campaign
Universal Natural History and Theory of Heaven
The False Subtlety of the Four Syllogistic Figures
Untimely Meditations (Nietzsche)
The Gay Science
Vanja Sutli
The Imaginary (Sartre)
Waiting for Godot
The Metamorphosis
Waking Life
The Myth of Sisyphus
Walter Benjamin
The Only Possible Argument in Support of a

Demonstration of the Existence of God
What Is Literature?
The Origin of the Work of Art

The Pigeon
The Plague
The Point of View of My Work as an Author
The Possessed (play)
The Postmodern Condition
The Question Concerning Technology
The Renegade (Camus short story)
The Royal Way
The Seminars of Jacques Lacan
The Sickness Unto Death
The Silent Men
The Society of the Spectacle
The Stranger (novel)
The Sublime Object of Ideology
The Transcendence of the Ego
The Will to Power (manuscript)
Theatre of the Absurd
Theodor W. Adorno
Thoughts on the True Estimation of Living Forces
Thus Spoke Zarathustra
Tim Dean
Time and Free Will
Tomonubu Imamichi
Trace (deconstruction)
Tui (intellectual)
Twilight of the Idols
Wilhelm Dilthey
William McNeill (philosopher)
Wolfgang Fritz Haug
Works of Love
World disclosure
Writing Sampler
Zarathustra's roundelay
Zollikon Seminars
Chapter 5
Appendix B
5.1 20th-century philosophy
of knowledge going back to Plato. A huge number of

responses to the Gettier problem were formulated, generFurther information: Analytic philosophy, Continental ally falling into internalist and externalist camps, the latter
including work by philosophers like Alvin Goldman, Fred
philosophy, and Contemporary philosophy
Dretske, David Malet Armstrong and Alvin Plantinga.
20th-century philosophy saw the development of
a number of new philosophical schools including
logical positivism, analytic philosophy, phenomenology,
existentialism and poststructuralism. In terms of the
eras of philosophy, it is usually labelled as contemporary
philosophy (succeeding modern philosophy which runs
roughly from the time of Descartes until the twentiethcentury).
Logical positivism
Main article: Logical positivism
Logical positivism (also known as logical empiricism, scientic philosophy, and neo-positivism) is a philosophy
that combines empiricism the idea that observational
As with other academic disciplines, philosophy increas- evidence is indispensable for knowledgewith a version
ingly became professionalized in the twentieth century, of rationalism incorporating mathematical and logicoand a split emerged between philosophers who considered linguistic constructs and deductions of epistemology.* [2]
themselves to be part of either the analytic or continental traditions. However, there have been disputes
regarding both the terminology and the reasons behind Neopragmatism
the divide, as well as philosophers who see themselves as
bridging the divide . In addition, philosophy in the twen- Main article: Neopragmatism
tieth century became increasingly technical and harder to
read by the layman.
Neopragmatism, sometimes called linguistic pragmatism
is a recent philosophical term for philosophy that reintroduces many concepts from pragmatism. The Black5.1.1 Analytic philosophy
well dictionary of Western philosophy (2004) denes
Neo-pragmatismas follows: A postmodern verMain article: Analytic philosophy
sion of pragmatism developed by the American philosopher Richard Rorty and drawing inspiration from authors
Analytic philosophy is a generic term for a style of such as John Dewey, Martin Heidegger, Wilfrid Sellars,
philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking W.V.O. Quine, and Jacques Derrida. It repudiates the nocountries in the 20th century. In the United States, tion of universal truth, epistemological foundationalism,
United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and representationalism, and the notion of epistemic objecNew Zealand, the overwhelming majority of university tivity. It is a nominalist approach that denies that natural
philosophy departments identify themselves asanalytic kinds and linguistic entities have substantive ontological
implications.
departments.* [1]
Epistemology
Ordinary language philosophy
Epistemology in the Anglo-American tradition was rad- Main article: Ordinary language philosophy
ically shaken up by the publication of Edmund Gettier's
1963 paperIs Justied True Belief Knowledge?" which Ordinary language philosophy is a philosophical school
provided counter-examples to the traditional formulation that approaches traditional philosophical problems as
90
5.1. 20TH-CENTURY PHILOSOPHY

rooted in misunderstandings philosophers develop by distorting or forgetting what words actually mean in everyday use. This approach typically involves eschewing philosophical theoriesin favour of close attention
to the details of the use of everyday, ordinarylanguage. Sometimes called Oxford philosophy, it is
generally associated with the work of a number of midcentury Oxford professors: mainly J. L. Austin, but also
Gilbert Ryle, H. L. A. Hart, and Peter Strawson. The
later Ludwig Wittgenstein is ordinary language philosophy's most celebrated proponent outside the Oxford circle. Second generation gures include Stanley Cavell and
John Searle.
91
Consciousness and Karl Korsch's Marxism and Philosophy, rst published in 1923, are often seen as the works
which inaugurated this current, the phrase itselfWestern
Marxismwas coined much later by Maurice MerleauPonty.
Phenomenology
Main article: Phenomenology (philosophy)
Phenomenology is the study of the phenomena of experience. It is a broad philosophical movement founded in the
early years of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl. Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily con5.1.2 Continental philosophy
cerned with the systematic reection on and study of the
structures of consciousness and the phenomena that apMain article: Continental philosophy
pear in acts of consciousness. This phenomenological ontology can be clearly dierentiated from the Cartesian
Continental philosophy, in contemporary usage, refers to method of analysis which sees the world as objects, sets
a set of traditions of 19th and 20th century philosophy of objects, and objects acting and reacting upon one anfrom mainland Europe.* [3]* [4] This sense of the term other.
originated among English-speaking philosophers in the
second half of the 20th century, who used it to refer
to a range of thinkers and traditions outside the analytic Post-structuralism
movement. Continental philosophy includes the following movements: German idealism, phenomenology, Main article: Post-structuralism
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche), hermeneutics, structuralism, Post-structuralism is a label formulated by American acapost-structuralism, French feminism, the critical theory demics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series
of the Frankfurt School and related branches of Western of French intellectuals who came to international promiMarxism, and psychoanalytic theory.* [5]
nence in the 1960s and '70s.* [6]* [7] The label primarily encompasses the intellectual developments of prominent mid-20th-century French and continental philosoExistentialism
phers and theorists.* [8]
Main article: Existentialism
Structuralism
Existentialism is generally considered to be the philosophical and cultural movement which holds that the
starting point of philosophical thinking must be the individual and the experiences of the individual. For Existentialists, religious and ethical imperatives may not satisfy the desire for individual identity, and both theistic
and atheistic existentialism tend to resist mainstream religious movements. Common themes are the primacy of
experience, Angst, the absurd, and authenticity.
Marxism
Main article: Structuralism

Structuralism is a theoretical paradigm that emphasizes
that elements of culture must be understood in terms
of their relationship to a larger, overarching system or
structure.Alternately, as summarized by philosopher
Simon Blackburn, Structuralism is the belief that phenomena of human life are not intelligible except through
their interrelations. These relations constitute a structure, and behind local variations in the surface phenomena there are constant laws of abstract culture.* [9]
Main article: Western Marxism
5.1.3 Outside Academia

Western Marxism, in terms of 20th-century philosophy, generally describes the writings of Marxist theoreti- Objectivism
cians, mainly based in Western and Central Europe; this
stands in contrast with the Marxist philosophy in the So- Main article: Objectivism (Ayn Rand)
viet Union. While Gyrgy Lukcs's History and Class
92
CHAPTER 5. APPENDIX B
Objectivism is a twentieth century school of philosophy [6] Bensmaa, Rda Poststructuralism, article published in
Kritzman, Lawrence (ed.) The Columbia History of
pioneered by the Russian-born American novelist and
Twentieth-Century French Thought, Columbia University
philosopher Ayn Rand. As a school of classical liberal
Press, 2005, pp.92-93
thought, objectivism emphasizes the centrality of reasoned self-interest to the progress of mankind. It advo- [7] Mark Poster (1988) Critical theory and poststructuralism:
cates laissez-faire capitalism as the ideal social and poin search of a context, section Introduction: Theory and
litical structure to promote individual liberty. Further,
the problem of Context, pp.5-6
objectivism holds that money (ideally gold), is the store
of value by which people live in harmony, exchanging [8] Merquior, J.G. (1987). Foucault (Fontana Modern Masters series), University of California Press, ISBN 0-520value for value. It borrows from Aristotle in asserting
06062-8.
that reason is the only means of true knowledge available
to man. Rand's 1955 novel Atlas Shrugged is the number [9] Blackburn, Simon (2008). Oxford Dictionary of Philostwo best selling book of the twentieth century, topped
ophy, second edition revised. Oxford: Oxford University
only by the Bible. Objectivism has had an immense inPress, ISBN 978-0-19-954143-0
uence on the modern conservative movement and has
experienced a revival in recent years in response to the
expansionary policies of recent presidential administra- 5.1.6 External links
tions.
20th-century philosophy at PhilPapers
5.1.4
See also
20th-century philosophy at the Indiana Philosophy

Ontology Project
List of philosophers born in the nineteenth century

List of philosophers born in the twentieth century
Twentieth-century French philosophy
5.1.5
References
[1]Without exception, the best philosophy departments in

the United States are dominated by analytic philosophy,
and among the leading philosophers in the United States,
all but a tiny handful would be classied as analytic
philosophers. Practitioners of types of philosophizing that
are not in the analytic traditionsuch as phenomenology,
classical pragmatism, existentialism, or Marxismfeel it
necessary to dene their position in relation to analytic
philosophy.John Searle (2003) Contemporary Philosophy in the United States in N. Bunnin and E. P. Tsui-James
(eds.), The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy, 2nd ed.,
(Blackwell, 2003), p. 1.
[2] See, e.g., : Vienna Circlein Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
[3] Leiter 2007, p. 2:As a rst approximation, we might say
that philosophy in Continental Europe in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries is best understood as a connected
weave of traditions, some of which overlap, but no one of
which dominates all the others.
5.2 Contemporary philosophy

Contemporary philosophy is the present period in the
history of Western philosophy beginning at the end of the
19th century with the professionalization of the discipline
and the rise of analytic and continental philosophy.
The phrase contemporary philosophyis a piece of
technical terminology in philosophy that refers to a specic period in the history of Western philosophy. However, the phrase is often confused with modern philosophy (which refers to an earlier period in Western philosophy), postmodern philosophy (which refers to continental
philosophers' criticisms of modern philosophy), and with
a non-technical use of the phrase referring to any recent
philosophic work.
5.2.1 The professionalization of philosophy

The process of professionalization
Professionalization is the social process by which any

trade or occupation establishes the group norms of conduct, acceptable qualications for membership of the
profession, a professional body or association to over[4] Critchley, Simon (1998),Introduction: what is continen- see the conduct of members of the profession, and some
tal philosophy?", in Critchley, Simon; Schroder, William, degree of demarcation of the qualied from unqualied
A Companion to Continental Philosophy, Blackwell Comamateurs.* [1] The transformation into a profession brings
panions to Philosophy, Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishabout many subtle changes to a eld of inquiry, but one
ing Ltd, p. 4.
more readily identiable component of professionaliza[5] The above list includes only those movements common tion is the increasing irrelevance of the bookto the
to both lists compiled by Critchley 2001, p. 13 and eld: research communiqus will begin to change in
Glendinning 2006, pp. 5865
ways [...] whose modern end products are obvious to all
5.2. CONTEMPORARY PHILOSOPHY

and oppressive to many. No longer will [a member's] researches usually be embodied in books addressed [...] to
anyone who might be interested in the subject matter of
the eld. Instead they will usually appear as brief articles
addressed only to professional colleagues, the men whose
knowledge of a shared paradigm can be assumed and who
prove to be the only one able to read the papers addressed
to them.* [2] Philosophy underwent this process toward
the end of the 19th-century and it is one of the key distinguishing features of the contemporary philosophy era
in western philosophy.
Germany was the rst country to professionalize philosophy.* [3] At the end of 1817, Hegel was the rst philosopher to be appointed Professor by the State, namely
by the Prussian Minister of Education, as an eect of
Napoleonic reform in Prussia. In the United States, the
professionalisation grew out of reforms to the American higher-education system largely based on the German
model.* [4] James Campbell describes the professionalisation of philosophy in America as follows:
The list of specic changes [during
the late 19th-century professionalization of
philosophy] is fairly brief, but the resultant
shift is almost total. [...] No longer could
the [philosophy] professor function as a
defender of the faith or an expounder of
Truth. The new philosopher had to be a
leader of inquires and a publicizer of results.
This shift was made obvious when certied
(often German-certied) philosophy Ph.D.'s
replaced theology graduates and ministers in
the philosophy classroom. The period between
the time when almost no one had a Ph.D. to
when almost everyone did was very brief. [...]
The doctorate, moreover, was more than a
license to teach: it was a certicate that the
prospective philosophy instructor was well,
if narrowly, trained and ready to undertake
independent work in the now specializing and
restricted eld of academic philosophy. These
new philosophers functioned in independent
departments of philosophy [...] They were
making real gains in their research, creating
a body of philosophic work that remains
central to our study even now. These new
philosophers also set their own standards for
success, publishing in the recognized organs
of philosophy that were being founded at the
time: The Monist (1890), The International
Journal of Ethics (1890), The Philosophical
Review (1892), and The Journal of Philosophy, Psychology, and Scientic Methods
(1904). And, of course, these philosophers
were banding together into societies--the
American Psychological Association (1892),
the Western Philosophical Association (1900),
and the American Philosophical Association
93
(1900)--to consolidate their academic positions and advance their philosophic work.* [5]
Professionalization in England was similarly tied to developments in higher-education. In his work on T.H. Green,
Denys Leighton discusses these changes in British philosophy and Green's claim to the title of Britain's rst professional academic philosopher:
Henry Sidgwick, in a generous gesture,
identied [T.H.] Green as Britain's rst professional academic philosopher. Sidgwick's
opinion can certainly be questioned: William
Hamilton, J.F. Ferrier and Sidgwick himself
are among the contenders for that honour.
[...] Yet there can be no doubt that between
the death of Mill (1873) and the publication
of G.E.Moore's Principia Ethica (1903), the
British philosophical profession was transformed, and that Green was partly responsible
for the transformation. [...] Bentham, the
Mills, Carlyle, Coleridge, Spencer, as well as
many other serious philosophical thinkers of
the nineteenth century were men of letters,
administrators, active politicians, clergy with
livings, but not academics. [...] Green helped
separate the study of philosophical from
that of literary and historical texts; and by
creating a philosophy curriculum at Oxford
he also established a rationale for trained
teachers of philosophy. When Green began
his academic career much of the serious
writing on philosophical topic was published
in journals of opinion devoted to a broad range
of [topics] (rarely to 'pure' philosophy). He
helped professionalize philosophical writing
by encouraging specialized periodicals, such as
'Academy' and 'Mind', which were to serve as
venues for the results of scholarly research.* [6]
The end result of professionalization for philosophy has

meant that work being done in the eld is now almost
exclusively done by university professors holding a doctorate in the eld publishing in highly technical, peerreviewed journals. While it remains common among the
population at large for a person to have a set of religious,
political or philosophical views that they consider their
philosophy, these views are rarely informed or connected to the work being done in professional philosophy today. Furthermore, unlike many of the sciences for
which there has come to be a healthy industry of books,
magazines, and television shows meant to popularize science and communicate the technical results of a scientic eld to the general populace, works by professional
philosophers directed at an audience outside the profession remain rare. Philosopher Michael Sandel's book
94
Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?and Harry
Frankfurt's "On Bullshitare examples of works that
hold the uncommon distinction of having been written by
professional philosophers but directed at and ultimately
popular among a broader audience of non-philosophers.
Both works became New York Times best sellers.
Professional philosophy today
to be a professional honor and the American Philosophical Association Book Prize is one of the oldest prizes in
philosophy. The largest academic organization devoted
to specically furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for Phenomenology and Existential
Philosophy.
Concerning professional journals today, a 2009 survey
of mostly professional philosophers asked them to rank
the highest quality generalphilosophy journals in
English. The top 19 results were:
Concerning continental philosophy specically, a 2012

survey of mostly professional philosophers asked them to
rank the highest qualitycontinental traditionphilosophy journals in English. Listing the survey's top 6 results:
The Philosophy Documentation Center publishes a wellknown "Directory of American Philosophers" which is
the standard reference work for information about philosophical activity in the United States and Canada.* [9] The
directory is published every two years, alternating with its
companion volume, the "International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers" (the only edited source for extensive information on philosophical activity in Africa,
Asia, Australasia, Europe, and Latin America).
Mind is a prominent professional journal in contemporary philosophy. Three of its most famous publications, arguably, are
Lewis Carroll's "What the Tortoise Said to Achilles" (1895),
Bertrand Russell's "On Denoting" (1905), and Alan Turing's
"Computing Machinery and Intelligence" (1950), in which he rst
proposed the Turing test.
Not long after their formation, the Western Philosophical Association and portions of the American Psychological Association merged with the American Philosophical Association to create what is today the main professional organization for philosophers in the United States:
the American Philosophical Association. The Association has three divisions - Pacic, Central and Eastern.
Each division organises a large annual conference. The
biggest of these is the Eastern Division Meeting, which
usually attracts around 2,000 philosophers and takes place
in a dierent east coast city each December. The Eastern Division Meeting is also the USA's largest recruitment event for philosophy jobs, with numerous universities sending teams to interview candidates for academic
posts. Among its many other tasks, the association is
responsible for administering many of the profession's
top honors. For example, the Presidency of a Division
of the American Philosophical Association is considered
Since the start of the 21st century, philosophers have also

seen the growing utilization of blogs as a means of professional exchange. A few notable milestones in this development include an informal listing of philosophy blogs
begun by philosopher David Chalmers which has since
become a widely used resource by the profession,* [10]
the establishment of a partnership between ethics blog
PEA Soup and the prominent journal Ethics to post featured articles for online discussion on the blog,* [11] and
the role of blogs like What is it Like to be a Woman in
Philosophy? in bringing attention to the experience of
women in the profession.* [12]* [13]* [14]
Maverick practicians
Philosophers such as Gerd B. Achenbach (Die reine und
die praktische Philosophie. Drei Vortrge zur philosophischen Praxis, 1983), Oscar Brnier, Michel Tozzi and
Michel Weber (see his preuve de la philosophie, 2008)
also propose since the 1980s various forms of philosophical counseling claiming to bring Socratic dialogues back
to life in a quasi-psychotherapeutic framework.
5.2.2 The analyticcontinental divide
95
ular style* [19] characterized by precision and thoroughness about a narrow topic, and resistance to imprecise
Contemporary continental philosophy began with the or cavalier discussions of broad topics.* [19]
work of Franz Brentano, Edmund Husserl, Adolf Some analytic philosophers at the end of the 20th century,
Reinach, and Martin Heidegger and the development of such as Richard Rorty, have called for a major overhaul of
the philosophical method of phenomenology. This de- the analytic philosophic tradition. In particular, Rorty has
velopment was roughly contemporaneous with work by argued that analytic philosophers must learn important
Gottlob Frege and Bertrand Russell inaugurating a new lessons from the work of continental philosophers.* [20]
philosophical method based on the analysis of language Some authors, such as Paul M Livingston* [21] and Shaun
via modern logic (hence the term analytic philosophy Gallagher contend that there exist valuable insights com).* [15]
mon to both traditions while others, such as Timothy
The beginning of the divide
Analytic philosophy dominates in the United King- Williamson, have called for even stricter adherence to the
dom, Canada, Australia, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, methodological ideals of analytic philosophy:
Germany, Austria, and, indeed, most of Europe. Continental philosophy prevails in France, Italy, Spain, and
We who classify ourselves as analytic
parts of the United States.
philosophers tend to fall into the assumption
that our allegiance automatically grants us
Some philosophers, such as Richard Rorty and Simon
methodological virtue.
According to the
Glendinning, argue that this continental-analyticdicrude
stereotypes,
analytic
philosophers use
vide is inimical to the discipline as a whole. Others, such
arguments
while
continentalphilosophers
as John Searle, claim that continental philosophy, espedo not. But within the analytic tradition many
cially post-structuralist continental philosophy, should be
philosophers use arguments only to the extent
expunged, on grounds that it is obscurantist and nebulous.
that most continentalphilosophers do
Analytic and continental philosophy share a common
[...] How can we do better? We can make a
Western philosophical tradition up to Immanuel Kant.
useful start by getting the simple things right.
Afterwards, analytic and continental philosophers dier
Much even of analytic philosophy moves too
on the importance and inuence of subsequent philosofast in its haste to reach the sexy bits. Details
phers on their respective traditions. For instance, the Gerare not given the care they deserve: crucial
man idealism school developed out of the work of Kant in
claims are vaguely stated, signicant dierent
the 1780s and 1790s and culminated in Georg Wilhelm
formulations are treated as though they were
Friedrich Hegel, who is viewed highly by many continenequivalent, examples are under-described,
tal philosophers. Conversely, Hegel is viewed as a relaarguments are gestured at rather than properly
tively minor gure for the work of analytic philosophers.
made, their form is left unexplained, and so
on. [...] Philosophy has never been done for
an extended period according to standards as
Analytic philosophy
high as those that are now already available, if
only the profession will take them seriously to
heart.* [22]
Main article: Analytic philosophy
The analytic program in philosophy is ordinarily dated to
the work of English philosophers Bertrand Russell and G.
E. Moore in the early 20th century, building on the work
of the German philosopher and mathematician Gottlob
Frege. They turned away from then-dominant forms of
Hegelianism (objecting in particular to its idealism and
purported obscurity)* [16]* [17] and began to develop a
new sort of conceptual analysis based on recent developments in logic. The most prominent example of this
new method of conceptual analysis is Russell's 1905 paper "On Denoting", a paper that is widely seen to be the
exemplar of the analytic program in philosophy.* [18]
The crude stereotypesthat Williamson refers to in

the above passage are these: that analytic philosophers
produce carefully argued and rigorous analyses of trivially small philosophic puzzles, while continental philosophers produce profound and substantial results but only by
deducing them from broad philosophical systems which
themselves lack supporting arguments or clarity in their
expression. Williamson himself seems to here distance
himself from these stereotypes, but does accuse analytic
philosophers of too often tting the critical stereotype of
continental philosophers by moving too fastto reach
substantial results via poor arguments.
Although contemporary philosophers who self-identify

as analytichave widely divergent interests, assumptions, and methodsand have often rejected the funda- Continental philosophy
mental premises that dened the analytic movement between 1900 and 1960analytic philosophy, in its con- Main article: Continental philosophy
temporary state, is usually taken to be dened by a partic-
96
Third, continental philosophers tend to take a strong
interest in the unity of theory and practice, and tend
to see their philosophical inquiries as closely related
to personal, moral, or political transformation.
Fourth, continental philosophy has an emphasis on
metaphilosophy (i.e. the study of the nature, aims,
and methods of philosophy). This emphasis can also
be found in analytic philosophy, but with starkly different results.
Existentialism is an important school in the continental philosophical tradition. Four key existentialists pictured from top-left clockwise: Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Kafka, Dostoevsky* [23]
Another approach to approximating a denition of continental philosophy is by listing some of the philosophical movements that are or have been central in continental philosophy: German idealism, phenomenology,
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche), hermeneutics, structuralism,
post-structuralism, French feminism, and the critical theory of the Frankfurt School and some other branches of
Western Marxism.* [29]
5.2.3 See also

The history of continental philosophy is taken to begin
in the early 1900s because its institutional roots descend
directly from those of phenomenology.* [24] As a result,
Edmund Husserl has often been credited as the founding
gure in continental philosophy. Although, since analytic
and continental philosophy have such starkly dierent
views of philosophy after Kant, continental philosophy
is also often understood in an extended sense to include
any post-Kant philosophers or movements important to
continental philosophy but not analytic philosophy.
The termcontinental philosophy, likeanalytic philosophy, marks a broad range of philosophical views
and approaches not easily captured in a denition. It has
even been suggested that the term may be more pejorative
than descriptive, functioning as a label for types of western philosophy rejected or disliked by analytic philosophers.* [25] Indeed, continental philosophy is often characterized by its critics as philosophy that lacks the rigor
of analytic philosophy. Nonetheless, certain descriptive
rather than merely pejorative features have been seen to
typically characterize continental philosophy:* [26]
First, continental philosophers generally reject
scientism, the view that the natural sciences are the
best or most accurate way of understanding all phenomena.* [27]
Second, continental philosophy usually considers
experience as determined at least partly by factors
such as context, space and time, language, culture,
or history. Thus continental philosophy tends toward historicism, where analytic philosophy tends to
treat philosophy in terms of discrete problems, capable of being analyzed apart from their historical
origins.* [28]
20th-century philosophy
Analytic philosophy
Experimental philosophy An emerging eld
of philosophical inquiry that makes use of empirical data often gathered through surveys
which probe the intuitions of ordinary people
in order to inform research on long-standing
and unsettled philosophical questions.
Logical positivism The rst and dominant
school in analytic philosophy for the rst half
of the 20th-century.
Naturalism The view that the scientic
method (hypothesize, predict, test, repeat) is
the only eective way to investigate reality.
Ordinary language philosophy The dominant
school in analytic philosophy in the middle of
20th-century.
Quietism In metaphilosophy, the view that
the role of philosophy is therapeutic or remedial.
Postanalytic philosophy Postanalytic philosophy describes a detachment and challenge
to mainstream analytic philosophy by philosophers like Richard Rorty.
Deconstruction An approach (whether in
philosophy, literary analysis, or in other elds)
where one conducts textual readings with a
view to demonstrate that the text is not a discrete whole, instead containing several irreconcilable, contradictory meanings.

Existentialism Existential philosophy is the
explicit conceptual manifestation of an existential attitude* [30] that begins with a
sense of disorientation and confusion in the
face of an apparently meaningless or absurd
world.* [31]* [32]
[4] Campbell, James (2006) A Thoughtful Profession, Open

Court Publishing
Phenomenology Phenomenology is primarily concerned with making the structures of

consciousness, and the phenomena which appear in acts of consciousness, objects of systematic reection and analysis.
[7] Leiter, Brain (2009) The Highest Quality 'General' Philosophy Journals in EnglishLeiter Reports,
http://leiterreports.typepad.com/blog/2009/03/
the-highest-quality-general-philosophy-journals-in-english.
html
Poststructuralism Structuralism was a fashionable movement in France in the 1950s

and 1960s, that studied the underlying structures inherent in cultural products (such as
texts), post-structuralism derive from critique
of structuralist premises. Specically, poststructuralism holds that the study of underlying structures is itself culturally conditioned
and therefore subject to myriad biases and
misinterpretations.
[8] Leiter, Brain (2012) Best English-Language

Journals for Scholarship on the Continental traditions in post-Kantian PhilosophyLeiter Reports,
http://leiterreports.typepad.com/blog/2012/04/
best-english-language-journals-for-scholarship-on-the-continental-traditions
html
Postmodern philosophy Postmodern philosophy is skeptical or nihilistic toward many

of the values and assumptions of philosophy
that derive from modernity, such as humanity
having an essence which distinguishes humans
from animals, or the assumption that one form
of government is demonstrably better than another.
Social constructionism A central concept in
continental philosophy, a social construction is
a concept or practice that is the creation (or
artifact) of a particular group.
Critical theory Critical theory is the examination and critique of society and culture,
drawing from knowledge across the social sciences and humanities.
Frankfurt School The term Frankfurt
Schoolis an informal term used to designate
the thinkers aliated with the Institute for Social Research or who were inuenced by it.
Western philosophy
5.2.4
97
Footnotes and references
[1] http://ndpr.nd.edu/review.cfm?id=4281 Steven Hetcher,

Norms in a Wired World, Cambridge University Press,
2004, 432pp, Reviewed by Stefan Sciaraa, University of
Arizona
[2] Thomas Kuhn, The Structure of Scientic Revolutions, The
University of Chicago Press (1962), pp. 1920.
[3] Peter SimonsOpen and Cloded Culturein Phenomenology and analysis: essays on Central European philosophy.
Edited by Arkadiusz Chrudzimski and Wolfgang Huemer.
Page 18.
[5] Campbell, James (2006) A Thoughtful Profession, Open

Court Publishing pp. 35-37
[6] Leighton, Denys (2004) 'The Greenian moment' pp.70-71
[9] http://www.pdcnet.org/pages/Products/directories/
ad10-11.htm
[10] http://consc.net/weblogs.html
[11] http://peasoup.typepad.com/peasoup/2009/11/
the-next-chapter-ethics-discussions-at-pea-soup.html
[12] http://beingawomaninphilosophy.wordpress.com/
[13] http://gawker.com/5787195/
philosophy-departments-are-full-of-sexual-harassment
[14] http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2011/03/30/
philosophers_consider_what_to_do_about_sexual_
harassment
[15] See, e.g., Michael Dummett, The Origins of Analytical
Philosophy (Harvard University Press, 1994), or C. Prado,
A House Divided: Comparing Analytic and Continental
Philosophy (Prometheus/Humanity Books, 2003).
[16] See for example Moore's A Defence of Common Sense and
Russell's critique of the Doctrine of internal relations,
[17] "...analytic philosophy opposed right from its beginning
English neo-Hegelianism of Bradley's sort and similar
ones. It did not only criticize the latter's denial of the existence of an external world (anyway an unjust criticism),
but also the bombastic, obscure style of Hegel's writings.
Peter Jonkers,Perspectives on twentieth century philosophy: A Reply to Tom Rockmore,
[18] Ludlow, Peter, Descriptions, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward
N. Zalta (ed.), URL=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/
sum2005/entries/descriptions/
[19] See, e.g., Brian Leiter "'Analytic' philosophy today names
a style of doing philosophy, not a philosophical program
or a set of substantive views. Analytic philosophers,
crudely speaking, aim for argumentative clarity and precision; draw freely on the tools of logic; and often identify,
professionally and intellectually, more closely with the sciences and mathematics, than with the humanities.
[20] Rorty, Richard. (1979) Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature.
98
[21] http://ndpr.nd.edu/news/
Prado, C. G. A House Divided: Comparing Analytic
30207-the-politics-of-logic-badiou-wittgenstein-and-the-consequences-of-formalism/
and Continental Philosophy Humanity Books (2003)
Paul M. Livingston, The Politics of Logic: Badiou,
Wittgenstein, and the Consequences of Formalism,
Analytic Philosophy
Routledge, 2012
[22] Williamson, Timothy The Philosophy of Philosophy
[23] Hubben, William. (1952) Four Prophets of Our Destiny.
[24] E.g., the largest academic organization devoted to furthering the study of continental philosophy is the Society for
Phenomenology and Existential Philosophy.
Dummett, Michael Origins of Analytical Philosophy.

Harvard University Press (1996)
Floyd, Juliet Future Pasts: The Analytic Tradition
in Twentieth-Century Philosoph Oxford University
Press (2001)
[25] Glendinning, The Idea of Continental Philosophy, p. 12.
Glock, Hans-Johann What is Analytic Philosophy?.

Cambridge University Press (2008)
[26] The following list of four traits is adapted from Michael

Rosen, Continental Philosophy from Hegel, in A.C.
Grayling (ed.), Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject,
p. 665.
Martinich, A. P. Analytic Philosophy: An Anthology (Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies). WileyBlackwell (2001)
[27] Simon Critchley, Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction, p. 115.
Martinich, A. P. A Companion to Analytic Philosophy (Blackwell Companions to Philosophy). WileyBlackwell (2005)
[28] Critchley, Continental Philosophy, p. 57.

[29] The above list includes only those movements common
to both lists compiled by Critchley 2001, p. 13 and
Glendinning 2006, pp. 5865.
[30] Solomon, Robert C. (1987). From Hegel to Existentialism.
Oxford University Press. p. 238. ISBN 0-19-506182-9.
[31] Robert C. Solomon, Existentialism (McGraw-Hill, 1974,
pages 12)
[32] D.E. Cooper Existentialism:
Blackwell, 1999, page 8).
5.2.5
A Reconstruction (Basil
Soames, Scott, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, Volume 1: The Dawn of Analysis.
Princeton University Press (2005)
Soames, Scott, Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, Volume 2: The Age of Meaning. Princeton University Press (2005)
Stroll, Avrum Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy. Columbia University Press (2001)
Williamson, Timothy The Philosophy of Philosophy (The Blackwell / Brown Lectures in Philosophy).
Wiley-Blackwell (2008)
Further reading
Continental Philosophy
The professionalization of philosophy

Campbell, James, A Thoughtful Profession: The
Early Years of the American Philosophical Association. Open Court Publishing (2006)
The Analytic / Continental divide
James Chase & Jack Reynolds, Analytic versus
Continental: Arguments on the Methods and Value
of PhilosophyDurham: Acumen (2011)
James Luchte,Martin Heidegger and Rudolf Carnap: Radical Phenomenology, Logical Positivism
and the Roots of the Continental/Analytic Divide,
Philosophy Today, Vol. 51, No. 3, 241-260 (Fall,
2007)
Levy, Neil Analytic and Continental Philosophy:
Explaining the Dierences, Metaphilosophy. Vol.
34, No. 3, April (2003)
Simon Critchley, Continental Philosophy: A Very

Short Introduction. Oxford University Press (2001)
ISBN 0-19-285359-7
Cutrofello, Andrew Continental Philosophy: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge (2005)
Glendinning, Simon The Idea of Continental Philosophy Edinburgh University Press (2006)

Contemporary philosophy at the Indiana Philosophy
Ontology Project
Contemporary philosophy at PhilPapers
The Philosophical Gourmet Report's description of
Analyticand Continentalphilosophy
Chapter 6
Appendix C
6.1 Existentialism
tional systematic or academic philosophies, in both style

and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete hu*
*
Existentialredirects here. For the logical sense of the man experience. [7] [8]
term, see Existential quantication. For other uses, see Sren Kierkegaard is generally considered to have been
Existence (disambiguation).
the rst existentialist philosopher,* [2]* [9]* [10] though
Not to be confused with Essentialism.
he did not use the term existentialism.* [11] He pro*
Existentialism (/zstnlzm/) [1] is a term ap- posed that each individualnot society or religionis
solely responsible for giving meaning to life and living it
passionately and sincerely (authentically).* [12]* [13]
Existentialism became popular in the years following
World War II, and strongly inuenced many disciplines
besides philosophy, including theology, drama, art, literature, and psychology.* [14]
6.1.1 Denitional issues and background

There has never been general agreement on the denition
of existentialism. The term is often seen as a historical
convenience as it was rst applied to many philosophers
in hindsight, long after they had died. In fact, while existentialism is generally considered to have originated with
Kierkegaard, the rst prominent existentialist philosopher to adopt the term as a self-description was Jean-Paul
Sartre. Sartre posits the idea thatwhat all existentialists
have in common is the fundamental doctrine that existence precedes essence, as scholar Frederick Copleston
explains.* [15] According to philosopher Steven Crowell,
dening existentialism has been relatively dicult, and he
argues that it is better understood as a general approach
used to reject certain systematic philosophies rather than
as a systematic philosophy itself.* [2] Sartre himself, in
From left to right, top to bottom: Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky,
a lecture delivered in 1945, described existentialism as
Nietzsche, Sartre
the attempt to draw all the consequences from a posi*
plied to the work of certain late 19th- and 20th-century tion of consistent atheism. [16]
philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal dier- Although many outside Scandinavia consider the term exences,* [2]* [3]* [4] shared the belief that philosophical istentialism to have originated from Kierkegaard himself,
thinking begins with the human subjectnot merely the it is more likely that Kierkegaard adopted this term (or at
thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human least the termexistentialas a description of his philosindividual.* [5] In existentialism, the individual's starting ophy) from the Norwegian poet and literary critic Johan
point is characterised by what has been called the ex- Sebastian Cammermeyer Welhaven.* [17] This assertion
istential attitude, or a sense of disorientation and con- comes from two sources. The Norwegian philosopher
fusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd Erik Lundestad refers to the Danish philosopher Fredrik
world.* [6] Many existentialists have also regarded tradi- Christian Sibbern. Sibbern is supposed to have had two
99
100
CHAPTER 6. APPENDIX C
conversations in 1841, the rst with Welhaven and the

second with Kierkegaard. It is in the rst conversation
that it is believed that Welhaven came up with a word
that he said covered a certain thinking, which had a close
and positive attitude to life, a relationship he described as
existential.* [18] This was then brought to Kierkegaard
by Sibbern.
The second claim comes from the Norwegian historian
Rune Slagstad, who claims to prove that Kierkegaard
himself said the termexistentialwas borrowed from the
poet. He strongly believes that it was Kierkegaard himself
who said that "Hegelians do not study philosophy 'existentially'; to use a phrase by Welhaven from one time when
I spoke with him about philosophy.* [19] On the other
hand, the Norwegian historian Anne-Lise Seip is critical
of Slagstad, and believes the statement in fact stems from
the Norwegian literary historian Cathrinus Bang.* [20]
dialectical. But just as he himself is not a

poet, not an ethicist, not a dialectician, so also
his form is none of these directly. His form
must rst and last be related to existence, and
in this regard he must have at his disposal
the poetic, the ethical, the dialectical, the
religious. Subordinate character, setting, etc.,
which belong to the well balanced character
of the esthetic production, are in themselves
breadth; the subjective thinker has only one
setting existence and has nothing to do
with localities and such things. The setting is
not the fairyland of the imagination, where
poetry produces consummation, nor is the
setting laid in England, and historical accuracy
is not a concern. The setting is inwardness in
existing as a human being; the concretion is
the relation of the existence-categories to one
another. Historical accuracy and historical
actuality are breadth.Sren Kierkegaard
(Concluding Postscript, Hong p. 357358)
There also exists the belief that meaninglessness and absurdity create a behavior pattern that is not consistent with
that which is considered normal. In other words, existentialismjars you out of your habits.Like war, sexual disease, and the like, the individual consciousness is
paramount to the societal impact one may have and it is It is often claimed in this context that people dene themyour reality that dictates your actions, not anybody else's. selves, which is often perceived as stating that they can
wish to be somethinganything, a bird, for instance
and then be it. According to most existentialist philoso6.1.2 Concepts
phers, however, this would constitute an inauthentic existence. Instead, the phrase should be taken to say that
Existence precedes essence
people are (1) dened only insofar as they act and (2)
that they are responsible for their actions. For example,
Main article: Existence precedes essence
someone who acts cruelly towards other people is, by that
act, dened as a cruel person. Furthermore, by this acA central proposition of Existentialism is that existence tion of cruelty, such persons are themselves responsible
precedes essence, which means that the most important for their new identity (cruel persons). This is as opposed
consideration for individuals is that they are individuals to their genes, or human nature, bearing the blame.
independently acting and responsible, conscious beings ( As Sartre writes in his work Existentialism is a Humanism:
existence)rather than what labels, roles, stereotypes, "... man rst of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in
denitions, or other preconceived categories the individ- the worldand denes himself afterwards.Of course,
uals t (essence). The actual life of the individu- the more positive, therapeutic aspect of this is also imals is what constitutes what could be called their true plied: A person can choose to act in a dierent way, and
essenceinstead of there being an arbitrarily attributed to be a good person instead of a cruel person. Here it is
essence others use to dene them. Thus, human beings, also clear that since humans can choose to be either cruel
through their own consciousness, create their own values or good, they are, in fact, neither of these things essenand determine a meaning to their life.* [21] Although it tially.* [22]
was Sartre who explicitly coined the phrase, similar notions can be found in the thought of existentialist philosoThe Absurd
phers such as Heidegger, and Kierkegaard:
The subjective thinkers form, the form
of his communication, is his style. His form
must be just as manifold as are the opposites
that he holds together. The systematic eins,
zwei, drei is an abstract form that also must
inevitably run into trouble whenever it is to be
applied to the concrete. To the same degree
as the subjective thinker is concrete, to the
same degree his form must also be concretely
Main article: Absurdism

