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SHELLANDTUBEHEATEXCHANGERS
A
B
Brogan,R.J.
DOI:10.1615/AtoZ.s.shell_and_tube_heat_exchangers
FullTextArticle
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G
GeneralDescription
Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers are one of the most popular types of exchanger due to the flexibility the designer has to
allowforawiderangeofpressuresandtemperatures.TherearetwomaincategoriesofShellandTubeexchanger:
1. thosethatareusedinthepetrochemicalindustrywhichtendtobecoveredbystandardsfromTEMA,TubularExchanger
ManufacturersAssociation(seeTEMAStandards);
2. thosethatareusedinthepowerindustrysuchasfeedwaterheatersandpowerplantcondensers.
M
N
Regardlessofthetypeofindustrytheexchangeristobeusedinthereareanumberofcommonfeatures(seeCondensers).
O
P
Ashellandtubeexchangerconsistsofanumberoftubesmountedinsideacylindricalshell.Figure1illustratesatypicalunit
thatmaybefoundinapetrochemicalplant.Twofluidscanexchangeheat,onefluidflowsovertheoutsideofthetubeswhile
thesecondfluidflowsthroughthetubes.Thefluidscanbesingleortwophaseandcanflowinaparalleloracross/counter
flowarrangement.
S
SAFETYASSESSMENT
SAFFMANLENGTH
SALINEWATERRECLAMATION
SALT
SALTDILUTIONMETHODFORFILM
FLOWRATEMEASUREMENT
SALTATION
Figure1.Shellandtubeexchanger.
SALTINGOUT
SAMPLING
SAMPLINGMETHODS,FOR
Theshellandtubeexchangerconsistsoffourmajorparts:
DROPSIZEMEASUREMENT
SANDBLASTING
SANDIANATIONALLABORATORY,
SNL
SATELLITEREMOTESENSING
SATELLITES
SATURATEDFLUIDPROPERTIES
SATURATEDSURFACES
SATURATEDVOLUME
SATURATIONPRESSURE
SATURATIONTEMPERATURE
SAUTERMEANDIAMETER
FrontHeaderthisiswherethefluidentersthetubesideoftheexchanger.ItissometimesreferredtoastheStationary
Header.
Rear Headerthis is where the tubeside fluid leaves the exchanger or where it is returned to the front header in
exchangerswithmultipletubesidepasses.
Tubebundlethiscomprisesofthetubes,tubesheets,bafflesandtierodsetc.toholdthebundletogether.
Shellthiscontainsthetubebundle.
TheremainderofthissectionconcentratesonexchangersthatarecoveredbytheTEMAStandard.
ShellandTubeExchanger:GeometricTerminology
ThemaincomponentsofashellandtubeexchangerareshowninFigure2a,bandcanddescribedinTable1.
SCALEUPOFPERFORATION
PROCESS
SCALESOFTURBULENCE
SCALING
SCATTERING
SCATTERINGAMPLITUDE
SCATTERINGEFFICIENCY
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SCATTERINGINDICATRIX
SCATTERINGOFRADIATION
SCATTERINGPROBLEMFOR
CYLINDRICALPARTICLES
SCHEIBELEQUATIONFOR
DIFFUSIONINLIQUIDS
SCHLIERENINTERFEROMETRY
SCHLIERENTECHNIQUE
SCHMIDTNUMBER
SCHMIDT,ERNST(18921975)
SCHUSTERHAMAKERMODEL
SCHUSTERSCHWARZCHILD
APPROXIMATION,FORCOMBINED
RADIATIONANDCONDUCTION
SCRAPEDSURFACEHEAT
EXCHANGERS
SCREENSEPARATORS
SCREENS
SCREWROTARYCOMPRESSOR
SCREWS,PLASTICATING
SCROLLDISCHARGECENTRIFUGE
SCRUBBERS
SEAWATERCOMPOSITION
SECONDLAWOF
THERMODYNAMICS
SECONDNORMALSTRESS
DIFFERENCECOEFFICIENT
SECONDARYFLOWS
SECONDARYQUANTITY
SECONDARYRECOVERY
PROCESSES
SEDIMENTATION
SEDIMENTINGCENTRIFUGES
SEEPAGE
SEGMENTALBAFFLES
Figure2.TypeBEM,CFUandAESexchangers.1988byTubularExchangerManufacturersAssociation.
