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Geology
Laboratory classification of very fine grained sedimentary rocks
M. D. Lewan
Geology 1978;6;745-748
doi: 10.1130/0091-7613(1978)6<745:LCOVFG>2.0.CO;2
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Notes
M. D. L e w a n *
ABSTRACT
Very f i n e grained s e d i m e n t a r y rocks are d e f i n e d as t h o s e c o n t a i n i n g
m o r e than 45% b y v o l u m e m i c r o s c o p i c material ( < 5 urn). T h o s e c o n t a i n i n g
65% to 45% m i c r o s c o p i c material are designated as m u d s t o n e s , and t h o s e
c o n t a i n i n g m o r e than 65% m i c r o s c o p i c material are d e s i g n a t e d as shales.
T h e increase o f detailed s t u d i e s o n these rock t y p e s has revealed t h e n e e d
o f a m o r e descriptive and laboratory-oriented classification f o r t h e m . T h e
p r o p o s e d classification is based o n textural and c o m p o s i t i o n a l attributes
o f t h e rocks. T h e n o m e n c l a t u r e consists o f a r o o t n a m e p r e c e d e d b y a
primary adjective, w h i c h , in turn, m a y b e p r e c e d e d b y a n o m i n a l adjective.
T h e r o o t n a m e s i n c l u d e c l a y s t o n e , m a r l s t o n e , m i c s t o n e , and m u d s t o n e
and are d e f i n e d o n t h e basis o f v o l u m e p e r c e n t a g e o f m i c r o s c o p i c m a t e rial and w e i g h t percentage o f silicate minerals in t h e rock. Primary adjectives c o n v e y s p e c i f i c m i n e r a l o g i c i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e rock; n o m i n a l
adjectives m a y b e used to e m p h a s i z e o t h e r attributes, s u c h as b e d d i n g
structures, fissility, color, or fossil c o n t e n t .
INTRODUCTION
Shales make up a large proportion of sedimentary rocks,
with some estimates exceeding 80% (Wickman, 1954, p. 108).
Studies of fine-grained sedimentary rocks have become more
popular as their association with energy resources becomes more
apparent. Two examples of this are the degasification studies of
Paleozoic shales in the eastern states (Shumaker and Overbey,
1976) and retorting of Tertiary oil shales in the western states
(Ash, 1974; Yen, 1976). General classifications for fine-grained
sedimentary rocks have been formulated on the basis of grain
size and physical character of the rock (for example, Pettijohn,
1975, p. 262; Blatt and others, 1972, p. 375). These types of
classifications are quite useful for field descriptions, but with
advances in quantitative X-ray diffraction methods, increasing
availability of scanning electron microscopes, and development of
rapid chemical analysis methods, a more comprehensive and informative laboratory classification of these rocks is needed.
Picard (1971) presented a laboratory classification for finegrained sedimentary rocks that uses conventional sandstone
compositional terms (for example, lithic arenite, subarkose, and
arkose), which are preceded by the name of the major clay mineral in the rock. Although this classification is applicable to finegrained rocks composed of silt-sized material, it cannot be applied effectively to rocks with predominantly microscopic material ( < 5 fim). This is because it is virtually impossible to identify either rock fragments in very fine grained rocks or the wide
variety of additional mineral phases that are normally not included in the nomenclature of sandstones (for example, carbonates, phosphates, clay minerals, zeolites, and iron oxides). For
'
X 100.
include the clay minerals and micas. It should be noted that the
calculation does not include sulfides or organic matter. The residual of the silicate fraction is called the nonsilicate fraction,
and its equation is footnoted at the bottom of Table 2.
Once the silicate fraction has been determined, the shale
may be assigned the proper root name: (1) claystone (silicate
fraction = 100% to 75% by weight), (2) marlstone (silicate fraction = 75% to 25% by weight), or (3) micstone (silicate fraction
= 25% to 0% by weight; see rationale for name in discussion
section). These subdivisions of shale are broad enough so that a
reasonable estimate of the silicate fraction may be made by the
integration of petrographic examination of a thin section and a
qualitative X-ray diffraction evaluation. Depending on the type
of minerals present in the nonsilicate fraction, the percentage of
insoluble residue (Ireland, 1971) may also be useful in determining the silicate fraction.