The notion of the Absurd contains the idea that there is
no meaning in the world beyond what meaning we give
it. This meaninglessness also encompasses the amorality
or unfairnessof the world. This contrasts with the
notion thatbad things don't happen to good people"; to
the world, metaphorically speaking, there is no such thing
as a good person or a bad person; what happens happens,
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
101
and it may just as well happen to a goodperson as to other remembers everything. They have both committed
a badperson.* [23]
many crimes, but the rst man, knowing nothing about
Because of the world's absurdity, at any point in time, this, leads a rather normal life while the second man, feelanything can happen to anyone, and a tragic event could ing trapped by his own past, continues a life of crime,
plummet someone into direct confrontation with the Ab- blaming his own past for trappinghim in this life.
surd. The notion of the absurd has been prominent There is nothing essential about his committing crimes,
in literature throughout history. Many of the literary but he ascribes this meaning to his past.
works of Sren Kierkegaard, Samuel Beckett, Franz
Kafka, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Eugne Ionesco, Luigi Pirandello,* [24]* [25]* [26]* [27] Jean-Paul Sartre, Joseph
Heller and Albert Camus contain descriptions of people
who encounter the absurdity of the world.
It is in relation to the concept of the devastating awareness of meaninglessness that Albert Camus claimed that
there is only one truly serious philosophical problem,
and that is suicidein his The Myth of Sisyphus. Although prescriptionsagainst the possibly deleterious
consequences of these kinds of encounters vary, from
Kierkegaard's religious stageto Camus' insistence on
persevering in spite of absurdity, the concern with helping people avoid living their lives in ways that put them
in the perpetual danger of having everything meaningful break down is common to most existentialist philosophers. The possibility of having everything meaningful
break down poses a threat of quietism, which is inherently
against the existentialist philosophy.* [28] It has been said
that the possibility of suicide makes all humans existentialists.* [29]
However, to disregard one's facticity when, in the continual process of self-making, one projects oneself into the
future,that would be to put oneself in denial of oneself,
and would thus be inauthentic. In other words, the origin
of one's projection must still be one's facticity, though in
the mode of not being it (essentially). Another aspect of
facticity is that it entails angst, both in the sense that freedom producesangst when limited by facticity, and in
the sense that the lack of the possibility of having facticity
to step infor one to take responsibility for something
one has done also produces angst.
Another aspect of existential freedom is that one can
change one's values. Thus, one is responsible for one's
values, regardless of society's values. The focus on freedom in existentialism is related to the limits of the responsibility one bears as a result of one's freedom: the
relationship between freedom and responsibility is one of
interdependency, and a clarication of freedom also claries that for which one is responsible.* [31]* [32]
Authenticity
Facticity
Main article: Authenticity
Main article: Facticity
Many noted existentialist writers consider the theme of

authentic existence important. Authentic existence involves the idea that one has to create oneselfand
then live in accordance with this self. What is meant by
authenticity is that in acting, one should act as oneself, not
asoneacts or asone's genesor any other essence requires. The authentic act is one that is in accordance with
one's freedom. Of course, as a condition of freedom is
facticity, this includes one's facticity, but not to the degree
that this facticity can in any way determine one's choices
(in the sense that one could then blame one's background
for making the choice one made). The role of facticity in
relation to authenticity involves letting one's actual values come into play when one makes a choice (instead of,
like Kierkegaard's Aesthete, choosingrandomly), so
that one also takes responsibility for the act instead of
choosing either-or without allowing the options to have
dierent values.* [33]
Facticity is a concept dened by Sartre in Being and Nothingness as the in-itself, of which humans are in the mode
of not being. This can be more easily understood when
considering it in relation to the temporal dimension of
past: one's past is what one is, in the sense that it coconstitutes oneself. However, to say that one is only one's
past would be to ignore a signicant part of reality (the
present and the future), while saying that one's past is only
what one was, would entirely detach it from oneself now.
A denial of one's own concrete past constitutes an inauthentic lifestyle, and the same goes for all other kinds of
facticity (having a bodye.g. one that doesn't allow a
person to run faster than the speed of soundidentity,
values, etc.).* [30]
Facticity is both a limitation and a condition of freedom.
It is a limitation in that a large part of one's facticity consists of things one couldn't have chosen (birthplace, etc.),
but a condition in the sense that one's values most likely
depend on it. However, even though one's facticity isset
in stone(as being past, for instance), it cannot determine
a person: The value ascribed to one's facticity is still ascribed to it freely by that person. As an example, consider
two men, one of whom has no memory of his past and the
In contrast to this, the inauthentic is the denial to live

in accordance with one's freedom. This can take many
forms, from pretending choices are meaningless or random, through convincing oneself that some form of
determinism is true, to a sort of mimicrywhere one
acts asone should.Howoneshould act is often determined by an image one has of how one such as oneself
102
(say, a bank manager, lion tamer, prostitute, etc.) acts.
This image usually corresponds to some sort of social
norm, but this does not mean that all acting in accordance
with social norms is inauthentic: The main point is the attitude one takes to one's own freedom and responsibility,
and the extent to which one acts in accordance with this
freedom.
he could have not noticed that the person was there). It is
only one's perception of the way another might perceive
him.
Angst and Dread
Main article: Angst
See also: Living educational theory
The Other and the Look

Main article: Other
The Other (when written with a capitalO) is a concept
more properly belonging to phenomenology and its account of intersubjectivity. However, the concept has seen
widespread use in existentialist writings, and the conclusions drawn from it dier slightly from the phenomenological accounts. The experience of the Other is the experience of another free subject who inhabits the same
world as a person does. In its most basic form, it is this
experience of the Other that constitutes intersubjectivity
and objectivity. To clarify, when one experiences someone else, and this Other person experiences the world (the
same world that a person experiences)--only from over
there"--the world itself is constituted as objective in that
it is something that is thereas identical for both of
the subjects; a person experiences the other person as
experiencing the same things. This experience of the
Other's look is what is termed the Look (sometimes the
Gaze).* [34]
While this experience, in its basic phenomenological
sense, constitutes the world as objective, and oneself as
objectively existing subjectivity (one experiences oneself
as seen in the Other's Look in precisely the same way that
one experiences the Other as seen by him, as subjectivity), in existentialism, it also acts as a kind of limitation
of freedom. This is because the Look tends to objectify
what it sees. As such, when one experiences oneself in
the Look, one doesn't experience oneself as nothing (no
thing), but as something. Sartre's own example of a man
peeping at someone through a keyhole can help clarify
this: at rst, this man is entirely caught up in the situation he is in; he is in a pre-reexive state where his entire
consciousness is directed at what goes on in the room.
Suddenly, he hears a creaking oorboard behind him, and
he becomes aware of himself as seen by the Other. He
is thus lled with shame for he perceives himself as he
would perceive someone else doing what he was doing,
as a Peeping Tom. The Look is then co-constitutive of
one's facticity.
Existential angst", sometimes called dread, anxiety, or

anguish, is a term that is common to many existentialist thinkers. It is generally held to be a negative feeling
arising from the experience of human freedom and responsibility. The archetypal example is the experience
one has when standing on a cli where one not only fears
falling o it, but also dreads the possibility of throwing
oneself o. In this experience that nothing is holding
me back, one senses the lack of anything that predetermines one to either throw oneself o or to stand still, and
one experiences one's own freedom.* [23]
It can also be seen in relation to the previous point how
angst is before nothing, and this is what sets it apart from
fear that has an object. While in the case of fear, one can
take denitive measures to remove the object of fear, in
the case of angst, no such constructivemeasures are
possible. The use of the word nothingin this context
relates both to the inherent insecurity about the consequences of one's actions, and to the fact that, in experiencing freedom as angst, one also realizes that one is fully
responsible for these consequences. There is nothing in
people (genetically, for instance) that acts in their stead
that they can blame if something goes wrong. Therefore,
not every choice is perceived as having dreadful possible
consequences (and, it can be claimed, human lives would
be unbearable if every choice facilitated dread). However, this doesn't change the fact that freedom remains a
condition of every action.
Despair
Main article: Despair
See also: Existential crisis
Despair, in existentialism, is generally dened as a loss
of hope.* [35] More specically, it is a loss of hope in
reaction to a breakdown in one or more of the dening
qualities of one's self or identity. If a person is invested
in being a particular thing, such as a bus driver or an upstanding citizen, and then nds his being-thing compromised, he would normally be found in state of despair a
hopeless state. For example, a singer who loses the ability to sing may despair if she has nothing else to fall back
onnothing to rely on for her identity. She nds herself
unable to be what dened her being.
Another characteristic feature of the Look is that no

Other really needs to have been there: It is quite possible
that the creaking oorboard was nothing but the movement of an old house; the Look isn't some kind of mystical telepathic experience of the actual way the other
sees one (there may also have been someone there, but What sets the existentialist notion of despair apart from
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
the conventional denition is that existentialist despair is
a state one is in even when he isn't overtly in despair.
So long as a person's identity depends on qualities that
can crumble, he is in perpetual despairand as there is,
in Sartrean terms, no human essence found in conventional reality on which to constitute the individual's sense
of identity, despair is a universal human condition. As
Kierkegaard denes it in Either/Or: Let each one learn
what he can; both of us can learn that a persons unhappiness never lies in his lack of control over external
conditions, since this would only make him completely
unhappy.* [36] In Works of Love, he said:
When the God-forsaken worldliness of
earthly life shuts itself in complacency, the
conned air develops poison, the moment gets
stuck and stands still, the prospect is lost, a
need is felt for a refreshing, enlivening breeze
to cleanse the air and dispel the poisonous
vapors lest we suocate in worldliness. ...
Lovingly to hope all things is the opposite of
despairingly to hope nothing at all. Love hopes
all things yet is never put to shame. To relate
oneself expectantly to the possibility of the
good is to hope. To relate oneself expectantly
to the possibility of evil is to fear. By the
decision to choose hope one decides innitely
more than it seems, because it is an eternal
decision. p. 246-250
6.1.3
103
conne themselves within everyday experience, Sartre asserts, thereby relinquishing their freedom and acquiescing
to being possessed in one form or another bythe Look
of the Other(i.e. possessed by another person or
at least one's idea of that other person).
6.1.4 Existentialism and religion

See also: Atheistic existentialism, Christian existentialism and Jewish existentialism
An existentialist reading of the Bible would demand that
the reader recognize that he is an existing subject studying the words more as a recollection of events. This is in
contrast to looking at a collection of truthsthat are
outside and unrelated to the reader, but may develop a
sense of reality/God. Such a reader is not obligated to
follow the commandments as if an external agent is forcing them upon him, but as though they are inside him and
guiding him from inside. This is the task Kierkegaard
takes up when he asks:Who has the more dicult task:
the teacher who lectures on earnest things a meteor's distance from everyday life-or the learner who should put it
to use?"* [38]
6.1.5 Existentialism and nihilism

See also: Existential nihilism
Although nihilism and existentialism are distinct philoso-
Opposition to positivism and ratio- phies, they are often confused with one another. A primary cause of confusion is that Friedrich Nietzsche is an
nalism
See also: Positivism and Rationalism

Existentialists oppose denitions of human beings as primarily rational, and, therefore, oppose positivism and
rationalism. Existentialism asserts that people actually
make decisions based on subjective meaning rather than
pure rationality. The rejection of reason as the source
of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought,
as is the focus on the feelings of anxiety and dread that
we feel in the face of our own radical freedom and our
awareness of death. Kierkegaard advocated rationality as
means to interact with the objective world (e.g. in the natural sciences), but when it comes to existential problems,
reason is insucient: Human reason has boundaries
.* [37]
important philosopher in both elds, but also the existentialist insistence on the inherent meaninglessness of the
world. Existentialist philosophers often stress the importance of Angst as signifying the absolute lack of any objective ground for action, a move that is often reduced
to a moral or an existential nihilism. A pervasive theme
in the works of existentialist philosophy, however, is to
persist through encounters with the absurd, as seen in
Camus' The Myth of Sisyphus (One must imagine Sisyphus happy),* [39] and it is only very rarely that existentialist philosophers dismiss morality or one's self-created
meaning: Kierkegaard regained a sort of morality in the
religious (although he wouldn't himself agree that it was
ethical; the religious suspends the ethical), and Sartre's nal words in Being and Nothingness are All these questions, which refer us to a pure and not an accessory (or
impure) reection, can nd their reply only on the ethical
plane. We shall devote to them a future work.* [40]
Like Kierkegaard, Sartre saw problems with rationality,

calling it a form of bad faith, an attempt by the self
to impose structure on a world of phenomena the
Other that is fundamentally irrational and random. 6.1.6 Etymology
According to Sartre, rationality and other forms of bad
faith hinder people from nding meaning in freedom. To The term existentialismwas coined by the French
try to suppress their feelings of anxiety and dread, people Catholic philosopher Gabriel Marcel in the mid-
104
1940s.* [41]* [42]* [43] At rst, when Marcel applied the

term to him at a colloquium in 1945, Jean-Paul Sartre rejected it.* [44] Sartre subsequently changed his mind and,
on October 29, 1945, publicly adopted the existentialist
label in a lecture to the Club Maintenant in Paris. The
lecture was published as L'existentialisme est un humanisme (Existentialism is a Humanism), a short book that
did much to popularize existentialist thought.* [45]
Some scholars argue that the term should be used only
to refer to the cultural movement in Europe in the 1940s
and 1950s associated with the works of the philosophers
Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice MerleauPonty, and Albert Camus.* [2] Other scholars extend the
term to Kierkegaard, and yet others extend it as far back
as Socrates.* [46] However, the term is often identied
with the philosophical views of Jean-Paul Sartre.* [2]
6.1.7
History
19th century
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche
Main article: Sren
Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche
See also: Sren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche
Sren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche were two of
the rst philosophers considered fundamental to the existentialist movement, though neither used the termexistentialismand it is unclear whether they would have
supported the existentialism of the 20th century. They
focused on subjective human experience rather than the
objective truths of mathematics and science, which they
believed were too detached or observational to truly get
at the human experience. Like Pascal, they were interested in people's quiet struggle with the apparent meaninglessness of life and the use of diversion to escape
from boredom. Unlike Pascal, Kierkegaard and Nietzsche also considered the role of making free choices,
particularly regarding fundamental values and beliefs,
and how such choices change the nature and identity of
the chooser.* [47] Kierkegaard's knight of faith and Nietzsche's bermensch are representative of people who
exhibit Freedom, in that they dene the nature of their
own existence. Nietzsche's idealized individual invents
his own values and creates the very terms they excel under. By contrast, Kierkegaard, opposed to the level of
abstraction in Hegel, and not nearly as hostile (actually
welcoming) to Christianity as Nietzsche, argues through a
pseudonym that the objective certainty of religious truths
(specically Christian) is not only impossible, but even
founded on logical paradoxes. Yet he continues to imply
that a leap of faith is a possible means for an individual to reach a higher stage of existence that transcends
and contains both an aesthetic and ethical value of life.
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were also precursors to other
intellectual movements, including postmodernism, and
various strands of psychology. However, Kierkegaard be-
lieved that individuals should live in accordance with their

thinking.
Dostoyevsky Main article: Fyodor Dostoyevsky
The rst important literary author also important to existentialism was the Russian Fyodor Dostoyevsky.* [48]
Dostoyevsky's Notes from Underground portrays a man
unable to t into society and unhappy with the identities he creates for himself. Jean-Paul Sartre, in his book
on existentialism Existentialism is a Humanism, quoted
Dostoyevsky's The Brothers Karamazov as an example
of existential crisis. Sartre attributes Ivan Karamazov's
claim, If God did not exist, everything would be permitted* [49] to Dostoyevsky himself, though this quote
does not appear in the novel.* [50] However, a similar sentiment is explicitly stated when Alyosha visits Dimitri in
prison. Dimitri mentions his conversations with Rakitin
in which the idea that Then, if He doesn't exist, man
is king of the earth, of the universeallowing the inference contained in Sartre's attribution to remain a valid
idea contested within the novel. * [51] Other Dostoyevsky
novels covered issues raised in existentialist philosophy
while presenting story lines divergent from secular existentialism: for example, in Crime and Punishment, the
protagonist Raskolnikov experiences an existential crisis
and then moves toward a Christian Orthodox worldview
similar to that advocated by Dostoyevsky himself.
Early 20th century
See also: Martin Heidegger
In the rst decades of the 20th century, a number of
philosophers and writers explored existentialist ideas.
The Spanish philosopher Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo, in
his 1913 book The Tragic Sense of Life in Men and Nations, emphasized the life ofesh and boneas opposed
to that of abstract rationalism. Unamuno rejected systematic philosophy in favor of the individual's quest for
faith. He retained a sense of the tragic, even absurd nature of the quest, symbolized by his enduring interest in
Cervantes' ctional character Don Quixote. A novelist,
poet and dramatist as well as philosophy professor at the
University of Salamanca, Unamuno wrote a short story
about a priest's crisis of faith, Saint Manuel the Good,
Martyr, which has been collected in anthologies of existentialist ction. Another Spanish thinker, Ortega y Gasset, writing in 1914, held that human existence must always be dened as the individual person combined with
the concrete circumstances of his life: "Yo soy yo y mi
circunstancia" (I am myself and my circumstances).
Sartre likewise believed that human existence is not an
abstract matter, but is always situated, also many thought
his plays were absurd ("en situacin").
Although Martin Buber wrote his major philosophical
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
works in German, and studied and taught at the Universities of Berlin and Frankfurt, he stands apart from the
mainstream of German philosophy. Born into a Jewish
family in Vienna in 1878, he was also a scholar of Jewish culture and involved at various times in Zionism and
Hasidism. In 1938, he moved permanently to Jerusalem.
His best-known philosophical work was the short book I
and Thou, published in 1922. For Buber, the fundamental fact of human existence, too readily overlooked by scientic rationalism and abstract philosophical thought, is
man with man, a dialogue that takes place in the socalledsphere of between(das Zwischenmenschliche
).* [52]
Two Ukrainian/Russian thinkers, Lev Shestov and
Nikolai Berdyaev, became well known as existentialist
thinkers during their post-Revolutionary exiles in Paris.
Shestov, born into a Ukrainian-Jewish family in Kiev, had
launched an attack on rationalism and systematization in
philosophy as early as 1905 in his book of aphorisms All
Things Are Possible.
105
scribed as almost diametrically opposedto that of
Sartre.* [54] Unlike Sartre, Marcel was a Christian, and
became a Catholic convert in 1929.
In Germany, the psychologist and philosopher Karl
Jaspers who later described existentialism as aphantomcreated by the public * [57] called his own thought,
heavily inuenced by Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, Existenzphilosophie. For Jaspers, "Existenz-philosophy is the
way of thought by means of which man seeks to become
himself...This way of thought does not cognize objects,
but elucidates and makes actual the being of the thinker.
*
[58]
Jaspers, a professor at the University of Heidelberg, was
acquainted with Martin Heidegger, who held a professorship at Marburg before acceding to Husserl's chair at
Freiburg in 1928. They held many philosophical discussions, but later became estranged over Heidegger's support of National Socialism. They shared an admiration
for Kierkegaard,* [59] and in the 1930s, Heidegger lectured extensively on Nietzsche. Nevertheless, the extent
to which Heidegger should be considered an existentialist
is debatable. In Being and Time he presented a method
of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence
(Dasein) to be analysed in terms of existential categories
(existentiale); and this has led many commentators to treat
him as an important gure in the existentialist movement.
Berdyaev, also from Kiev but with a background in the

Eastern Orthodox Church, drew a radical distinction between the world of spirit and the everyday world of objects. Human freedom, for Berdyaev, is rooted in the
realm of spirit, a realm independent of scientic notions
of causation. To the extent the individual human being
lives in the objective world, he is estranged from authentic spiritual freedom. Manis not to be interpreted
naturalistically, but as a being created in God's image, an After the Second World War
originator of free, creative acts.* [53] He published a major work on these themes, The Destiny of Man, in 1931. See also: Jean-Paul Sartre
Gabriel Marcel, long before coining the term existentialism, introduced important existentialist themes
to a French audience in his early essay Existence
and Objectivity(1925) and in his Metaphysical Journal
(1927).* [54] A dramatist as well as a philosopher, Marcel found his philosophical starting point in a condition of
metaphysical alienation: the human individual searching
for harmony in a transient life. Harmony, for Marcel, was
to be sought through secondary reection, a dialogicalrather thandialecticalapproach to the world,
characterized by wonder and astonishmentand open
to thepresenceof other people and of God rather than
merely to informationabout them. For Marcel, such
presence implied more than simply being there (as one
thing might be in the presence of another thing); it connoted extravagantavailability, and the willingness to
put oneself at the disposal of the other.* [55]
Marcel contrasted secondary reection with abstract,
scientic-technical primary reection, which he associated with the activity of the abstract Cartesian ego. For
Marcel, philosophy was a concrete activity undertaken
by a sensing, feeling human being incarnate embodied in a concrete world.* [54]* [56] Although Jean-Paul
Sartre adopted the term existentialismfor his own
philosophy in the 1940s, Marcel's thought has been de-
Following the Second World War, existentialism became

a well-known and signicant philosophical and cultural
movement, mainly through the public prominence of two
French writers, Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, who
wrote best-selling novels, plays and widely read journalism as well as theoretical texts. These years also saw the
growing reputation of Heidegger's book Being and Time
outside Germany.
Sartre dealt with existentialist themes in his 1938 novel
Nausea and the short stories in his 1939 collection The
Wall, and had published his treatise on existentialism,
Being and Nothingness, in 1943, but it was in the two
years following the liberation of Paris from the German
occupying forces that he and his close associates Camus, Simone de Beauvoir, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, and
others became internationally famous as the leading
gures of a movement known as existentialism.* [60] In
a very short space of time, Camus and Sartre in particular became the leading public intellectuals of postwar France, achieving by the end of 1945 a fame that
reached across all audiences.* [61] Camus was an editor of the most popular leftist (former French Resistance)
newspaper Combat; Sartre launched his journal of leftist
thought, Les Temps Modernes, and two weeks later gave
the widely reported lecture on existentialism and secular
106
French-Algerian philosopher, novelist, and playwright Albert

Camus
French philosophers Jean-Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir
humanism to a packed meeting of the Club Maintenant.

Beauvoir wrote thatnot a week passed without the newspapers discussing us";* [62] existentialism became the
rst media craze of the postwar era.* [63]
Heidegger read Sartre's work and was initially impressed,

commenting: Here for the rst time I encountered an
independent thinker who, from the foundations up, has
experienced the area out of which I think. Your work
shows such an immediate comprehension of my philosophy as I have never before encountered.* [67] Later,
however, in response to a question posed by his French
follower Jean Beaufret,* [68] Heidegger distanced himself from Sartre's position and existentialism in general
in his Letter on Humanism.* [69] Heidegger's reputation
continued to grow in France during the 1950s and 1960s.
In the 1960s, Sartre attempted to reconcile existentialism
and Marxism in his work Critique of Dialectical Reason.
A major theme throughout his writings was freedom and
responsibility.
By the end of 1947, Camus' earlier ction and plays had

been reprinted, his new play Caligula had been performed
and his novel The Plague published; the rst two novels
of Sartre's The Roads to Freedom trilogy had appeared,
as had Beauvoir's novel The Blood of Others. Works
by Camus and Sartre were already appearing in foreign Camus was a friend of Sartre, until their falling-out, and
editions. The Paris-based existentialists had become fa- wrote several works with existential themes including The
mous.* [60]
Rebel, Summer in Algiers, The Myth of Sisyphus, and The
Sartre had traveled to Germany in 1930 to study the Stranger, the latter being consideredto what would
phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heideg- have been Camus's irritationthe exemplary existentialger,* [64] and he included critical comments on their work ist novel.* [70] Camus, like many others, rejected the
in his major treatise Being and Nothingness. Heideg- existentialist label, and considered his works concerned
ger's thought had also become known in French philo- with facing the absurd. In the titular book, Camus uses
sophical circles through its use by Alexandre Kojve in the analogy of the Greek myth of Sisyphus to demonexplicating Hegel in a series of lectures given in Paris strate the futility of existence. In the myth, Sisyphus is
in the 1930s.* [65] The lectures were highly inuen- condemned for eternity to roll a rock up a hill, but when
tial; members of the audience included not only Sartre he reaches the summit, the rock will roll to the bottom
and Merleau-Ponty, but Raymond Queneau, Georges again. Camus believes that this existence is pointless but
Bataille, Louis Althusser, Andr Breton, and Jacques La- that Sisyphus ultimately nds meaning and purpose in his
can.* [66] A selection from Heidegger's Being and Time task, simply by continually applying himself to it. The
was published in French in 1938, and his essays began to rst half of the book contains an extended rebuttal of
appear in French philosophy journals.
what Camus took to be existentialist philosophy in the
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
works of Kierkegaard, Shestov, Heidegger, and Jaspers.
107
of a ctional World War I French army regiment ordered
to attack an impregnable German stronghold; when the
attack fails, three soldiers are chosen at random, courtmartialed by akangaroo court, and executed by ring
squad. The lm examines existentialist ethics, such as the
issue of whether objectivity is possible and theproblem
of authenticity.* [74]
Simone de Beauvoir, an important existentialist who

spent much of her life as Sartre's partner, wrote about
feminist and existentialist ethics in her works, including
The Second Sex and The Ethics of Ambiguity. Although
often overlooked due to her relationship with Sartre,* [71]
de Beauvoir integrated existentialism with other forms of
thinking such as feminism, unheard of at the time, result- Neon Genesis Evangelion, commonly referred to as
ing in alienation from fellow writers such as Camus.
Evangelion or Eva, is a Japanese science-ction animaPaul Tillich, an important existentialist theologian fol- tion series created by the anime studio Gainax and was
lowing Kierkegaard and Karl Barth, applied existential- both directed and written by Hideaki Anno. Existential
ist concepts to Christian theology, and helped introduce themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice,
existential theology to the general public. His seminal and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the
work The Courage to Be follows Kierkegaard's analy- entire series, particularly through the philosophies of
sis of anxiety and life's absurdity, but puts forward the Jean-Paul Sartre and Sren Kierkegaard. Episode 16's
thesis that modern humans must, via God, achieve self- title, The Sickness Unto Death, And" (
hood in spite of life's absurdity. Rudolf Bultmann used Shi ni itaru yamai, soshite) is a reference to
Kierkegaard's and Heidegger's philosophy of existence Kierkegaard's book, The Sickness Unto Death.
to demythologize Christianity by interpreting Christian On the lighter side, the British comedy troupe Monty
mythical concepts into existentialist concepts.
Python have explored existentialist themes throughout
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, an existential phenomenologist, their works, from many of the sketches in their original television show, Monty Python's Flying Circus, to their
was for a time a companion of Sartre. His understanding
*
of Husserl's phenomenology was far greater than that of 1983 lm Monty Python's The Meaning of Life. [75]
Merleau-Ponty's fellow existentialists. It has been said
that his work Humanism and Terror greatly inuenced
Sartre. However, in later years they were to disagree irreparably, dividing many existentialists such as de Beauvoir, who sided with Sartre.
Some contemporary lms dealing with existentialist issues include Fight Club, I Huckabees, Waking Life, The
Matrix, Ordinary People, and Life in a Day.* [76] Likewise, lms throughout the 20th century such as The Seventh Seal, Ikiru, Taxi Driver, Toy Story, Ghost in the Shell,
Colin Wilson, an English writer, published his study The Harold and Maude, High Noon, Easy Rider, One Flew
Outsider in 1956, initially to critical acclaim. In this book Over the Cuckoo's Nest, A Clockwork Orange, Groundhog
and Blade Runner also
and others (e.g. Introduction to the New Existentialism), Day, Apocalypse Now, Badlands,
*
have
existentialist
qualities.
[77]
he attempted to reinvigorate what he perceived as a pessimistic philosophy and bring it to a wider audience. He The Matrix has been compared with another movie, Dark
was not, however, academically trained, and his work was City* [78] where the issues of identity and reality are
attacked by professional philosophers for lack of rigor and raised. In Dark City, the inhabitants of the city are sitcritical standards.* [72]
uated in a world controlled by demiurges, much like the
prisoners in Plato's cave, in which prisoners see a world of
shadows reected onto a cave wall, rather than the world
as it actually is.* [79]
6.1.8 Inuence outside philosophy
Art
Film and television The French director Jean Genet's
1950 fantasy-erotic lm Un chant d'amour shows two inmates in solitary cells whose only contact is through a hole
in their cell wall, who are spied on by the prison warden. Reviewer James Travers calls the lm a, "...visual
poem evoking homosexual desire and existentialist suffering,which "... conveys the bleakness of an existence
in a godless universe with painful believability"; he calls
it "... probably the most eective fusion of existentialist
philosophy and cinema.* [73]
Musician-Popular Film Artist John Lennon's God models

existentialist ideals. Lennon says, God is a concept by
which we measure our pain...I just believe in me.
Notable directors known for their existentialist lms

include Ingmar Bergman, Franois Truaut, JeanLuc Godard, Michelangelo Antonioni, Akira Kurosawa,
Terrence Malick, Stanley Kubrick, Andrei Tarkovsky,
Hideaki Anno, Wes Anderson, Woody Allen, and
Christopher Nolan.* [80] Charlie Kaufman's Synecdoche,
New York focuses on the protagonist's desire to nd
existential meaning.* [81] Similarly, in Kurosawa's Red
Beard, the protagonist's experiences as an intern in a rural health clinic in Japan lead him to an existential crisis
Stanley Kubrick's 1957 anti-war lm Paths of Gloryil- whereby he questions his reason for being. This, in turn,
lustrates, and even illuminates...existentialismby exam- leads him to a better understanding of humanity.
ining the necessary absurdity of the human condition Recently released French lm, Mood Indigo (directed by
and the horror of war.* [74] The lm tells the story
108
Michel Gondry) embraced various elements of existen- Absurd, notably in Samuel Beckett's Waiting for Godot,
tialism.
in which two men divert themselves while they wait exThe lm The Shawshank Redemption, released in 1994, pectantly for someone (or something) named Godot who
depicts life in a prison in Maine, USA to explore several never arrives. They claim Godot is an acquaintance, but
in fact, hardly know him, admitting they would not recexistentialist concepts.* [82]
ognize him if they saw him. Samuel Beckett, once asked
who or what Godot is, replied, If I knew, I would have
said
so in the play.To occupy themselves, the men eat,
Literature Existential perspectives are also found in
sleep,
talk, argue, sing, play games, exercise, swap hats,
modern literature to varying degrees, especially since
and
contemplate
suicideanything to hold the territhe 1920s. Louis-Ferdinand Cline's Journey to the End
*
ble
silence
at
bay.
[93] The play exploits several
of the Night (Voyage au bout de la nuit, 1932) celearchetypal
forms
and
situations,
all of which lend thembrated by both Sartre and Beauvoir, contained many of
*
selves
to
both
comedy
and
pathos.
[94] The play also
the themes that would be found in later existential literillustrates
an
attitude
toward
human
experience
on earth:
ature, and is in some ways, the proto-existential novel.
*
the
poignancy,
oppression,
camaraderie,
hope,
corrupJean-Paul Sartre's 1938 novel Nausea [83] wassteeped
tion,
and
bewilderment
of
human
experience
that
can be
in Existential ideas, and is considered an accessible
*
reconciled
only
in
the
mind
and
art
of
the
absurdist.
The
way of grasping his philosophical stance. [84] Between
meaning
of
huplay
examines
questions
such
as
death,
the
1900 and 1960, other authors such as Albert Camus,
man
existence
and
the
place
of
God
in
human
existence.
Franz Kafka, Rainer Maria Rilke, T.S. Eliot, Herman
Hesse, Luigi Pirandello,* [85]* [86]* [87]* [24]* [25]* [27]
Ralph Ellison,* [88]* [89]* [90]* [91] and Jack Kerouac,
composed literature or poetry that contained, to varying degrees, elements of existential or proto-existential
thought. The philosophy's inuence even reached pulp literature shortly after the turn of the 20th century, as seen
in the existential disparity witnessed in Man's lack of control of his fate in the works of H.P. Lovecraft.* [92] Since
the late 1960s, a great deal of cultural activity in literature
contains postmodernist as well as existential elements.
Books such as Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?
(1968) (now republished as Blade Runner) by Philip K.
Dick, Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, and Fight
Club by Chuck Palahniuk all distort the line between
reality and appearance while simultaneously espousing
existential themes. Ideas from such writers as Fyodor
Dostoyevsky, Michel Foucault, Franz Kafka, Friedrich
Nietzsche, Sren Kierkegaard, Herbert Marcuse, Gilles
Deleuze, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Eduard von Hartmann permeate the works of modern novelists such as
Chuck Palahniuk, Crispin Glover, Andrew Hussie, David
Foster Wallace, and Charles Bukowski, and one often
nds in their works a delicate balance between distastefulness and beauty.
Tom Stoppard's Rosencrantz & Guildenstern Are Dead

is an absurdist tragicomedy rst staged at the Edinburgh
Festival Fringe in 1966.* [95] The play expands upon
the exploits of two minor characters from Shakespeare's
Hamlet. Comparisons have also been drawn to Samuel
Beckett's Waiting For Godot, for the presence of two central characters who appear almost as two halves of a single character. Many plot features are similar as well: the
characters pass time by playing Questions, impersonating
other characters, and interrupting each other or remaining silent for long periods of time. The two characters
are portrayed as two clowns or fools in a world beyond
their understanding. They stumble through philosophical
arguments while not realizing the implications, and muse
on the irrationality and randomness of the world.
Jean Anouilh's Antigone also presents arguments founded
on existentialist ideas.* [96] It is a tragedy inspired
by Greek mythology and the play of the same name
(Antigone, by Sophocles) from the 5th century BC. In
English, it is often distinguished from its antecedent by
being pronounced in its original French form, approximately Ante-GN.The play was rst performed in
Paris on 6 February 1944, during the Nazi occupation
of France. Produced under Nazi censorship, the play is
purposefully ambiguous with regards to the rejection of
authority (represented by Antigone) and the acceptance
of it (represented by Creon). The parallels to the French
Resistance and the Nazi occupation have been drawn.
Antigone rejects life as desperately meaningless but without armatively choosing a noble death. The crux of
the play is the lengthy dialogue concerning the nature of
power, fate, and choice, during which Antigone says that
she is, "... disgusted with [the]...promise of a humdrum
happiness.She states that she would rather die than live
a mediocre existence.
Theatre Jean-Paul Sartre wrote No Exit in 1944, an

existentialist play originally published in French as Huis
Clos (meaning In Camera or behind closed doors),
which is the source of the popular quote, Hell is other
people.(In French, L'enfer, c'est les autres). The
play begins with a Valet leading a man into a room that the
audience soon realizes is in hell. Eventually he is joined
by two women. After their entry, the Valet leaves and the
door is shut and locked. All three expect to be tortured,
but no torturer arrives. Instead, they realize they are there
to torture each other, which they do eectively by probing Critic Martin Esslin in his book Theatre of the Abeach other's sins, desires, and unpleasant memories.
surd pointed out how many contemporary playwrights
Existentialist themes are displayed in the Theatre of the such as Samuel Beckett, Eugne Ionesco, Jean Genet,
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
109
and Arthur Adamov wove into their plays the existentialist belief that we are absurd beings loose in a universe empty of real meaning. Esslin noted that many
of these playwrights demonstrated the philosophy better
than did the plays by Sartre and Camus. Though most
of such playwrights, subsequently labeled Absurdist
(based on Esslin's book), denied aliations with existentialism and were often staunchly anti-philosophical (for
example Ionesco often claimed he identied more with
'Pataphysics or with Surrealism than with existentialism),
the playwrights are often linked to existentialism based
on Esslin's observation.* [97]
pean version of existentialist psychotherapy is the Britishbased Emmy van Deurzen.
United States was Rollo May, who was strongly inuenced by Kierkegaard and Otto Rank. One of the most
prolic writers on techniques and theory of existentialist
psychology in the USA is Irvin D. Yalom. Yalom states
that
Logical positivist philosophers, such as Rudolf Carnap

and Alfred Ayer, assert that existentialists are often confused about the verbto bein their analyses ofbeing
.* [103] Specically, they argue that the verb is transitive
and pre-xed to a predicate (e.g., an apple is red) (without
a predicate, the word is meaningless), and that existentialists frequently misuse the term in this manner.
Anxiety's importance in existentialism makes it a popular topic in psychotherapy. Therapists often oer existentialist philosophy as an explanation for anxiety. The
assertion is that anxiety is manifested of an individual's
complete freedom to decide, and complete responsibility
for the outcome of such decisions. Psychotherapists using an existentialist approach believe that a patient can
harness his anxiety and use it constructively. Instead
of suppressing anxiety, patients are advised to use it as
grounds for change. By embracing anxiety as inevitable,
a person can use it to achieve his full potential in life.
Humanistic psychology also had major impetus from exPsychoanalysis and psychotherapy
istentialist psychology and shares many of the fundamental tenets. Terror management theory, based on the writMain article: Existential therapy
ings of Ernest Becker and Otto Rank, is a developing
area of study within the academic study of psychology.
A major oshoot of existentialism as a philosophy is exisIt looks at what researchers claim are implicit emotional
tentialist psychology and psychoanalysis, which rst crysreactions of people confronted with the knowledge that
tallized in the work of Otto Rank, Freud's closest assothey will eventually die.
ciate for 20 years. Without awareness of the writings
of Rank, Ludwig Binswanger was inuenced by Freud, Also, Gerd B. Achenbach has refreshed the socratic traEdmund Husserl, Heidegger, and Sartre. A later gure dition with his own blend of philosophical counseling. So
was Viktor Frankl, who briey met Freud and studied did Michel Weber with his Chromatiques Center in Belwith Jung as a young man.* [98] His logotherapy can be gium.
regarded as a form of existentialist therapy. The existentialists would also inuence social psychology, antipositivist micro-sociology, symbolic interactionism, and post- 6.1.9 Criticisms
structuralism, with the work of thinkers such as Georg
Simmel* [99] and Michel Foucault. Foucault was a great General criticisms
reader of Kierkegaard even though he almost never refers
this author, who nonetheless had for him an importance Walter Kaufmann criticized 'the profoundly unsound
as secret as it was decisive.* [100]
methods and the dangerous contempt for reason that have
*
An early contributor to existentialist psychology in the been so prominent in existentialism.' [102]
Aside from their reaction against Freud's

mechanistic, deterministic model of the mind
and their assumption of a phenomenological
approach in therapy, the existentialist analysts
have little in common and have never been regarded as a cohesive ideological school. These
thinkers - who include Ludwig Binswanger,
Medard Boss, Eugne Minkowski, V.E. Gebsattel, Roland Kuhn, G. Caruso, F.T. Buytendijk, G. Bally and Victor Frankl - were almost entirely unknown to the American psychotherapeutic community until Rollo May's
highly inuential 1985 book Existence - and
especially his introductory essay - introduced
their work into this country.* [101]
Sartre's philosophy
Many critics argue Sartre's philosophy is contradictory.