SEGREGATION
Table1.Shellandtubegeometricterminology
SEIDERTATECORRELATION
SELECTIVEFROTHFLOTATION
SELFORGANIZATION
SELFSIMILARHARDENING
BEHAVIOR
1 Stationary(Front)HeadChannel 20
SliponBackingFlange
2 Stationary(Front)HeadBonnet 21
FloatingTubesheetSkirt
FloatingTubesheetSkirt
Stationary(Front)HeadFlange 22
ChannelCover
23
SELFSIMILARITY
StationaryHeadNozzle
24
Packing
SEMICONDUCTOR
StationaryTubesheet
25
PackingFollowerRing
Tubes
26
LanternRing
Shell
27
TieRodsandSpacers
ShellCover
THERMOMETERS
SEMISLUGFLOWS
SEMITRANSPARENTMEDIA
PackingBoxFlange
28TransverseBafflesorSupportPlates
CONTAININGBUBBLES
10ShellFlangeStationaryHeadEnd29
SEMIANNULARFLOW
11
ShellFlangeRearHeadEnd
30
SEMICONDUCTORDIODELASERS
12
ShellNozzle
31
PassPartition
SEMICONDUCTORS
13
ShellCoverFlange
32
VentConnection
14
ExpansionJoint
33
DrainConnection
15
FloatingTubesheet
34
InstrumentConnection
SupportSaddle
SEMITRANSPARENTMEDIA
SENSIBLEHEATSTORAGE
ImpingementBaffleorPlate
LongitudinalBaffle
16
FloatingHeadCover
35
SEPARATEDFLOWMODELS
17
FloatingHeadFlange
36
LiftingLug
SEPARATEDLIQUIDFLOWS
18
FloatingHeadBackingDevice
37
SupportBracket
SEPARATIONOFBOUNDARY
19
SplitShearRing
LAYERS
SEPARATIONOFEMULSIONS
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SEPARATIONOFFLUIDMIXTURES
Thepopularityofshellandtubeexchangershasresultedinastandardnomenclaturebeingdevelopedfortheirdesignation
SEPARATIONOFGASANDSOLIDS
and use by the Tubular Exchanger Manufactures Association (TEMA). This nomenclature is defined in terms letters and
SEPARATIONOFLIQUIDS
diagrams.Thefirstletterdescribesthefrontheadertype,thesecondlettertheshelltypeandthethirdlettertherearheader
SEPARATIONOFLIQUIDSAND
type.Figure2showsexamplesofaBEM,CFU,andAESexchangerswhileFigure3illustratesthefullTEMAnomenclature.
SOLIDS
SEPARATIONOFPHASESINGAS
LIQUIDFLOWS
SEPARATIONPROCESSES
SEPARATION,LIQUID/LIQUID
SEPARATION,PARTICLES/LIQUID
SERIESEXPANSIONS
SESSILEDROPSANDBUBBLES
SETTLINGSLURRIES
SEVEREACCIDENTS,INNUCLEAR
REACTORS,CONTAINMENTOF
SHADOWGRAPHTECHNIQUE
SHAPEMEMORY
SHAPEOFVAPORFORMATIONSIN
EXPLOSIVEBOILING
SHAPESELECTIVECATALYSIS
SHEARFLOW
SHEARLAYER
SHEARMODULUS
SHEARSTRESS
SHEARSTRESSMEASUREMENT
SHEARSTRESSVELOCITY
SHEARTHICKENING
SHEARTHICKENINGFLUIDS
SHEARTHINNINGFLUIDS
SHEARVISCOSITY
SHEARINGINTERFEROGRAM
SHEATHCHARACTERISTICS
SHEETSPLITTING,INDROP
FORMATION
SHELLANDTUBECONDENSERS
SHELLANDTUBEHEAT
EXCHANGERS
Figure3.TEMAnomenclature.1988byTubulareExchangerManufacturersAssociation.
Manycombinationsoffrontheader,shellandrearheadercanbemade.ThemostcommoncombinationsforanETypeShell
aregiveninTable2butothercombinationsarealsoused.