After the root name of a rock has been determined, it is
then modified by a preceding primary adjective. The purpose of
the primary adjective is to reveal more detailed compositional information about the rock. The primary adjectives for shale with
silicate fractions that exceed 50% are given in Table 1, and those
with silicate fractions less than 50% are given in Table 2. Generally, chemical names are used for primary adjectives that denote a group of minerals from a particular chemical group,
whereas mineralogic names are used for primary adjectives that
denote one mineral or a mineral group. When the summation of
several minerals is designated for a primary adjective (for example, siliceous, argillaceous, calcareous, and calcophosphatic),
only two of the designated minerals are required to be present in
the rock for assigning the primary adjective. More than one
primary adjective may be applicable to a rock by this definition,
but the primary adjective revealing the most detailed mineralogic
information about the rock is the one that should be used. A
micstone whose nonsilicate fraction consists entirely of calcite,
aragonite, and dolomite may by definition be considered calcareous, calcophosphatic, or calcosaline; however, the absence of
phosphate, sulfate, and chloride minerals in this rock indicates
TABLE 2. PRIMARY ADJECTIVES FOR SHALES AND MUDST0NES WITH NONSILICATE FRACTIONS
THAT EXCEED 50% BY WEIGHT
PRIMARY ADJECTIVES FOR SHALES AND MUDST0NES WITH SILICATE FRACTIONS
THAT EXCEED 50% BY WEIGHT
Primary
adjective
iE
Quartzose
Chalcedonic
Cristobalitic
Vitric
Opaline
Argillaceous
Siallitic
Chlori tic
Illitic
Kaolinitic
Smectitic*
Micaceous
Sialfeldspathic
Feldspathic
Albitic
K-feldspathic
Zeolitic
Zeosiallitic
Tektosi1iceous
*Rocks c o n t a i n i n g s m e c t i t e i n q u a n t i t i e s exceeding 75% by weight are u s u a l l y cons i d e r e d b e n t o n i t e s and are termed such i n t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
Si 1iceous
746
Primary
adjective
Calcareous
Calcitic
Aragonitic
Dolomitic
Sideritic
Ankeritic
Sodic
Calcophosphatic
Phosphatic
Saline
Halitic
Gypsic
Calcosaline
Ferruginous
Ferromangano
Mangano
Ferroaluminous
Aluminous
Note: N o n s i l i c a t e f r a c t i o n i s
Weight percent of (carbonates + phosphates + c h l o r i d e s + s u l f a t e s + Fe
oxides + Mn o);1des + A1 oxides)
100.
DECEMBER
1978
KOPTIONAL-H
Color
Splitting
Mineral
content
Analcimic, c l i n o p t i l o l i t i c , p y r i t i c , i l l i t i c ,
c o l l o p h a n i c , gypsic
calcitic,
hematitic,
Bedding
Structures
Organic
richness
Fossil
content
F o s s i l i f e r o u s , diatomaceous, s p i c u l a r i t i c , foramini f e r a l ,
SAMPLE
-ESSENTIAL!
ILLITIC
OR
[BIOTURBATEDh
OR
QUARTZOSE
CLAYSTONE
TASMANITIC
% MICROSCOPIC
(<5jUm|
MINERALOGY w
54
QUARTZ
FELDSPAR 3
33
ILLITE
6
CHLORITE
PYRITE
2
MARCASITE 2
IOO
81
SILICATE
FRACTION
= 100%
bioturbation,
tasminitic
OR
that calcareous is the most appropriate primary adjective. Furthermore, if either calcite, aragonite, or dolomite comprises
more than 50% by weight of the nonsilicate fraction, the micstone should then be considered either calcitic, aragonitic, or
dolomitic, respectively.
The proper selection of a primary adjective requires a good
estimate of the mineral content of a rock. This may be obtained
by semiquantitative X-ray diffraction analysis as described by
Cook and others (1975) or by the integration of several different
techniques, such as (1) semiquantitative X-ray diffraction analysis (as described by Moore, 1968; Devine and others, 1972) plus
petrographic examination of thin sections, (2) chemical analysis
plus qualitative or semiquantitative X-ray diffraction analysis,
or (3) scanning electron microscopy with an energy-dispersive
analyzer plus qualitative X-ray diffraction analysis. In some
rocks it is important that the mineral composition includes a
reasonable estimate of the amount of amorphous silica and silicate glass in the rock. This is particularly important for diatomaceous and volcanogenic shale which may contain more than 50%
amorphous silica or silicate glass. This may be determined by
point counting thin sections or by semiquantitative X-ray diffraction analysis as described by Cook and others (1975). Although the results of these different approaches toward the composition of a shale may vary to some degree, the broad subdivisions used to define the primary adjectives should, in most
cases, absorb these variations.