Specically, they argue that Sartre makes metaphysical arguments despite his claiming that his philosophical views ignore metaphysics. Herbert Marcuse criticized Being and Nothingness (1943) by Jean-Paul Sartre
for projecting anxiety and meaninglessness onto the nature of existence itself: Insofar as Existentialism is a
philosophical doctrine, it remains an idealistic doctrine:
it hypostatizes specic historical conditions of human existence into ontological and metaphysical characteristics.
Existentialism thus becomes part of the very ideology
A more recent contributor to the development of a Euro- which it attacks, and its radicalism is illusory.* [104]
110
In Letter on Humanism, Heidegger criticized Sartre's existentialism:

Existentialism says existence precedes
essence.
In this statement he is taking
existentia and essentia according to their
metaphysical meaning, which, from Plato's
time on, has said that essentia precedes existentia. Sartre reverses this statement. But the
reversal of a metaphysical statement remains
a metaphysical statement. With it, he stays
with metaphysics, in oblivion of the truth of
Being.* [105]
6.1.10
See also
Abandonment (existentialism)
Absurdism
Atheist existentialism
Christian existentialism
Disenchantment
Existentiell
List of existentialists
Meaning (existential)
Phenomenology
6.1.11
Notes
[1] Oxford University Press, Oxford Dictionary: 'existentialism'", Oxford English Dictionary, Retrieved 22 August
2014.
[2] Crowell, Steven (October 2010).Existentialism. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[3] John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pp.
1821.
[4] Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich,
New York (1995), p. 259.
[10] McDonald, William. Sren Kierkegaard. In Edward

N. Zalta. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer
2009 Edition).
[11] However he did title his 1846 book Concluding Unscientic Postscript to Philosophical Fragments, (Subtitle) A
Mimical-Pathetic-Dialectical Compilation an Existential
Contribution, and mentioned the term on pages 121-122,
191, 350-351, 387 of that book. and he did, in fact, use
it like this:
All skepticism is a kind of idealism.
Hence when the sceptic Zeno pursued the
study of skepticism by endeavoring existentially to keep himself unaected by whatever happened, so that when once he had
gone out of his way to avoid a mad dog, he
shamefacedly admitted that even a skeptical
philosopher is also sometimes a man, I nd
nothing ridiculous in this. There is no contradiction, and the comical always lies in a
contradiction. On the other hand, when one
thinks of all the miserable idealistic lecturewitticisms, the jesting and coquetry in connection with playing the idealist while in the
professorial chair, so that the lecturer is not
really an idealist, but only plays the fashionable game of being an idealist; when one
remembers the lecture-phrase about doubting everything, while occupying the lecture
platform, aye, then it is impossible not to
write a satire merely by recounting the facts.
Through an existential attempt to be an idealist, one would learn in the course of half
a year something very dierent from this
game of hide-and-seek on the lecture platform. There is no special diculty connected
with being an idealist in the imagination; but
to exist as an idealist is an extremely strenuous task, because existence itself constitutes
a hindrance and an objection. To express
existentially what one has understood about
oneself, and in this manner to understand
oneself, is in no way comical. But to understand everything except ones own self
is very comical.Soren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientic Postscript to Philosophical Fragments 1846 p. 315-316 translated by
David F. Swenson and Walter Lowrie 1941
Fifth Printing Princeton University Press
[5] John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York (1972), pp.

1415.
[12] Watts, Michael. Kierkegaard (Oneworld, 2003, pp.4-6).
[6] Robert C. Solomon, Existentialism (McGraw-Hill, 1974,

pp. 12).
[13] Lowrie, Walter. Kierkegaard's attack uponChristendom

(Princeton, 1969, pp. 37-40).
[7] Ernst Breisach, Introduction to Modern Existentialism,

New York (1962), p. 5.
[8] Walter Kaufmann, Existentialism: From Dostoyevesky to
Sartre, New York (1956) p. 12.
[9] Marino, Gordon. Basic Writings of Existentialism (Modern Library, 2004, p. ix, 3).
[14] Guignon and Pereboom, Derk, Charles B. (2001).

Existentialism: basic writings. Hackett Publishing. p. xiii.
ISBN 9780872205956.
[15] Copleston, F.C. (2009).Existentialism. Philosophy 23
(84): 1937. doi:10.1017/S0031819100065955. JSTOR
4544850.
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
[16] See James Wood's introduction to Sartre, Jean-Paul

(2000). Nausea. London: Penguin Classics. ISBN 9780-141-18549-1. Quote on p. vii.
111
[39] Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus. NYU.edu

[40] Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, Routledge Classics (2003).
[17] Tidsskrift for Norsk Psykologforening, Vol 45, nummer

10, 2008, side 1298-1304, Welhaven og psykologien: Del
2. Welhaven peker fremover (in Norwegian)
[41] D.E. Cooper Existentialism:

Blackwell, 1990, page 1)
[18] Lundestad, 1998, pp. 169
[42] Thomas R. Flynn, Existentialism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press), 2006, page 89
A Reconstruction (Basil
[19] Slagstad, 2001, p 89

[20] Seip, 2007, p 352
[21] (French) (Dictionary)L'existencialisme- seel'identit
de la personne
[22] Baird, Forrest E.; Walter Kaufmann (2008). From Plato to
Derrida. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-158591-6.
[23] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, 3.1
Anxiety, Nothingness, the Absurd
[24] Bassnett, Susan; Lorch, Jennifer (March 18, 2014). Luigi
Pirandello in the Theatre. Routledge. Retrieved 26 March
2015.
[43] Christine Daigle, Existentialist Thinkers and Ethics

(McGill-Queen's press, 2006, page 5)
[44] Ann Fulton, Apostles of Sartre: Existentialism in America, 1945-1963 (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University
Press, 1999) 18-19.
[45] L'Existentialisme est un Humanisme (Editions Nagel,
1946); English Jean-Paul Sartre, Existentialism and Humanism (Eyre Methuen, 1948)
[46] Crowell, Steven. The Cambridge Companion to Existentialism, Cambridge, 2011, p. 316.
[47] Luper, Steven. Existing. Mayeld Publishing, 2000,
p.45 and 11
[25] Thompson, Mel; Rodgers, Nigel (2010). Understanding

Existentialism: Teach Yourself. Hodder & Stoughton.
[48] Hubben, William. Dostoyevsky, Kierkegaard, Nietzsche

and Kafka, Jabber-wacky, Scribner, 1997.
[26] Caputi, Anthony Francis (1988). Pirandello and the Crisis

of Modern Consciousness. University of Illinois Press.
[49] Sartre, Jean-Paul.

Existentialism is a Humanism
http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/
exist/sartre.htm ; Retrieved 2012-04-01.
[27] Mariani, Umberto (2010). Living Masks: The Achievement of Pirandello. University of Toronto Press. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[28] Jean-Paul Sartre. Existentialism is a Humanism, JeanPaul Sartre 1946. Marxists.org. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
[29] E Keen (1973). Suicide and Self-Deception. Psychoanalytic Review.
Facticity and Transcendence
[50] Zizek, Slavoj. If there is a God, then everything is permitted.

[51] Dostoyevsky Fyodor. "The Brothers Karamazov".
[52] Maurice S. Friedman, Martin Buber. The Life of Dialogue
(University of Chicago press, 1955, page 85)
[53] Ernst Breisach, Introduction to Modern Existentialism,
New York (1962), pages 173176
[31] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Existentialism, 3.

Freedom and Value
[54] Samuel M. Keen,Gabriel Marcelin Paul Edwards (ed.)

The Encyclopaedia of Philosophy (Macmillan Publishing
Co, 1967)

The Ideality of Values
[55] John Macquarrie, Existentialism (Pelican, 1973, page 110)

Authenticity
Alienation
[35] despair - denition of despair by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia. Tfd.com. Retrieved
2010-03-08.
[36] Either/Or Part II p. 188 Hong
[37] Sren Kierkegaard's Journals and Papers Vol 5, p. 5
[38] Kierkegaard, Soren. Works of Love. Harper & Row, Publishers. New York, N.Y. 1962. p. 62
[56] John Macquarrie, Existentialism (Pelican, 1973, page 96)

[57] Karl Jaspers, Philosophical Autobiographyin Paul
Arthur Schilpp (ed.) The Philosophy of Karl Jaspers (The
Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 75/11)
Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 40)
Library of Living Philosophers IX (Tudor Publishing Company, 1957, page 75/2 and following)
112
[60] Ronald Aronson, Camus and Sartre (University of

Chicago Press, 2004, chapter 3 passim)
[81] Chocano, Carina (2008-10-24). Review: 'Synecdoche,

New York'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2008-11-17.

Chicago Press, 2004, page 44)
[82] For an examination of the existentialist elements within

the lm, see Philosophy Now, issue 102, accessible here
(link), accessed 3rd June 2014.
[62] Simone de Beauvoir, Force of Circumstance, quoted

in Ronald Aronson, Camus and Sartre (University of
[64] Rdiger Safranski, Martin Heidgger Between Good and
Evil (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 343
[65] Entry on Kojve in Martin Cohen (editor), The Essentials of Philosophy and Ethics(Hodder Arnold, 2006, page
158); see also Alexandre Kojve, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit
(Cornell University Press, 1980)
[66] Entry on Kojve in Martin Cohen (editor), The Essentials
of Philosophy and Ethics(Hodder Arnold, 2006, page 158)
[67] Martin Hediegger, letter, quoted in Rdiger Safranski,
Martin Heidgger Between Good and Evil (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 349)
[68] Rdiger Safranski, Martin Heidegger Between Good and
Evil (Harvard University Press, 1998, page 356)
[69] William J. Richardson, Martin Heidegger: From Phenomenology to Thought (Martjinus Nijho,1967, page
351)
[70] Messud, Claire (2014). A New 'L'tranger'". The New
York Review of Books 61 (10). Retrieved 1 June 2014.
[71] Bergoen, Debra (September 2010). Simone de Beauvoir. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[72] K. Gunnar Bergstrm, An Odyssey to Freedom University
of Uppsala, 1983, page 92;Colin Stanley, Colin Wilson, a
Celebration: Essays and Recollections Cecil Woolf, 1988,
page 43)
[73] James Travers 2005 google search
[74] Holt, Jason. Existential Ethics: Where do the Paths of
Glory Lead?". In The Philosophy of Stanley Kubrick. By
Jerold J. Abrams. Published 2007. University Press of
Kentucky. ISBN 0-8131-2445-X
[75] Amazon.com's Films with an Existential Theme. Retrieved 2009-02-02.
[83] Sartre, Jean-Paul; (Translated by Robert Baldick) (2000.

First published 1938). Nausea. London: Penguin.
Check date values in: |date= (help)
[84] Earnshaw, Steven (2006). Existentialism: A Guide for the
Perplexed. London: Continuum. p. 75. ISBN 0-82648530-8.
[85] Cincotta, Madeleine Strong (1989). Luigi Pirandello: The
Humorous Existentialist. University of Wollongong Press.
Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[86] Bassanese, Fiora A. (Jan 1, 1997). Understanding Luigi
Pirandello. University of South Carolina Press. Retrieved
26 March 2015.
[87] DiGaetani, John Louis (Jan 25, 2008). Stages of Struggle:
Modern Playwrights and Their Psychological Inspirations.
McFarland. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[88] Graham, Maryemma;
Singh, Amritjit (1995).
Conversations with Ralph Ellison.
University of
Mississippi Press. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[89] Cotkin, George (2005). Existential American. JHU Press.
Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[90] Thomas, Paul Lee (2008). Reading, Learning, Teach
Ralph Ellison. Peter Lang. Retrieved 26 March 2015.
[91] Jackson, Lawrence Patrick (2007). Ralph Ellison: Emergence of Genius. University of Georgia Press. Retrieved
26 March 2015.
[92] Gurnow, Michael (2008-10-15). "Zarathustra . . .
Cthulhu . Meursault: Existential Futility in H.P. Lovecrafts The Call of Cthulhu
". The Horror Review.
Retrieved 2015-02-17.
[93] The Times, 31 December 1964. Quoted in Knowlson, J.,
Damned to Fame: The Life of Samuel Beckett (London:
Bloomsbury, 1996), p 57
[94] Cronin, A., Samuel Beckett The Last Modernist (London:
Flamingo, 1997), p 391
[95] Michael H. Hutchins (14 August 2006). A Tom Stoppard Bibliography: Chronology. The Stephen Sondheim
Reference Guide. Retrieved 2008-06-23.
[76] Existential & Psychological Movie Recommendations

[96] Wren, Celia (12 December 2007). From Forum, an
. Existential-therapy.com. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
Earnest and Painstaking 'Antigone'". Washington Post.
[77] Existentialism in Film. Uhaweb.hartford.edu. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
[97] Kernan, Alvin B. The Modern American Theater: A Collection of Critical Essays. Englewood Clis, New Jersey:
[78] http://www.weirdpro.com/?page_id=656
Prentice-Hall, 1967.
[79] http://jaysanalysis.com/tag/demiurge/
[98] Logotherapie-international.eu
[80] Existentialist Adaptations - Harvard Film Archive.
Hcl.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2010-03-08.
[99] Stewart, Jon. Kierkegaard and Existentialism. p.38
6.1. EXISTENTIALISM
113
[100] Flynn, Thomas R. Sartre, Foucault, and Historical Reason,

p. 323.
Kierkegaard, Sren (1846). Concluding Unscientic

Postscript.
[101] Yalom, Irvin D. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. New

York: BasicBooks (Subsidiary of Perseus Books, L.L.C.
p. 17. ISBN 0-465-02147-6. Note: The copyright year
has not changed, but the book remains in print.
Kierkegaard, Sren (1843). Either/Or.
[102] Kaufmann, Walter Arnold, From Shakespeare To Existentialism (Princeton University Press 1979), p.xvi
[103] Carnap, Rudolf, Uberwindung der Metaphysik durch logische Analyse der Sprache [Overcoming Metaphysics by the
Logical Analysis of Speech], Erkenntnis (1932), pp.219
241. Carnap's critique of Heidegger's What is Metaphysics.
[104] Marcuse, Herbert. Sartre's Existentialism. Printed
in Studies in Critical Philosophy. Translated by Joris De
Bres. London: NLB, 1972. p. 161
[105] Martin Heidegger,Letter on Humanism, in Basic Writings: Nine Key Essays, plus the Introduction to Being and
Time , trans. David Farrell Krell (London, Routledge;
1978), 208. Google Books
6.1.12
References
Kierkegaard, Sren (1843). Fear and Trembling.

Kierkegaard, Sren (1849).
Death.
The Sickness Unto
Kierkegaard, Sren (1847). Works of Love.

Luper, Steven (ed.) (2000). Existing: An Introduction to Existential Thought. Mountain View, California: Mayeld. ISBN 0-7674-0587-0.
Marino, Gordon (ed.) (2004). Basic Writings of Existentialism. New York: Modern Library. ISBN 0375-75989-1.
Merleau-Ponty, M. (1962). Phenomenology of Perception [Colin Smith]. New York: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Rose, Eugene (Fr. Seraphim) (1994). Nihilism: The
Root of the Revolution of the Modern Age. Saint Herman Press (1 September 1994). ISBN 0-93863515-8.
Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997). Suhrawardi and the

School of Illumination. Routledge. ISBN 0-70070412-4.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1943). Being and Nothingness.
Albert Camus Lyrical and Critical essays. Edited by

Philip Thody (interviev with Jeanie Delpech, in Les
Nouvelles litteraires, November 15, 1945). pg 345
Stewart, Jon (ed.) (2011). Kierkegaard and Existentialism. Farnham, England: Ashgate. ISBN 978-14094-2641-7.
6.1.13
Further reading
Appignanesi, Richard; Oscar Zarate (2001). Introducing Existentialism. Cambridge, UK: Icon. ISBN
1-84046-266-3.
Sartre, Jean-Paul (1945). Existentialism and Humanism.
Solomon, Robert C. (ed.) (2005). Existentialism

(2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-517463-1.
Wartenberg, Thomas E. Existentialism: A Beginner's
Guide.
Appignanesi, Richard (2006). Introducing Existen6.1.14 External links

tialism (3rd ed.). Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books
(UK), Totem Books (USA). ISBN 1-84046-717-7.
Introductions
Cooper, David E. (1999). Existentialism: A Reconstruction (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN
0-631-21322-8.
Existentialism entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of

Philosophy
Deurzen, Emmy van (2010). Everyday Mysteries:

a Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy (2nd ed.).
London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37643-3.
Fallico, Arthuro B. (1962). Art & Existentialism.

Englewood Clis, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Friesian interpretation of Existentialism
Kierkegaard, Sren (1855). Attack Upon Christendom.

Kierkegaard, Sren (1843). The Concept of Anxiety.
Existentialism on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen

now)
Existentialism entry by Steven Crowell in the

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Existentialism is a Humanism, a lecture given
by Jean-Paul Sartre
114
The Existential Primer
the structures of consciousness and the phenomena that

appear in acts of consciousness. This ontology (study of
Buddhists, Existentialists and Situationists: Waking reality) can be clearly dierentiated from the Cartesian
up in Waking Life
method of analysis which sees the world as objects, sets
The Existence, All I know, only I know: the analysis of objects, and objects acting and reacting upon one another.
of self-consciousness
Husserl's conception of phenomenology has been criticized and developed not only by himself but also by
students, such as Edith Stein, by hermeneutic philoso Stirrings Still: The International Journal of Existen- phers, such as Martin Heidegger, by existentialists, such
as Nicolai Hartmann, Gabriel Marcel, Maurice Merleautial Literature
Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre, and by other philosophers,
Existential Analysis published by The Society for such as Max Scheler, Paul Ricoeur, Jean-Luc Marion,
Existential Analysis
Emmanuel Lvinas, and sociologists Alfred Schtz and
Eric Voegelin.
Existential psychotherapy
Journals and articles
International Society for Existential Therapy
6.2.1 Overview
HPSY.RU Existential & humanistic psychology

History of existential psychology's development in In its most basic form, phenomenology attempts to create conditions for the objective study of topics usually reformer Soviet nations
garded as subjective: consciousness and the content of
conscious experiences such as judgments, perceptions,
Videos
and emotions. Although phenomenology seeks to be scientic, it does not attempt to study consciousness from
Existential Theory of Quality Teaching and Learnthe perspective of clinical psychology or neurology. Ining on YouTube
stead, it seeks through systematic reection to determine
the essential properties and structures of experience.
6.2 Phenomenology (philosophy)

This article is about phenomenology in philosophy. For phenomenology as a research method, see
Phenomenography. For phenomenology as an approach
in psychology, see Phenomenology (psychology).
Phenomenology (from Greek phainmenonthat which
appearsand lgos study) is the philosophical study
of the structures of experience and consciousness. As a
philosophical movement it was founded in the early years
of the 20th century by Edmund Husserl and was later expanded upon by a circle of his followers at the universities
of Gttingen and Munich in Germany. It then spread to
France, the United States, and elsewhere, often in contexts far removed from Husserl's early work.* [1] Phenomenology should not be considered as a unitary movement; rather, dierent authors share a common family
resemblance but also with many signicant dierences.
Accordingly, A unique and nal denition of phenomenology is dangerous and perhaps even paradoxical
as it lacks a thematic focus. In fact, it is not a doctrine,
nor a philosophical school, but rather a style of thought,
a method, an open and ever-renewed experience having
dierent results, and this may disorient anyone wishing
to dene the meaning of phenomenology.* [2]
There are several assumptions behind phenomenology

that help explain its foundations. First, it rejects the
concept of objective research. Phenomenologists prefer grouping assumptions through a process called phenomenological epoche. Second, phenomenology believes
that analyzing daily human behavior can provide one with
a greater understanding of nature. The third assumption
is that persons, not individuals, should be explored. This
is because persons can be understood through the unique
ways they reect the society they live in. Fourth, phenomenologists prefer to gather capta,or conscious
experience, rather than traditional data. Finally, phenomenology is considered to be oriented on discovery,
and therefore phenomenologists gather research using
methods that are far less restricting than in other sciences.* [3]
Husserl derived many important concepts central to phenomenology from the works and lectures of his teachers,
the philosophers and psychologists Franz Brentano and
Carl Stumpf.* [4] An important element of phenomenology that Husserl borrowed from Brentano is intentionality
(often described as aboutness), the notion that consciousness is always consciousness of something. The object of consciousness is called the intentional object, and
this object is constituted for consciousness in many different ways, through, for instance, perception, memory,
retention and protention, signication, etc. Throughout
Phenomenology, in Husserl's conception, is primarily these dierent intentionalities, though they have dierconcerned with the systematic reection on and study of ent structures and dierent ways of being aboutthe
6.2. PHENOMENOLOGY (PHILOSOPHY)

object, an object is still constituted as the identical object;
consciousness is directed at the same intentional object in
direct perception as it is in the immediately following retention of this object and the eventual remembering of
it.
115
pline and detachment to suspend, or bracket, theoretical
explanations and second-hand information while determining one's naiveexperience of the matter. The
phenomenological method serves to momentarily erase
the world of speculation by returning the subject to his
or her primordial experience of the matter, whether the
object of inquiry is a feeling, an idea, or a perception.
According to Husserl the suspension of belief in what we
ordinarily take for granted or infer by conjecture diminishes the power of what we customarily embrace as objective reality. According to Rdiger Safranski (1998,
72), [Husserl and his followers] great ambition was
to disregard anything that had until then been thought or
said about consciousness or the world [while] on the lookout for a new way of letting the things [they investigated]
approach them, without covering them up with what they
already knew.
Though many of the phenomenological methods involve

various reductions, phenomenology is, in essence, antireductionistic; the reductions are mere tools to better understand and describe the workings of consciousness, not
to reduce any phenomenon to these descriptions. In other
words, when a reference is made to a thing's essence or
idea, or when one details the constitution of an identical coherent thing by describing what one reallysees
as being only these sides and aspects, these surfaces, it
does not mean that the thing is only and exclusively what
is described here: The ultimate goal of these reductions
is to understand how these dierent aspects are constituted into the actual thing as experienced by the person Martin Heidegger modied Husserls conception of pheexperiencing it. Phenomenology is a direct reaction to nomenology because of (what Heidegger perceived as)
the psychologism and physicalism of Husserl's time.
Husserl's subjectivist tendencies. Whereas Husserl conAlthough previously employed by Hegel in his Phe- ceived humans as having been constituted by states of
nomenology of Spirit, it was Husserls adoption of this consciousness, Heidegger countered that consciousness is
term (circa 1900) that propelled it into becoming the peripheral to the primacy of ones existence (i.e., the
designation of a philosophical school. As a philosoph- mode of being of Dasein), which cannot be reduced to
ical perspective, phenomenology is its method, though ones consciousness of it. From this angle, ones state
the specic meaning of the term varies according to how of mind is an eectrather than a determinant of exit is conceived by a given philosopher. As envisioned istence, including those aspects of existence that one is
by Husserl, phenomenology is a method of philosophi- not conscious of. By shifting the center of gravity from
cal inquiry that rejects the rationalist bias that has dom- consciousness (psychology) to existence (ontology), Heidegger altered the subsequent direction of phenomenolinated Western thought since Plato in favor of a method
of reective attentiveness that discloses the individuals ogy. As one consequence of Heideggers modication of
Husserls conception, phenomenology became increaslived experience.* [5] Loosely rooted in an epistemoingly
relevant to psychoanalysis. Whereas Husserl gave
logical device, with Sceptic roots, called epoch, Husserl
priority to a depiction of consciousness that was fundas method entails the suspension of judgment while relying on the intuitive grasp of knowledge, free of pre- mentally alien to the psychoanalytic conception of the unconscious, Heidegger oered a way to conceptualize exsuppositions and intellectualizing. Sometimes depicted
as the science of experience,the phenomenological perience that could accommodate those aspects of one
that lie on the periphery of sentient awaremethod is rooted in intentionality, Husserls theory of s existence
*
*
ness.
[6]
[7]
consciousness (developed from Brentano). Intentionality
represents an alternative to the representational theory of
consciousness, which holds that reality cannot be grasped
directly because it is available only through perceptions of
reality that are representations of it in the mind. Husserl
countered that consciousness is not inthe mind but
rather conscious of something other than itself (the intentional object), whether the object is a substance or a
gment of imagination (i.e., the real processes associated
with and underlying the gment). Hence the phenomenological method relies on the description of phenomena as
they are given to consciousness, in their immediacy.
According to Maurice Natanson (1973, p. 63), The
radicality of the phenomenological method is both continuous and discontinuous with philosophys general eort to
subject experience to fundamental, critical scrutiny: to take
nothing for granted and to show the warranty for what we
claim to know.
In practice, it entails an unusual combination of disci-
6.2.2 Historical overview of the use of the

term
Phenomenology has at least two main meanings in
philosophical history: one in the writings of G.W.F.
Hegel, another in the writings of Edmund Husserl in
1920, and thirdly, succeeding Husserl's work, in the writings of his former research assistant Martin Heidegger in
1927.
For G.W.F. Hegel, phenomenology is an approach
to philosophy that begins with an exploration of
phenomena (what presents itself to us in conscious
experience) as a means to nally grasp the absolute, logical, ontological and metaphysical Spirit
that is behind phenomena. This has been called a
"dialectical phenomenology".
116
For Edmund Husserl, phenomenology is the reective study of the essence of consciousness as
experienced from the rst-person point of view.
*
[8] Phenomenology takes the intuitive experience
of phenomena (what presents itself to us in phenomenological reexion) as its starting point and
tries to extract from it the essential features of
experiences and the essence of what we experience. When generalized to the essential features
of any possible experience, this has been called
"Transcendental Phenomenology". Husserl's view
was based on aspects of the work of Franz Brentano
and was developed further by philosophers such as
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Max Scheler, Edith Stein,
Dietrich von Hildebrand and Emmanuel Levinas.
Although the termphenomenologywas used occasionally in the history of philosophy before Husserl, modern
use ties it more explicitly to his particular method. Following is a list of important thinkers in rough chronological order who used the term phenomenologyin
a variety of ways, with brief comments on their contributions:* [9]
extended it to include also a reduction of the
scientic method. He inuenced the thinking of
Pope John Paul II, Dietrich von Hildebrand, and
Edith Stein.
Martin Heidegger (18891976) criticized Husserl's
theory of phenomenology and attempted to develop
a theory of ontology that led him to his original theory of Dasein, the non-dualistic human being.
Alfred Schtz (18991959) developed a phenomenology of the social world on the basis of everyday experience that has inuenced major sociologists such as Harold Garnkel, Peter Berger, and
Thomas Luckmann.
Francisco Varela (19462001), Chilean philosopher
and biologist. Developed the basis for experimental
phenomenology and neurophenomenology.
Later usage is mostly based on or (critically) related to
Husserl's introduction and use of the term. This branch
of philosophy diers from others in that it tends to be
more descriptivethan "prescriptive".
Friedrich Christoph Oetinger (17021782), 6.2.3 Phenomenological terminology

German pietist, for the study of the divine system
of relations* [10]
Intentionality
Johann
Heinrich
Lambert
(17281777),
Intentionality refers to the notion that consciousness is almathematician, physician and philosopher, known
ways the consciousness of something. The word itself
for the theory of appearances underlying empirical
should not be confused with the ordinaryuse of the
*
knowledge. [11]
word intentional, but should rather be taken as playing
Immanuel Kant (17241804), in the Critique of on the etymological roots of the word. Originally, intenPure Reason, distinguished between objects as tion referred to a stretching out(in tension,lat.
phenomena, which are objects as shaped and intendere), and in this context it refers to consciousness
grasped by human sensibility and understanding, "stretching out" towards its object (although one should
and objects as things-in-themselves or noumena, be careful with this image, seeing as there is not some
which do not appear to us in space and time and consciousness rst that, subsequently, stretches out to its
about which we can make no legitimate judgments. object. Rather, consciousness occurs as the simultaneity
of a conscious act and its object.) Intentionality is often
G.W.F. Hegel (17701831) challenged Kant's doc- summed up as aboutness.
trine of the unknowable thing-in-itself, and declared
that by knowing phenomena more fully we can Whether this something that consciousness is about is in
gradually arrive at a consciousness of the absolute direct perception or in fantasy is inconsequential to the
and spiritual truth of Divinity, most notably in his concept of intentionality itself; whatever consciousness
is directed at, that is what consciousness is conscious
Phenomenology of Spirit, published in 1807.
of. This means that the object of consciousness doesn't
Carl Stumpf (18481936), student of Brentano and have to be a physical object apprehended in perception:
mentor to Husserl, usedphenomenologyto refer it can just as well be a fantasy or a memory. Consequently, these structuresof consciousness, i.e., perto an ontology of sensory contents.
ception, memory, fantasy, etc., are called intentionalities.
Edmund Husserl (18591938) established phenomenology at rst as a kind of descriptive psy- The termintentionalityoriginated with the Scholastics
chologyand later as a transcendental and eidetic in the medieval period and was resurrected by Brentano
science of consciousness. He is considered to be the who in turn inuenced Husserls conception of phenomenology, who rened the term and made it the corfounder of contemporary phenomenology.
nerstone of his theory of consciousness. The meaning
Max Scheler (18741928) developed further the of the term is complex and depends entirely on how it is
phenomenological method of Edmund Husserl and conceived by a given philosopher. The term should not
117
be confused withintentionor the psychoanalytic conas the actual object of the act (assuming it exists) or is
ception of unconscious motiveor gain.
some kind of ideal object.* [15]
Intuition
Intuition in phenomenology refers to those cases where
the intentional object is directly present to the intentionality at play; if the intention islledby the direct apprehension of the object, you have an intuited object. Having a cup of coee in front of you, for instance, seeing it,
feeling it, or even imagining it - these are all lled intentions, and the object is then intuited. The same goes for
the apprehension of mathematical formulae or a number.
If you do not have the object as referred to directly, the
object is not intuited, but still intended, but then emptily.
Examples of empty intentions can be signitive intentions
- intentions that only imply or refer to their objects.
Evidence
In everyday language, we use the word evidence to signify a special sort of relation between a state of aairs
and a proposition: State A is evidence for the propositionA is true.In phenomenology, however, the concept
of evidence is meant to signify the subjective achievement of truth.* [12] This is not an attempt to reduce
the objective sort of evidence to subjective opinion,
but rather an attempt to describe the structure of having
something present in intuition with the addition of having it present as intelligible: Evidence is the successful
presentation of an intelligible object, the successful presentation of something whose truth becomes manifest in
the evidencing itself.* [13]
Empathy and intersubjectivity

See also: Empathy and Intersubjectivity
In phenomenology, empathy refers to the experience of
one's own body as another. While we often identify others with their physical bodies, this type of phenomenology requires that we focus on the subjectivity of the other,
as well as our intersubjective engagement with them. In
Husserl's original account, this was done by a sort of
apperception built on the experiences of your own livedbody. The lived body is your own body as experienced
by yourself, as yourself. Your own body manifests itself
to you mainly as your possibilities of acting in the world.
It is what lets you reach out and grab something, for instance, but it also, and more importantly, allows for the
possibility of changing your point of view. This helps
you dierentiate one thing from another by the experience of moving around it, seeing new aspects of it (often
referred to as making the absent present and the present
absent), and still retaining the notion that this is the same
thing that you saw other aspects of just a moment ago (it
is identical). Your body is also experienced as a duality,
both as object (you can touch your own hand) and as your
own subjectivity (you experience being touched).
The experience of your own body as your own subjectivity is then applied to the experience of another's
body, which, through apperception, is constituted as another subjectivity. You can thus recognise the Other's
intentions, emotions, etc. This experience of empathy is important in the phenomenological account of
intersubjectivity. In phenomenology, intersubjectivity
Noesis and noema
constitutes objectivity (i.e., what you experience as objective is experienced as being intersubjectively available
Main article: Noema
- available to all other subjects. This does not imply that
objectivity is reduced to subjectivity nor does it imply a
In Husserl's phenomenology, which is quite common, this
relativist position, cf. for instance intersubjective veriapair of terms, derived from the Greek nous (mind), desbility).
ignate respectively the real content, noesis, and the ideal
content, noema, of an intentional act (an act of conscious- In the experience of intersubjectivity, one also experiness). The Noesis is the part of the act that gives it a ences oneself as being a subject among other subjects,
particular sense or character (as in judging or perceiving and one experiences oneself as existing objectively for
something, loving or hating it, accepting or rejecting it, these Others; one experiences oneself as the noema of
and so on). This is real in the sense that it is actually part Others' noeses, or as a subject in another's empathic exof what takes place in the consciousness (or psyche) of perience. As such, one experiences oneself as objectively
the subject of the act. The Noesis is always correlated existing subjectivity. Intersubjectivity is also a part in
with a Noema; for Husserl, the full Noema is a complex the constitution of one's lifeworld, especially as homeideal structure comprising at least a noematic sense and a world.
noematic core. The correct interpretation of what Husserl
meant by the Noema has long been controversial, but the
noematic sense is generally understood as the ideal mean- Lifeworld
ing of the act* [14] and the noematic core as the act's referent or object as it is meant in the act. One element of Main article: Lifeworld
controversy is whether this noematic object is the same
118
The lifeworld (German: Lebenswelt) is theworldeach

one of us lives in. One could call it the background
or horizonof all experience, and it is that on which
each object stands out as itself (as dierent) and with the
meaning it can only hold for us. The lifeworld is both
personal and intersubjective (it is then called a homeworld), and, as such, it does not enclose each one of us
in a solus ipse.
6.2.4
Transcendental phenomenologists include Oskar Becker,

Aron Gurwitsch, and Alfred Schutz.
6.2.6 Realist phenomenology

After Husserl's publication of the Ideen in 1913, many
Husserl's Logische Untersuchungen phenomenologists took a critical stance towards his new
(1900/1901)
theories. Especially the members of the Munich group
In the rst edition of the Logical Investigations, still under

the inuence of Brentano, Husserl describes his position
asdescriptive psychology.Husserl analyzes the intentional structures of mental acts and how they are directed
at both real and ideal objects. The rst volume of the Logical Investigations, the Prolegomena to Pure Logic, begins
with a devastating critique of psychologism, i.e., the attempt to subsume the a priori validity of the laws of logic
under psychology. Husserl establishes a separate eld for
research in logic, philosophy, and phenomenology, independently from the empirical sciences.* [16]
6.2.5
Adorno criticised Husserl's concept of phenomenological epistemology in his metacritique Against Epistemology, which is anti-foundationalist in its stance.
distanced themselves from his new transcendental phenomenology and preferred the earlier realist phenomenology of the rst edition of the Logical Investigations.
Realist phenomenologists include Adolf Reinach,
Alexander Pfnder, Johannes Daubert, Max Scheler,
Roman Ingarden, Nicolai Hartmann, Dietrich von
Hildebrand.
6.2.7 Existential phenomenology

Main article: Existential phenomenology
Transcendental phenomenology af- Existential phenomenology diers from transcendental

phenomenology by its rejection of the transcendental ego.
ter the Ideen (1913)
Merleau-Ponty objects to the ego's transcendence of the

world, which for Husserl leaves the world spread out and
completely transparent before the conscious. Heidegger
thinks of a conscious being as always already in the world.
Transcendence is maintained in existential phenomenology to the extent that the method of phenomenology must
noeticrefers to the intentional act of consciousness take a presuppositionless starting point - transcending
claims about the world arising from, for example, natural
(believing, willing, etc.)
or scientic attitudes or theories of the ontological nature
noematicrefers to the object or content (noema), of the world.
which appears in the noetic acts (the believed, While Husserl thought of philosophy as a scientic disciwanted, hated, and loved ...).
pline that had to be founded on a phenomenology under-
Some years after the publication of the Logical Investigations, Husserl made some key elaborations that led him to
the distinction between the act of consciousness (noesis)
and the phenomena at which it is directed (the noemata).
stood as epistemology, Heidegger held a radically dierWhat we observe is not the object as it is in itself, but how ent view. Heidegger himself states their dierences this
and inasmuch it is given in the intentional acts. Knowl- way:
edge of essences would only be possible bybracketing
all assumptions about the existence of an external world
For Husserl, the phenomenological reduction is
and the inessential (subjective) aspects of how the object
the method of leading phenomenological vision
is concretely given to us. This procedure Husserl called
from the natural attitude of the human being
epoch.
whose life is involved in the world of things and
Husserl in a later period concentrated more on the ideal,
persons back to the transcendental life of conessential structures of consciousness. As he wanted to exsciousness and its noetic-noematic experiences,
clude any hypothesis on the existence of external objects,
in which objects are constituted as correlates
he introduced the method of phenomenological reducof consciousness. For us, phenomenological
tion to eliminate them. What was left over was the pure
reduction means leading phenomenological vitranscendental ego, as opposed to the concrete empirical
sion back from the apprehension of a being,
ego. Now Transcendental Phenomenology is the study
whatever may be the character of that appreof the essential structures that are left in pure conscioushension, to the understanding of the Being of
ness: This amounts in practice to the study of the noemata
this being (projecting upon the way it is unconand the relations among them. The philosopher Theodor
cealed).* [17]
119
According to Heidegger, philosophy was not at all a scientic discipline, but more fundamental than science itself.
According to him science is only one way of knowing the
world with no special access to truth. Furthermore, the
scientic mindset itself is built on a much more primordialfoundation of practical, everyday knowledge.
Husserl was skeptical of this approach, which he regarded
as quasi-mystical, and it contributed to the divergence in
their thinking.
it has been claimed that a number of elements within

phenomenology (mainly Heidegger's thought) have some
resonance with Eastern philosophical ideas, particularly
with Zen Buddhism and Taoism.* [20] According to
Tomonubu Imamichi, the concept of Dasein was inspired although Heidegger remained silent on this by
Okakura Kakuzo's concept of das-in-der-Welt-sein (being in the world) expressed in The Book of Tea to describe
Zhuangzi's philosophy, which Imamichi's teacher had ofin 1919, after having studied with him
Instead of taking phenomenology as prima philosophia or fered to Heidegger
the year before.* [21]
a foundational discipline, Heidegger took it as a metaphysical ontology: "being is the proper and sole theme There are also recent signs of the reception of pheof philosophy... this means that philosophy is not a sci- nomenology (and Heidegger's thought in particular)
ence of beings but of being..* [17] Yet to confuse phe- within scholarly circles focused on studying the impenomenology and ontology is an obvious error. Phenom- tus of metaphysics in the history of ideas in Islam and
ena are not the foundation or Ground of Being. Neither Early Islamic philosophy;* [22] perhaps under the indiare they appearances, for, as Heidegger argues in Being rect inuence of the tradition of the French Orientalist
and Time, an appearance is that which shows itself in and philosopher Henri Corbin.* [23]
something else,while a phenomenon is that which In addition, the work of Jim Ruddy in the eld of comshows itself in itself.
parative philosophy, combined the concept of TranscenWhile for Husserl, in the epoch, being appeared only
as a correlate of consciousness, for Heidegger being is
the starting point. While for Husserl we would have to
abstract from all concrete determinations of our empirical
ego, to be able to turn to the eld of pure consciousness,
Heidegger claims that the possibilities and destinies of
philosophy are bound up with man's existence, and thus
with temporality and with historicality.* [17]
However, ontological being and existential being are different categories, so Heidegger's conation of these categories is, according to Husserl's view, the root of Heidegger's error. Husserl charged Heidegger with raising
the question of ontology but failing to answer it, instead
switching the topic to the Dasein, the only being for whom
Being is an issue. That is neither ontology nor phenomenology, according to Husserl, but merely abstract
anthropology. To clarify, perhaps, by abstract anthropology, as a non-existentialist searching for essences, Husserl
rejected the existentialism implicit in Heidegger's distinction between being (sein) as things in reality and Being
(Dasein) as the encounter with being, as when being becomes present to us, that is, is unconcealed.* [18]
Existential phenomenologists include: Martin Heidegger
(18891976), Hannah Arendt (19061975), Emmanuel
Levinas (19061995), Gabriel Marcel (18891973),
Jean-Paul Sartre (19051980), Paul Ricoeur (1913
2005) and Maurice Merleau-Ponty (19081961).
6.2.8
Eastern thought
Some researchers in phenomenology (in particular in reference to Heidegger's legacy) see possibilities of establishing dialogues with traditions of thought outside of the
so-called Western philosophy, particularly with respect
to East-Asian thinking, and despite perceived dierences
betweenEasternandWestern.* [19] Furthermore,
dental Ego in Husserl's phenomenology with the concept of the primacy of self-consciousness in the work of
Sankaracharya. In the course of this work, Ruddy uncovered a wholly new eidetic phenomenological science,
which he calledconvergent phenomenology.This new
phenomenology takes over where Husserl left o, and
deals with the constitution of relation-like, rather than
merely thing-like, or intentionalobjectivity.* [24]
6.2.9 Technoethics
Phenomenological approach to technology
James Moor has argued that computers show up policy vacuums that require new thinking and the establishment of new policies.* [25] Others have argued that
the resources provided by classical ethical theory such as
utilitarianism, consequentialism and deontological ethics
is more than enough to deal with all the ethical issues
emerging from our design and use of information technology.* [26]
For the phenomenologist theimpact view
of technology
as well as the constructivist view of the technology/society relationships is valid but not adequate (Heidegger 1977, Borgmann 1985, Winograd and Flores
1987, Ihde 1990, Dreyfus 1992, 2001). They argue that
these accounts of technology, and the technology/society
relationship, posit technology and society as if speaking
about the one does not immediately and already draw
upon the other for its ongoing sense or meaning. For the
phenomenologist, society and technology co-constitute
each other; they are each other's ongoing condition, or
possibility for being what they are. For them technology is not just the artifact. Rather, the artifact already
emerges from a prior technologicalattitude towards
the world (Heidegger 1977).
120
Heideggers approach (pre-technological age)
For Heidegger the essence of technology is the way of
being of modern humansa way of conducting themselves towards the worldthat sees the world as something to be ordered and shaped in line with projects, intentions and desiresawill to powerthat manifests itself as awill to technology'.* [27] Heidegger claims that
there were other times in human history, a pre-modern
time, where humans did not orient themselves towards
the world in a technological waysimply as resources for
our purposes.* [27]
6.2.10 See also