SHELLBOILER
Table2.Shellandtubegeometricterminology
SHELLPROGRESSIVEMODEL
FixedtubesheetexchangersUtubeexchangersFloatingheadexchangers
SHELLSIDEREFRIGERATION
CHILLERS
AEL
AEU
AES
SHELLS
AEM
CEU
BES
AEN
DEU
BEL
BEM
BEN
SHERWOODNUMBER
SHERWOOD,THOMASKILGORE
(19031976)
SHOCKTUBES
SHOCKWAVEPROPAGATION
SHOCKWAVES
Essentiallytherearethreemaincombinations
Fixedtubesheetexchangers
SHOCKWAVES,CONICAL
SHORTROUGHNESSSTRIP
SHORTTIMELAPSE
PHOTOGRAPHY
Utubeexchangers
Floatingheaderexchangers
SHORTTUBEVERTICAL
EVAPORATOR
FixedTubesheetExchanger(L,M,andNTypeRearHeaders)
SHOTTOWERS
Inafixedtubesheetexchanger,thetubesheetisweldedtotheshell.Thisresultsinasimpleandeconomicalconstructionand
SHRINKINGCOREMODEL
thetubeborescanbecleanedmechanicallyorchemically.However,theoutsidesurfacesofthetubesareinaccessibleexcept
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SIUNITS
SIDERITES
SIEVE,TRAYCOLUMN
SILICABASEDNANOPOROUS
COMPOSITEMATERIALS
tochemicalcleaning.
Iflargetemperaturedifferencesexistbetweentheshellandtubematerials,itmaybenecessarytoincorporateanexpansion
bellowsintheshell,toeliminateexcessivestressescausedbyexpansion.Suchbellowsareoftenasourceofweaknessand
failureinoperation.IncircumstanceswheretheconsequencesoffailureareparticularlygraveUTubeorFloatingHeader
unitsarenormallyused.
SILICAGEL
SILICON
SILICONCARBIDE
Thisisthecheapestofallremovablebundledesigns,butisgenerallyslightlymoreexpensivethanafixedtubesheetdesignat
lowpressures.
SILICONSOLARCELLS
SILOS,GRANULARFLOWFROM
SILVER
UTubeExchangers
InaUTubeexchangeranyofthefrontheadertypesmaybeusedandtherearheaderisnormallyaMType.TheUtubes
permitunlimitedthermalexpansion,thetubebundlecanberemovedforcleaningandsmallbundletoshellclearancescan
SILVERMETHOD
beachieved.However,sinceinternalcleaningofthetubesbymechanicalmeansisdifficult,itisnormalonlytousethistype
SIMILARITYCONDITIONS
wherethetubesidefluidsareclean.
SIMILARITY,THEORYOF
SIMILITUDE
FloatingHeadExchanger(P,S,TandWTypeRearHeaders)
SIMPLESTAPPROXIMATIONSOF
InthistypeofexchangerthetubesheetattheRearHeaderendisnotweldedtotheshellbutallowedtomoveorfloat.The
DOUBLESPHERICALHARMONICS
tubesheet at the Front Header (tube side fluid inlet end) is of a larger diameter than the shell and is sealed in a similar
SIMPLEXATOMIZER
manner to that used in the fixed tubesheet design. The tubesheet at the rear header end of the shell is of slightly smaller
SIMPLIFIEDBOILINGWATER
diameterthantheshell,allowingthebundletobepulledthroughtheshell.Theuseofafloatingheadmeansthatthermal
REACTOR,SBWR
expansioncanbeallowedforandthetubebundlecanberemovedforcleaning.Thereareseveralrearheadertypesthatcan
SIMULATINGSUBSURFACE
be used but the SType Rear Head is the most popular. A floating head exchanger is suitable for the rigorous duties
TEMPERATURE
associated with high temperatures and pressures but is more expensive (typically of order of 25% for carbon steel
SINCLAIRLAMERAEROSOL
construction)thantheequivalentfixedtubesheetexchanger.
GENERATOR
SINGLEPHASEMEDIUM
SINGLETSTATE
SINGLETSTATELIFETIME
Consideringeachheaderandshelltypeinturn:
ATypefrontheader
Thistypeofheaderiseasytorepairandreplace.Italsogivesaccesstothetubesforcleaningorrepairwithouthavingto
SINGULARITIES
disturbthepipework.Itdoeshoweverhavetwoseals(onebetweenthetubesheetandheaderandtheotherbetweenthe
SINGULARITIES,HYDRAULIC
headerandtheendplate).ThisincreasestheriskofleakageandthecostoftheheaderoveraBTypeFrontHeader.
RESISTANCEIN
SINTERING
BTypefrontheader
SINUOUSJETS
This is the cheapest type of front header. It also is more suitable than the AType Front Header for high pressure duties
SIPHONCENTRIFUGE
becausetheheaderhasonlyoneseal.Adisadvantageisthattogainaccesstothetubesrequiresdisturbancetothepipework
SKIMMERPIPEANDKNIFE
inordertoremovetheheader.