The final component of the classification is optional and is
referred to as the nominal adjective. Nominal adjectives precede
the primary adjective and are used when an investigator wishes
to emphasize a particular attribute of a shale. The nominal adjective denotes a particular attribute and need not suggest abundance or intensity. As shown by the examples of nominal adjectives in Table 3, a wide range of rock characteristics may be
included in the nomenclature.
I ESSENTIALI
ORGANIC
BLOCKY
GEOLOGY
SHALE
OR
SMECTITIC
CALCITIC
MARLSTONE
% MICROSCOPIC = 78
(<5jUm)
MINERALOGY wt%
17" SILICATE
QUARTZ
2 FRACTION
FELDSRAR
= 36%
SMECTITE 16
NONSILICATE
50" FRACTION
CALCITE
DOLOMITE 1 3 64%
2
PYRITE
IOO
This classification scheme semiquantitatively integrates texture and mineralogic data into the root name and primary adjective, and it also allows other attributes to be included on a qualitative basis as nominal adjectives. Two examples of classifying a
rock by this scheme are shown in Figure 2. In order to prevent
confusion, it is suggested that only one nominal adjective be
cited with a rock name in any one statement.
CLASSIFICATION OF MUDSTONE
Mudstone is essentially classified in the same manner as
shale. The only exception is that mudstone has only one root
name as shown in Figure 1. Mudstone with silicate fractions exceeding 50% by weight is modified by primary adjectives in
Table 1, whereas mudstone with silicate fractions less than 50%
by weight is modified by primary adjectives in Table 2. The
nominal adjectives given in Table 3 are also applicable to mudstone; additional nominal adjectives related to grain size, such
as silty or sandy, may also be useful for these rock types.
DISCUSSION
In devising this classification the subdivisions for the different categories based on texture and composition were readily determined, but the real difficulty was in naming the categories.
This was particularly true for the root names. Two options were
apparent in naming these categories: generate new names or
modify existing names. The latter was chosen with the intent of
quantifying existing names within the general context they are
usually used. "Micstone" is the only exception and is the name
proposed for chemical rocks that contain more than 65% microscopic material; in this context the term is intended to be reminiscent of "micrite," but broader with respect to composition.
Some definitions in the literature for the root names used in
747
Grain s i z e
Composition
Splitting
Bedding
Shale
Pettijohn
(1975, p. 261)
Clay and s i l t
N.S.
Fissile
Laminated
Clay and/or
silt
S u b s t a n t i a l amounts
o f c l a y minerals
Fissile
N.S.
Jackson
(1970, p. 377)
Clay and s i l t
N.S.
Fissile
Laminated
Moorhouse
(1959, p. 361)
Very f i n e
grained
Argillaceous
Fissile
N.S.
Pettijohn
(1975, p. 261)
Clay and/or
silt
N.S.
Nonfissile
Nonlamina ted
Clay = 67%-33%,
s i l t = 33%-67%
N.S.
Nonfissile
N.S.
Jackson
(1970, p. 377)
Fine-grained
N.S.
N o n f i s s i It;
N.S.
Dunham
(1962, p. 118)
Mud w i t h less
than 10% g r a i n s
Carbonate
N.S.
N.S.
Pettijohn
(1975, p. 261)
Clay
N.S.
Nonfissi lo
N.S.
Clay = 100%-67%,
s i l t = 33%-0%
N.S.
Nonfissi Is
N.S.
B l a t t and o t h e r s
(1972, p. 374)
quantitative in part, but it also allows an investigator to qualitatively emphasize other attributes of a rock (3) the nomenclature
is detailed enough to allow lithologie subdivisons of what were
once considered monotonous stratigraphie sections of shale and
marlstone; (4) the classification is in a format that may be easily
coded for computer processing. The intention of this classification is to improve communication among investigators and to
initiate a more descriptive and laboratory-oriented nomenclature
for very fine grained sedimentary rocks.