6.2.11 References
[1] Zahavi, Dan (2003), Husserl's Phenomenology, Stanford:
Stanford University Press
[2] Farina, Gabriella (2014) Some reections on the phenomenological method.
Dialogues in Philosophy,
Mental and Neuro Sciences, 7(2):50-62.http://www.
crossingdialogues.com/Ms-A14-07.htm
[3] Orbe, Mark P. (2009). Phenomenology. In S. Littlejohn,

& K. Foss (Eds.), Encyclopedia of communication theory.
However, according to Heidegger thispre-technological
(pp. 750-752). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications,
age (or mood) is one where humansrelation with the
Inc.
world and artifacts, their way of being disposed, was

poetic and aesthetic rather than technological (enframing).* [27] There are many who disagree with Heidegger's
account of the modern technological attitude as theenframingof the world.* [28] For example Andrew Feenberg argues that Heidegger's account of modern technology is not borne out in contemporary everyday encounters
with technology.* [27]
[4] Rollinger, Robin (1999), Husserl's Position in the School

of Brentano, Dordrecht / Boston / London: Kluwer
[5] Husserl, Edmund. The Crisis of the European Sciences and
Transcendental Phenomenology. Evanston: Northwestern
University Press, 1970, pg. 240.
[6] Natanson, M. (1973) Edmund Husserl: Philosopher of innite tasks. Evanston: Northwestern University Press.
[7] Safranski, R. (1998) Martin Heidegger: Between good
and evil. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
The Hubert Dreyfus approach (contemporary society)

In critiquing the articial intelligence (AI) programme,
Hubert Dreyfus (1992) argues that the way skill development has become understood in the past has been wrong.
He argues, this is the model that the early articial intelligence community uncritically adopted. In opposition to
this view, he argues, with Heidegger, that what we observe when we learn a new skill in everyday practice is in
fact the opposite. We most often start with explicit rules
or preformulated approaches and then move to a multiplicity of particular cases, as we become an expert. His
argument draws directly on Heidegger's account in Being and Time of humans as beings that are always already
situated in-the-world. As humans in-the-world, we
are already experts at going about everyday life, at dealing with the subtleties of every particular situation; that is
why everyday life seems so obvious. Thus, the intricate
expertise of everyday activity is forgotten and taken for
granted by AI as an assumed starting point.* [27] What
Dreyfus highlighted in his critique of AI was the fact that
technology (AI algorithms) does not make sense by itself. It is the assumed, and forgotten, horizon of everyday
practice that makes technological devices and solutions
show up as meaningful. If we are to understand technology we need to returnto the horizon of meaning that
made it show up as the artifacts we need, want and desire. We need to consider how these technologies reveal
(or disclose) us.* [27]
[8] Smith, David Woodru (2007), Husserl, London-New

York: Routledge
[9] Partially based on Schuhmann, Karl (2004),
""Phnomenologie":
Eine Begrisgeschichtilche
Reexion, in Leijenhorst, Cees; Steenbakkers, Piet,
Karl Schuhmann. Selected Papers on Phenomenology,
Dordrecht / Boston / London: Kluwer, pp. 133
[10] Ernst Benz, Christian Kabbalah: Neglected Child of Theology
[11] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1772). Anmerkungen und
Zustze zur Entwerfung der Land- und Himmelscharten.
Von J. H. Lambert (1772.) Hrsg. von A. Wangerin. Mit
21 Textguren. (xml). W. Engelmann, reprint 1894.
[12] Robert Sokolowski, Introduction to Phenomenology, Cambridge University Press (2000). Pp. 159160. This use
of the word evidence may seem strange in English, but is
more common in German, which is the language Husserl
wrote in.
[13] Sokolowski, Introduction, pp. 160161.
[14] I.e. if A loves B, loving is a real part of A's conscious activity - Noesis - but gets its sense from the general concept
of loving, which has an abstract or ideal meaning, aslovinghas a meaning in the English language independently
of what an individual means by the word when they use it.
[15] For a full account of the controversy and a review of positions taken, see David Woodru Smith, Husserl, Routledge, 2007, pp304-311.
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
[16] On the Logical Investigations, see Zahavi, Dan; Stjernfelt, Frederik, eds. (2002), One Hundred Years of Phenomenology (Husserl's Logical Investigations Revisited),
Dordrecht / Boston / London: Kluwer; and Mohanty, Jitendra Nath, ed. (1977), Readings on Edmund Husserls
Logical Investigations, Den Haag: Nijho
[17] Heidegger, Martin (1975), Introduction, The Basic
Problems of Phenomenology, Indiana University Press
[18] I have attempted to respond to the request for clarication of Heidegger's distinction between being and Being. My info source was http://www.uni.edu/boedeker/
NNhHeidegger2.doc. It was not copied and pasted but
rephrased for copyright reasons.
[19] See for instance references to Heidegger'sA Dialogue on
Language between a Japanese and an Inquirer,in On the
Way to Language (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). Heidegger himself had contacts with some leading Japanese
intellectuals, including members of the Kyoto School, notably Hajime Tanabe, Kuki Shz and Kiyoshi Miki.
[20] An account given by Paul Hsao (in Heidegger and Asian
Thought) records a remark by Chang Chung-Yuan claiming that Heidegger is the only Western Philosopher
who not only intellectually understands but has intuitively
grasped Taoist thought
[21] Tomonubu Imamichi, In Search of Wisdom. One Philosopher's Journey, Tokyo, International House of Japan,
2004 (quoted by Anne Fagot-Largeau during her lesson
at the Collge de France on December 7, 2006).
[22] See for instance: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton,
N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000) ISBN 1-58684005-3
[23] A book-series under the title: Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology in Dialogue has been recently established by Springer (Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht) in association with the World Phenomenology Institute . This initiative has been initiated by the Polish phenomenologist Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, editor of
Analecta Husserliana.
121

The dictionary denition of phenomenology at
Wiktionary
What is Phenomenology?
About Edmund Husserl
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Organization of Phenomenology Organizations
Romanian Society for Phenomenology
Phenomenology Online
Dialectical Phenomenology
The New Phenomenology
Springer's academic Phenomenology program
Phenomenology and First Philosophy
Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, Phenomenology,
and Practical Philosophy
Phenomenology Research Center
Open Commons of Phenomenology
6.3 Hermeneutics
Philosophical hermeneuticsredirects here. For other
uses, see Hermeneutics (disambiguation).
Hermeneutics (/hrmnutks/ or /hrmnjutks/)* [1]
is the theory and methodology of text interpretation,* [2]* [3] especially the interpretation of biblical texts,
wisdom literature, and philosophical texts.* [4]* [5]
Hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation,

or exegesis, of scripture. It emerged as a theory of human understanding in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries through the work of Friedrich Schleiermacher and Wilhelm Dilthey.* [6] Modern hermeneutics
includes both verbal and nonverbal communication as
[24] See the thesis,Convergent Phenomenology,presented well as semiotics, presuppositions, and preunderstandto the University of Madras, June, 1979.
ings.
[25] Moor, J. H. (1985). What Is Computer Ethics?In T.
W. Bynum (ed.), Computersand Ethics. Blackwell.
[26] Bernard, G. (1999). Common Morality and Computing.
Ethics and Information Technology 1(1).
The termshermeneuticsand "exegesis" are sometimes

used interchangeably. Hermeneutics is a wider discipline
which includes written, verbal, and nonverbal communication. Exegesis focuses primarily upon texts.
Hermeneutic, as a singular noun, refers to some particular method of interpretation (see, in contrast, double
hermeneutic).
[27] Introna, L. (2005) Disclosing the Digital Face: The ethics

of facial recognition systems, Ethics and Information
Hermeneutic consistencyrefers to the analysis of texts
Technology, 7(2)
[28] Feenberg, A. (1999)Technology and Meaning
, in Questioning Technology, London and New York: Routledge.
to achieve a coherent explanation of them. Philosophical hermeneuticsrefers primarily to the theory of knowledge initiated by Martin Heidegger and developed by
122
Hans-Georg Gadamer in his Truth and Method (1960).

It sometimes refers to the theories of Paul Ricur.* [7]
6.3.1
Etymology
Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word

(hermeneu,translate, interpret),* [8] from
(hermeneus, translator, interpreter), of uncertain etymology (R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin).* [9] The technical term (hermeneia, interpretation, explanation) was introduced into philosophy mainly through the title of Aristotle's work On Interpretation, commonly referred to by its Latin title De Interpretatione. It is one of the earliest (c. 360 B.C.) extant
philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with
the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit and formal way.
The early usage of hermeneuticsplaces it within the
boundaries of the sacred.* [10] A divine message must
be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth.
This ambiguity is an irrationality; it is a sort of madness
that is inicted upon the receiver of the message. Only
one who possesses a rational method of interpretation
(i.e., a hermeneutic) could determine the truth or falsity
of the message.* [11]
Folk etymology
Folk etymology places its origin with Hermes, the mythological Greek deity who was the 'messenger of the
gods'.* [12] Besides being a mediator between the gods
and between the gods and men, he led souls to the
underworld upon death.
Hermes was also considered to be the inventor of language and speech, an interpreter, a liar, a thief and a trickster.* [12] These multiple roles made Hermes an ideal representative gure for hermeneutics. As Socrates noted,
words have the power to reveal or conceal and can deliver
messages in an ambiguous way.* [12] The Greek view of
language as consisting of signs that could lead to truth or
to falsehood was the essence of Hermes, who was said to
relish the uneasiness of those who received the messages
he delivered.
6.3.2
Aristotle and Plato
Hermes, messenger of the gods.
Plato's dialogues, Cratylus, Ion, Gorgias, Lesser Hippias, and The Republic
However, these texts deal with the presentation and refutation of arguments, speeches, and poems rather than
with the understanding of texts per se. As Ramberg and
Gjesdal note,Only with the Stoics, and their reections
on the interpretation of myth, do we encounter something
like a methodological awareness of the problems of textual understanding.* [13]
In De Interpretatione, Aristotle oers a theory which lays Some ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Plato, vilthe groundwork for many later theories of interpretation ied poets and poetry as harmful nonsense. In The Reand semiotics:
public, Plato denied poets entry into hisideal stateunEqually important to later developments are some ancient til they could prove their value. In Ion, Plato famously
portrayed poets as possessed:
texts on poetry, rhetoric, and sophistry:
Aristotle's Poetics, Rhetoric, and On Sophistical
Refutations
The meaning of the poem thus becomes open to ridicule.

Whatever hints of truth it may have, the truth is covered up by madness. However, another line of thinking
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
arose with Theagenes of Rhegium, who suggested that,
instead of taking poetry literally, it ought to be taken as
allegories of nature. Stoic philosophers further developed
this idea, reading into poetry both allegories of nature and
allegories of ethical behavior.
123
They also derived the rules for the various rituals that had
to be performed precisely.
The foundational text is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini

(ca. 3rd to 1st century BCE) with a major commentary
by abara (ca. the 5th or 6th century CE). The Mimamsa
Aristotle diered with his predecessor, Plato, about the sutra summed up the basic rules for Vedic interpretation.
worth of poetry. Both saw art as an act of mimesis, but
where Plato saw a pale, essentially false, imitation of reality, Aristotle saw the possibility of truth in imitation. 6.3.5 Biblical hermeneutics
As critic David Richter points out,For Aristotle, artists
must disregard incidental facts to search for deeper uni- Main article: Biblical hermeneutics
versal truths.Thus, instead of being essentially false, poetry may be universally true. [Richter, The Critical Tra- Biblical hermeneutics is the study of the principles of indition, 57]
terpretation of the Bible. While Jewish and Christian bib-
6.3.3
Talmudic hermeneutics
Main article: Talmudic hermeneutics

See also: Judaism #Rabbinic hermeneutics
A common use of the word hermeneutics refers to a process of scriptural interpretation. Its earliest example is,
however, found not in the written texts but in the Jewish
Oral Tradition [dated to the Second Temple era, 515 BCE
70 CE] that later became the Talmud.
Summaries of the principles by which Torah can be interpreted date back to, at least, Hillel the Elder, although
the thirteen principles set forth in the Baraita of Rabbi
Ishmael are perhaps the best known. These principles
ranged from standard rules of logic (e.g., a fortiori argument [known in Hebrew as kal v'chomer]) to
more expansive ones, such as the rule that a passage could
be interpreted by reference to another passage in which
the same word appears (Gezerah Shavah). The rabbis did
not ascribe equal persuasive power to the various principles.* [14]
Traditional Jewish hermeneutics diered from the Greek
method in that the rabbis considered the Tanakh (the Jewish bibilical canon) to be without error. Any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of careful
examination of a given text within the context of other
texts. There were dierent levels of interpretation: some
were used to arrive at the plain meaning of the text, some
expounded the law given in the text, and others found
secret or mystical levels of understanding.
6.3.4
Vedic hermeneutics
Main article: Mimamsa
lical hermeneutics have some overlap, they have distinctly

dierent interpretive traditions.
The early patristic traditions of biblical exegesis had few
unifying characteristics in the beginning but tended toward unication in later schools of biblical hermeneutics.
Augustine oers hermeneutics and homiletics in his De
doctrina christiana. He stresses the importance of humility in the study of Scripture. He also regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of
Christian faith. In Augustines hermeneutics, sign has an
important role. God can communicate with the believer
through the signs of the Scriptures. Thus, humility, love,
and the knowledge of signs are an essential hermeneutical presupposition for a sound interpretation of the Scriptures. Although Augustine endorses some teaching of the
Platonism of his time, he corrects and recasts it according to a theocentric doctrine of the Bible. Similarly, in a
practical discipline, he modies the classical theory of oratory in a Christian way. He underscores the meaning of
diligent study of the Bible and prayer as more than mere
human knowledge and oratory skills. As a concluding remark, Augustine encourages the interpreter and preacher
of the Bible to seek a good manner of life and, most of
all, to love God and neighbor.* [15]
There are four dierent types of biblical hermeneutics,
literal, moral, allegorical (spiritual) and anagogical.
Literal
Encyclopaedia Britannica states that literal analysis
means a biblical text is to be deciphered according to
theplain meaningexpressed by its linguistic construction and historical context.The intention of the authors
is believed to correspond to the literal meaning. Literal
hermeneutics is often associated with the verbal inspiration of the Bible.* [16]
Vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the Vedas,

the earliest holy texts of Hinduism. The Mimamsa was Moral
the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose was understanding what Dharma (righteous living) Moral interpretation searches for moral lessons which can
involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the Vedas. be understood from writings within the Bible. Allegories
124
are often placed in this category. This can be seen in the Apostolic Fathers
Epistle of Barnabas, which explains the dietary laws by
stating which meats are forbidden but is interpreted as See also: Apostolic Fathers and Christianity in the 2nd
forbidding immorality with animals.* [16]
century
Allegorical
Allegorical interpretation states that biblical narratives
has a second level of reference that is more than the people, events and things that are explicitly mentioned. One
type of allegorical interpretation is known as typological,
where the key gures, events, and establishments of the
Old Testament are viewed astypes. In the New Testament this can also include foreshadowing of people, objects, and events. According to this theory readings like
Noahs Ark could be understood by using the Ark as a
typeof Christian church that God expected from the
start.* [16]
The Apostolic Fathers were followers of the Apostles.

This period is sometimes called the sub-apostolic period.
The principle of prophecy fulllment was carried over
from the Apostolic Age and was continued up to the beginning of the 3rd century A.D. For example, Irenaeus
dedicates an entire chapter of Against Heresies to the defense of Isaiah 7:14, which was one of the chief prophecies used to validate Jesus as the Messiah. * [17] This is
consistent with Irenaeus' other writings.
Even more than Irenaeus, the second century apologists

tended to interpret and utilize most scripture as if it were
primarily for the purpose of showing prophecy fulllment. Prominent among these was Justin Martyr, who
made extensive use of scripture to this end. Examples
of prophecy fulllment can be seen in his Apology, in
Anagogical
which chapters 3153 are specically dedicated to provThis type of interpretation is more often known as mys- ing through prophecy that Jesus was the Messiah. He uses
tical interpretation. It purports to explain the events of scripture similarly in Dialogue with Trypho.
the Bible and how they relate to or predict what the fu- Here Justin demonstrates that prophecy fulllment superture holds. This is evident in the Jewish Kabbalah, which sedes logical context in hermeneutics. He ignores the
attempts to reveal the mystical signicance of the numer- Christological issues that arise from equating Jesus with
ical values of Hebrew words and letters.
the golden calf of Bethel, which is thehimthat is being
In Judaism, anagogical interpretation is also evident in brought to the king in Hosea 10:6.
the medieval Zohar. In Christianity, it can be seen in It is likely that the preeminence of prophecy fulllment
Mariology.* [16]
was a product of the circumstances of the early church.
The primary intent of early authors was a defense of
Christianity against attacks from paganism and Judaism,
6.3.6 Apostolic Age
as well as suppressing what were considered to be schismatic or heretical groups. To this end, Martin Jan MulSee also: Apostolic Age
der suggested that prophecy fulllment was the primary
hermeneutical method because Roman society placed a
The earliest Christian period of biblical interpretation high value upon both antiquity and oracles.* [19] By using
was the Apostolic Age. Traditionally, that was the period the Old Testament (a term linked with supersessionism)
of the Twelve Apostles, dating from the Great Commis- to validate Jesus, early Christians sought to tap into both
sion until the death of John the Apostle (about 100 A.D.). the antiquity of the Jewish scriptures and the oracles of
Because John lived so long and was the last of the apos- the prophets.
tles to die, there is some overlap between the Apostolic
Age and the rst Apostolic Fathers. (See Deaths of the
Twelve Apostles.)
6.3.7 Late antiquity
The operative hermeneutical principle in the New Testament was prophecy fulllment. The Gospels, particularly the Gospel of Matthew, make extensive use of the
Old Testament for the purpose of demonstrating that Jesus was the Messiah. Examples include Matthew 1:23,
2:1518, 3:3, 21:42, Mark 1:23, 4:12, Luke 3:46,
22:37, John 2:17, 12:15, and notably Luke 4:1821. Jesus read extensively from Book of Isaiah and said that the
prophecy was fullled in the crowds who heard it. The
Pauline epistles also employ the principle of prophecy
fulllment, as evidenced by 1 Corinthians 1:19 and Ephesians 4:810.
Two divergent schools of thought emerged during this period, which extends from 200 A.D. to the medieval period.
Historians divide this period into the Ante-Nicene Period
and the First seven Ecumenical Councils.
Ante-Nicene period
See also: Ante-Nicene Period
The Ante-Nicene Period (literally meaning before
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
125
Nicaea") of the history of early Christianity extended This schema was based on the various ways of interpretfrom the late 1st century to the early 4th century. Its end ing text that were utilized by the patristic writers.
was marked by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D.
The literal sense (sensus historicus) of scripture deChristianity during this time was extremely diverse, with
notes what the text states or reports directly.
many developments that are dicult to trace and follow.
There is also a relative paucity of available material, and
The allegorical sense (sensus allegoricus) explains
this period is less studied than the preceding Apostolic
text in the light of the doctrinal content of church
Age and the historical ages following it. Nevertheless,
dogma, so that each literal element has a symbolic
this part of Christian history is important because it had
meaning
(see also Typology (theology)).
a signicant eect upon the development of Christianity.
First seven ecumenical councils

See also: First seven Ecumenical Councils
The moral application of a text to the individual

reader or hearer is the third sense (the sensus tropologicus or sensus moralis).
The fourth sense (sensus anagogicus) draws out of
the text the implicit allusions it contains to secret
metaphysical and eschatological knowledge, called
gnosis.
This era begins with the First Council of Nicaea, which

enunciated the Nicene Creed that, in its original form
and as modied by the First Council of Constantinople
of 381 A.D., was seen as the touchstone of orthodoxy for Biblical hermeneutics in the Middle Ages witnessed the
the doctrine of the Trinity.
proliferation of nonliteral interpretations of the Bible.
The rst seven Ecumenical Councils, from the First Christian commentators could read Old Testament narCouncil of Nicaea (325 A.D. ) to the Second Coun- ratives simultaneously:
cil of Nicaea (787 A.D. ), represent an attempt to
reach an orthodox consensus and to establish a unied
Christendom.
as pregurations of analogous New Testament

episodes,
as symbolic lessons about church institutions and

The rst scholar to study this time period as a whole was
current teachings,
Philip Scha, who wrote The Seven Ecumenical Councils
of the Undivided Church, rst published after his death
and as personally applicable allegories of the Spirit.
in 1901. The topic is of particular interest to proponents
of paleo-orthodoxy, who seek to recover the church as it In each case, the meaning of the narrative was conwas before the schisms.
strained by imputing a particular intention to the Bible,
such as teaching morality. But these interpretive bases
were posited by the religious tradition rather than sugSchools of Alexandria and Antioch
gested by a preliminary reading of the text.
See also: Catechetical School of Alexandria and School A similar fourfold mode is found in rabbinic writings.
The four categories are:
of Antioch
As early as the third century, Christian hermeneutics began to split into two primary schools: the Alexandrian and
the Antiochene.
Peshat (simple interpretation)

Remez (allusion)
Derash (interpretive)
The Alexandrian biblical interpretations stressed

Sod (secret or mystical)
allegorical readings, often at the expense of the texts'
literal meaning. Origen and Clement of Alexandria were It is uncertain whether the rabbinic categories of intertwo major scholars in this school.
pretation predate those of the patristic version. The meThe Antiochene school stressed the literal and historical dieval period saw the growth of many new categories
meaning of texts. Theodore of Mopsuestia and Diodore of rabbinic interpretation and of exegesis of the Torah.
Among these were the emergence of Kabbalah and the
of Tarsus were the primary gures in this school.
writings of Maimonides.
The customary medieval exegetical technique commented on the text in glossae or annotations that were
written between the lines or at the side of the text (which
Medieval Christian biblical interpretations of text incor- was left with wide margins for this purpose). The text
porated exegesis into a fourfold mode which emphasized might be further commented on in scholia, which are
the distinction between the letter and the spirit of the text. long, exegetical passages, often on a separate page.
6.3.8
Medieval period
126
6.3.9
Modern period
The discipline of hermeneutics emerged with the new

humanist education of the 15th century as a historical and
critical methodology for analyzing texts. In a triumph of
early modern hermeneutics, the Italian humanist Lorenzo
Valla proved in 1440 that the Donation of Constantine was
a forgery. This was done through intrinsic evidence of
the text itself. Thus hermeneutics expanded from its medieval role of explaining the true meaning of the Bible.
inner meaning. In his last important essay, The Understanding of Other Persons and Their Manifestations
of Life(1910), Dilthey made clear that this move from
outer to inner, from expression to what is expressed, is
not based on empathy. Empathy involves a direct identication with the Other. Interpretation involves an indirect or mediated understanding that can only be attained
by placing human expressions in their historical context.
Thus, understanding is not a process of reconstructing the
state of mind of the author, but one of articulating what
is expressed in his work.
However, biblical hermeneutics did not die o. For example, the Protestant Reformation brought about a re- Dilthey divided spiritual science into three structural levnewed interest in the interpretation of the Bible, which els: experience, expression, and comprehension.
took a step away from the interpretive tradition developed
Experience means to feel a situation or thing perduring the Middle Ages back to the texts themselves.
sonally. Dilthey suggested that we can always grasp
Martin Luther and John Calvin emphasized scriptura sui
the meaning of unknown thought when we try to exipsius interpres (scripture interprets itself). Calvin used
perience it. His understanding of experience is very
brevitas et facilitas as an aspect of theological hermeneusimilar to that of phenomenologist Edmund Husserl.
tics.
The rationalist Enlightenment led hermeneutists, especially Protestant exegetists, to view Scriptural texts as
secular classical texts. They interpreted Scripture as responses to historical or social forces so that, for example,
apparent contradictions and dicult passages in the New
Testament might be claried by comparing their possible
meanings with contemporary Christian practices.
Schleiermacher (17681834)
Friedrich Schleiermacher explored the nature of understanding in relation not just to the problem of deciphering
sacred texts but to all human texts and modes of communication.
Expression converts experience into meaning because the discourse has an appeal to someone outside of oneself. Every saying is an expression.
Dilthey suggested that one can always return to an
expression, especially to its written form, and this
practice has the same objective value as an experiment in science. The possibility of returning
makes scientic analysis possible, and therefore the
humanities may be labeled as science. Moreover,
he assumed that an expression may be saying
more than the speaker intends because the expression brings forward meanings which the individual
consciousness may not fully understand.
The last structural level of spiritual science, according to Dilthey, is comprehension, which is a
The interpretation of a text must proceed by framing its
level that contains both comprehension and incomcontent in terms of the overall organization of the work.
prehension. Incomprehension means, more or less,
Schleiermacher distinguished between grammatical inwrong understanding. He assumed that comprehenterpretation and psychological interpretation. The former
sion produces coexistence: he who understands,
studies how a work is composed from general ideas; the
understands others; he who does not understand
latter studies the peculiar combinations that characterize
stays alone.
the work as a whole. He said that every problem of interpretation is a problem of understanding and even dened hermeneutics as the art of avoiding misunderstand- Heidegger (18891976)
ing. Misunderstanding was to be avoided by means of
knowledge of grammatical and psychological laws.
Since Dilthey, the discipline of hermeneutics has deDuring Schleiermacher's time, a fundamental shift oc- tached itself from spiritual science and has broadened
curred from understanding not merely the exact words to include all texts and multimedia.* [22] In the 20th
and their objective meaning, to an understanding of the century, Martin Heidegger's philosophical hermeneutics
writer's distinctive character and point of view.* [21]* [13] shifted the focus from interpretation to existential understanding, which was treated more as a direct, nonmediated and thus more authentic way of being in
Dilthey (18331911)
the world than merely asa way of knowing.* [23] For
example, he called for a special hermeneutic of empaWilhelm Dilthey broadened hermeneutics even more by thyto dissolve the classic philosophic issue of other
relating interpretation to historical objectication. Un- mindsby putting the issue in the context of the beingderstanding moves from the outer manifestations of hu- with of human relatedness. (Although Heidegger himself
man action and productivity to the exploration of their did not complete this inquiry.)* [24]
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
127
Advocates of this approach claim that some texts, and the

people who produce them, cannot be studied by means
of using the same scientic methods that are used in the
natural sciences, thus drawing upon arguments similar to
those of antipositivism. Moreover, they claim that such
texts are conventionalized expressions of the experience
of the author. Thus, the interpretation of such texts will
reveal something about the social context in which they
were formed, and, more signicantly, will provide the
reader with a means of sharing the experiences of the author.
emphasized the importance for social theory of interaction, communication, labor, and production. He viewed
hermeneutics as a dimension of critical social theory.
The reciprocity between text and context is part of what

Heidegger called the hermeneutic circle. Among the key
thinkers who elaborated this idea was the sociologist Max
Weber.
Mauricio Beuchot coined the term and discipline of

analogic hermeneutics, which is a type of hermeneutics
that is based upon interpretation and takes into account
the plurality of aspects of meaning. He drew categories
both from analytic and continental philosophy, as well as
from the history of thought.
Gadamer (19002002) et al.
Andrs Ortiz-Oss (b. 1943) has developed his symbolic

hermeneutics as the Mediterranean response to Northern
European hermeneutics. His main statement regarding
symbolic understanding of the world is that meaning is a
symbolic healing of injury.
Two other important hermeneutic scholars are Jean
Grondin (b. 1955) and Maurizio Ferraris (b. 1956).
Two scholars who have published criticism of Gadamer's

Hans-Georg Gadamer's hermeneutics is a development of hermeneutics are the Italian jurist Emilio Betti and the
the hermeneutics of his teacher, Heidegger. Gadamer as- American literary theorist E. D. Hirsch.
serted that methodical contemplation is opposite to experience and reection. We can reach the truth only by Objective hermeneutics
understanding or mastering our experience. According
to Gadamer, our understanding is not xed but rather is In 1992, the Association for Objective Hermeneutics
changing and always indicating new perspectives. The (AGOH) was founded in Frankfurt am Main by scholmost important thing is to unfold the nature of individual ars of various disciplines in the humanities and social
understanding.
sciences. Its goal is to provide all scholars who use the
Gadamer pointed out that prejudice is an element of our
understanding and is not per se without value. Indeed,
prejudices, in the sense of pre-judgements of the thing
we want to understand, are unavoidable. Being alien to
a particular tradition is a condition of our understanding.
He said that we can never step outside of our tradition
all we can do is try to understand it. This further elaborates the idea of the hermeneutic circle.
methodology of objective hermeneutics with a means of

exchanging information.* [26]
Bernard Lonergan's (19041984) hermeneutics is less

well known, but a case for considering his work as the
culmination of the postmodern hermeneutical revolution
that began with Heidegger was made in several articles by
Lonergan specialist Frederick G. Lawrence.* [25]
Archaeology
In one of the few translated texts of this German school

of hermeneutics, its founders declared:
6.3.10 Applications
In archaeology, hermeneutics means the interpretation

and understanding of material through analysis of possible meanings and social uses.
Paul Ricur (19132005) developed a hermeneutics that Proponents argue that interpretation of artifacts is unis based upon Heidegger's concepts. His work diers in avoidably hermeneutic because we cannot know for certain the meaning behind them. We can only apply modern
many ways from that of Gadamer.
values when interpreting. This is most commonly seen in
Karl-Otto Apel (b. 1922) elaborated a hermeneutics stone tools, where descriptions such as scrapercan
based on American semiotics. He applied his model to be highly subjective and actually unproven until the dediscourse ethics with political motivations akin to those velopment of microwear analysis some thirty years ago.
of critical theory.
Of course, one could argue that only the individual lithic
Jrgen Habermas (b. 1929) criticized the conservatism being examined was ever used as a scraper, and that
of previous hermeneutists, especially Gadamer, because all the many thousands of near-identical instances were
their focus on tradition seemed to undermine possibilities something else entirely, which is where this kind of apfor social criticism and transformation. He also criticized proach leads us. All attempts at systematic materialist
Marxism and previous members of the Frankfurt School classication become a nonsense.
for missing the hermeneutical dimension of critical the- Opponents argue that a hermeneutic approach is too
ory.
relativist and that their own interpretations are based on
Habermas incorporated the notion of the lifeworld and common-sense evaluation.
128
Architecture
There are several traditions of architectural scholarship that draw upon the hermeneutics of Heidegger and
Gadamer. Lindsay Jones examines the way architecture
is received and how that reception changes with time
and context (e.g., how a building is interpreted by critics, users, and historians).* [28]
glossatores, commentatores, and usus modernus distinguished themselves by their approach to the interpretation of laws(mainly Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis).
The University of Bologna gave birth to alegal Renaissancein the 11th century, when the Corpus Juris Civilis
was rediscovered and systematically studied by men such
as Irnerius and Johannes Gratian. It was an interpretative
Renaissance.
Dalibor Vesely situates hermeneutics within a critique

of the application of overly scientic thinking to architecture.* [29] This tradition ts within a critique of the
Enlightenment* [30] and has also informed design-studio
teaching.
Since then, interpretation has always been at the center of legal thought. Friedrich Carl von Savigny and
Emilio Betti, among others, made signicant contributions to general hermeneutics. Legal interpretivism, most
famously Ronald Dworkin's, may be seen as a branch of
Adrian Snodgrass sees the study of history and Asian cul- philosophical hermeneutics.
tures by architects as a hermeneutical encounter with otherness.* [31] He also deploys arguments from hermeneu- Political philosophy
tics to explain design as a process of interpretation.* [32]
Along with Richard Coyne, he extends the argument to Italian philosopher Gianni Vattimo and Spanish philosothe nature of architectural education and design.* [33]
pher Santiago Zabala in their book Hermeneutic CommuEnvironment
nism, when discussing contemporary capitalist regimes,

stated that, A politics of descriptions does not impose
power in order to dominate as a philosophy; rather, it is
functional for the continued existence of a society of dominion, which pursues truth in the form of imposition (violence), conservation (realism), and triumph (history).
*
[36]
Environmental hermeneutics applies hermeneutics to environmental issues conceived broadly to subjects including "nature" and "wilderness" (both terms are matters of
hermeneutical contention), landscapes, ecosystems, built
environments (where it overlaps architectural hermeneu- Vattimo and Zabala also stated that they view interpretatics* [34]* [35] ), inter-species relationships, the relation- tion as anarchy and armed that existence is interpreship of the body to the world, and more.
tationand that hermeneutics is weak thought.
International relations
Psychology
Insofar as hermeneutics is a basis of both critical theory See also: Postcognitivism

and constitutive theory (both of which have made important inroads into the postpositivist branch of international
Psychologists and computer scientists have recently berelations theory and political science), it has been applied
come interested in hermeneutics, especially as an alterto international relations.
native to cognitivism.
Steve Smith refers to hermeneutics as the principal way
Hubert Dreyfus's critique of conventional articial inof grounding a foundationalist yet postpositivist theory of
telligence has been inuential among psychologists who
international relations.
are interested in hermeneutic approaches to meaning
Radical postmodernism is an example of a postpositivist and interpretation, as discussed by philosophers such as
yet anti-foundationalist paradigm of international rela- Martin Heidegger (cf. Embodied cognition) and Ludwig
tions.
Wittgenstein (cf. Discursive psychology).
Law
Main articles: Jurisprudence and Law
Some scholars argue that law and theology are particular
forms of hermeneutics because of their need to interpret
legal tradition or scriptural texts. Moreover, the problem
of interpretation has been central to legal theory since at
least the 11th century.
Hermeneutics is also inuential in humanistic psychology.* [37]

Religion and theology
See also: Exegesis, Biblical hermeneutics, Talmudical
hermeneutics and Quranic hermeneutics
The understanding of a theological text depends upon the

reader's particular hermeneutical viewpoint. Some theIn the Middle Ages and Renaissance, the schools of orists, such as Paul Ricur, have applied modern philo-
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
129
sophical hermeneutics to theological texts (in Ricoeur's 6.3.11 Criticism

case, the Bible).
Murray Rothbard, an economist, had this to say in his
1989 article, The Hermeneutical Invasion of Philosophy
and Economics:
Safety science
So why then does the present author
...
have the temerity to tackle a eld as
In the eld of safety science, and especially in the study
arcane,
abstruse, metaphysical, and seemingly
of human reliability, scientists have become increasingly
unrelated
to economics as hermeneutics?
interested in hermeneutic approaches.
Here my plea is the always legitimate one of
It has been proposed by ergonomist Donald Taylor that
self-defense. Discipline after discipline, from
mechanist models of human behaviour will only take us
literature to political theory to philosophy to
so far in terms of accident reduction, and that safety scihistory, has been invaded by an arrogant band
ence must look at the meaning of accidents for human
of hermeneuticians, and now even economics
beings.* [38]
is under assault.... The essential message of
deconstructionism and hermeneutics can be
Other scholars in the eld have attempted to create safety
variously summed up as nihilism, relativism,
taxonomies that make use of hermeneutic concepts in
*
and
solipsism. That is, either there is no
terms of their categorisation of qualitative data. [39]
objective truth or, if there is, we can never
discover it. With each person being bound
to his own subjective views, feelings, history,
and so on, there is no method of discovering
Sociology
objective truth.* [44]* [45]
In sociology, hermeneutics is the interpretation and understanding of social events through analysis of their
meanings for the human participants in the events. It en- 6.3.12 See also
joyed prominence during the 1960s and 1970s, and dif Biblical hermeneutics
fers from other interpretive schools of sociology in that
it emphasizes the importance of both context* [40] and
Biblical law in Christianity
form within any given social behaviour.
Close reading
The central principle of sociological hermeneutics is that
it is only possible to know the meaning of an act or state Epistemology
ment within the context of the discourse or world view
Exegesis
from which it originates. Context is critical to comprehension; an action or event that carries substantial weight
Gymnobiblism
to one person or culture may be viewed as meaningless
or entirely dierent to another. For example, giving the
Narrative inquiry
thumbs-upgesture is widely accepted as a sign of a job
Pesher
well done in the United States, while other cultures view it
*
as an insult. [41] Similarly, putting a piece of paper into
Philology
a box might be considered a meaningless act unless it is
Quranic hermeneutics
put into the context of democratic elections (the act of
putting a ballot paper into a box).
Semiotics
Friedrich Schleiermacher, widely regarded as the father
Sign (semiotics)
of sociological hermeneutics believed that, in order for an
interpreter to understand the work of another author, they
Symbolic anthropology
must familiarize themselves with the historical context
Syncretism
in which the author published their thoughts. His work
led to the inspiration of Heidegger's "hermeneutic circle"
Tafsir
a frequently referenced model that claims one's understanding of individual parts of a text is based on their un Talmudical hermeneutics
derstanding of the whole text, while the understanding of
Theosophy
the whole text is dependent on the understanding of each
*
individual part. [42] Hermeneutics in sociology was also
Truth theory
heavily inuenced by German philosopher Hans-Georg
Gadamer.* [43]
Verstehen
130
6.3.13
References
[20] Ebeling, Gerhard, The New Hermeneutics and the Early