CENTRIFUGES
SKINEFFECT
CTypefrontheader
SKINFRICTION
Thistypeofheaderisforhighpressureapplications(>100bar).Itdoesallowaccesstothetubewithoutdisturbingthepipe
SLAGFORMATION
workbutisdifficulttorepairandreplacebecausethetubebundleisanintegralpartoftheheader.
SLIGHTLYDEFORMEDPOROUS
CIRCULARCYLINDER
DTypefrontheader
SLIGHTLYINCLINEDSURFACE
This is the most expensive type of front header. It is for very high pressures (> 150 bar). It does allow access to the tubes
MOUNTEDPRISMS
SLIPRATIO
without disturbing the pipe work but is difficult to repair and replace because the tube bundle is an integral part of the
header.
SLITFLOWMETERS
SLITFLOWS
NTypefrontheader
SLOTPERFORATEDFLATFINS
Theadvantageofthistypeofheaderisthatthetubescanbeaccessedwithoutdisturbingthepipeworkanditischeaperthan
SLOWMOTIONPHOTOGRAPHY
anATypeFrontHeader.However,theyaredifficulttomaintainandreplaceastheheaderandtubesheetareanintegral
SLUGFLOW
partoftheshell.
SLUGFLOW,SOLIDSUSPENSIONS
SLUGFREQUENCY
SLUGLENGTH
SLURRIES
YTypefrontheader
StrictlyspeakingthisisnotaTEMAdesignatedtypebutisgenerallyrecognized.Itcanbeusedasafrontorrearheaderand
isusedwhentheexchangeristobeusedinapipeline.Itischeaperthanothertypesofheadersasitreducespipingcosts.It
ismainlyusedwithsingletubepassunitsalthoughwithsuitablepartitioninganyoddnumberofpassescanbeallowed.
SMALLANCLESCATTERING
METHOD,FORDROPSIZE
MEASUREMENT
ETypeshell
SMELTING
Thisismostcommonlyusedshelltype,suitableformostdutiesandapplications.Othershelltypesonlytendtobeusedfor
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SMOKE,ASANAIRPOLLUTANT
SMOKES
FTypeshell
SNELLREFRACTIONLAW
Thisisgenerallyusedwhenpurecountercurrentflowisrequiredinatwotubesidepassunit.Thisisachievedbyhaving
SNL
twoshellssidepassesthetwopassesbeingseparatedbyalongitudinalbaffle.Themainproblemwiththistypeofunitis
SOAVEEQUATION
thermalandhydraulicleakageacrossthislongitudinalbaffleunlessspecialprecautionsaretaken.
SODAASH
SODIUM
SODIUMCARBONATE
GTypeshell
This is used for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers and applications where the shellside pressure drop needs to be kept
small.Thisisachievedbysplittingtheshellsideflow.
SODIUMCHLORIDE
SODIUMCOOLEDNUCLEAR
REACTOR
SODIUMHYDROXIDE
SOFTENINGOFWATER
SOFTWAREENGINEERING
HTypeshell
ThisisusedforsimilarapplicationstoGTypeShellbuttendstobeusedwhenlargerunitsarerequired.
JTypeshell
This tends to be used when the maximum allowable pressure drop is exceeded in an EType Shell even when double
SOIL,THERMALPROPERTIES
segmentalbafflesareused.Itisalsousedwhentubevibrationisaproblem.Thedividedflowontheshellsidereducesthe
SOL
flowvelocitiesoverthetubesandhencereducesthepressuredropandthelikelihoodoftubevibration.Whentherearetwo
SOLARAIRHEATERS
inletnozzlesandoneoutletnozzlethisissometimesreferredtoasanITypeShell.
SOLARCELLS
SOLARCOOKERS
SOLARDRYING
SOLARENERGY
KTypeshell
This is used only for reboilers to provide a large disengagement space in order to minimize shellside liquid carry over.
AlternativelyaKTypeShellmaybeusedasachiller.Inthiscasethemainprocessistocoolthetubesidefluidbyboilinga
fluidontheshellside.
SOLARENERGYTHERMAL
CONVERSION
SOLARPONDS
SOLARRADIATION
XTypeshell
Thisisusedifthemaximumshellsidepressuredropisexceededbyallothershellandbaffletypecombinations.Themain
applicationsareshellsidecondensersandgascoolers.