Mudstone
B l a t t and o t h e r s
(1972, p. 375)
Claystone
B l a t t and others
(1972, p. 375)
Moorhouse
(1959, p. 366)
Fine-grained
Argillaceous
Nonfissil
Nonlaminated
Picard
(1971, p. 185)
Clay = 100%-50%
N.S.
N.S.
N.S.
Pettijohn
(1975, p. 285)
Clay = 65%-35%
Carbonate = 35%-65%
N.S.
N.S.
Jackson
(1970, p. 384)
N.S.
Subequal amounts o f
c l a y and carbonate
N.S.
N.S.
Moorhouse
(1959, p. 378)
N.S.
Equal amounts o f
c l a y and carbonate
N.S.
N.S.
Marlstone
Note: N.S.
(marl)
Not s p e c i f i e d .
748
REFERENCES CITED
Ash, H. O., 1974, Current status of oil shale development in United
States: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin,
v. 58, p. 905-906.
Baccelle, L., and Bosellini, A., 1965, Diagrammi per la Stima Visiva Della
Composizione Percentuale Nelle Rocce Sedimentarie: Annuali
Dell' Universit Di Ferrara, v. 4, p. 59-62.
Blatt, H., Middleton, G., and Murray, R., 1972, Origin of sedimentary
rocks: Englewood Cliffs, N. J., Prentice-Hall, Inc., 634 p.
Cook, H. E., and others, 1975, Methods of sample preparation and X-ray
diffraction data analysis, X-ray mineralogy laboratory, Deep Sea
Drilling Project, University of California, Riverside, in Kaneps,
A. G., ed., Initial reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Vol. 28:
Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, p. 999-1007.
Devine, S. B., Ferrell, R. E., Jr., and Billings, G. K., 1972, A quantitative X-ray diffraction technique applied to fine-grained sediments
of the deep Gulf of Mexico: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology,
v. 42, p. 458-475.
Dunham, R. J., 1962, Classification of carbonate rocks according to
depositional texture, in Ham, W. E., ed., Classification of carbonate rocks, a symposium: American Association of Petroleum
Geologists Memoir 1, p. 108-121.
Ireland, H. A., 1971, Insoluble residues, in Carver, R. E., ed., Procedures
in sedimentary petrology: New York, Wiley-Interscience,
p. 479-498.
Jackson, K. C., 1970, Textbook of lithology: New York, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 552 p.
Moore, C. A., 1968, Quantitative analysis of naturally occurring multicomponent mineral systems by X-ray diffraction: Clays and Clay
Minerals, v. 16, p. 325-336.
Moorhouse, W. W., 1959, The study of rocks in thin section: New York,
Harper and Row, 514 p.
Pettijohn, F. J., 1975, Sedimentary rocks: New York, Harper and Row,
628 p.
Picard, M. D., 1971, Classification of fine-grained sedimentary rocks:
Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 41, p. 179-195.
Shumaker, R. C., and Overbuy, W. K., Jr., 1976, Devonian shale production and potential: Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Appalachian Petroleum Geology Symposium, Morgantown, West Virginia,
MERC/SP-76/2, 271 p.
Terry, R. D., and Chilingar, G. V., 1955, Summary of 'Concerning some
additional aids in studying sedimentary formations' by M. S.
Shvetson: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 25, p. 229-234.
Textoris, D. A., 1971, Grain-size measurement in thin section, in Carver,
R. E., ed., Procedures in sedimentary petrology: New York,
Wiley-Interscience, p. 95-108.
Wickman, F. E., 1954, The "'total" amount of sediment and the composition of the "average igneous rocks": Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta, v. 5, p. 97-110.
Yen, T. F., 1976, Science and technology of oil shale: Ann Arbor,
Michigan, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., 226 p.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Reviewed by Roy C. Kepferle and Paul E. Potter. Acknowledgment
is made to the donors of the Petroleum Research Fund, administered by
the American Chemical Society, for the partial support of this research.
MANUSCRIPT RECEIVED MAY 30, 1978
MANUSCRIPT ACCEPTED SEPTEMBER 25, 1978
P R I N T E D I N U.S.A.
DECEMBER 1978