Luther, page 38
[1] Random House Unabridged Dictionary

[2] American Heritage Dictionary
[3] Merriam-Webster Dictionary
[4] Audi, Robert (1999). The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. p. 377. ISBN 0521637228.
[5] Reese, William L. (1980). Dictionary of Philosophy and
Religion. Sussex: Harvester Press. p. 221. ISBN
0855271477.
[6] International Institute for Hermeneutics About Hermenutics. Retrieved: 2014-01-02.
[7] Grondin, Jean (1994). Introduction to Philosophical
Hermeneutics. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30005969-8. p. 2
[8] Klein, Ernest, A complete etymological dictionary of the
English language: dealing with the origin of words and
their sense development, thus illustrating the history of civilization and culture, Elsevier, Oxford, 2000, p. 344.
[9] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill,
2009, p. 462.
Hermeneutics. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30005969-8. p. 21.
Hermeneutics. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-30005969-8. pp. 2122.
[12] Hoy, David Couzen (1981). The Critical Circle. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520046399
[13] Bjorn Ramberg and Kristin Gjesdal. Hermeneutics.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 200712-04.
[14] see, e.g., Rambam Hilkhot Talmud Torah 4:8
[15] Woo, B. Hoon (2013). Augustines Hermeneutics and
Homiletics in De doctrina christianae. Journal of Christian Philosophy 17: 97117.
[16] 'Hermeneutics' 2014, Encyclopdia Britannica, Research
Starters, EBSCOhost, viewed 17 March 2015
[17] Irenaeus, Against Heresies, III.21, http://www.ccel.org/
ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xxii.html?scrBook=Jer&scrCh=
22&scrV=24#ix.iv.xxiip34.1. See also as examples
II.34 and IV.9.
[18] Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, 103, http://www.
ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iv.ciii.html?scrBook=
Hos&scrCh=10&scrV=6#viii.iv.ciiip4.1. See also 111,
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.iv.cxi.html?
scrBook=Isa&scrCh=53&scrV=7#viii.iv.cxip2.1.
[19] Martin Jan Mulder, ed., Mikra: Text Translation, Reading and Interpretation of the Hebrew Bible in Ancient
Judaism and Early Christianity (Minneapolis: Fortress
Press, 1990), 743.
[21] Forster, Michael. Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
[22] Reeves, Byron & Cliord Nass (1996). The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television, and New
Media Like Real People and Places. CSLI Publications
and Cambridge University Press. p. 301
[23] Heidegger, Martin (1962) [1927].
Harper and Row. p. H125
Being and Time.
[24] Agosta, Lou (2010). Empathy in the Context of Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 20
[25] Frederick G. Lawrence, Martin Heidegger and the
Hermeneutic Revolution, Hans-Georg Gadamer and
the Hermeneutic Revolution, The Hermeneutic Revolution and Bernard Lonergan: Gadamer and Lonergan on Augustine's Verbum Cordis the Heart of Postmodern Hermeneutics, The Unknown 20th-Century
Hermeneutic Revolution: Jerusalem and Athens in Lonergan's Integral Hermeneutics, Divyadaan: Journal of
Philosophy and Education 19/12 (2008) 730, 3154,
5586, 87118.
[26] Association for Objective Hermeneutics website. Accessed: January 27, 2014.
[27] Oevermann, Ulrich; Tilman Allert, Elisabeth Konau, and
Jrgen Krambeck. 1987. Structures of meaning and
objective Hermeneutics.Pp. 436447 in Modern German sociology, European Perspectives: a Series in Social
Thought and Cultural Criticism, edited by Volker Meja,
Dieter Misgeld, and Nico Stehr. New York: Columbia
University Press.
[28] Jones, L. 2000. The Hermeneutics of Sacred Architecture:
Experience, Interpretation, Comparison, p.263;Volume
Two: Hermeneutical Calisthenics: A Morphology of
Ritual-Architectural Priorities, Cambridge Mass.: Harvard
University Press
[29] Vesely, D. 2004. Architecture in the Age of Divided Representation: The Question of Creativity in the Shadow of
Production, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
[30] Perez-Gomez, A. 1985. Architecture and the Crisis of
Modern Science, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
[31] Snodgrass, A., and Coyne, R. 2006. Interpretation in Architecture: Design as a Way of Thinking, London: Routledge, pp 165180.
[32] Snodgrass, A., and Coyne, R. 2006. Interpretation in Architecture: Design as a Way of Thinking, London: Routledge, pp. 2955
[33] Snodgrass, A.B., and Coyne, R.D. 1992. Models,
Metaphors and the Hermeneutics of Designing.Design
Issues, 9(1): 56 74.
[34] Mugerauer, Robert (1995). Interpreting Environments.
University of Texas Press.
6.3. HERMENEUTICS
[35] Mugerauer, Robert (1994). Interpretations on Behalf of

Place. SUNY Press.
[36] Gianni Vattimo and Santiago Zabala. Hermeneutic Communism: From Heidegger to Marx Columbia University
Press. 2011. Pg. 12
[37] David L. Rennie (2007).Hermeneutics and Humanistic
Psychology(PDF). The Humanistic Psychologist 35 (1).
[38] Donald Taylor (1981). The hermeneutics of accidents and safety. Ergonomics 24 (6): 487495.
doi:10.1080/00140138108924870. Retrieved 2009-1009.
[39] Wallace,B., Ross, A., & Davies, J.B. (2003).
Applied Hermeneutics and Qualitative Safety
Human Relations 56 (5):
587607.
Data.
doi:10.1177/0018726703056005004.
Retrieved
2009-07-10.
[40] Willis, W. J., & Jost, M. (2007). Foundations of qualitative research; Interpretive and critical approaches. London: Sage. Page 106
[41] Kris Rugsaken,Body Speaks: Body language around the
world
[42] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/schleiermacher/#4
[43] see Gadamer, Hans-Georg, Truth and Method, 1960
[44] https://mises.org/library/hermeneutical-invasion
[45] Rothbard, Murray N. 1989. The Hermeneutical Invasion of Philosophy and Economics. Retrieved from http:
//rationalargumentator.com/hermeneuticalinvasion.html
6.3.14
Bibliography
131
Kchler, Hans,Philosophical Foundations of Civilizational Dialogue. The Hermeneutics of Cultural
Self-comprehension versus the Paradigm of Civilizational Conict.International Seminar on Civilizational Dialogue (3rd: 1517 September 1997:
Kuala Lumpur), BP171.5 ISCD. Kertas kerja persidangan / conference papers. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Library, 1997.
Mantzavinos, C. Naturalistic Hermeneutics,
Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-0-52184812-1.
Masson, Scott. The Hermeneutic CircleISBN
978-0-7546-3503-1.
Peirce, C.S., Collected Papers of Charles Sanders
Peirce, vols. 16, Charles Hartshorne and Paul
Weiss (eds.), vols. 78, Arthur W. Burks (ed.),
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1931
1935, 1958. Cited as CP vol.para.
Peirce, C.S. (c. 1903), Logical Tracts, No. 2,
in Collected Papers, CP 4.418509. Eprint.
Oevermann, U. et al. (1987): Structures of meaning and objective Hermeneutics. In: Meha, V. et al.
(eds.) Modern German sociology. (European Perspectives: a Series in Social Thought and Cultural
Ctiticism). New York: Columbia University Press,
p. 436447.
Olesen, Henning Salling, ed. (2013): Cultural Analysis & In-Depth Hermeneutics. Historical Social Research, Focus, 38, no. 2, pp. 7157.
Wierciski, Andrzej. Hermeneutics between Philosophy and Theology: The Imperative to Think the
Incommensurable, Germany, Mnster: LIT Verlag,
2010.
Aristotle, On Interpretation, Harold P. Cooke

(trans.), in Aristotle, vol. 1 (Loeb Classical Library), 6.3.15 External links
pp. 111179.London: William Heinemann, 1938.
Abductive Inference and Literary Theory Pragmatism, Hermeneutics and Semiotics written by Uwe
Clingerman, F. and B. Treanor, M. Drenthen, D.
Wirth.
Ustler (2013) Interpreting Nature: The Emerging
Field of Environmental Hermeneutics, New York:
Meta: Research in Hermeneutics, PhenomenolFordham University Press.
ogy, and Practical Philosophy International peerreviewed journal.
De La Torre, Miguel A., Reading the Bible from
the Margins,Orbis Books, 2002.
Fellmann, Ferdinand, Symbolischer Pragmatismus. Hermeneutik nach Dilthey, rowohlts enzyklopdie, 1991.
Khan, Ali, The Hermeneutics of Sexual Order.
Eprint.
Kchler, Hans, Zum Gegenstandsbereich der
Hermeneutik, in Perspektiven der Philosophie, vol.
9 (1983), pp. 331341.
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Hermeneutics.
Palmer, Richard E.,The Liminality of Hermes and
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Palmer, Richard E., The Relevance of Gadamer's
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132
Plato, Ion, Paul Woodru (trans.) in Plato, Complete Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specic type of treatWorks, ed. John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett ment in which the analysand(analytic patient) verPublishing Company, 1997, pp. 937949.
bally expresses his or her thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst in Quintana Paz, Miguel ngel, On Hermeneutical fers the unconscious conicts causing the patient's sympEthics and Education, a paper on the relevance of toms and character problems, and interprets them for the
Gadamer's Hermeneutics for our understanding of patient to create insight for resolution of the problems.
Music, Ethics and our Education in both.
The analyst confronts and claries the patient's pathological defenses, wishes and guilt. Through the analysis of
Szesnat, Holger, Philosophical Hermeneutics, conicts, including those contributing to resistance and
Webpage.
those involving transference onto the analyst of distorted
reactions, psychoanalytic treatment can hypothesize how
patients unconsciously are their own worst enemies: how
6.4 Psychoanalysis
unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been stimulated by experience are causing symptoms. Freudian psyPsychoanalysis is a set of psychological and choanalysis relies on the concept that it is only after havpsychotherapeutic theories and associated techniques, ing a cathartic (e.g. healing) experience can a person be
*
created by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and stem- curedand aided. [4]
ming partly from the clinical work of Josef Breuer and
others.* [1] Since then, psychoanalysis has been revised
and developed in dierent directions. Some of Freud's
colleagues and students, such as Alfred Adler and Carl
Jung, went on to develop their own ideas independently.
Freud insisted on retaining the term psychoanalysis for
his school of thought, and Adler and Jung accepted
this.* [2] The Neo-Freudians included Erich Fromm,
Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan.
The basic tenets of psychoanalysis include:
Psychoanalysis has received criticism from a wide variety of sources. It is regarded by some critics as a
pseudoscience. Nonetheless, it remains a strong inuence
within the realm of psychiatry, and more so in some quarters than others.* [5]
6.4.1 History
1890s
The idea of psychoanalysis rst started to receive seri1. a person's development is determined by often for- ous attention under Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud forgotten events in early childhood besides inherited mulated his own theory of psychoanalysis in Vienna in
traits
the 1890s. Freud was a neurologist trying to nd an effective treatment for patients with neurotic or hysterical
2. human attitude, mannerism, experience, and symptoms. Freud realised that there were mental prothought is largely inuenced by irrational drives that cesses that were not conscious, whilst he was employed
are rooted in the unconscious
as a neurological consultant at the Children's Hospital,
where he noticed that many aphasic children had no ap3. must bypass psychological resistance in the form
parent organic cause for their symptoms. He then wrote
of defense mechanisms when bringing drives into
a monograph about this subject.* [6] In 1885, Freud obawareness
tained a grant to study with Jean-Martin Charcot, a famed
4. conicts between the conscious and the uncon- neurologist, at the Salptrire in Paris, where Freud folscious, or with repressed material can materialize lowed the clinical presentations of Charcot, particularly
in the form of mental or emotional disturbances, in the areas of hysteria, paralyses and the anaesthesias.
for example: neurosis, neurotic traits, anxiety, Charcot had introduced hypnotism as an experimental
research tool and developed the photographic represendepression etc.
tation of clinical symptoms.
5. liberating the elements of the unconscious is Freud's rst theory to explain hysterical symptoms was
achieved through bringing this material into the con- presented in Studies on Hysteria (1895), co-authored
scious mind (via e.g. skilled guidance, i.e. therapeu- with his mentor the distinguished physician Josef Breuer,
tic intervention).* [3]
which was generally seen as the birth of psychoanalyUnder the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis there are at
least 22 theoretical orientations regarding human mental
development. The various approaches in treatment called
psychoanalysisvary as much as the theories do. The
term also refers to a method of analysing child development.
sis. The work was based on Breuer's treatment of "Anna

O.,which the patient herself had dubbed the "talking
cure.Breuer wrote that many factors that could result
in such symptoms, including various types of emotional
trauma, and he also credited work by others such as Pierre
Janet; while Freud contended that at the root of hysterical symptoms were repressed memories of distressing oc-
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
133
currences, almost always having direct or indirect sexual thoughts. This theory was published in his 1900 book,
associations.* [7]
The Interpretation of Dreams.* [17] Chapter VII was a
Around the same time Freud attempted to develop a re-working of the earlier Projectand Freud outlined
neuro-physiological theory of unconscious mental mech- his Topographic Theory.In this theory, which was
anisms, which he soon gave up. It remained unpublished mostly later supplanted by the Structural Theory, unacceptable sexual wishes were repressed into the System
in his lifetime.* [8]
Unconscious,unconscious due to society's condemnaIn 1896 Freud published his so-called seduction the- tion of premarital sexual activity, and this repression creory which proposed that the preconditions for hysteri- ated anxiety.
cal symptoms are sexual excitations in infancy, and he
claimed to have uncovered repressed memories of inci- This topographic theoryis still popular in much of
it has fallen out of favour in much of
dents of sexual abuse for all his current patients.* [9] How- Europe, although
*
North
America.
[18]
In 1905, Freud published Three Esever by 1898 he had privately acknowledged to his friend
says
on
the
Theory
of
Sexuality* [19] in which he laid out
and colleague Wilhelm Fliess that he no longer believed
in his theory, though he did not state this publicly un- his discovery of so-called psychosexual phases: oral (ages
til 1906.* [10] Though in 1896 he had reported that his 02), anal (24), phallic-oedipal (today called 1st genital
patients had no feeling of remembering the [infantile ) (36), latency (6-puberty), and mature genital (pubertysexual] scenes,and assured himemphatically of their onward). His early formulation included the idea that
unbelief,* [11] in later accounts he claimed that they had because of societal restrictions, sexual wishes were retold him that they had been sexually abused in infancy. pressed into an unconscious state, and that the energy
This became the received historical account until chal- of these unconscious wishes could be turned into anxilenged by several Freud scholars in the latter part of the ety or physical symptoms. Therefore the early treatment
20th century who argued that he had imposed his precon- techniques, including hypnotism and abreaction, were deceived notions on his patients.* [12]* [13]* [14] However, signed to make the unconscious conscious in order to rebuilding on his claims that the patients reported infantile lieve the pressure and the apparently resulting symptoms.
sexual abuse experiences, Freud subsequently contended In On Narcissism (1915)* [20] Freud turned his attention
that his clinical ndings in the mid-1890s provided evi- to the subject of narcissism. Still using an energic sysdence of the occurrence of unconscious fantasies, suppos- tem, Freud characterized the dierence between energy
edly to cover up memories of infantile masturbation.* [15] directed at the self versus energy directed at others, called
Only much later did he claim the same ndings as evi- cathexis. By 1917, in Mourning and Melancholia,he
dence for Oedipal desires.* [16]
suggested that certain depressions were caused by turning
guilt-ridden anger on the self.* [21] In 1919 inA Child is
Being Beatenhe began to address the problems of self19001940s
destructive behavior (moral masochism) and frank sexual
masochism.* [22] Based on his experience with depressed
and self-destructive patients, and pondering the carnage
of World War I, Freud became dissatised with considering only oral and sexual motivations for behavior. By
1920, Freud addressed the power of identication (with
the leader and with other members) in groups as a motivation for behavior (Group Psychology and the Analysis of
the Ego).* [23] In that same year (1920) Freud suggested
his dual drivetheory of sexuality and aggression in
Beyond the Pleasure Principle, to try to begin to explain
human destructiveness. Also, it was the rst appearance
of hisstructural theoryconsisting three new concepts
id, ego, and superego.* [24]
International Psychoanalytic Congress.

Freud and Jung in the center
Photograph, 1911.
By 1900, Freud had theorised that dreams had symbolic signicance, and generally were specic to the
dreamer. Freud formulated his second psychological theorywhich hypothesises that the unconscious has or is a
primary processconsisting of symbolic and condensed
thoughts, and asecondary processof logical, conscious
Three years later, he summarised the ideas of id, ego, and

superego in a book entitled, The Ego and the Id.* [25] In
the book, he revised the whole theory of mental functioning, now considering that repression was only one of
many defense mechanisms, and that it occurred to reduce anxiety. Hence, Freud characterised repression as
both a cause and a result of anxiety. In 1926, in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety, Freud characterised how
intrapsychic conict among drive and superego (wishes
and guilt) caused anxiety, and how that anxiety could lead
to an inhibition of mental functions, such as intellect and
134
speech.* [26] Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety was written in response to Otto Rank, who, in 1924, published
Das Trauma der Geburt (translated into English in 1929
as The Trauma of Birth), analysing how art, myth, religion, philosophy and therapy were illuminated by separation anxiety in thephase before the development of the
Oedipus complex(p. 216)* [27] Freud's theories, however, characterized no such phase. According to Freud,
the Oedipus complex, was at the centre of neurosis, and
was the foundational source of all art, myth, religion, philosophy, therapyindeed of all human culture and civilization. It was the rst time that anyone in the inner circle had characterised something other than the Oedipus
complex as contributing to intrapsychic development, a
notion that was rejected by Freud and his followers at the
time.
By 1936, thePrinciple of Multiple Functionwas claried by Robert Waelder.* [28] He widened the formulation that psychological symptoms were caused by and
relieved conict simultaneously. Moreover, symptoms
(such as phobias and compulsions) each represented elements of some drive wish (sexual and/or aggressive),
superego, anxiety, reality, and defenses. Also in 1936,
Anna Freud, Sigmund's famous daughter, published her
seminal book, The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense,
outlining numerous ways the mind could shut upsetting
things out of consciousness.* [29]
1940spresent
When Hitler's power grew, the Freud family and many of
their colleagues ew to London. Within a year Sigmund
Freud died.* [30] In the United States, also following the
death of Freud, a new group of psychoanalysts began to
explore the function of the ego. Led by Heinz Hartmann,
Kris, Rappaport and Lowenstein, the group built upon understandings of the synthetic function of the ego as a mediator in psychic functioning . Hartmann in particular
distinguished between autonomous ego functions (such
as memory and intellect which could be secondarily affected by conict) and synthetic functions which were a
result of compromise formation . TheseEgo Psychologistsof the 1950s paved a way to focus analytic work by
attending to the defenses (mediated by the ego) before exploring the deeper roots to the unconscious conicts. In
addition there was burgeoning interest in child psychoanalysis. Although criticized since its inception, psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into childhood
development,* [31] and is still used to treat certain mental
disturbances.* [32] In the 1960s, Freud's early thoughts
on the childhood development of female sexuality were
challenged; this challenge led to the development of a variety of understandings of female sexual development ,
many of which modied the timing and normality of several of Freud's theories (which had been gleaned from the
treatment of women with mental disturbances). Several
researchers* [33] followed Karen Horney's studies of so-
cietal pressures that inuence the development of women.
In the rst decade of the 21st century there are approximately 35 training institutes for psychoanalysis in the
United States accredited by the American Psychoanalytic
Association (APsaA), which is a component organization
of the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA),
and there are over 3000 graduated psychoanalysts practicing in the United States. The IPA accredits psychoanalytic training centers through such component organisationsthroughout the rest of the world, including
countries such as Serbia, France, Germany, Austria, Italy,
Switzerland,* [34] and many others, as well as about six
institutes directly in the U.S.
6.4.2 Theories
The predominant psychoanalytic theories can be organised into several theoretical schools. Although these theoretical schools dier, most of them emphasize the inuence of unconscious elements on the conscious. There
has also been considerable work done on consolidating elements of conicting theories (cf. the work of Theodore
Dorpat, B. Killingmo, and S. Akhtar).* [35] As in all elds
of medicine, there are some persistent conicts regarding
specic causes of certain syndromes, and disputes regarding the ideal treatment techniques. In the 21st century,
psychoanalytic ideas are embedded in Western culture,
especially in elds such as childcare, education, literary
criticism, cultural studies, and mental health, particularly
psychotherapy. Though there is a mainstream of evolved
analytic ideas, there are groups who follow the precepts
of one or more of the later theoreticians. Psychoanalytic
ideas also play roles in some types of literary analysis such
as Archetypal literary criticism.
Topographic theory
Topographic theory was named and rst described
by Sigmund Freud in The Interpretation of Dreams
(1900).* [36]* [37] The theory hypothesizes that the mental apparatus can be divided into the systems Conscious,
Preconcious, and Unconscious. These systems are not
anatomical structures of the brain but, rather, mental
processes. Although Freud retained this theory throughout his life he largely replaced it with the Structural theory.* [38] The Topographic theory remains as one of the
meta-psychological points of view for describing how the
mind functions in classical psychoanalytic theory.
Structural theory
Structural theory divides the psyche into the id, the ego,
and the super-ego. The id is present at birth as the
repository of basic instincts, which Freud called "Triebe"
(drives): unorganized and unconscious, it operates
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
merely on the 'pleasure principle', without realism or foresight. The ego develops slowly and gradually, being concerned with mediating between the urging of the id and
the realities of the external world; it thus operates on the
'reality principle'. The super-ego is held to be the part of
the ego in which self-observation, self-criticism and other
reective and judgmental faculties develop. The ego and
the super-ego are both partly conscious and partly unconscious.* [38]
Ego psychology
Ego psychology was initially suggested by Freud in Inhibitions, Symptoms and Anxiety (1926). The theory was
rened by Hartmann, Loewenstein, and Kris in a series
of papers and books from 1939 through the late 1960s.
Leo Bellak was a later contributor. This series of constructs, paralleling some of the later developments of cognitive theory, includes the notions of autonomous ego
functions: mental functions not dependent, at least in origin, on intrapsychic conict. Such functions include: sensory perception, motor control, symbolic thought, logical
thought, speech, abstraction, integration (synthesis), orientation, concentration, judgment about danger, reality
testing, adaptive ability, executive decision-making, hygiene, and self-preservation. Freud noted that inhibition
is one method that the mind may utilize to interfere with
any of these functions in order to avoid painful emotions.
Hartmann (1950s) pointed out that there may be delays
or decits in such functions.
Frosch (1964) described dierences in those people who
demonstrated damage to their relationship to reality, but
who seemed able to test it. Decits in the capacity to organize thought are sometimes referred to as blocking or
loose associations (Bleuler), and are characteristic of the
schizophrenia . Decits in abstraction ability and selfpreservation also suggest psychosis in adults . Decits in
orientation and sensorium are often indicative of a medical illness aecting the brain (and therefore, autonomous
ego functions) . Decits in certain ego functions are routinely found in severely sexually or physically abused children, where powerful eects generated throughout childhood seem to have eroded some functional development
.
135
ever, autonomous ego functions can be secondarily affected because of unconscious conict. For example, a
patient may have an hysterical amnesia (memory being
an autonomous function) because of intrapsychic conict
(wishing not to remember because it is too painful).
Taken together, the above theories present a group of
metapsychological assumptions. Therefore, the inclusive
group of the dierent classical theories provides a crosssectional view of human mentation. There are sixpoints
of view, ve described by Freud and a sixth added by
Hartmann. Unconscious processes can therefore be evaluated from each of these six points of view. Thepoints
of vieware: 1. Topographic 2. Dynamic (the theory
of conict) 3. Economic (the theory of energy ow) 4.
Structural 5. Genetic (propositions concerning origin and
development of psychological functions) and 6. Adaptational (psychological phenomena as it relates to the external world).* [39]
Modern conict theory Modern conict theory, a
variation of ego psychology, is a revised version of structural theory, most notably dierent by altering concepts
related to where repressed thoughts were stored(Freud,
1923, 1926). Modern conict theory centres around how
emotional symptoms and character traits are complex solutions to mental conict.* [40] It dispenses with the concepts of a xed id, ego and superego, and instead posits
conscious and unconscious conict among wishes (dependent, controlling, sexual, and aggressive), guilt and
shame, emotions (especially anxiety and depressive affect), and defensive operations that shut o from consciousness some aspect of the others. Moreover, healthy
functioning (adaptive) is also determined, to a great extent, by resolutions of conict.
A major objective of modern conict-theory psychoanalysis is to change the balance of conict in a patient by
making aspects of the less adaptive solutions (also called
compromise formations) conscious so that they can be
rethought, and more adaptive solutions found. Current
theoreticians following Brenner's many suggestions (see
especially Brenner's 1982 book, The Mind in Conict)
include Sandor Abend, MD (Abend, Porder, & Willick,
(1983), Borderline Patients: Clinical Perspectives), Jacob
Arlow (Arlow and Brenner (1964), Psychoanalytic ConAccording to ego psychology, ego strengths, later de- cepts and the Structural Theory), and Jerome Blackman
scribed by Kernberg (1975), include the capacities to (2003), 101 Defenses: How the Mind Shields Itself.
control oral, sexual, and destructive impulses; to tolerate painful eects without falling apart; and to prevent
the eruption into consciousness of bizarre symbolic fan- Object relations theory Object relations theory attasy. Synthetic functions, in contrast to autonomous func- tempts to explain the ups and downs of human relationtions, arise from the development of the ego and serve ships through a study of how internal representations of
the purpose of managing conict processes. Defenses are the self and others are organized. The clinical symptoms
synthetic functions that protect the conscious mind from that suggest object relations problems (typically develawareness of forbidden impulses and thoughts. One pur- opmental delays throughout life) include disturbances in
pose of ego psychology has been to emphasize that some an individual's capacity to feel warmth, empathy, trust,
mental functions can be considered to be basic, rather sense of security, identity stability, consistent emotional
than derivatives of wishes, aects, or defenses. How- closeness, and stability in relationships with signicant
136
others. (It is not suggested that one should trust everyone, for example.) Concepts regarding internal representations (also sometimes termed,introspects,
self and
object representations,or internalization of self and
other) although often attributed to Melanie Klein, were
actually rst mentioned by Sigmund Freud in his early
concepts of drive theory (Three Essays on the Theory of
Sexuality, 1905). Freud's 1917 paper Mourning and
Melancholia, for example, hypothesized that unresolved
grief was caused by the survivor's internalized image of
the deceased becoming fused with that of the survivor,
and then the survivor shifting unacceptable anger toward
the deceased onto the now complex self-image.* [41]
Vamik Volkan, in Linking Objects and Linking Phenomena, expanded on Freud's thoughts on this, describing the syndromes of Established pathological mourningvs. reactive depressionbased on similar dynamics. Melanie Klein's hypotheses regarding internalization during the rst year of life, leading to paranoid
and depressive positions, were later challenged by Ren
Spitz (e.g., The First Year of Life, 1965), who divided
the rst year of life into a coenesthetic phase of the rst
six months, and then a diacritic phase for the second six
months. Margaret Mahler (Mahler, Fine, and Bergman,
The Psychological Birth of the Human Infant, 1975) and
her group, rst in New York, then in Philadelphia, described distinct phases and subphases of child development leading to separation-individuationduring the
rst three years of life, stressing the importance of constancy of parental gures, in the face of the child's destructive aggression, to the child's internalizations, stability of aect management, and ability to develop healthy
autonomy.
John Frosch, Otto Kernberg, Salman Akhtar and Sheldon
Bach have developed the theory of self and object constancy as it aects adult psychiatric problems such as
psychosis and borderline states. Peter Blos described
(in a book called On Adolescence, 1960) how similar
separation-individuation struggles occur during adolescence, of course with a dierent outcome from the rst
three years of life: the teen usually, eventually, leaves
the parents' house (this varies with the culture). During
adolescence, Erik Erikson (19501960s) described the
identity crisis,that involves identity-diusion anxiety.
In order for an adult to be able to experience WarmETHICS(warmth, empathy, trust, holding environment
(Winnicott), identity, closeness, and stability) in relationships (see Blackman, 101 Defenses: How the Mind
Shields Itself, 2001), the teenager must resolve the problems with identity and redevelop self and object constancy.
Self psychology Self psychology emphasizes the development of a stable and integrated sense of self through
empathic contacts with other humans, primary signicant
others conceived of asselfobjects.Selfobjects meet the
developing self's needs for mirroring, idealization, and
twinship, and thereby strengthen the developing self. The
process of treatment proceeds through transmuting internalizationsin which the patient gradually internalizes
the selfobject functions provided by the therapist. Self
psychology was proposed originally by Heinz Kohut, and
has been further developed by Arnold Goldberg, Frank
Lachmann, Paul and Anna Ornstein, Marian Tolpin, and
others.
Jacques Lacan and Lacanian psychoanalysis

Lacanian psychoanalysis, which integrates psychoanalysis with structural linguistics and Hegelian philosophy,
is especially popular in France and parts of Latin
America. Lacanian psychoanalysis is a departure from
the traditional British and American psychoanalysis,
which is predominantly Ego psychology. Jacques Lacan
frequently used the phraseretourner Freud(return
to Freud) in his seminars and writings, as he claimed
that his theories were an extension of Freud's own,
contrary to those of Anna Freud, the Ego Psychology,
object relations and selftheories and also claims
the necessity of reading Freud's complete works, not
only a part of them. Lacan's concepts concern the
"mirror stage", the Real, the Imaginary, and
the Symbolic, and the claim that the unconscious
is structured as a language.* [42]
Though a major inuence on psychoanalysis in France
and parts of Latin America, Lacan and his ideas have
taken longer to be translated into English and he has thus
had a lesser impact on psychoanalysis and psychotherapy
in the English-speaking world. In the UK and the US,
his ideas are most widely used to analyze texts in literary
theory.* [43] Due to his increasingly critical stance towards the deviation from Freud's thought, often singling
out particular texts and readings from his colleagues, Lacan was excluded from acting as a training analyst in the
IPA, thus leading him to create his own school in order to maintain an institutional structure for the many
candidates who desired to continue their analysis with
him.* [44]
Interpersonal psychoanalysis Interpersonal psychoanalysis accents the nuances of interpersonal interactions,

particularly how individuals protect themselves from anxiety by establishing collusive interactions with others, and
the relevance of actual experiences with other persons
developmentally (e.g. family and peers) as well as in
the present. This is contrasted with the primacy of intrapsychic forces, as in classical psychoanalysis . Interpersonal theory was rst introduced by Harry Stack
Sullivan, MD, and developed further by Frieda FrommReichmann, Clara Thompson, Erich Fromm, and others
who contributed to the founding of the William Alanson
White Institute and Interpersonal Psychoanalysis in general.
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
137
Culturalist psychoanalysis
psychoanalysts
Main article: Culturalist relations theory and with inter-subjective theory as critical for mental health, was introduced by Stephen
Mitchell.* [58] Relational psychoanalysis stresses how the
Some psychoanalysts have been labeled culturalist, be- individual's personality is shaped by both real and imagcause of the prominence they attributed culture in the ined relationships with others, and how these relationgenesis of behavior.* [45] Among others, Erich Fromm, ship patterns are re-enacted in the interactions between
Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, have been called analyst and patient. In New York, key proponents of reculturalist psychoanalysts.* [45] They were famously in lational psychoanalysis include Lew Aron, Jessica Benjamin, and Adrienne Harris. Fonagy and Target, in Lonconict with orthodox psychoanalysts.* [46]
don, have propounded their view of the necessity of helping certain detached, isolated patients, develop the capacFeminist psychoanalysis Feminist theories of psy- ity formentalizationassociated with thinking about rechoanalysis emerged towards the second half of the 20th lationships and themselves. Arietta Slade, Susan Coates,
century, in an eort to articulate the feminine, the mater- and Daniel Schechter in New York have additionally connal and sexual dierence and development from the point tributed to the application of relational psychoanalysis to
of view of female subjects. For Freud, male is subject treatment of the adult patient-as-parent, the clinical study
and female is object. For Freud, Winnicott and the object of mentalization in parent-infant relationships, and the inrelations theories, the mother is structured as the object tergenerational transmission of attachment and trauma.
of the infant's rejection (Freud) and destruction (Winnicott). For Lacan, thewomancan either accept the phallic symbolic as an object or incarnate a lack in the sym- Interpersonal-relational psychoanalysis The term
bolic dimension that informs the structure of the human interpersonal-relational psychoanalysis is often used as
subject. Feminist psychoanalysis is mainly post-Freudian a professional identication. Psychoanalysts under this
and post-Lacanian with theorists like Toril Moi, Joan broader umbrella debate about what precisely are the difCopjec, Juliet Mitchell,* [47] Teresa Brennan* [48] and ferences between the two schools, without any current
Griselda Pollock that rethinks Art and Mythology* [49] clear consensus.
following French feminist psychoanalysis,* [50] the gaze
and sexual dierence in, of and from the feminine.* [51]
psychoanalysis The
term
French theorists like Luce Irigaray challenges the phal- Intersubjective
*
*
"intersubjectivity"
was
introduced
in
psychoanalysis
logocentrism. [52] [53] Bracha Ettinger oers a matrixialsubject's dimension that brings into account the by George E. Atwood and Robert Stolorow (1984). Inprenatal stage (matrixial connectivity)* [54] and suggests tersubjective approaches emphasize how both personality
a feminine-maternal Eros, matrixial gaze and Primal development and the therapeutic process are inuenced
mother-phantasies.* [55] Jessica Benjamin addresses the by the interrelationship between the patient's subjective
question of the feminine and love.* [56] Feminist psy- perspective and that of others. The authors of the
choanalysis informs and includes gender, queer and post- interpersonal-relational and intersubjective approaches:
Otto Rank, Heinz Kohut, Stephen A. Mitchell, Jessica
feminist theories.
Benjamin, Bernard Brandchaft, J. Fosshage, Donna
M.Orange, Arnold ArnieMindell, Thomas Ogden,
Adaptive paradigm of psychoanalysis and psy- Owen Renik, Irwin Z. Homan, Harold Searles, Colwyn
chotherapy Main article: Robert Langs
Trewarthen, Edgar A. Levenson, Jay R. Greenberg,
Edward R. Ritvo, Beatrice Beebe, Frank M. Lachmann,
Theadaptive paradigm of psychotherapydevelops out Herbert Rosenfeld and Daniel Stern.
of the work of Robert Langs. The adaptive paradigm interprets psychic conict primarily in terms of conscious
and unconscious adaptation to reality. Langsrecent
work in some measure returns to the earlier Freud, in
that Langs prefers a modied version of the topographic
model of the mind (conscious, preconscious, and unconscious) over the structural model (id, ego, and super-ego),
including the former
s emphasis on trauma (though Langs
looks to death-related traumas rather than sexual traumas).* [38] At the same time, Langsmodel of the mind
diers from Freuds in that it understands the mind in
terms of evolutionary biological principles.* [57]
Modern psychoanalysis "Modern psychoanalysis" is a

term coined by Hyman Spotnitz and his colleagues to describe a body of theoretical and clinical approaches that
aim to extend Freud's theories so as to make them applicable to the full spectrum of emotional disorders and
broaden the potential for treatment to pathologies thought
to be untreatable by classical methods . Interventions
based on this approach are primarily intended to provide
an emotional-maturational communication to the patient,
rather than to promote intellectual insight. These interventions, beyond insight directed aims, are used to resolve
resistances that are presented in the clinical setting. This
Relational psychoanalysis Relational psychoanaly- school of psychoanalysis has fostered training opportunisis combines interpersonal psychoanalysis with object- ties for students in the United States and from countries
138
worldwide. Its journal Modern Psychoanalysis has been Childhood origins

published since 1976.* [59]
6.4.3
Psychopathology
bances)
(mental
distur-
Adult patients
Freudian theories believe that adult problems can be

traced to unresolved conicts from certain phases of
childhood and adolescence, caused by fantasy, stemming
from their own drives. Freud, based on the data gathered from his patients early in his career, suspected that
neurotic disturbances occurred when children were sexually abused in childhood (the so-called seduction theory).
Later, Freud came to believe that, although child abuse
occurs, neurotic symptoms were not associated with this.
He believed that neurotic people often had unconscious
conicts that involved incestuous fantasies deriving from
dierent stages of development. He found the stage from
about three to six years of age (preschool years, today
called therst genital stage) to be lled with fantasies
of having romantic relationships with both parents. Arguments were quickly generated in early 20th-century Vienna about whether adult seduction of children, i.e. child
sexual abuse, was the basis of neurotic illness. There still
is no complete agreement, although nowadays professionals recognize the negative eects of child sexual abuse on
mental health.* [60]
The various psychoses involve decits in the autonomous

ego functions (see above) of integration (organization) of
thought, in abstraction ability, in relationship to reality
and in reality testing. In depressions with psychotic features, the self-preservation function may also be damaged
(sometimes by overwhelming depressive aect). Because
of the integrative decits (often causing what general psychiatrists callloose associations,
blocking,"ight of
ideas,
verbigeration,andthought withdrawal), the
development of self and object representations is also impaired. Clinically, therefore, psychotic individuals manifest limitations in warmth, empathy, trust, identity, closeness and/or stability in relationships (due to problems
Many psychoanalysts who work with children have studwith self-object fusion anxiety) as well.
ied the actual eects of child abuse, which include ego
In patients whose autonomous ego functions are more in- and object relations decits and severe neurotic conicts.
tact, but who still show problems with object relations, Much research has been done on these types of trauma in
the diagnosis often falls into the category known asbor- childhood, and the adult sequelae of those. In studying
derline.Borderline patients also show decits, often in the childhood factors that start neurotic symptom develcontrolling impulses, aects, or fantasies but their abil- opment, Freud found a constellation of factors that, for
ity to test reality remains more or less intact. Adults who literary reasons, he termed the Oedipus complex (based
do not experience guilt and shame, and who indulge in on the play by Sophocles, Oedipus Rex, where the procriminal behavior, are usually diagnosed as psychopaths, tagonist unwittingly kills his father Laius and marries his
or, using DSM-IV-TR, antisocial personality disorder.
mother Jocasta). The validity of the Oedipus complex is
Panic, phobias, conversions, obsessions, compulsions and now widely disputed and rejected.* [61]* [62] The shortdepressions (analysts call these "neurotic symptoms") are hand term,oedipallater explicated by Joseph J. Sannot usually caused by decits in functions. Instead, they dler inOn the Concept Superego(1960) and modied
are caused by intrapsychic conicts. The conicts are by Charles Brenner inThe Mind in Conict(1982)
generally among sexual and hostile-aggressive wishes, refers to the powerful attachments that children make to
guilt and shame, and reality factors. The conicts may be their parents in the preschool years. These attachments
conscious or unconscious, but create anxiety, depressive involve fantasies of sexual relationships with either (or
aect, and anger. Finally, the various elements are man- both) parent, and, therefore, competitive fantasies toward
aged by defensive operations essentially shut-o brain either (or both) parents. Humberto Nagera (1975) has
mechanisms that make people unaware of that element of been particularly helpful in clarifying many of the comconict. Repressionis the term given to the mecha- plexities of the child through these years.
nism that shuts thoughts out of consciousness.Isolation Positiveand negativeoedipal conicts have been
of aectis the term used for the mechanism that shuts attached to the heterosexual and homosexual aspects, resensations out of consciousness. Neurotic symptoms may spectively. Both seem to occur in development of most
occur with or without decits in ego functions, object re- children. Eventually, the developing child's concessions
lations, and ego strengths. Therefore, it is not uncommon to reality (that they will neither marry one parent nor
to encounter obsessive-compulsive schizophrenics, panic eliminate the other) lead to identications with parental
patients who also suer with borderline personality dis- values. These identications generally create a new set of
order, etc.
mental operations regarding values and guilt, subsumed
This section above is partial to ego psychoanalytic theory
autonomous ego functions.As the autonomous ego
functionstheory is only a theory, it may yet be proven
incorrect.
under the term superego.Besides superego development, childrenresolvetheir preschool oedipal conicts
through channeling wishes into something their parents
approve of (sublimation) and the development, dur-
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
139
ing the school-age years (latency) of age-appropriate about the root causes of their illness.
obsessive-compulsive defensive maneuvers (rules, repet- An evaluation may include one or more other analysts'
itive games).
independent opinions and will include discussion of the
patient's nancial situation and insurances.
6.4.4
Treatment
Using the various analytic and psychological techniques

to assess mental problems, some believe that there are
particular constellations of problems that are especially
suited for analytic treatment (see below) whereas other
problems might respond better to medicines and other
interpersonal interventions. To be treated with psychoanalysis, whatever the presenting problem, the person requesting help must demonstrate a desire to start an analysis. The person wishing to start an analysis must have
some capacity for speech and communication. As well,
they need to be able to have or develop trust and insight
within the psychoanalytic session. Potential patients must
undergo a preliminary stage of treatment to assess their
amenability to psychoanalysis at that time, and also to enable the analyst to form a working psychological model,
which the analyst will use to direct the treatment. Psychoanalysts mainly work with neurosis and hysteria in particular; however, adapted forms of psychoanalysis are used
in working with schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis or mental disorder. Finally, if a prospective patient is severely suicidal a longer preliminary stage may be
employed, sometimes with sessions which have a twenty
minute break in the middle. There are numerous modications in technique under the heading of psychoanalysis
due to the individualistic nature of personality in both analyst and patient.
The most common problems treatable with psychoanalysis include: phobias, conversions, compulsions,
obsessions, anxiety attacks, depressions, sexual dysfunctions, a wide variety of relationship problems (such as
dating and marital strife), and a wide variety of character
problems (for example, painful shyness, meanness, obnoxiousness, workaholism, hyperseductiveness, hyperemotionality, hyperfastidiousness). The fact that many of
such patients also demonstrate decits above makes diagnosis and treatment selection dicult.
Analytical organizations such as the IPA, APsaA and the
European Federation for Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy
have established procedures and models for the indication and practice of psychoanalytical therapy for trainees
in analysis. The match between the analyst and the patient can be viewed as another contributing factor for the
indication and contraindication for psychoanalytic treatment. The analyst decides whether the patient is suitable
for psychoanalysis. This decision made by the analyst,
besides made on the usual indications and pathology, is
also based to a certain degree by the tbetween analyst and patient. A person's suitability for analysis at any
particular time is based on their desire to know something
about where their illness has come from. Someone who is
not suitable for analysis expresses no desire to know more
Techniques
The basic method of psychoanalysis is interpretation of
the patient's unconscious conicts that are interfering
with current-day functioning conicts that are causing
painful symptoms such as phobias, anxiety, depression,
and compulsions. Strachey (1936) stressed that guring
out ways the patient distorted perceptions about the analyst led to understanding what may have been forgotten
(also see Freud's paper Repeating, Remembering, and
Working Through). In particular, unconscious hostile
feelings toward the analyst could be found in symbolic,
negative reactions to what Robert Langs later called the
frameof the therapy* [63] the setup that included
times of the sessions, payment of fees, and necessity of
talking. In patients who made mistakes, forgot, or showed
other peculiarities regarding time, fees, and talking, the
analyst can usually nd various unconsciousresistances
to the ow of thoughts (sometimes called free association).
When the patient reclines on a couch with the analyst
out of view, the patient tends to remember more, experiences more resistance and transference, and is able to
reorganize thoughts after the development of insight
through the interpretive work of the analyst. Although
fantasy life can be understood through the examination
of dreams, masturbation fantasies (cf. Marcus, I. and
Francis, J. (1975), Masturbation from Infancy to Senescence) are also important. The analyst is interested in how
the patient reacts to and avoids such fantasies (cf. Paul
Gray (1994), The Ego and the Analysis of Defense).* [64]
Various memories of early life are generally distorted
Freud called themscreen memories and in any case,
very early experiences (before age two) cannot be remembered (See the child studies of Eleanor Galenson on
evocative memory).
Variations in technique There is what is known
among psychoanalysts asclassical technique,although
Freud throughout his writings deviated from this considerably, depending on the problems of any given patient.
Classical technique was summarized by Allan Compton,
MD, as comprising instructions (telling the patient to try
to say what's on their mind, including interferences); exploration (asking questions); and clarication (rephrasing and summarizing what the patient has been describing). As well, the analyst can also use confrontation to
bringing an aspect of functioning, usually a defense, to
the patient's attention. The analyst then uses a variety
of interpretation methods, such as dynamic interpretation
(explaining how being too nice guards against guilt, e.g.
140
defense vs. aect); genetic interpretation (explaining
how a past event is inuencing the present); resistance interpretation (showing the patient how they are avoiding
their problems); transference interpretation (showing the
patient ways old conicts arise in current relationships,
including that with the analyst); or dream interpretation
(obtaining the patient's thoughts about their dreams and
connecting this with their current problems). Analysts
can also use reconstruction to estimate what may have
happened in the past that created some current issue.
These techniques are primarily based on conict theory
(see above). As object relations theory evolved, supplemented by the work of Bowlby, Ainsworth, and Beebe,
techniques with patients who had more severe problems
with basic trust (Erikson, 1950) and a history of maternal deprivation (see the works of Augusta Alpert) led to
new techniques with adults. These have sometimes been
called interpersonal, intersubjective (cf. Stolorow), relational, or corrective object relations techniques. These
techniques include expressing an empathic attunement to
the patient or warmth; exposing a bit of the analyst's personal life or attitudes to the patient; allowing the patient
autonomy in the form of disagreement with the analyst
(cf. I.H. Paul, Letters to Simon.); and explaining the motivations of others which the patient misperceives. Ego
psychological concepts of decit in functioning led to renements in supportive therapy. These techniques are
particularly applicable to psychotic and near-psychotic
(cf., Eric Marcus, Psychosis and Near-psychosis)
patients. These supportive therapy techniques include
discussions of reality; encouragement to stay alive (including hospitalization); psychotropic medicines to relieve overwhelming depressive aect or overwhelming
fantasies (hallucinations and delusions); and advice about
the meanings of things (to counter abstraction failures).
The notion of thesilent analysthas been criticized. Actually, the analyst listens using Arlow's approach as set out
in The Genesis of Interpretation), using active intervention to interpret resistances, defenses creating pathology, and fantasies. Silence is not a technique of psychoanalysis (also see the studies and opinion papers of Owen
Renik, MD). "Analytic neutrality" is a concept that does
not mean the analyst is silent. It refers to the analyst's position of not taking sides in the internal struggles of the
patient. For example, if a patient feels guilty, the analyst
might explore what the patient has been doing or thinking that causes the guilt, but not reassure the patient not
to feel guilty. The analyst might also explore the identications with parents and others that led to the guilt.
Interpersonal-Relational psychoanalysts emphasize the
notion that it is impossible to be neutral. Sullivan introduced the term participant-observerto indicate the
analyst inevitably interacts with the analysand, and suggested the detailed inquiry as an alternative to interpretation. The detailed inquiry involves noting where the
analysand is leaving out important elements of an account
and noting when the story is obfuscated, and asking care-
ful questions to open up the dialogue.
Group therapy and play therapy
Although single-client sessions remain the norm, psychoanalytic theory has been used to develop other types of
psychological treatment. Psychoanalytic group therapy
was pioneered by Trigant Burrow, Joseph Pratt, Paul F.
Schilder, Samuel R. Slavson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and
Wolfe. Child-centered counseling for parents was instituted early in analytic history by Freud, and was later further developed by Irwin Marcus, Edith Schulhofer, and
Gilbert Kliman. Psychoanalytically based couples therapy has been promulgated and explicated by Fred Sander,
MD. Techniques and tools developed in the rst decade
of the 21st century have made psychoanalysis available
to patients who were not treatable by earlier techniques.
This meant that the analytic situation was modied so that
it would be more suitable and more likely to be helpful for
these patients. M.N. Eagle (2007) believes that psychoanalysis cannot be a self-contained discipline but instead
must be open to inuence from and integration with ndings and theory from other disciplines.* [65]
Psychoanalytic constructs have been adapted for use with
children with treatments such as play therapy, art therapy,
and storytelling. Throughout her career, from the 1920s
through the 1970s, Anna Freud adapted psychoanalysis
for children through play. This is still used today for children, especially those who are preadolescent (see Leon
Homan, New York Psychoanalytic Institute Center for
Children). Using toys and games, children are able to
demonstrate, symbolically, their fears, fantasies, and defenses; although not identical, this technique, in children,
is analogous to the aim of free association in adults. Psychoanalytic play therapy allows the child and analyst to
understand children's conicts, particularly defenses such
as disobedience and withdrawal, that have been guarding
against various unpleasant feelings and hostile wishes. In
art therapy, the counselor may have a child draw a portrait and then tell a story about the portrait. The counselor
watches for recurring themesregardless of whether it is
with art or toys.
Cultural variations
Psychoanalysis can be adapted to dierent cultures, as
long as the therapist or counselor understands the client's
culture. For example, Tori and Blimes found that defense
mechanisms were valid in a normative sample of 2,624
Thais. The use of certain defense mechanisms was related to cultural values. For example Thais value calmness and collectiveness (because of Buddhist beliefs), so
they were low on regressive emotionality. Psychoanalysis
also applies because Freud used techniques that allowed
him to get the subjective perceptions of his patients. He
takes an objective approach by not facing his clients during his talk therapy sessions. He met with his patients
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
wherever they were, such as when he used free association
where clients would say whatever came to mind without
self-censorship. His treatments had little to no structure
for most cultures, especially Asian cultures. Therefore,
it is more likely that Freudian constructs will be used in
structured therapy (Thompson, et al., 2004). In addition,
Corey postulates that it will be necessary for a therapist
to help clients develop a cultural identity as well as an ego
identity.
Cost and length of treatment

The cost to the patient of psychoanalytic treatment ranges
widely from place to place and between practitioners.
Low-fee analysis is often available in a psychoanalytic
training clinic and graduate schools. Otherwise, the fee
set by each analyst varies with the analyst's training and
experience. Since, in most locations in the United States,
unlike in Ontario and Germany, classical analysis (which
usually requires sessions three to ve times per week) is
not covered by health insurance, many analysts may negotiate their fees with patients whom they feel they can
help, but who have nancial diculties. The modications of analysis, which include dynamic therapy, brief
therapies, and certain types of group therapy (cf. Slavson, S. R., A Textbook in Analytic Group Therapy), are
carried out on a less frequent basis usually once, twice,
or three times a week and usually the patient sits facing
the therapist. As a result of the defense mechanisms and
the lack of access to the unfathomable elements of the
unconscious, psychoanalysis can be an expansive process
that involves 2 to 5 sessions per week for several years.
This type of therapy relies on the belief that reducing the
symptoms will not actually help with the root causes or
irrational drives. The analyst typically is a 'blank screen',
disclosing very little about themselves in order that the
client can use the space in the relationship to work on
their unconscious without interference from outside.
The psychoanalyst uses various techniques as encouragement for the client to develop insights into their behavior
and the meanings of symptoms, including ink blots, parapraxes, free association, interpretation (including dream
analysis), resistance analysis and transference analysis.
Many studies have also been done on briefer dynamic
treatments; these are more expedient to measure, and
shed light on the therapeutic process to some extent.
Brief Relational Therapy (BRT), Brief Psychodynamic
Therapy (BPT), and Time-Limited Dynamic Therapy
(TLDP) limit treatment to 2030 sessions. On average,
classical analysis may last 5.7 years, but for phobias and
depressions uncomplicated by ego decits or object relations decits, analysis may run for a shorter period of
time. Longer analyses are indicated for those with more
serious disturbances in object relations, more symptoms,
and more ingrained character pathology.
141
6.4.5 Training and research

Psychoanalytic training in the United States, in most locations, involves personal analytic treatment for the trainee,
conducted condentially, with no report to the Education
Committee of the Analytic Training Institute; approximately 600 hours of class instruction, with a standard
curriculum, over a four-year period. Classes are often
a few hours per week, or for a full day or two every other
weekend during the academic year; this varies with the
institute; and supervision once per week, with a senior
analyst, on each analytic treatment case the trainee has.
The minimum number of cases varies between institutes,
often two to four cases. Male and female cases are required. Supervision must go on for at least a few years on
one or more cases. Supervision is done in the supervisor's
oce, where the trainee presents material from the analytic work that week, examines the unconscious conicts
with the supervisor, and learns, discusses, and is advised
about technique.
Many psychoanalytic training centers in the United States
have been accredited by special committees of the APsaA or the IPA. Because of theoretical dierences, other
independent institutes arose, usually founded by psychologists, who until 1987 were not permitted access to psychoanalytic training institutes of the APsaA. Currently
there are between 75 and 100 independent institutes in
the United States. As well, other institutes are aliated
to other organizations such as the American Academy
of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, and the National Association for the Advancement of Psychoanalysis. At most psychoanalytic institutes in the United States,
qualications for entry include a terminal degree in a
mental health eld, such as Ph.D., Psy.D., M.S.W., or
M.D. A few institutes restrict applicants to those already
holding an M.D. or Ph.D., and most institutes in Southern California confer a Ph.D. or Psy.D. in psychoanalysis
upon graduation, which involves completion of the necessary requirements for the state boards that confer that
doctoral degree.The rst training institute in America to
educate non-medical psychoanalysts was The National
Psychological Association for Psychoanalysis., (1978) in
New York City. It was founded by the analyst Theodor
Reik. The Contemporary Freudian (originally the New
York Freudian Society) an oshoot of the National Psychological Association has a branch in Washington, DC.
It is a component society/institute or the IPA.
Some psychoanalytic training has been set up as a postdoctoral fellowship in university settings, such as at Duke
University, Yale University, New York University, Adelphi University, and Columbia University. Other psychoanalytic institutes may not be directly associated with
universities, but the faculty at those institutes usually
hold contemporaneous faculty positions with psychology
Ph.D. programs and/or with medical school psychiatry
residency programs.
The IPA is the world's primary accrediting and regulatory
142
body for psychoanalysis. Their mission is to assure the

continued vigor and development of psychoanalysis for
the benet of psychoanalytic patients. It works in partnership with its 70 constituent organizations in 33 countries
to support 11,500 members. In the US, there are 77 psychoanalytical organizations, institutes associations in the
United States, which are spread across the states of America. APSaA has 38 aliated societies which have 10 or
more active members who practice in a given geographical area. The aims of APSaA and other psychoanalytical
organizations are: provide ongoing educational opportunities for its members, stimulate the development and research of psychoanalysis, provide training and organize
conferences. There are eight aliated study groups in
the USA (two of them are in Latin America). A study
group is the rst level of integration of a psychoanalytical body within the IPA, followed by a provisional society
and nally a member society.
Psychoanalysis in Britain
The Division of Psychoanalysis (39) of the American

Psychological Association (APA) was established in the
early 1980s by several psychologists. Until the establishment of the Division of Psychoanalysis, psychologists
who had trained in independent institutes had no national
organization. The Division of Psychoanalysis now has
approximately 4,000 members and approximately 30 local chapters in the United States. The Division of Psychoanalysis holds two annual meetings or conferences and offers continuing education in theory, research and clinical
technique, as do their aliated local chapters. The European Psychoanalytical Federation (EPF) is the organization which consolidates all European psychoanalytic societies. This organization is aliated with the IPA. In 2002
there were approximately 3,900 individual members in
22 countries, speaking 18 dierent languages. There are
also 25 psychoanalytic societies.
The society is a component of the IPA, a body with members on all ve continents that safeguards professional and
ethical practice. The society is a member of the British
Psychoanalytic Council (BPC); the BPC publishes a register of British psychoanalysts and psychoanalytical psychotherapists. All members of the British Psychoanalytical Society are required to undertake continuing professional development.
The London Psychoanalytical Society was founded by

Ernest Jones on 30 October 1913. With the expansion of
psychoanalysis in the United Kingdom the Society was
renamed the British Psychoanalytical Society in 1919.
Soon after, the Institute of Psychoanalysis was established to administer the Societys activities. These include: the training of psychoanalysts, the development
of the theory and practice of psychoanalysis, the provision of treatment through The London Clinic of Psychoanalysis, the publication of books in The New Library
of Psychoanalysis and Psychoanalytic Ideas. The Institute of Psychoanalysis also publishes The International
Journal of Psychoanalysis, maintains a library, furthers
research, and holds public lectures. The society has a
Code of Ethics and an Ethical Committee. The society,
the institute and the clinic are all located at Byron House.
Members of the Society have included Michael Balint,

Wilfred Bion, John Bowlby, Anna Freud, Melanie Klein,
Joseph J. Sandler, and Donald Winnicott.
The Institute of Psychoanalysis is the foremost publisher
of psychoanalytic literature. The 24-volume Standard
Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund
Freud was conceived, translated, and produced under the
direction of the British Psychoanalytical Society. The Society, in conjunction with Random House, will soon publish a new, revised and expanded Standard Edition. With
the New Library of Psychoanalysis the Institute continues
to publish the books of leading theorists and practitioners.
The International Journal of Psychoanalysis is published
by the Institute of Psychoanalysis. Now in its 84th year,
it has one of the largest circulations of any psychoanalytic
journal.
The American Association of Psychoanalysis in Clinical Social Work (AAPCSW) was established by Crayton
Rowe in 1980 as a division of the Federation of Clinical Societies of Social Work and became an independent entity in 1990. Until 2007 it was known as the National Membership Committee on Psychoanalysis. The
organization was originally founded because although social workers represented the larger number of people who
were training to be psychoanalysts, they were underrepresented as supervisors and teachers at the institutes they
attended. AAPCSW now has over 1000 members and Research
has over 20 chapters. It holds a bi-annual national conOver a hundred years of case reports and studies in the
ference and numerous annual local conferences.
journal Modern Psychoanalysis, the Psychoanalytic QuarExperiences of psychoanalysts and psychoanalytic psy- terly, the International Journal of Psychoanalysis and the
chotherapists and research into infant and child develop- Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association have
ment have led to new insights. Theories have been further analyzed the ecacy of analysis in cases of neurosis and
developed and the results of empirical research are now character or personality problems. Psychoanalysis modmore integrated in the psychoanalytic theory.* [66]
ied by object relations techniques has been shown to
be eective in many cases of ingrained problems of intimacy and relationship (cf. the many books of Otto Kernberg). As a therapeutic treatment, psychoanalytic techniques may be useful in a one-session consultation.* [67]
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
143
Psychoanalytic treatment, in other situations, may run in the psycho-therapeutic training in the Netherlands,
from about a year to many years, depending on the sever- psychoanalytic and system therapeutic theories, drafts,
ity and complexity of the pathology.
and techniques are combined and integrated. Other
Psychoanalytic theory has, from its inception, been the psychoanalytic schools include the Kleinian, Lacanian,
subject of criticism and controversy. Freud remarked on and Winnicottian schools.
this early in his career, when other physicians in Vienna
ostracized him for his ndings that hysterical conversion
symptoms were not limited to women. Challenges to analytic theory began with Otto Rank and Alfred Adler (turn
of the 20th century), continued with behaviorists (e.g.
Wolpe) into the 1940s and '50s, and have persisted (e.g.
Miller). Criticisms come from those who object to the
notion that there are mechanisms, thoughts or feelings
in the mind that could be unconscious. Criticisms also
have been leveled against the discovery ofinfantile sexuality(the recognition that children between ages two
and six imagine things about procreation). Criticisms of
theory have led to variations in analytic theories, such as
the work of Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint, and John
Bowlby. In the past 30 years or so, the criticisms have
centered on the issue of empirical verication,* [68] in
spite of many empirical, prospective research studies that
have been empirically validated (e.g., See the studies of
Barbara Milrod, at Cornell University Medical School, et
al.). In the scientic literature there are some research
supporting some of Freud's ideas, e.g. unconsciousness,
repression etc.* [69]
6.4.6 Evaluation of eectiveness

The eectiveness of strict psychoanalysis is dicult to
gauge; therapy as Freud intended it relies too much
on the interpretation of the therapist which cannot be
proven.* [74] The eectiveness of more modern, developed techniques can be gauged. Meta-analyses in 2012
and 2013 come to the conclusion that there is support or evidence for the ecacy of psychoanalytic therapy, thus further research is needed.* [75]* [76] Other
meta-analyses published in the recent years showed psychoanalysis and psychodynamic therapy to be eective,
with outcomes comparable or greater than other kinds
of psychotherapy or antidepressant drugs,* [77]* [78]* [79]
but these arguments have also been subjected to various
criticisms.* [80]* [81]* [82]* [83]
In 2011, the American Psychological Association made

103 comparisons between psychodynamic treatment and
a non-dynamic competitor and found that 6 were superior, 5 were inferior, 28 had no dierence and 63 were
Psychoanalysis has been used as a research tool into child- adequate. The study found that this could be used as a
an emhood development (cf. the journal The Psychoanalytic basis to make psychodynamic psychotherapy
*
pirically
validatedtreatment.
[84]
Study of the Child), and has developed into a exible, effective treatment for certain mental disturbances.* [32] In Meta-analyses of Short Term Psychodynamic Psythe 1960s, Freud's early (1905) thoughts on the childhood chotherapy (STPP) have found eect sizes ranging from
development of female sexuality were challenged; this .34-.71 compared to no treatment and was found to be
challenge led to major research in the 1970s and 80s, and slightly better than other therapies in follow up.* [85]
then to a reformulation of female sexual development that Other reviews have found an eect size of .78-.91 for
corrected some of Freud's concepts.* [70] Also see the somatic disorders compared to no treatment* [86] and
various works of Eleanor Galenson, Nancy Chodorow, .69 for treating depression.* [87] A 2012 meta-analysis
Karen Horney, Franoise Dolto, Melanie Klein, Selma by the Harvard Review of Psychiatry of Intensive ShortFraiberg, and others. Most recently, psychoanalytic re- Term Dynamic Psychotherapy (I-STPP) found eect
searchers who have integrated attachment theory into sizes ranging from .84 for interpersonal problems to 1.51
their work, including Alicia Lieberman, Susan Coates, for depression. Overall I-STPP had an eect size of 1.18
and Daniel Schechter have explored the role of parental compared to no treatment.* [88]
traumatization in the development of young children's
A system review of Long Term Psychodynamic Psymental representations of self and others.* [71]
chotherapy in 2009 found an overall eect size of
There are dierent forms of psychoanalysis and .33.* [89] Others have found eect sizes of .44-.68.* [90]
psychotherapies in which psychoanalytic thinking is
According to a 2004 French review conducted by
practiced. Besides classical psychoanalysis there is for
INSERM, psychoanalysis was presumed or proven eecexample psychoanalytic psychotherapy, a therapeutic
tive at treating panic disorder, post-traumatic stress and
approach which widens the accessibility of psychopersonality disorders.* [91]
analytic theory and clinical practices that had evolved
over 100 plus years to a larger number of individuals. The world's largest randomized controlled trial on ther*
[72] Other examples of well known therapies which apy with anorexia outpatients, the ANTOP-Study, pubalso use insights of psychoanalysis are mentalization- lished 2013 in The Lancet, proved modied psychodybased treatment (MBT), and transference focused namic therapy to be more eective than cognitive behav*
psychotherapy (TFP).* [66] There is also a continuing ioral therapy in the long term. [92]
inuence of psychoanalytic thinking in dierent settings A 2001 systematic review of the medical literature by
in the mental health care.* [73] To give an example: the Cochrane Collaboration concluded that no data ex-
144
ist demonstrating that psychodynamic psychotherapy is
eective in treating schizophrenia and severe mental illness, and cautioned that medication should always be
used alongside any type of talk therapy in schizophrenia cases.* [93] A French review from 2004 found the
same.* [91] The Schizophrenia Patient Outcomes Research Team advises against the use of psychodynamic
therapy in cases of schizophrenia, arguing that more trials are necessary to verify its eectiveness.* [94]* [95]
and rejected the validity of Freud's drive theory, including the Oedipus complex, which, according to her and
Jerey Masson, blames the child for the abusive sexual
behavior of adults.* [103]
Psychologist Joel Kupfersmid investigated the validity of
the Oedipus complex, examining its nature and origins.
He concluded that there is little evidence to support the
existence of the Oedipus complex.* [62]
Cognitive scientists have also criticized psychoanalysis.

Linguist Noam Chomsky has criticized psychoanalysis
for lacking a scientic basis.* [104] Steven Pinker con6.4.7 Criticism
sidered Freudian theory unscientic for understanding
the mind.* [105] Evolutionary biologist Steven Jay Gould
As a eld of science
considered psychoanalysis as inuenced by pseudoscientic theories such as recapitulation theory. Psychologists
The strongest reason for considering Freud a pseudo- Hans Eysenck* [106] and John F. Kihlstrom* [107] have
scientist is that he claimed to have tested and thus to also criticized the eld as pseudoscience.
have provided the most cogent grounds for accepting
theories which are either untestable or even if testable A French 2004 report from INSERM said that psychoanhad not been tested. It is spurious claims to have tested an alytic therapy is far less eective than other psychotheruntestable or untested theory which are the most pertinent apies (including cognitive behavioral therapy). It used a
grounds for deeming Freud and his followers pseudosci- meta-analysis of numerous other studies to nd whether
the treatment was provenor presumedto be efentists...
fective on dierent diseases.* [91] Numerous studies have
Frank Cio* [96]
shown that its ecacy is related to the quality of the therapist, rather than the psychoanalytic school or technique
Psychoanalysis continues to be practiced by psychiatrists, or training,.* [108]
social workers, and other mental health professionals, Both Freud and psychoanalysis have been criticized in
however, its practice is less common today than in years very extreme terms.* [109] Exchanges between critics and
past.* [97] The theoretical foundations of psychoanalysis defenders of psychoanalysis have often been so heated
lie in the same philosophical currents that lead to inter- that they have come to be characterized as the Freud
pretive phenomenology rather than in those that lead to Wars.* [110] The classic dismissal still belongs to Richard
scientic positivism, making the theory largely incom- Feynman, who wrote o psychoanalysts as witch docpatible with scientic approaches to the study of the tors":
mind.* [98]
Early critics of psychoanalysis believed that its theories
were based too little on quantitative and experimental research, and too much on the clinical case study method.
Some have accused Freud of fabrication, most famously
in the case of Anna O.* [99] Others have speculated that
patients suered from now easily identiable conditions
unrelated to psychoanalysis; for instance, Anna O. is
thought to have suered from an organic impairment
such as tuberculous meningitis or temporal lobe epilepsy
and not hysteria (see modern interpretations).* [100]
E. Fuller Torrey, writing in Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists
(1986), stated that psychoanalytic theories have no more
scientic basis than the theories of traditional native healers,witchdoctorsor moderncultalternatives such as
est.* [101] Frank Cio, author of Freud and the Question
of Pseudoscience, cites false claims of a sound scientic
verication of the theory and its elements as the strongest
basis for classifying the work of Freud and his school as
pseudoscience.* [102]
If you look at all of the complicated ideas

that they have developed in an innitesimal
amount of time, if you compare to any other of
the sciences how long it takes to get one idea after the other, if you consider all the structures
and inventions and complicated things, the ids
and the egos, the tensions and the forces, and
the pushes and the pulls, I tell you they can't
all be there. It's too much for one brain or a
few brains to have cooked up in such a short
time.* [111]
Karl Popper argued that psychoanalysis is a

pseudoscience because its claims are not testable and
cannot be refuted; that is, they are not falsiable.* [112]
Karl Kraus, an Austrian satirist, was the subject of a
book written by noted libertarian author Thomas Szasz.
The book Anti-Freud: Karl Kraus's Criticism of Psychoanalysis and Psychiatry, originally published under the
Psychologist Alice Miller charged psychoanalysis with name Karl Kraus and the Soul Doctors, portrayed Kraus
being similar to the poisonous pedagogies, which she de- as a harsh critic of Sigmund Freud and of psychoanalysis
scribed in her book For Your Own Good. She scrutinized in general. Other commentators, such as Edward Timms,
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
author of Karl Kraus Apocalyptic Satirist, have argued
that Kraus respected Freud, though with reservations
about the application of some of his theories, and that
his views were far less black-and-white than Szasz
suggests. Adolf Grnbaum argues that psychoanalytic
based theories are falsiable, but that the causal claims of
psychoanalysis are unsupported by the available clinical
evidence. A prominent academic in positive psychology
wrote that 'Thirty years ago, the cognitive revolution in
psychology overthrew both Freud and the behaviorists,
at least in academia. ... [T]hinking ... is not just a
[result] of emotion or behavior. ... [E]motion is always
generated by cognition, not the other way around.'* [113]
Michel Foucault and Gilles Deleuze claimed that the
institution of psychoanalysis has become a center of
power and that its confessional techniques resemble the
Christian tradition.* [114] Jacques Lacan criticized the
emphasis of some American and British psychoanalytical traditions on what he has viewed as the suggestion of imaginary causesfor symptoms, and recommended the return to Freud.* [115] Together with
Deleuze, Flix Guattari criticised the Oedipal structure.* [116] Luce Irigaray criticised psychoanalysis, employing Jacques Derrida's concept of phallogocentrism
to describe the exclusion of the woman from Freudian
and Lacanian psychoanalytical theories.* [117] Deleuze
and Guattari, in their 1972 work Anti-dipus, take the
cases of Grard Mendel, Bela Grunberger and Janine
Chasseguet-Smirgel, prominent members of the most
respected associations (IPa), to suggest that, traditionally, psychoanalysis enthusiastically embraces a police
state.* [118]
Additionally, this type of therapy is a very timeconsuming and is unlikely to provide ecient and timely
answers to the underlying problems of the patients. As
a result, patients need to be very self-motivated, have
the time and monetary resources to commit to this type
of therapy. During the process, the patient may experience painful and unpleasant memories that may have been
repressed, which may actually result in further distress.
Finally, as the patient is the one sharing and becoming
vulnerable to his or her therapist, while the therapist remains mostly quiet and does not disclose much information about him or herself, there are ethical issues to this
power dynamic.* [4]
Freudian theory
Many aspects of Freudian theory are indeed out of date,
and they should be: Freud died in 1939, and he has been
slow to undertake further revisions. His critics, however,
are equally behind the times, attacking Freudian views
of the 1920s as if they continue to have some currency
in their original form. Psychodynamic theory and therapy have evolved considerably since 1939 when Freud's
bearded countenance was last sighted in earnest. Contemporary psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists
145
no longer write much about ids and egos, nor do they
conceive of treatment for psychological disorders as an
archaeological expedition in search of lost memories.
Drew Westen* [119]
An increasing amount of empirical research from academic psychologists and psychiatrists has begun to address this criticism. A survey of scientic research
suggested that while personality traits corresponding to
Freud's oral, anal, Oedipal, and genital phases can be observed, they do not necessarily manifest as stages in the
development of children. These studies also have not conrmed that such traits in adults result from childhood experiences (Fisher & Greenberg, 1977, p. 399). However,
these stages should not be viewed as crucial to modern
psychoanalysis. What is crucial to modern psychoanalytic theory and practice is the power of the unconscious
and the transference phenomenon.
The idea of unconsciousis contested because human
behavior can be observed while human mental activity
has to be inferred. However, the unconscious is now
a popular topic of study in the elds of experimental
and social psychology (e.g., implicit attitude measures,
fMRI, and PET scans, and other indirect tests). The idea
of unconscious, and the transference phenomenon, have
been widely researched and, it is claimed, validated in
the elds of cognitive psychology and social psychology
(Westen & Gabbard 2002), though a Freudian interpretation of unconscious mental activity is not held by the majority of cognitive psychologists. Recent developments
in neuroscience have resulted in one side arguing that
it has provided a biological basis for unconscious emotional processing in line with psychoanalytic theory i.e.,
neuropsychoanalysis (Westen & Gabbard 2002), while
the other side argues that such ndings make psychoanalytic theory obsolete and irrelevant.
Shlomo Kalo explains that Materialism that ourished in
the 19th Century severely harmed religion and rejected
whatever called spiritual. The institution of the confession priest in particular was badly damaged. The empty
void that this institution left behind was swiftly occupied by the newborn psychoanalysis. In his writings Kalo
claims that psychoanalysis basic approach is erroneous.
It represents the mainline wrong assumptions that happiness is unreachable and that the natural desire of a human
being is to exploit his fellow men for his own pleasure and
benet.* [120]
Freud's psychoanalysis was criticized by his wife, Martha.
Ren Laforgue reported Martha Freud saying, I must
admit that if I did not realize how seriously my husband
takes his treatments, I should think that psychoanalysis is
a form of pornography.To Martha there was something
vulgar about psychoanalysis, and she dissociated herself
from it. According to Marie Bonaparte, Martha was upset with her husband's work and his treatment of sexuality.* [121]
146
Jacques Derrida incorporated aspects of psychoanalytic

theory into his theory of deconstruction in order to question what he called the 'metaphysics of presence'. Derrida also turns some of these ideas against Freud, to reveal tensions and contradictions in his work. For example, although Freud denes religion and metaphysics as
displacements of the identication with the father in the
resolution of the Oedipal complex, Derrida insists in The
Postcard: From Socrates to Freud and Beyond that the
prominence of the father in Freud's own analysis is itself
indebted to the prominence given to the father in Western
metaphysics and theology since Plato.* [122]
[11] Freud, S. 1896, p. 204
6.4.8
[15] Freud, S. (1906).
See also
Chicago Institute for Psychoanalysis

Neutrality
Ontological hermeneutics
Psychoanalytic sociology
Psychoanalysis and music
6.4.9
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[94] AHRQ.gov Initial Results from the Schizophrenia Patient
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[96] Frank Cio (November 9, 2005). Was Freud a Pseudoscientist?". Retrieved April 13, 2011.
[97]French Psychoap. Science 307 (5713): 1197a1197a.
25 February 2005. doi:10.1126/science.307.5713.1197a.
[98] Fuller Torrey E (1986), Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists,
p. 76.
Popper KR, Science: Conjectures and Refutations, reprinted in Grim P (1990). Philosophy of
Science and the Occult, Albany, pp. 104110. See
also Conjectures and Refutations.
Webster, Richard (1996). Why Freud was wrong.
Sin, science and psychoanalysis. London: Harper
Collins.
[99] Borch-Jacobsen 1996
[100] Webster, Richard (1996). Why Freud was wrong. Sin,

[86] Allan Abbass, Stephen Kisely, Kurt Kroenke: Shortscience and psychoanalysis. London: Harper Collins.
Term Psychodynamic Psychotherapy for Somatic Disorders. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical [101] Fuller Torrey E (1986), Witchdoctors and Psychiatrists, p.
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[102] Frank Cio (November 9, 2005). Was Freud a Pseu[87] Allen A. Abass et al: The ecacy of short-term psychodoscientist?". Retrieved April 13, 2011. The strongest
dynamic psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis.
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Clinical Psychology Review, Volume 30, Issue 1, Februclaimed to have tested and thus to have provided the
ary 2010, Pages 2536
most cogent grounds for accepting theories which are
6.4. PSYCHOANALYSIS
149
either untestable or even if testable had not been tested. It [122] Derrida, Jacques, and Alan Bass. The Postcard: From
is spurious claims to have tested an untestable or untested
Socrates to Freud and Beyond. Chicago & London: Univ.
theory which are the most pertinent grounds for deeming
of Chicago, 1987.
Freud and his followers pseudoscientists (though pseudohermeneut would have been a more apposite and felicitous
description).
6.4.10 Literature
[103] Miller, Alice (1984). Thou shalt not be aware: societys
betrayal of the child. NY: Meridan Printing.
Introductions
[104] The Professorial Provocateur, Noam Chomsky interviewed by Deborah Solomon.
Brenner, Charles (1954). An Elementary Textbook

of Psychoanalysis.
[105] Pinker, Steven (1997). How The Mind Works.
[107] Is Freud Still Alive? No, Not Really. John F. Kihlstrom
Elliott, Anthony (2002). Psychoanalytic Theory:

An Introduction, Second Edition, Duke University
Press.
An introduction that explains psychoanalytic theory
with interpretations of major theorists.
[108] Horvath A (2001), The Alliance, Psychotherapy:

Theory, research, practice, training 38 (4): 365372,
doi:10.1037/0033-3204.38.4.365
Fine, Reuben (1990). The History of Psychoanalysis. New Expanded Edition. Northvale: Jason
Aronson. ISBN 0-8264-0452-9
[109] Brunner, Jos (2001), Freud and the politics of psychoanalysis, Transaction, p. xxi, ISBN 0-7658-0672-X
Samuel, Lawrence R. Shrink: A Cultural History of

Psychoanalysis in America (University of Nebraska
Press, 2013) 253 pp.
[106] Eysneck, Hans (1985). Decline and Fall of the Freudian

Empire
[110] washingtonpost.com: Dispatches from the Freud Wars:

Psychoanalysis and Its Passions.
[111] Feynman, Richard (2007) [1998]. The Meaning of It All:
Thoughts of a Citizen-Scientist. London: Penguin. pp.
1145.
[112] Popper KR, Science: Conjectures and Refutations,
reprinted in Grim P (1990) Philosophy of Science and the
Occult, Albany, pp. 104110. See also Conjectures and
Refutations.
[113] Seligman, Martin, Authentic Happiness (The Free Press,
Simon & Schuster, 2002), at p64 (viewable for free on one
or more well-known commercial booksellers on the Web,
accessed 2011-May-12)
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Robert Stolorow, George Atwood, & Donna Orange: Worlds of Experience: Interweaving Philosophical and Clinical Dimensions in Psychoanalysis.
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Erwin, Edward, A Final Accounting: Philosophical

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0-262-05050-1
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Veikko Thk: Mind and Its Treatment: A Psychoanalytic Approach. Madison (Conn.): International
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Fisher, Seymour, Greenberg Roger P. (1977). The
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Fisher, Seymour, Greenberg Roger P. (1996).
Freud Scientically Reappraised: Testing the Theories and Therapy. New York: John Wiley.
Gellner, Ernest, The Psychoanalytic Movement: The
Cunning of Unreason. A critical view of Freudian
theory, ISBN 0-8101-1370-8
6.5. MARXISM
151
Grnbaum Adolf (1979). Is Freudian Psychoana- 6.5 Marxism

lytic Theory Pseudo-Scientic by Karl Popper's Criterion of Demarcation?". American Philosophical
For the political ideology commonly associated with
Quarterly 16: 131141.
states governed by Communist parties, see Marxism
Leninism.
Grnbaum, Adolf (1985). The Foundations of Psychoanalysis: A Philosophical Critique ISBN 0-520Marxism is a worldview and a method of societal anal05017-7
ysis that focuses on class relations and societal conict,
Macmillan, Malcolm, Freud Evaluated: The Com- that uses a materialist interpretation of historical develpleted Arc ISBN 0-262-63171-7
opment, and a dialectical view of social transformation.
Marxist methodology uses economic and sociopolitical
Morley S, Eccleston C, Williams A (1999). Sys- inquiry and applies that to the critique and analysis of the
tematic review and meta-analysis of randomized development of capitalism and the role of class struggle
controlled trials of cognitive behaviour therapy in systemic economic change.
and behaviour therapy for chronic pain in adults,
In the mid-to-late 19th century, the intellectual tenets
excluding headache. Pain 80 (12): 113.
of Marxism were inspired by two German philosophers:
doi:10.1016/s0304-3959(98)00255-3.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist analyses and
Roustang, Francois (1982). Dire Mastery: Disciple- methodologies have inuenced multiple political ideoloship From Freud to Lacan, Baltimore: Johns Hop- gies and social movements. Marxism encompasses an
economic theory, a sociological theory, a philosophical
kins University Press. ISBN 0-88048-259-1
method, and a revolutionary view of social change.* [1]
Webster, Richard. (1995). Why Freud Was Wrong, There is no single denitive Marxist theory; Marxist analNew York: Basic Books, Harper Collins. ISBN 0- ysis has been applied to diverse subjects and has been
465-09128-8
misconceived and modied during the course of its development, resulting in numerous and sometimes contra Wollheim, Richard, editor. (1974). Freud: A Col- dictory theories that fall under the rubric of Marxism or
lection of Critical Essays. New York: Anchor Books. Marxian analysis.* [2]
ISBN 0-385-07970-2
Marxism builds on a materialist understanding of societal development, taking as its starting point the necessary
economic activities required to satisfy the material needs
6.4.12 Responses to critiques
of human society. The form of economic organization
or mode of production is understood to give rise to, or
Khler, Thomas 1996: Anti-Freud-Literatur von
at least directly inuences, most other social phenomena
ihren Anfngen bis heute. Zur wissenschaftlichen
including social relations, political and legal systems,
Fundierung von Psychoanalyse-Kritik. Stuttgart: W.
morality and ideology. Thus, the economic system and
Kohlhammer. ISBN 3-17-014207-0
social relations are called a base and superstructure. As
the forces of production (most notably technology) im Ollinheimo, Ari Vuorinen, Risto (1999):
prove, existing forms of social organization become inMetapsychology and the Suggestion Argument: A
ecient and stie further progress. These ineciencies
Reply to Grnbaums Critique of Psychoanalmanifest themselves as social contradictions in the form
ysis. Commentationes Scientiarum Socialium, 53.
of class struggle.* [3]
Helsinki: Finnish Academy of Science and Letters.
According to Marxist analysis, class conict within capiISBN 951-653-297-7
talism arises due to intensifying contradictions between
Robinson, Paul (1993). Freud and his Critics. highly productive mechanized and socialized producBerkeley & Los Angeles: University of California tion performed by the proletariat, and private ownerPress. ISBN 0-520-08029-7
ship and appropriation of the surplus product in the form
of surplus value (prot) by a small minority of private
owners called the bourgeoisie. As the contradiction becomes apparent to the proletariat, social unrest between
the two antagonistic classes intensies, culminating in a
International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) social revolution. The eventual long-term outcome of this
world
s primary regulatory body for psychoanalysis, revolution would be the establishment of socialism a
socioeconomic system based on cooperative ownership
founded by Sigmund Freud
of the means of production, distribution based on one's
Psychoanalysis Division 39 American Psycho- contribution, and production organized directly for use.
logical Association
Karl Marx hypothesized that, as the productive forces
152
and technology continued to advance, socialism would

eventually give way to a communist stage of social development. Communism would be a classless, stateless,
humane society erected on common ownership and the
principle of "From each according to his ability, to each
according to his needs".
Marxism has developed into dierent branches and
schools of thought. Dierent schools place a greater
emphasis on certain aspects of classical Marxism while
de-emphasizing or rejecting other aspects of Marxism,
sometimes combining Marxist analysis with non-Marxian
concepts. Some variants of Marxism primarily focus on
one aspect of Marxism as the determining force in social development such as the mode of production, class,
power-relationships or property ownership while arguing other aspects are less important or current research
makes them irrelevant. Despite sharing similar premises,
dierent schools of Marxism might reach contradictory
conclusions from each other.* [4] For instance, dierent
Marxian economists have contradictory explanations of
economic crisis and dierent predictions for the outcome
of such crises. Furthermore, dierent variants of Marxism apply Marxist analysis to study dierent aspects of
society (e.g. economic crises or feminism).* [5]
These theoretical dierences have led various socialist
and communist parties and political movements to embrace dierent political strategies for attaining socialism and advocate dierent programs and policies from
each other. One example of this is the division between
revolutionary socialists and reformists that emerged in
the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) during the
early 20th century. Similarly, although the Bolsheviks of
Russia declared Leninism and later MarxismLeninism
to be the only legitimate development of Marxism, the
Mensheviks and many other social democrats worldwide
considered them totalitarian deviations.
Marxist understandings of history and of society have
been adopted by academics in the disciplines of
archaeology and anthropology,* [6] media studies,* [7]
political science, theater, history, sociology, art history
and art theory, cultural studies, education, economics,
geography, literary criticism, aesthetics, critical psychology, and philosophy.* [8]
Karl Marx
cient and stie further progress. As Karl Marx observed:

At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conict with the existing
relations of production or this merely expresses the same
thing in legal terms with the property relations within the
framework of which they have operated hitherto. From
forms of development of the productive forces these relations turn into their fetters. Then begins an era of social
revolution.* [9]
These ineciencies manifest themselves as social contradictions in society in the form of class struggle. Under
the capitalist mode of production, this struggle materializes between the minority (the bourgeoisie) who own the
means of production, and the vast majority of the population (the proletariat) who produce goods and services.
Taking the idea that social change occurs because of the
struggle between dierent classes within society who are
under contradiction against each other, leads the Marx6.5.1 Overview
ist analysis to the conclusion that capitalism exploits and
The Marxian analysis begins with an analysis of material oppresses the proletariat, which leads to a proletarian revconditions and the economic activities required to satisfy olution.
society's material needs. It is understood that the form Capitalism (according to Marxist theory) can no longer
of economic organization, or mode of production, gives sustain the living standards of the population due to its
rise to, or at least directly inuences, most other social need to compensate for falling rates of prot by driving
phenomena including social relations, political and le- down wages, cutting social benets and pursuing miligal systems, morality and ideology. The economic system tary aggression. The socialist system would succeed capand these social relations form a base and superstructure. italism as humanity's mode of production through workAs forces of production, most notably technology, im- ers' revolution. According to Marxism, especially arising
prove, existing forms of social organization become inef- from Crisis theory, Socialism is a historical necessity (but
6.5. MARXISM
not an inevitability).* [10]
In a socialist society private property in the means of production would be superseded by co-operative ownership.
A socialist economy would not base production on the
creation of private prots, but on the criteria of satisfying
human needs that is, production would be carried out
directly for use. As Engels observed: Then the capitalist mode of appropriation in which the product enslaves
rst the producer, and then appropriator, is replaced by
the mode of appropriation of the product that is based
upon the nature of the modern means of production; upon
the one hand, direct social appropriation, as means to the
maintenance and extension of production on the other,
direct individual appropriation, as means of subsistence
and of enjoyment."'* [11]
6.5.2
Concepts
Historical Materialism
Main article: Historical materialism
The discovery of the materialist conception of history,
or rather, the consistent continuation and extension of
materialism into the domain of social phenomenon, removed two chief defects of earlier historical theories. In
the rst place, they at best examined only the ideological motives of the historical activity of human beings,
without grasping the objective laws governing the development of the system of social relations ... in the second
place, the earlier theories did not cover the activities of
the masses of the population, whereas historical materialism made it possible for the rst time to study with the accuracy of the natural sciences the social conditions of the
life of the masses and the changes in these conditions.
Russian Marxist theoretician and revolutionary Vladimir
Lenin, 1913.* [12]
153
political and legal institutions, i.e., ruling class. The base
corresponds to the social consciousness (politics, religion,
philosophy, etc.), and it conditions the superstructure and
the dominant ideology. A conict between the development of material productive forces and the relations of
production provokes social revolutions, thus, the resultant changes to the economic base will lead to the transformation of the superstructure.* [15] This relationship is
reexive; At rst the base gives rise to the superstructure
and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. Hence, that formed social organization can act again
upon both parts of the base and superstructure, whose relationship is not unilinear but dialectic, namely a relationship driven by conicts and contradictions. As Friedrich
Engels claried: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave,
patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and
journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood
in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open ght, a ght that each
time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending
classes."'* [16]
Marx considered these socio-economic conicts as the
driving force of human history since these recurring conicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional
stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly
Marx designates human history as encompassing four
stages of development in relations of production.* [17]
1. Primitive Communism: as in co-operative tribal societies.
2. Slave Society: a development of tribal to city-state;
aristocracy is born.
3. Feudalism: aristocrats are the ruling class; merchants evolve into capitalists.
4. Capitalism: capitalists are the ruling class, who create and employ the proletariat.
Society does not consist of individuals,

but expresses the sum of interrelations, the
relations within which these individuals stand.
Karl Marx, Grundrisse, 1858* [13]
The historical materialist theory of history* [14] dialectically analyses the underlying causes of societal development and change in the collective ways humans make
their living. All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid, ideologies) stem from economic activity, an idea often conveyed with the metaphor
of the base and superstructure.
Criticism of capitalism
We are, in Marx's terms, an ensemble
of social relations' and we live our lives at
the core of the intersection of a number of
unequal social relations based on hierarchically interrelated structures which, together,
dene the historical specicity of the capitalist
modes of production and reproduction and
underlay their observable manifestations.
Martha E. Gimenez, Marxism and Class,
Gender and Race: Rethinking the Trilogy* [18]
The base and superstructure metaphor explains that the

totality of social relations in and by which humans product and re-product their social existence, forms a society's According to the Marxist theoretician and revolutionary
economic base. From this base rises a superstructure of Vladimir Lenin,the principal content of Marxismwas
154
Marx's economic doctrine.* [19] Marx believed that the

capitalist bourgeois and their economists were promoting
what he saw as the lie thatThe interests of the capitalist
and those of the worker are ... one and the same"; he believed that they did this by purporting the concept that
the fastest possible growth of productive capital" was
best not only for the wealthy capitalists but also for the
workers because it provided them with employment.* [20]
Exploitation is a matter of surplus labour the amount of
labour one performs beyond what one receives in goods.
Exploitation has been a socio-economic feature of every
class society, and is one of the principal features distinguishing the social classes. The power of one social class
to control the means of production enables its exploitation
of the other classes.
In capitalism, the labour theory of value is the operative
concern; the value of a commodity equals the socially
necessary labour time required to produce it. Under that
condition, surplus value (the dierence between the value
produced and the value received by a labourer) is synonymous with the term surplus labour"; thus, capitalist exploitation is realised as deriving surplus value from the
worker.
In pre-capitalist economies, exploitation of the worker
was achieved via physical coercion. In the capitalist mode
of production, that result is more subtly achieved; because
the worker does not own the means of production, he or
she must voluntarily enter into an exploitive work relationship with a capitalist in order to earn the necessities
of life. The worker's entry into such employment is voluntary in that he or she chooses which capitalist to work
for. However, the worker must work or starve. Thus, exploitation is inevitable, and the voluntarynature of a
worker participating in a capitalist society is illusory.
mode of production establishes the conditions enabling the bourgeoisie to exploit the proletariat because the workers' labour generates a surplus value
greater than the workers' wages.
Bourgeoisie: those whoown the means of productionand buy labour power from the proletariat, thus
exploiting the proletariat; they subdivide as bourgeoisie and the petit bourgeoisie.
Petit bourgeoisie are those who work and can
aord to buy little labour power i.e. small
business owners, peasant landlords, trade
workers et al. Marxism predicts that the continual reinvention of the means of production
eventually would destroy the petit bourgeoisie,
degrading them from the middle class to the
proletariat.
Lumpenproletariat: The outcasts of society such as
criminals, vagabonds, beggars, prostitutes, et al.,
who have no stake in the economy and no mind of
their own and so are decoyed by every bidder.
Landlords: an historically important social class
who retain some wealth and power.
Peasantry and farmers: a scattered class incapable
of organizing and eecting socio-economic change,
most of whom would enter the proletariat, and some
become landlords.
Class consciousness denotes the awareness of itself and
the social world that a social class possesses, and its capacity to rationally act in their best interests; hence, class
consciousness is required before they can eect a successful revolution.
Without dening ideology,* [24] Marx used the term to

denote the production of images of social reality; according to Engels,ideology is a process accomplished by the
so-called thinker consciously, it is true, but with a false
consciousness. The real motive forces impelling him remain unknown to him; otherwise it simply would not be
an ideological process. Hence he imagines false or seeming motive forces.* [25] Because the ruling class controls
the society's means of production, the superstructure of
society, the ruling social ideas are determined by the best
interests of the said ruling class. In The German Ideology,
Social classes
the ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling
ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of
The identity of a social class derives from its relationsociety, is, at the same time, its ruling intellectual force
ship to the means of production; Marx describes the so- *
. [26]
cial classes in capitalist societies:
The term "political economy" originally denoted the study
Proletariat: the class of modern wage labourers of the conditions under which economic production was
who, having no means of production of their own, organised in the capitalist system. In Marxism, political
are reduced to selling their labour power in order to economy studies the means of production, specically of
live.* [22] As Andrei Platonov expressed The capital, and how that manifests as economic activity.
Alienation is the estrangement of people from their humanity (German: Gattungswesen, species-essence,
species-being), which is a systematic result of capitalism. Under capitalism, the fruits of production belong to the employers, who expropriate the surplus created by others, and so generate alienated labourers.* [21]
In Marx's view, alienation is an objective characterization of the worker's situation in capitalism his or her
self-awareness of this condition is not prerequisite.
working class is my home country and my future Marxism taught me what society was. I was like a blindis linked with the proletariat.* [23] The capitalist folded man in a forest, who doesn't even know where
6.5. MARXISM
155
north or south is. If you don't eventually come to truly understand the history of the class struggle, or at least have a
clear idea that society is divided between the rich and the
poor, and that some people subjugate and exploit other
people, you're lost in a forest, not knowing anything.
low and detached from political action. For instance,

Zimbabwean Trotskyist Alex Callinicos, himself a
professional academic, stated that Its practitioners
remind one of Narcissus, who in the Greek legend fell in
love with his own reection ... Sometimes it is necessary
Cuban revolutionary and Marxist-Leninist politician to devote time to clarifying and developing the concepts
that we use, but indeed for Western Marxists this has
Fidel Castro on discovering Marxism, 2009.* [27]
become an end in itself. The result is a body of writings
incomprehensible to all but a tiny minority of highly
qualied scholars.* [33]
Revolution, socialism, and communism
Marxists believe that the transition from capitalism to so- 6.5.4
cialism is an inevitable part of the development of human
society; as Lenin stated,it is evident that Marx deduces
the inevitability of the transformation of capitalist society
[into a socialist society] wholly and exclusively from the
economic law of motion of contemporary society.* [28]
Academic Marxism
Marxists believe that a socialist society will be far better

for the majority of the populace than its capitalist counterpart, for instance, prior to the Russian revolution of
1917, Lenin wrote thatThe socialization of production
is bound to lead to the conversion of the means of production into the property of society ... This conversion will
directly result in an immense increase in productivity of
labour, a reduction of working hours, and the replacement of the remnants, the ruins of small-scale, primitive,
disunited production by collective and improved labour.
*
[29]
6.5.3
Classical Marxism
Main article: Classical Marxism

The term Classical Marxism denotes the collection of
socio-eco-political theories expounded by Karl Marx and
Friedrich Engels. Marxism, as Ernest Mandel remarked, is always open, always critical, always selfcritical.As such, Classical Marxism distinguishes betweenMarxismas broadly perceived, andwhat Marx
believed"; thus, in 1883, Marx wrote to the French labour
leader Jules Guesde and to Paul Lafargue (Marx's sonin-law) both of whom claimed to represent Marxist
principles accusing them of revolutionary phrasemongeringand of denying the value of reformist struggle; from Marx's letter derives the paraphrase: If that
is Marxism, then I am not a Marxist.* [30]* [31] American Marxist scholar Hal Draper responded to this comment by saying, there are few thinkers in modern history whose thought has been so badly misrepresented, by
Marxists and anti-Marxists alike.* [32]
One of the 20th century's most prominent Marxist academics; the

Australian archaeologist V. Gordon Childe
Marxism has been adopted by a large number of academics and other scholars working in various disciplines.
The theoretical development of Marxist archaeology was

rst developed in the Soviet Union in 1929, when a young
archaeologist named Vladislav I. Ravdonikas (1894
1976) published a report entitled For a Soviet history
of material culture. Within this work, the very discipline of archaeology as it then stood was criticised as
being inherently bourgeoisie and therefore anti-socialist,
and so, as a part of the academic reforms instituted in the
Criticism
Soviet Union under the administration of Premier Joseph
Some Marxists have criticised the academic Stalin, a great emphasis was placed on the adoption of
institutionalisation of Marxism for being too shal- Marxist archaeology throughout the country.* [34] These
156
theoretical developments were subsequently adopted by

archaeologists working in capitalist states outside of the
Leninist bloc, most notably by the Australian academic
V. Gordon Childe (18921957), who used Marxist theory in his understandings of the development of human
society.* [35]
6.5.5
Etymology
The term Marxismwas popularized by Karl Kautsky

who considered himself anorthodoxMarxist during the
dispute between the orthodox and revisionist followers of
Marx.* [36] Kautsky's revisionist rival Eduard Bernstein
also later adopted use of the term.* [36] Engels did not
support the use of the termMarxismto describe either
Marx's or his views.* [37] Engels claimed that the term
was being abusively used as a rhetorical qualier by those
attempting to cast themselves asrealfollowers of Marx
while casting others in dierent terms, such as Lassallians.* [37] In 1882, Engels claimed that Marx had
criticized self-proclaimed MarxistPaul Lafargue, by
saying that if Lafargue's views were considered Marxist, then "[o]ne thing is certain and that is that I am not
a Marxist.* [37]
them, and they moved to Cologne, where they published

the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, a politically radical newspaper. Again, by 1849, they had to leave Cologne for
London. The Prussian authorities pressured the British
government to expel Marx and Engels, but Prime Minister Lord John Russell refused.
After Karl Marx's death in 1883, Friedrich Engels became the editor and translator of Marx's writings. With
his Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State
(1884) analysing monogamous marriage as guaranteeing male social domination of women, a concept analogous, in communist theory, to the capitalist class's economic domination of the working class Engels made
intellectually signicant contributions to feminist theory
and Marxist feminism.
Late 20th century
Political Marxism In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led

to the victory of anti-imperialist Fidel Castro (1926) and
his July 26 Movement. Although the revolution had not
been explicitly socialist, upon victory Castro ascended to
the position of Prime Minister and eventually adopted the
Leninist model of socialist development, forging an alliance with the Soviet Union.* [38] One of the leaders of
the revolution, the Argentine Marxist revolutionary Che
6.5.6 History
Guevara (19281967), subsequently went on to aid revolutionary socialist movements in Congo-Kinshasa and
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
Bolivia, eventually being killed by the Bolivian government, possibly on the orders of the CIA, though the CIA
Main articles: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
agent sent to search for Guevara, Felix Rodriguez expressed a desire to keep him alive as a possible bargaining
Karl Marx (5 May 1818 14 March 1883) was a Ger- tool with the Cuban government; he would posthumously
man philosopher, political economist, and socialist rev- go on to become an internationally recognised icon.
olutionary, who addressed the matters of alienation and In the People's Republic of China, the Maoist government
exploitation of the working class, the capitalist mode of
undertook the Cultural Revolution from 1966 through to
production, and historical materialism. He is famous for 1976 in order to purge capitalist elements from Chinese
analysing history in terms of class struggle, summarised
society and entrench socialism. However, upon Mao's
in the initial line introducing the Communist Manifesto death, his rivals seized political power and under the Pre(1848): The history of all hitherto existing society is
miership of Deng Xiaoping (19781992), many of Mao's
the history of class struggles.
Cultural Revolution era policies were revised or abanFriedrich Engels (28 November 1820 5 August 1895)
was a German political philosopher and Karl Marx's codeveloper of communist theory. Marx and Engels met in
September 1844; discovering that they shared like views
of philosophy and socialism, they collaborated and wrote
works such as Die heilige Familie (The Holy Family). After Marx was deported from France in January 1845, Engels and Marx moved to Belgium, which then permitted
greater freedom of expression than other European countries; in January 1846, they returned to Brussels to establish the Communist Correspondence Committee.
In 1847, they began writing The Communist Manifesto
(1848), based on Engels' The Principles of Communism;
six weeks later, they published the 12,000-word pamphlet in February 1848. In March, Belgium expelled
doned and much of the state sector privatised.

The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the collapse of most
of those socialist states that had professed a Marxist
Leninist ideology. In the late 1970s and 1980s, the
emergence of the New Right and neoliberal capitalism
as the dominant ideological trends in western politics
championed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan and U.K.
Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher led the west to take
a more aggressive stand against the Soviet Union and its
Leninist allies. Meanwhile, in the Soviet Union, the reformist Mikhael Gorbachev (1931) became Premier in
March 1985, and began to move away from Leninistbased models of development towards social democracy.
Ultimately, Gorbachev's reforms, coupled with rising levels of popular ethnic nationalism in the Soviet Union, led
6.5. MARXISM
157
to the state's dissolution in late 1991 into a series of con- Socialist critiques
stituent nations, all of which abandoned MarxistLeninist
models for socialism, with most converting to capitalist Democratic socialists and social democrats reject the idea
that socialism can be accomplished only through extraeconomies.
legal class conict and a proletarian revolution. The
relationship between Marx and other socialist thinkers
and organizations, rooted in Marxism's scienticand
21st century
anti-utopian socialism, among other factors, has divided
Marxists from other socialists since Marx's life. After
Political Marxism At the turn of the 21st century, Marx's death, and with the emergence of Marxism, there
China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam remained the only of- have additionally been dissensions within Marxism itselfcially MarxistLeninist states remaining, although a the splitting of the Russian Social Democratic Labour
Maoist government led by Prachanda (1954) was elected Party into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks a notable examinto power in Nepal in 2008 following a long guerrilla ple. OrthodoxMarxism became counterposed to a
struggle. The early 21st century also saw the election less dogmatic, more innovative, or even revisionist Marxof socialist and anti-imperialist governments in several ism.
Latin American nations, in what has come to be known
as the "Pink tide". Dominated by the Venezuelan government of Hugo Chvez, this trend also saw the election of Anarchist and libertarian critiques
Evo Morales in Bolivia, Rafael Correa in Ecuador and
Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua; forging political and eco- Main articles: Anarchism and Marxism and Libertarian
nomic alliances through international organisations like socialism
the Bolivarian Alliance for the Americas, these socialist governments allied themselves with MarxistLeninist Anarchism has had a strained relationship with Marxism
Cuba, and although none of them espoused a Leninist since Marx's life. Anarchists and libertarian socialists repath directly, most admitted to being signicantly inu- ject the need for a transitory state phase, claiming that
enced by Marxist theory. For Italian Marxist Gianni Vat- socialism can only be established through decentralized,
timo in his 2011 book Hermeneutic Communism this non-coercive organization. Individualist anarchists, who
new weak communism diers substantially from its pre- are often neither socialists nor capitalists, reject Marxism
vious Soviet (and current Chinese) realization, because as a statist ideology. Anarchist Mikhail Bakunin critithe South American countries follow democratic elec- cized Marx for his authoritarian bent.* [41] The phrase
toral procedures and also manage to decentralize the state barracks socialismbecame a shorthand for this critique,
bureaucratic system through the misiones (social missions evoking the image of citizens' lives being as regimented
for community projects). In sum, if weakened commu- as the lives of conscripts in a barracks.* [42]
nism is felt as a specter in the West, it is not only because
of media distortions but also for the alternative it represents through the same democratic procedures that the Economic critiques
West constantly professes to cherish but is hesitant to apOther critiques come from an economic standpoint.
ply* [39]
Economists such as Friedrich Hayek have criticized
Marxism for allocating resources ineciently.
6.5.7
Criticisms
Main article: Criticisms of Marxism

Criticisms of Marxism have come from various political
ideologies. Additionally, there are intellectual critiques
of Marxism that contest certain assumptions prevalent
in Marx's thought and Marxism after him, without exactly rejecting Marxist politics.* [40] Other, contemporary supporters of Marxism argue that many aspects of
Marxist thought are viable, but that the corpus is incomplete or outdated in regards to certain aspects of economic, political or social theory. They may therefore
combine some Marxist concepts with the ideas of other
theorists such as Max Weber: the Frankfurt school is one
example.
V. K. Dmitriev, writing in 1898,* [43] Ladislaus von

Bortkiewicz, writing in 190607,* [44] and subsequent
critics have alleged that Marx's value theory and law of
the tendency of the rate of prot to fall are internally inconsistent. In other words, the critics allege that Marx
drew conclusions that actually do not follow from his
theoretical premises. Once these alleged errors are corrected, his conclusion that aggregate price and prot are
determined by, and equal to, aggregate value and surplus
value no longer holds true. This result calls into question his theory that the exploitation of workers is the sole
source of prot.* [45]
Both Marxism and socialism have received considerable critical analysis from multiple generations of
Austrian economists in terms of scientic methodology,
economic theory, and political implications.* [46]* [47]
During the marginal revolution, subjective value the-
158
ory was rediscovered by Carl Menger, a development

of parliamentary democracy in the transition to socialism
drew animated debates ... Marxian theory (singular) gave
which undermined the British cost theories of value
way to Marxian theories (plural).
fundamentally. The restoration of subjectivism and
praxeological methodology previously used by classical
[6] Bridget O'Laughlin (1975) Marxist Approaches
economic scientists including Richard Cantillon, Annein Anthropology Annual Review of AnthroRobert-Jacques Turgot, Jean-Baptiste Say, and Frdric
pology Vol.
4: pp.
34170 (October 1975)
Bastiat led Menger to criticise historicist methodology in
doi:10.1146/annurev.an.04.100175.002013.
general. Second-generation Austrian economist Eugen
William Roseberry (1997) Marx and Anthropology
Bhm von Bawerk used praxeological and subjectivist
Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol. 26: pp. 2546
(October 1997) doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.25
methodology to attack the law of value fundamentally.
Non-Marxist economists have regarded his criticism as
denitive, with Gottfried Haberler arguing that Bhm- [7] S. L. Becker (1984)Marxist Approaches to Media Studies: The British Experience, Critical Studies in Mass
Bawerk's critique of Marx's economics was so thorough
Communication, 1(1): pp. 6680.
and devastating that as of the 1960s no Marxian scholar
had conclusively refuted it.* [48] Third-generation Aus- [8] See Manuel Alvarado, Robin Gutch, and Tana Wollen
trian Ludwig Von Mises sparked the economic calcu(1987) Learning the Media: Introduction to Media Teaching, Palgrave Macmillan.
lation debate by identifying that without price signals
in capital goods, all other aspects of the market economy are irrational. This led him to declare "... that [9] A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy, Introduction 1859
rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist
commonwealth.* [49] Mises then elaborated on every [10] Free will, non-predestination and non-determinism are
form of socialism more completely in his 1922 book Soemphasized in Marx's famous quote Men make their
own history ...The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonacialism, an Economic and Sociological Analysis. Contemparte, Karl Marx 1852.
porary Austrian critics include Murray Rothbard, David
Gordon, Yuri Maltsev, Gary North, and Joseph Salerno.
[11] Socialism, Utopian and Scientic, Chapter three 1882
6.5.8
6.5.9
See also
References
Footnotes
[1] social science : Marxist inuences Britannica Online
Encyclopedia
[2] Wol and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987).
Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-8018-3480-5.
Marxian theory (singular) gave way to Marxian theories
(plural).
[3] Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century,
2003, by Gregory and Stuart. P.62, Marx's Theory of
Change. ISBN 0-618-26181-8.
[4] O'Hara, Phillip (September 2003). Encyclopedia of Political Economy, Volume 2. Routledge. p. 107. ISBN
0-415-24187-1. Marxist political economists dier over
their denitions of capitalism, socialism and communism. These dierences are so fundamental, the arguments among dierently persuaded Marxist political
economists have sometimes been as intense as their oppositions to political economies that celebrate capitalism.
[5] Wol and Resnick, Richard and Stephen (August 1987).
Economics: Marxian versus Neoclassical. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 130. ISBN 0-8018-3480-5. The
German Marxists extended the theory to groups and issues
Marx had barely touched. Marxian analyses of the legal
system, of the social role of women, of foreign trade, of international rivalries among capitalist nations, and the role
[12] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 15.

[13] Grundrisse: Foundations of the Critique of Political Economy, by Karl Marx & Martin Nicolaus, Penguin Classics,
1993, ISBN 0-14-044575-7, pg 265
[14] Evans, p. 53; Marx's account of the theory is the Preface to A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859). . Another exposition of the theory is in
The German Ideology. It, too, is available online from
marxists.org.
[15] See A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
(1859), Preface, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1977,
with some notes by R. Rojas, and Engels: Anti-Dhring
(1877), Introduction General
[16] Communist manifesto, chapter one 1847
[17] Marx does not claim to have produced a master-key to
history. Historical materialism is not an historicophilosophic theory of the marche generale, imposed by
fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it nds itself, K. Marx, Letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper Otetchestvennye Zapiskym, 1877. He explains that his ideas are based upon a
concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.
[18] Marxism and Class, Gender and Race: Rethinking the
Trilogy, by Martha E. Gimenez, Published (2001) in Race,
Gender and Class, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 2333.
[19] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 07.
[20] Marx 1849.
[21]Alienationentry, A Dictionary of Sociology
6.5. MARXISM
[22] Engels, Friedrich (1888). Manifesto of the Communist

Party. London. pp. Footnote. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
[23] Andrei Platonov, the 20th-century Russian writer
[24] Joseph McCarney: Ideology and False Consciousness,
April 2005
[25] Engels: Letter to Franz Mehring, (London 14 July 1893),
Donna Torr, translator, in Marx and Engels Correspondence, International Publishers, 1968
[26] Karl Marx, The German Ideology".
[27] Castro and Ramonet 2009. p. 100.
159
[43] V. K. Dmitriev, 1974 (1898), Economic Essays on Value,

Competition and Utility. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.
Press
[44] Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1952 (19061907), Value
and Price in the Marxian System, International Economic
Papers 2, 560; Ladislaus von Bortkiewicz, 1984 (1907),
On the Correction of Marx's Fundamental Theoretical
Construction in the Third Volume of Capital". In Eugen
von Bhm-Bawerk 1984 (1896), Karl Marx and the Close
of his System, Philadelphia: Orion Editions.
[45] M. C. Howard and J. E. King. (1992) A History of Marxian Economics: Volume II, 19291990, chapter 12, sect.
III. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univ. Press.
[28] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 35.

[46]
[29] Lenin 1967 (1913). p. 3536.
[30]Accusing Guesde and Lafargue of 'revolutionary phrasemongering' and of denying the value of reformist struggles, Marx made his famous remark that, if their politics
represented Marxism, 'ce qu'il y a de certain c'est que moi,
je ne suis pas Marxiste' ('what is certain is that I myself am
not a Marxist').See: http://www.marxists.org/archive/
marx/works/1880/05/parti-ouvrier.htm
[31] Hall, Stuart; Dave Morely; Kuan-Hsing Chen (1996).
Stuart Hall: Critical Dialogues in Cultural Studies. London: Routledge. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-415-08803-9. Retrieved 4 March 2013. I have no hesitation in saying that
this represents a gigantic crudication and simplication
of Marx's work the kind of simplication and reductionism which once led him, in despair, to say if that is
marxism, then I am not a marxist
[32] Not found in search function at Draper Arkiv
[33] Callinicos 2010. p. 12.
[34] Trigger 2007. p. 326340.
[35] Green 1981. p. 79.
[36] Georges Haupt, Peter Fawcett, Eric Hobsbawm. Aspects
of International Socialism, 18711914: Essays by Georges
Haupt. Paperback Edition. Cambridge, England, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010. pp. 1819.
[37] Georges Haupt, Peter Fawcett, Eric Hobsbawm. Aspects
of International Socialism, 18711914: Essays by Georges
Haupt. Paperback Edition. Cambridge, England, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2010. Pp. 12.
[38] See Coltman 2003 and Bourne 1986.
[39] Gianni Vattimo and Santiago Zabala. Hermeneutic Communism: From Heidegger to Marx Columbia University
Press. 2011. p. 122
[40] For example, Baudrillard, Jean (1973). The Mirror of
Production.
[41] Bakunin, Mikhail (October 5, 1872), Letter to La Libert,
quoted in Bakunin on Anarchy, translated and edited by
Sam Dolgo, 1971
[42] Sperber, Jonathan (2013), Karl Marx: A NineteenthCentury Life, W.W. Norton & Co.
What We Can Know About The World.

Sennholz.
Hans F.
[47] Omnipotent Government. Ludwig Von Mises

[48] Gottfried Haberler in Milorad M. Drachkovitch (ed.),
Marxist Ideology in the Contemporary World Its Appeals
and Paradoxes (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 124
[49] Von Mises, Ludwig (1990). Economic calculation in the
Socialist Commonwealth (PDF). Ludwig von Mises Institute. Retrieved 2008-09-08.
Bibliography
Bourne, Peter G. (1986). Fidel: A Biography of Fidel Castro. New York: Dodd, Mead & Company.
Callinicos, Alex (2010) [1983]. The Revolutionary
Ideas of Karl Marx. Bloomsbury, London: Bookmarks. ISBN 978-1-905192-68-7.
Castro, Fidel; Ramonet, Ignacio (interviewer)
(2009). My Life: A Spoken Autobiography. New
York: Scribner. ISBN 978-1-4165-6233-7.
Coltman, Leycester (2003). The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
ISBN 978-0-300-10760-9.
Green, Sally (1981). Prehistorian: A Biography of
V. Gordon Childe. Bradford-on-Avon, Wiltshire:
Moonraker Press. ISBN 0-239-00206-7.
Lenin, Vladimir (1967) [1913]. Karl Marx: A Brief
Biographical Sketch with an Exposition of Marxism.
Peking: Foreign Languages Press. Retrieved 201406-17.
Marx, Karl (1849). Wage Labour and Capital. Germany: Neue Rheinische Zeitung. Retrieved 201406-17.
Trigger, Bruce G. (2007). A History of Archaeological Thought (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-60049-1.
Avineri, Shlomo (1968). The Social and Political
Thought of Karl Marx. Cambridge University Press.
160
Dahrendorf, Ralf (1959). Class and Class Conict 6.6 Speculative realism
in Industrial Society. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Speculative realism is a movement in contemporary
philosophy which denes itself loosely in its stance of
Jon Elster, An Introduction to Karl Marx. Cammetaphysical realism against the dominant forms of postbridge, England, 1986.
Kantian philosophy or what it terms correlationism.* [1]
Speculative realism takes its name from a conference held
Michael Evans, Karl Marx. London, 1975.
at Goldsmiths College, University of London in April
Stefan Gandler, Critical Marxism in Mexico: Adolfo 2007.* [2] The conference was moderated by Alberto
Snchez Vzquez and Bolvar Echeverra, Lei- Toscano of Goldsmiths College, and featured presentaden/Boston, Brill Academic Press, 2015. 467 pages. tions by Ray Brassier of American University of Beirut
(then at Middlesex University), Iain Hamilton Grant of
ISBN 978-90-04-22428-5.
the University of the West of England, Graham Harman
Koakowski, Leszek (1976). Main Currents of of the American University in Cairo, and Quentin MeilMarxism. Oxford University Press.
lassoux of the cole Normale Suprieure in Paris. Credit
for the namespeculative realismis generally ascribed
Parkes, Henry Bamford (1939). Marxism: An Au- to Brassier,* [3] though Meillassoux had already used the
topsy. Boston: Houghton Miin.
term speculative materialismto describe his own position.* [4]
Prychitko, David L. (2008). Marxism. In
David R. Henderson (.). Concise Encyclopedia A second conference, entitled Speculative Realof Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics ism/Speculative Materialism, took place at the UWE
and Liberty. ISBN 978-0-86597-665-8. OCLC Bristol on Friday 24 April 2009, two years after the original event at Goldsmiths.* [5] The line-up consisted of Ray
237794267.
Brassier, Iain Hamilton Grant, Graham Harman, and (in
Robinson, Cedric J.: Black Marxism: The Making place of Meillassoux who was unable to attend) Alberto
of the Black Radical Tradition, 1983, Reissue: Univ Toscano.* [6]
North Carolina Press, 2000
Rummel, R.J. (1977) Conict In Perspective Chap. 6.6.1
5 Marxism, Class Conict, and the Conict Helix
Screpanti, E; S. Zamagna (1993). An Outline of the
History of Economic Thought.
McLellan, David (2007). Marxism After Marx. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
6.5.10
External links
General resources
Marxists Internet Archive (MIA)
Marxmail.org
Marx Myths & Legends
Marxism Page
London Philosophy Study Guide on Marxism (oers
many suggestions on what to read, depending on the
student's familiarity with the subject)
Introductory articles
History of Economic Thought: Marxian School
History of Economic Thought: Neo Marxian
Critique of correlationism
While often in disagreement over basic philosophical issues, the speculative realist thinkers have a shared resistance to philosophies of human nitude inspired by the
tradition of Immanuel Kant.
What unites the four core members of the movement is an
attempt to overcome both "correlationism"* [7] as well as
"philosophies of access". In After Finitude, Meillassoux
denes correlationism asthe idea according to which we
only ever have access to the correlation between thinking
and being, and never to either term considered apart from
the other.* [8] Philosophies of access are any of those
philosophies which privilege the human being over other
entities. Both ideas represent forms of anthropocentrism.
All four of the core thinkers within Speculative Realism
work to overturn these forms of philosophy which privilege the human being, favouring distinct forms of realism
against the dominant forms of idealism in much of contemporary philosophy.
6.6.2 Variations
While sharing in the goal of overturning the dominant
strands of post-Kantian thought in both Continental and
Analytic schools of philosophy, there are important differences separating the core members of the Speculative
Realist movement and their followers.
6.6. SPECULATIVE REALISM

Speculative materialism
In his critique of correlationism, Quentin Meillassoux
nds two principles as the locus of Kant's philosophy.
The rst of these is the Principle of Correlation itself,
which claims essentially that we can only know the correlate of Thought and Being, that is to say, that what
lies outside that correlate is unknowable. The second is
termed by Meillassoux the Principle of Factiality, which
states that things could be otherwise than what they are.
This principle is upheld by Kant in his defence of the
thing-in-itself as unknowable but imaginable. We can
imagine reality as being fundamentally dierent even if
we never know such a reality. According to Meillassoux,
the defence of both principles leads to weakcorrelationism (such as those of Kant and Husserl), while the
rejection of the thing-in-itself leads to thestrongcorrelationism of thinkers such as Wittgenstein and Heidegger.
For such strongcorrelationists, it makes no sense to
suppose that there is anything outside of the correlate of
Thought and Being, and so the Principle of Factiality is
eliminated in favour of a strengthened Principle of Correlation.
161
Latour and Whitehead, the former claiming that an object is only what it modies, transforms, perturbs, or
creates* [10]). OOP is notable for not only its critique
of forms of anti-realism, but other forms of realism as
well. Harman has even claimed that the term realism
will soon no longer be a relevant distinction within philosophy as the factions within Speculative Realism grow
in number. As such, he has already written pieces dierentiating his own OOP from other forms of realism which
he claims are not realist enough as they reject objects as
useless ctions.
According to Harman, everything is an object, whether
it be a mailbox, electromagnetic radiation, curved
spacetime, the Commonwealth of Nations, or a
propositional attitude; all things, whether physical or ctional, are equally objects. Expressing strong sympathy
for panpsychism, Harman proposes a new philosophical
discipline called speculative psychologydedicated
to investigating the cosmic layers of psycheand
ferreting out the specic psychic reality of earthworms,
dust, armies, chalk, and stone.* [11]
Meillassoux follows the opposite tactic in rejecting the

Principle of Correlation for the sake of a bolstered Principle of Factiality in his post-Kantian return to Hume.
By arguing in favour of such a principle, Meillassoux
is led to reject the necessity not only of all physical
laws of nature, but all logical laws with the exception
of the Principle of Non-Contradiction (since eliminating
the Principle of Non-Contradiction would undermine the
Principle of Factiality which claims that things can always be otherwise than what they are). By rejecting the
Principle of Sucient Reason, there can be no justication for the necessity of physical laws, meaning that while
the universe may be ordered in such and such a way, there
is no reason it could not be otherwise. Meillassoux rejects the Kantian a priori in favour of a Humean a priori,
claiming that the lesson to be learned from Hume on the
subject of causality is that "the same cause may actually
bring about 'a hundred dierent events' (and even many
more).* [9]
Object-oriented philosophy
The central tenet of object-oriented philosophy (OOP)
is that objects have been given short shrift for too long
in philosophy in favour of more radical approaches.
Graham Harman has classied these forms of radical
philosophyas those that either try toundermineobjects by saying that objects are simply supercial crusts to
a deeper underlying reality, either in the form of monism
or a perpetual ux, or those that try to overmineobjects by saying that the idea of a whole object is a form
of folk ontology, that there is no underlying object
beneath either the qualities (e.g. there is no apple,
only red, hard, etc.) or the relations (as in both
Harman defends a version of the Aristotelian notion of

substance. Unlike Leibniz, for whom there were both
substances and aggregates, Harman maintains that when
objects combine, they create new objects. In this way, he
defends an a priori metaphysics that claims that reality is
made up only of objects and that there is no bottom
to the series of objects. In contrast to many other versions of substance, Harman also maintains that it need not
be considered eternal, but as Aristotle maintained, substances can both come to be and pass away. For Harman,
an object is in itself an innite recess, unknowable and
inaccessible by any other thing. This leads to his account
of what he terms vicarious causality. Inspired by
the occasionalists of Medieval Islamic Philosophy, Harman maintains that no two objects can ever interact save
through the mediation of a sensual vicar.* [12] There
are two types of objects, then, for Harman: real objects
and the sensual objects that allow for interaction. The former are the things of everyday life, while the latter are the
caricatures that mediate interaction. For example, when
re burns cotton, Harman argues that the re does not
touch the essence of that cotton which is inexhaustible
by any relation, but that the interaction is mediated by a
caricature of the cotton which causes it to burn.
Transcendental materialism / neo-vitalism
Iain Hamilton Grant argues against what he terms somatism, the philosophy and physics of bodies. In his
Philosophies of Nature After Schelling, Grant tells a new
history of philosophy from Plato onward based on the
denition of matter. Aristotle distinguished between
Form and Matter in such a way that Matter was invisible to philosophy, whereas Grant argues for a return to
the Platonic Matter as not only the basic building blocks
of reality, but the forces and powers that govern our re-
162
ality. He traces this same argument to the post-Kantian

German Idealists Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich
Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, claiming that the distinction
between Matter as substantive versus useful ction persists to this day and that we should end our attempts to
overturn Plato and instead attempt to overturn Kant and
return to speculative physicsin the Platonic tradition,
that is, not a physics of bodies, but aphysics of the All
.
Eugene Thacker has examined how the concept of life
itselfis both determined within regional philosophy and
also howlife itselfcomes to acquire metaphysical properties. Thacker's book After Life shows how the ontology
of life operates by way of a split between Lifeand
the living,making possible a metaphysical displacementin which life is thought via another metaphysical term, such as time, form, or spirit: Every ontology of life thinks of life in terms of something-otherthan-life...that something-other-than-life is most often a
metaphysical concept, such as time and temporality, form
and causality, or spirit and immanence* [13] Thacker
traces this theme from Aristotle, to Scholasticism and
mysticism/negative theology, to Spinoza and Kant, showing how this three-fold displacement is also alive in philosophy today (life as time in process philosophy and
Deleuzianism, life as form in biopolitical thought, life as
spirit in post-secular philosophies of religion). Thacker
examines the relation of speculative realism to the ontology of life, arguing for a vitalist correlation": Let
us say that a vitalist correlation is one that fails to conserve the correlationist dual necessity of the separation
and inseparability of thought and object, self and world,
and which does so based on some ontologized notion of
'life'.* [14] Ultimately Thacker argues for a skepticism regardinglife":Life is not only a problem of philosophy,
but a problem for philosophy.* [15]
Transcendental nihilism / methodological naturalism
In Nihil Unbound: Extinction and Enlightenment, Ray

Brassier maintains that philosophy has avoided the traumatic idea of extinction, instead attempting to nd meaning in a world conditioned by the very idea of its own annihilation. Thus Brassier critiques both the phenomenological and hermeneutic strands of continental philosophy
as well as the vitality of thinkers like Gilles Deleuze, who
work to ingrain meaning in the world and stave o the
threatof nihilism. Instead, drawing on thinkers such
as Alain Badiou, Franois Laruelle, Paul Churchland, and
Thomas Metzinger, Brassier defends a view of the world
as inherently devoid of meaning. That is, rather than
avoiding nihilism, Brassier embraces it as the truth of reality. Brassier concludes from his readings of Badiou and
Laruelle that the universe is founded on the nothing,* [17]
but also that philosophy is the organon of extinction,
that it is only because life is conditioned by its own extinction that there is thought at all.* [18] Brassier then defends a radically anti-correlationist philosophy proposing
that Thought is conjoined not with Being, but with NonBeing.
6.6.3 Controversy regarding the existence

of a speculative realist movement
In an interview with Kronos magazine published in March
2011, Ray Brassier denied that there is any such thing as
a speculative realist movementand rmly distanced
himself from those who continue to attach themselves to
the brand name:* [19]
Thespeculative realist movementexists
only in the imaginations of a group of bloggers
promoting an agenda for which I have no sympathy whatsoever: actor-network theory spiced
with pan-psychist metaphysics and morsels of
process philosophy. I don't believe the internet is an appropriate medium for serious philosophical debate; nor do I believe it is acceptable
to try to concoct a philosophical movement online by using blogs to exploit the misguided enthusiasm of impressionable graduate students.
I agree with Deleuze's remark that ultimately
the most basic task of philosophy is to impede
stupidity, so I see little philosophical merit in
amovementwhose most signal achievement
thus far is to have generated an online orgy of
stupidity.
Other thinkers have emerged within this group, united

in their allegiance to what has been known as process
philosophy, rallying around such thinkers as Schelling,
Bergson, Whitehead, and Deleuze, among others. A recent example is found in Steven Shaviro's book Without Criteria: Kant, Whitehead, Deleuze, and Aesthetics,
which argues for a process-based approach that entails
panpsychism as much as it does vitalism or animism. For
Shaviro, it is Whitehead's philosophy of prehensions and
nexus that oers the best combination of continental and
analytical philosophy. Another recent example is found
in Jane Bennett's book Vibrant Matter,* [16] which argues
for a shift from human relations to things, to a vibrant
matterthat cuts across the living and non-living, human
bodies and non-human bodies. Leon Niemoczynski, in
his book 'Charles Sanders Peirce and a Religious Metaphysics of Nature,' invokes what he calls speculative
naturalismso as to argue that nature can aord lines of 6.6.4 Publications
insight into its own innitely productivevibrantground,
Speculative Realism has close ties to the journal Collapse,
which he identies as natura naturans.
which published the proceedings of the inaugural conference at Goldsmiths and has featured numerous other
6.6. SPECULATIVE REALISM
163
articles by 'speculative realist' thinkers; as has the academic journal Pli, which is edited and produced by
members of the Graduate School of the Department of
Philosophy at the University of Warwick. The journal Speculations, founded in 2010 published by Punctum
books, regularly features articles related to Speculative
Realism. Edinburgh University Press publishes a book
series called Speculative Realism.
Harman, Graham. 2010. Circus Philosophicus.

Winchester, UK: Zero Books.
The following is a list of publications associated with

Speculative Realism:
Harman, Graham. 2008. On the Horror of Phenomenology: Lovecraft and Husserlin Collapse IV:
Concept-Horror. London: Urbanomic.
Brassier, Ray, Iain Hamilton Grant, Graham Harman, and Quentin Meillassoux. 2007.Speculative
Realismin Collapse III: Unknown Deleuze. London: Urbanomic.
Harman, Graham. 2010. Towards Speculative Realism: Essays and Lectures. Winchester, UK: Zero
Books.
Harman, Graham. 2009. Prince of Networks: Bruno
Latour and Metaphysics. Melbourne: Re.Press.
Harman, Graham. 2007. On Vicarious Causationin Collapse II: Speculative Realism. London:
Urbanomic.
Brassier, Ray. 2007. Nihil Unbound: Enlightenment

and Extinction. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Harman, Graham. 2005. Guerilla Metaphysics:

Phenomenology and the Carpentry of Things.
Chicago: Open Court.
Brassier, Ray. 2007. The Enigma of Realism

in Collapse II: Speculative Realism. London: Urbanomic.
Harman, Graham. 2002. Tool-Being: Heidegger

and the Metaphysics of Objects. Chicago: Open
Court
Brassier, Ray. 2001. Behold the Non-Rabbit:

Kant, Quine, Laruellein Pli 12: Materialism.
Meillassoux, Quentin. 2008. After Finitude: An

Essay on the Necessity of Contingency. Trans. Ray
Brassier. London: Continuum.
Braver, Lee. 2007. A Thing of This World: A

History of Continental Anti-Realism. Evanston, IL:
Northwestern University Press.
Bryant, Levi, Graham Harman, and Nick Srnicek.
2011. The Speculative Turn: Continental Materialism and Realism. Melbourne: Re.Press.
Ennis, Paul J. 2011. Continental Realism. Winchester, UK: Zero Books.
Ennis, Paul J. 2010. Post-Continental Voice: Selected
Interviews. Winchester, UK: Zero Books.
Meillassoux, Quentin. 2008. Spectral Dilemma

in Collapse IV: Concept-Horror. London: Urbanomic.
Meillassoux, Quentin. 2007. Subtraction and
Contraction: Deleuze, Immanence and Matter and
Memoryin Collapse III: Unknown Deleuze. London: Urbanomic.
Meillassoux, Quentin. 2007.Potentiality and Virtualityin Collapse II: Speculative Realism. London:
Urbanomic.
Grant, Iain Hamilton. 2008. Philosophies of Nature

6.6.5
After Schelling. London: Continuum.
Internet presence
Grant, Iain Hamilton. 2008. Being and Slime:

The Mathematics of Protoplasm in Lorenz Oken's
'Physio-Philosophy'" in Collapse IV: ConceptHorror. London: Urbanomic.
Speculative Realism is notable for its fast expansion via

the Internet in the form of blogs.* [20] Web sites have
formed as resources for essays, lectures, and planned future books by those within the Speculative Realist movement. Many other blogs have emerged with original ma Grant, Iain Hamilton. 2005. The 'Eternal and
terial on Speculative realism or expanding on its themes
Necessary Bond Between Philosophy and Physics'"
and ideas, and podcasts featuring various speculative rein Angelaki 10.1.
alists have also appeared online.
Grant, Iain Hamilton. 2000. The Chemistry of
Darknessin Pli 9: Science.
6.6.6 References
Harman, Graham. 2011. Quentin Meillassoux: Philosophy in the Making. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
[1] Mackay, Robin (March 2007). Editorial Introduction

. Collapse 2 (1): 313.
Harman, Graham. 2011. The Quadruple Object.

Winchester, UK: Zero Books.
[2] Brassier, Ray, Iain Hamilton Grant, Graham Harman, and

Quentin Meillassoux. 2007. Speculative Realismin
Collapse III: Unknown Deleuze. London: Urbanomic.
164
[3] Graham Harman, brief SR/OOO tutorial.
6.7 Non-philosophy
[4] Graham Harman, brief SR/OOO tutorial.
Non-philosophy is a concept developed by French

philosopher Franois Laruelle (formerly of the Collge
international de philosophie and the University of Paris
X: Nanterre).
[5] Mark Fisher, Speculative Realism,Frieze.

[6] Mark Fisher, Speculative Realism,Frieze.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Laruelle argues that all forms of philosophy (from ancient

Mackay, Robin (March 2007). Editorial Introduction philosophy to analytic philosophy to deconstruction and
so on) are structured around a prior decision, and re. Collapse 2 (1): 313.
main constitutively blind to this decision. The 'decision'
that Laruelle is concerned with here is the dialectical
Quentin Meillassoux, After Finitude, 5.
splitting of the world in order to grasp the world philosophically. Examples from the history of philosophy inQuentin Meillassoux, After Finitude, 90.
clude Immanuel Kant's distinction between the synthesis of manifold impressions and the faculties of the unGraham Harman, Prince of Networks, 95.
derstanding; Martin Heidegger's split between the ontic
and the ontological; and Jacques Derrida's notion of difGraham Harman, Prince of Networks, 213.
france/presence. The reason Laruelle nds this decision
interesting and problematic is because the decision itself
Graham Harman, On Vicarious Causality,201.
cannot be grasped (philosophically grasped, that is) without introducing some further scission.
Thacker, After Life, p. x.
Laruelle further argues that the decisional structure of
philosophy can only be grasped non-philosophically. In
this sense, non-philosophy is a science of philosophy.
Thacker, After Life, p. x.
Non-philosophy is not metaphilosophy because, as Laruelle scholar Ray Brassier notes, philosophy is alBennett, Jane (2010). Vibrant matter a political ecol- ready metaphilosophical through its constitutive reexogy of things. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN ivity.* [1] Brassier also denes non-philosophy as the
9780822346197.
theoretical practice of philosophy proceeding by way of
transcendental axioms and producing theorems which are
Ray Brassier, Nihil Unbound, 148-149.
philosophically uninterpretable.* [1] The reason why the
axioms and theorems of non-philosophy are philosophiRay Brassier, Nihil Unbound, 223-226, 234-238.
cally uninterpretable is because, as explained, philosophy
cannot grasp its decisional structure in the way that nonRay Brassier interviewed by Marcin Rychter "I am a ni- philosophy can.
[14] Thacker, After Life, p. 254.

[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
hilist because I still believe in truth", Kronos, March 4,

2011
[20] Fabio Gironi, 'Science-Laden Theory, Speculations 1, p.

21.
Laruelle's non-philosophy, he claims, should be considered to philosophy what non-Euclidean geometry is to the
work of Euclid. It stands in particular opposition to philosophical heirs of Jacques Lacan such as Alain Badiou.
6.6.7
6.7.1 Role of the subject
External links
Collapse a journal featuring contributions by The decisional structure of philosophy is grasped by the
subject of non-philosophy. Laruelle's concept of the
speculative realists
subjecthere is not the same as the subject-matter, nor
Quentin Meillassoux in English at the Speculative does it have anything to do with the traditional philosophRealism Conference Recording of Quentin Meillas- ical notion of subjectivity. It is, instead, a function along
soux's lecture in English at the inaugural Speculative the same lines as a mathematical function.
Realism conference
The concept of performativity (taken from speech act
theory) is central to the idea of the subject of non The Speculative Realism Pathnder
philosophy. Laruelle believes that both philosophy and
non-philosophy are performative. However, philosophy
Post-Continental Voices - an edited collection of in- merely performatively legitimates the decisional structure
terviews that contains interviews with speculative re- which, as already noted, it is unable to fully grasp, in
alists.
contrast to non-philosophy which collapses the distinc-
6.7. NON-PHILOSOPHY
tion (present in philosophy) between theory and action.
In this sense, non-philosophy is radically performative
because the theorems deployed in accordance with its
method constitute fully-edged scientic actions. Nonphilosophy, then, is conceived as a rigorous and scholarly
discipline.
6.7.2
Radical immanence
165
Numbered amongst the members or sympathizers of
sans-philosophie (without philosophy) are those
included in a collection published in 2005 by L
Harmattan:* [3] Franois Laruelle, Jason Barker, Ray
Brassier, Laurent Carraz, Hugues Choplin, Jacques Colette, Nathalie Depraz, Oliver Feltham, Gilles Grelet,
Jean-Pierre Faye, Gilbert Hottois, Jean-Luc Rannou,* [4] Pierre A. Riard, Sandrine Roux and Jordanco
Sekulovski.
The radically performative character of the subject of

non-philosophy would be meaningless without the con- 6.7.4 See also
cept of radical immanence. The philosophical doctrine
Adam Karl August von Eschenmayer
of immanence is generally dened as any philosophical belief or argument which resists transcendent separa Flix Ravaisson-Mollien
tion between the world and some other principle or force
(such as a creator deity). According to Laruelle, the deci Henology
sional character of philosophy makes immanence impossible for it, as some ungraspable splitting is always taking
place within. By contrast, non-philosophy axiomatically 6.7.5 References
deploys immanence as being endlessly conceptualizable
by the subject of non-philosophy. This is what Laruelle [1] Ray Brassier, 'Axiomatic Heresy: The Non-Philosophy
of Francois Laruelle', Radical Philosophy 121, Sep/Oct
means by radical immanence. The actual work of
2003. p. 25
the subject of non-philosophy is to apply its methods to
the decisional resistance to radical immanence which is
[2] http://www.onphi.net/
found in philosophy.
texte-a-new-presentation-of-non-philosophy-32.html
6.7.3
Sans-philosophie
In A New Presentation of Non-Philosophy(2004),

Franois Laruelle states:
[3] Gilles Grelet (dir.), Thorie-rbellion. Un ultimatum,

Paris: LHarmattan, coll. Nous, les sans-philosophie
, 2005, p. 159.
[4] Jean-Luc Rannou, La non-philosophie, simplement. Une
introduction synthtique, 2005, p. 238
I see non-philosophers in several dierent ways. I see

them, inevitably, as subjects of the university, as is required by worldly life, but above all as related to three 6.7.6 Further reading
fundamental human types. They are related to the an Ray Brassier, 'Axiomatic Heresy: The Nonalyst and the political militant, obviously, since nonPhilosophy of Francois Laruelle', Radical Philosophilosophy is close to psychoanalysis and Marxism it
phy 121, Sep/Oct 2003.
transforms the subject by transforming instances of philosophy. But they are also related to what I would call
Ray Brassier, 'Behold the Non-Rabbit. Kant, Quine,
the spiritual type which it is imperative not to conLaruelle' in Pli: The Warwick Journal of Philosophy.
fuse withspiritualist. The spiritual are not spiritualists.
Vol. 12. What is Materialism? 2001.
They are the great destroyers of the forces of philosophy
and the state, which band together in the name of order
Franois Laruelle, 'A Summary of Non-Philosophy'
and conformity. The spiritual haunt the margins of phiin Pli: The Warwick Journal of Philosophy. Vol. 8.
losophy, Gnosticism, mysticism, and even of institutional
Philosophies of Nature, 1999.
religion and politics. The spiritual are not just abstract,
quietist mystics; they are for the world. This is why a quiet
Franois Laruelle, 'Identity and Event' in Pli: The
discipline is not sucient, because man is implicated in
Warwick Journal of Philosophy. Vol. 9. Parallel
the world as the presupposed that determines it. Thus,
Processes, 2000.
non-philosophy is also related to Gnosticism and sciencection; it answers their fundamental question which is
not at all philosophy's primary concern Should hu- 6.7.7 External links
manity be saved? And how?And it is also close to spir Controversy over the Possibility of a Science of
itual revolutionaries such as Mntzer and certain mystics
who skirted heresy. When all is said and done, is nonPhilosophy (pdf) a debate between Laruelle and
Derrida (from La Dcision Philosophique, No. 5,
philosophy anything other than the chance for an eecApril 1988, pp. 6276) translated by Robin Mackay
tive utopia?" * [2]
166
Frequently Asked Questions at Organisation NonPhilosophique Internationale (ONPhI)
Organisation Non-Philosophique Internationale
A New Presentation of Non-Philosophy by Franois
Laruelle at Organisation Non-Philosophique Internationale (ONPhI)
Chapter 7
Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses
7.1 Text
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Dasein Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasein?oldid=654830360 Contributors: Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Karada, Poor Yorick,
Sethmahoney, Renamed user 4, Lfh, Denni, Vincent kraeutler, Banno, Robbot, MrJones, RedWolf, Goethean, Hadal, Anthony, Nagelfar,
Piotrus, Phil Sandifer, FrozenUmbrella, Lucidish, NightMonkey, Carlon, Lycurgus, Reinyday, Aphor, Spangineer, Velho, Woohookitty,
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user 4, Banno, Jclemens, Mrnatural, NawlinWiki, Nolanus, BorgQueen, SmackBot, LoveMonkey, Sdorrance, Gregbard, Cydebot, Hele 7,
Lucaas, JaGa, Gwern, J.delanoy, Beatnik Party, GirasoleDE, Ballanti, Niceguyedc, Favonian, Senator Palpatine, Omnipaedista, Tasteless
Ecstasy, Marie de France, SporkBot, Everyone Else, Dm1722, Melenc, Rembw, Hgfgfj f and Anonymous: 15
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Woohookitty, Koavf, Ian Pitchford, Eubot, SmackBot, Wje, Bluebot, Byelf2007, Sdorrance, Matthew Fennell, JaGa, Omnipaedista, Rencontini, Knzao and Anonymous: 9
Facticity Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facticity?oldid=627629226 Contributors: Saxifrage, Koavf, Sludgehaichoi, Byelf2007,
Gregbard, Lucaas, JaGa, Ehmhel, JhsBot, Purplepiano, Andrewaskew, Arpose, Sick&ridiculous, MenoBot, Jovianeye, Addbot, Fluernutter, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, Omnipaedista, Pirhayati, ZeppoShemp and Anonymous: 20
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Vaughan, Andres, AaronSw, Raul654, Banno, Pashute, Carlo.Ierna, Costyn, Andycjp, Rdsmith4, Tothebarricades.tk, El C, Skeppy,
Johnkarp, Cmdrjameson, Amerindianarts, Jumbuck, Kzollman, Bkwillwm, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, KYPark, XP1, The wub, Spencerk, Rintrah, Pseudomonas, KSchutte, Shinmawa, Tomisti, Lendu, SmackBot, Thomas Ash, Lestrade, Joeymayer, Shaggorama, MalafayaBot,
170
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UBeR, Robertson-Glasgow, Guillermogp, A4bot, Tantidharo, Ontoraul, Seraphim, Optigan13, Lova Falk, AlleborgoBot, Newbyguesses,
Simplier, Arusso1984, Emptymountains, Myrvin, JustinBlank, Shaded0, DragonBot, Makeminemaudlin, BillTheSpaceman, Lorddunvegan, XLinkBot, Addbot, Guy Cawdor, Appellative, Lightbot, Anxietycello, Zorrobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Denispir, AnomieBOT, Raj
Guptasingh, Citation bot, Wortafad, Chesleya, Jburlinson, Lady Cairns, Omnipaedista, Aaron Kauppi, FrescoBot, Paine Ellsworth, Ladwiki, PollyCon, LilyKitty, Explosiveoxygen, Matthisd, GoingBatty, ZroBot, Sllemswollaws, ClueBot NG, Ferndias, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Calabe1992, Goorgle, Nathiaas, Glamdring22, Dr Lindsay B Yeates, LawrencePrincipe and Anonymous: 51
Metaphysics of presence Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysics_of_presence?oldid=666501716 Contributors: William Avery,
Charles Matthews, Rbellin, Zenohockey, Zellin, Stefanomione, Vegaswikian, Wegesrand, MisterHand, Byelf2007, Minna Sora no Shita,
Bons, BeenAroundAWhile, Gregbard, Thijs!bot, Tercross, Charlyz, Jmurphy3, Rosiestep, Fadesga, Fobizan, Addbot, Yobot, Untitled
2008, Omnipaedista, FreeKnowledgeCreator, Jesse V. and Anonymous: 11
Ontic Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontic?oldid=651577758 Contributors: Habj, Renamed user 4, Keenan Pepper, Grenavitar,
SteinbDJ, Mel Etitis, BD2412, Dpv, Rjwilmsi, Kerowyn, Mark83, Pigman, DanMS, SmackBot, D'n, Peloneous, LoveMonkey, Bejnar,
Byelf2007, Franklin Dmitryev, Meco, DabMachine, Gregbard, Mirrormundo, Anarchia, R'n'B, Laforgue, Addbot, Yobot, Omnipaedista,
Paine Ellsworth, Hpvpp, Davidiad, DarafshBot, Pirhayati, ThomasMikael, Wordstorn and Anonymous: 7
Reective disclosure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflective_disclosure?oldid=662590080 Contributors: Dweinberger, Rjwilmsi,
M3taphysical, Gregbard, Magioladitis, Yobot, Gongshow, Omnipaedista, Pollinosisss, Walkinxyz and Anonymous: 3
Thrownness Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrownness?oldid=566392495 Contributors: Magicmike, Rich Farmbrough, Kvn8907,
MaximvsDecimvs, Sandvei, Gregbard, Alaibot, Nearfar, Wayiran, Skomorokh, Phantomsnake, Anarchia, Osarius, Mauro Lanari, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, EmausBot, Gareth Grith-Jones and Anonymous: 8
World disclosure Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_disclosure?oldid=627006621 Contributors: Chris Howard, Woohookitty,
RayAYang, Gregbard, Magioladitis, Maurice Carbonaro, Yobot, Gongshow, Mauro Lanari, Omnipaedista, MuedThud, Pollinosisss,
Walkinxyz,
, Chad.Decker801, Xanchester, JDSavage8, DonMTobin, Helpful Pixie Bot, Qetuth and Anonymous: 3
Being and Time Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Being_and_Time?oldid=664072129 Contributors: Jahsonic, Mdupont, Zeno Gantner, Sir Paul, TonyClarke, Raven in Orbit, Renamed user 4, Charles Matthews, Goethean, Gwalla, Am088, Rdsmith4, Tothebarricades.tk, Tail, Caton~enwiki, Avihu, MakeRocketGoNow, Simonides, Bender235, CanisRufus, Amerindianarts, Knucmo2, Japanese
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Analytic philosophy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy?oldid=667474099 Contributors: Edward, Michael Hardy,
Brian Sayrs, Gdarin, BoNoMoJo (old), Zanimum, Poor Yorick, Tim Retout, Grin, Ruhrjung, Eirik (usurped), Renamed user 4,
Charles Matthews, Banno, Robbot, Sdedeo, Rursus, Ojigiri~enwiki, Cholling, Sunray, Benc, Marc Venot, Giftlite, Philwelch, Gracefool,
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Anonymous: 206
Continental philosophy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_philosophy?oldid=655415576 Contributors: William Avery,
Heron, The hanged man, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Poor Yorick, Sethmahoney, Renamed user 4, Zoicon5, Haukurth, Rbellin, Robbot,
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YUL89YYZ, Carlon, Eyal Herlin, Noosphere, Gdavidp, Cough, Velho, Ruud Koot, Triddle, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Echeneida, Gurch,
Conf, Chobot, DVdm, Hede2000, Bhny, Jerey Newman, Atfyfe, 1700-talet, Lockesdonkey, Botteville, Danielpi, Twelvethirteen, Innity0,
7.1. TEXT
171
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we drown, WikitanvirBot, RememberingLife, Manbilong, Brazmyth, Donner60, Polisher of Cobwebs, Pochsad, Metmor, EdoBot, TYelliot, Cuttleshy, ClueBot NG, Unalienatedlabor, Helpful Pixie Bot, Kentpalmer, BristolRobin, JohnChrysostom, Conservative Philosopher,
Utku Tanrivere, ErrantX1, Askedview1, 069952497a, CsDix, Bretonesque, Liz, Rpearlstuart, Thewikimaster23 and Anonymous: 136
Index of continental philosophy articles Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_continental_philosophy_articles?oldid=
665254941 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Alan Liefting, Koavf, Pigman, Christian Roess, Gregbard, Cydebot, The Transhumanist, Gladiool, Woland1234, Ennen, Tinton5, 4meter4, Archer47 and Anonymous: 4
20th-century philosophy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/20th-century_philosophy?oldid=665537800 Contributors: Michael Hardy,
GTBacchus, Poor Yorick, Ksolway, Buridan, Goethean, Naddy, Stirling Newberry, Robin klein, Buyg, Paul August, El C, Susvolans,
Ogg, Cohesion, Flammifer, Ricky81682, Mikerussell, Colorajo, Karbinski, Xcuref1endx, Dpv, Palpatine, YurikBot, KSchutte, Atfyfe,
Retired username, Tomisti, Tom Morris, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Obhave, Allixpeeke, Wikikris, Gilliam, Squiddy, Constanz, MaxSem,
ErikHWiki, Raouldukeconn, Hgilbert, Lacatosias, Byelf2007, Alexander Gieg, MJO, Shirahadasha, DariusRex, Hyphen5, Gregbard, Cydebot, Thijs!bot, SteveWolfer, D. Webb, JAnDbot, Skomorokh, Magioladitis, Lucaas, JaGa, Anarchia, J.delanoy, Ryan Postlethwaite, Godbot, Felmagalhaes, STBotD, Jonas Mur~enwiki, Childhoodsend, Tomsega, GcSwRhIc, Viator slovenicus, Zhenqinli, Verbist, Softlavender,
Revent, Belinrahs, Polbot, Kas-nik, Aibdescalzo, Bumphois, SallyForth123, DionysosProteus, Philosophy.dude, Niceguyedc, Aureolla,
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Erik9bot, Thehelpfulbot, Gtimm13, Jesse V., JeepdaySock, Zujine, ClueBot NG, Gilderien, PhnomPencil, Alexqb1212 and Anonymous:
67
Contemporary philosophy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy?oldid=663373229 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Owl, Hermeneus, Poor Yorick, TonyClarke, Renamed user 4, Buridan, Johnleemk, Banno, Academic Challenger, Gidonb, Stirling Newberry, Lussmu~enwiki, Edcolins, Karol Langner, Lucidish, Buyg, FranksValli, El C, Triona, K0hlrabi, JW1805, Flammifer,
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Sa.vakilian, Jdvelasc, Thijs!bot, Nick Number, Agnaramasi, D. Webb, Skomorokh, Matthew Fennell, JaGa, Anarchia, Maurice Carbonaro,
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Existentialism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existentialism?oldid=666554832 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Jimbo Wales, Eloquence, Archibald Fitzchestereld, Mav, The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, Jeronimo, Youssefsan, Danny, Little guru, SimonP, Zoe, R Lowry,
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7.1. TEXT
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Phenomenology (philosophy) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)?oldid=662868833 Contributors:

William Avery, Mjb, Boud, Poor Yorick, Thomas~enwiki, Renamed user 4, KRS, Vinay Varma, Rbellin, Jerzy, Marc Girod~enwiki, Banno,
Carbuncle, Robbot, Goethean, ZimZalaBim, Naddy, Mayooranathan, Postdlf, Gkastel, Quadalpha, Stepan Slamak, Giftlite, JamesMLane, Carlo.Ierna, Edcolins, Mporch, Chowbok, Utcursch, Dr Headgear, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, APH, Demeter~enwiki, FrozenUmbrella,
Heirpixel, ELApro, Esperant, Lucidish, NightMonkey, Simonides, Discospinster, Mrevan, Deltaecho, Ivan Bajlo, Number 0, STGM, El
C, Zenohockey, Mwanner, Shenme, Jojit fb, Scentoni, Rainer Bielefeld~enwiki, Andywareld, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Atlant, Gary123,
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Philippe Audinos, FlaBot, Moskvax, Nogburt, Maoriii, Bubbleboys, YurikBot, Alma Pater, Phrenology, KSchutte, Robrodie, Krits~enwiki,
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Sholto Maud, Kevinbrowning, Elendil's Heir, Aldaron, Allyne, Bigturtle, Salt Yeung, Drphilharmonic, Where, Johnor, Marcus Brute, Ace
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lost, Empyrius, Leafman, Tk3440, Max543, JAnDbot, EmersonLowry, Skomorokh, .anacondabot, Wild rabbit, Taghrat, Gimmeabreak,
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Hermeneutics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneutics?oldid=666620960 Contributors: Kpjas, Slrubenstein, Fcueto, Wheat,
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Psychoanalysis Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychoanalysis?oldid=666140605 Contributors: The Anome, Koyaanis Qatsi, RoseParks, Malcolm Farmer, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Fredbauder, Little guru, Roadrunner, Heron, Vovkav~enwiki, R Lowry, Trista, Edward, Vaughan, Fred Bauder, Polimerek, Jtdirl, Ixfd64, 6birc, Delirium, NuclearWinner, ArnoLagrange, Ahoerstemeier, Den fjttrade
ankan~enwiki, BigFatBuddha, Julesd, Poor Yorick, Evercat, Charles Matthews, Guaka, Deadower, Andrevan, Dysprosia, Andrewman327,
IceKarma, SatyrTN, Peregrine981, Patrick0Moran, Ozuma~enwiki, Tempshill, Mythrandia, Pmpfe, Vinay Varma, Rbellin, Mattski, Lumos3, Robbot, Donreed, Greudin, Blainster, Acegikmo1, Hadal, Dominick, Wynnschwartz, Holizz, Lethe, Acampbell70, Everyking, Duncharris, Siroxo, Macrakis, Gyrofrog, Bacchiad, Pgan002, Antandrus, Alteripse, Beland, PhDP, Phil Sandifer, APH, Qleem, Karl Dickman,
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174
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and Anonymous: 760
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7.1. TEXT
175
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176
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Gast2011, Helpful Pixie Bot, Praiseinchrist, Phukyuall, Readingwords, Natemup, Marxmsu, Signal9 char, Idtejjkj, Lowercase sigmabot,
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Jackheart314, Just another editer, Mrsshaw and Anonymous: 1437
Speculative realism Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speculative_realism?oldid=665410788 Contributors: The Anome, Jid~enwiki,
Esperant, Zorio, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Feldmarshmellon, PhilipC, Ninly, SmackBot, Byelf2007, Christian Roess, CmdrObot, Gregbard,
Yetai, Mephistophilis, QuiteUnusual, Cjs2111, Skomorokh, Mesnenor, Kyube, Avicennasis, FreddieSpell, Belovedfreak, SieBot, JL-Bot,
EastCoast1111, EoGuy, XLinkBot, Pichpich, WikHead, Good Olfactory, Urbanomic, Addbot, Flashgit, AnomieBOT, J04n, Christophcox,
Omnipaedista, Quinn d, BrideOfKripkenstein, Michitaro, Platipus, Asher Kay, Omnisentient, RjwilmsiBot, ZroBot, Neilch04, Eldontyrell, 0dsrt0, Duina, Fracpol, Notareasonforthis, The Vintage Feminist, Tasha76va, Karen Oyama, Eileenajoy, DIJ9, Labinerie, Monkbot,
Proradii and Anonymous: 57
Non-philosophy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-philosophy?oldid=655060511 Contributors: Charles Matthews, RickK, Banno,
Francs2000, Sn0wake, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Isotope23, King of Hearts, Rudykog, Garion96, SmackBot, Lawrencekhoo, Bluebot,
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7.2 Images
File:Albert_Camus,_gagnant_de_prix_Nobel,_portrait_en_buste,_pos_au_bureau,_faisant_face__gauche,_cigarette_de_
tabagisme.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Albert_Camus%2C_gagnant_de_prix_Nobel%2C_
portrait_en_buste%2C_pos%C3%A9_au_bureau%2C_faisant_face_%C3%A0_gauche%2C_cigarette_de_tabagisme.jpg
License:
Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's Prints and Photographs division under
the digital ID cph.3c08028.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Photograph by United Press International

File:Ambox_rewrite.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: self-made in Inkscape Original artist: penubag
File:Being_Parmenides.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0b/Being_Parmenides.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Oroxon
File:Bhlerhhe.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/B%C3%BChlerh%C3%B6he.jpg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ichneumon
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Communist_star.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Communist_star.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: File:Red star.svg, File:Hammer and sickle.svg Original artist: Zscout370, F l a n k e r,Penubag
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
7.2. IMAGES
177
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically:Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
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Heidegger (wikipedia)

The Heidegger controversy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inuence and reception in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heidegger and aletheia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The substantial being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The transcendental being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Being in Islamic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Being in the Age of Reason . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Being in continental philosophy and existentialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Additional uses of copular verbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Copulas in particular languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Origin and inspiration

Karl Jaspers' Dasein and Existenz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Ancient Greek philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Other uses of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.1 Early usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.3 Sartre and de Beauvoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.4 Recent usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.10.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.1 Modern overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.2 Dennett's taxonomy of current theories about intentionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.3 Basic intentionality types in Le Morvan

2.11.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.12 Metaphysics of presence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.13.1 Usage in philosophy of science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.13.2 Usage in philosophy of critical realism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.13.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.14 Reective disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.14.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.14.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.15.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.15.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.11.4 Mental states without intentionality

2.16.1 First and second order disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.16.2 World-disclosing arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.16.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Being and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Heidegger's original project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Phenomenology in Heidegger and Husserl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.12 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Contemporary analytic philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Topics of analytic philosophy

Recent Anglo-American developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Index of continental philosophy articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The professionalization of philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The analyticcontinental divide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Footnotes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Denitional issues and background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Opposition to positivism and rationalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Existentialism and religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Existentialism and nihilism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Inuence outside philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

6.1.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Phenomenology (philosophy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

Historical overview of the use of the term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Phenomenological terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Husserl's Logische Untersuchungen (1900/1901) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118