SOLARRADIATIONSPECTRUM
SOLARREFRIGERATION
LTyperearheader
SOLARSELECTIVESURFACES
Thistypeofheaderisforusewithfixedtubesheetsonly,sincethetubesheetisweldedtotheshellandaccesstotheoutside
SOLARSODIUMEVAPORATOR
ofthetubesisnotpossible.Themainadvantagesofthistypeofheaderarethataccesscanbegainedtotheinsideofthetubes
SOLARSTILLS
without having to remove any pipework and the bundle to shell clearances are small. The main disadvantage is that a
SOLARWATERHEATERS
bellows or an expansion roll are required to allow for large thermal expansions and this limits the permitted operating
SOLENOIDALFLOW
SOLIDFUELS
SOLIDHOLDUP
temperatureandpressure.
MTyperearheader
ThistypeofheaderissimilartotheLTypeRearHeaderbutitisslightlycheaper.However,theheaderhastoberemovedto
SOLIDPROPELLANT
gainaccesstotheinsideofthetubes.Again,specialmeasureshavetobetakentocopewithlargethermalexpansionsand
SOLIDSTATELASERS
thislimitsthepermittedoperatingtemperatureandpressure.
SOLIDLIQUIDLIQUIDFLOWS
SOLIDIFICATION
NTyperearheader
SOLIDIFICATIONCONSTANT
Theadvantageofthistypeofheaderisthatthetubescanbeaccessedwithoutdisturbingthepipework.However,theyare
SOLIDOSITY
difficulttomaintainandreplacesincetheheaderandtubesheetareanintegralpartoftheshell.
SOLIDSCONCENTRATION
SOLIDSINLIQUIDS,BOILINGHEAT
PTyperearheader
TRANSFER
This is an outside packed floating rear header. It is, in theory, a low cost floating head design which allows access to the
SOLIDSSEPARATION
insideofthetubesforcleaningandalsoallowsthebundletoberemovedforcleaning.Themainproblemswiththistypeof
SOLIDS,THERMALCONDUCTIVITY
headerare:
OF
SOLITARYWAVE
SOLITON
largebundletoshellclearancesrequiredinordertopullthebundle;
itislimitedtolowpressurenonhazardousfluids,becauseitispossiblefortheshellsidefluidtoleakviathepackingrings;
SOLUBILITY
SOLUBILITYOFGASESINLIQUIDS
SOLUBILITYOFSOLIDSINLIQUIDS
onlysmallthermalexpansionsarepermitted.
Inpracticeitisnotalowcostdesign,becausetheshellhastoberolledtosmalltolerancesforthepackingtobeeffective.
SOLUTE
SOLUTEDIFFUSION
STyperearheader
SOLUTEFUNCTIONALITY
This is a floating rear header with backing device. It is the most expensive of the floating head types but does allow the
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SOLUTIONALGORITHM
bundletoberemovedandunlimitedthermalexpansionispossible.Italsohassmallershelltobundleclearancesthanthe
SOLUTIONS
otherfloatingheadtypes.However,itisdifficulttodismantleforbundlepullingandtheshelldiameterandbundletoshell
SOLUTIONSFORONE
clearancesarelargerthanforfixedheadtypeexchangers.
DIMENSIONALPROBLEMS
SOLUTIONSFORONE
DIMENSIONALRADIATIVE
TRANSFERPROBLEMS
SOLVENT
TTyperearheader
Thisisapullthroughfloatinghead.ItischeaperandeasiertoremovethebundlethanwiththeSTypeRearHeader,butstill
allowsforunlimitedthermalexpansion.Itdoes,however,havethelargestbundletoshellclearanceofallthefloatinghead
typesandismoreexpensivethanfixedheaderandUtubetypes.
SOLVENTEXTRACTION
SOMEAPPLICATIONS:ELECTRICAL
ARCSANDATMOSPHERICRE
Utube
ENTRY
Thisisthecheapestofallremovablebundledesigns,butisgenerallyslightlymoreexpensivethanafixedtubesheetdesignat
SOMEAPPLIEDPROBLEMSOF
lowpressures.However,itpermitsunlimitedthermalexpansion,allowsthebundletoberemovedtocleantheoutsideofthe
COMBINEDHEATTRANSFER
tubes,hasthetightestbundletoshellclearancesandisthesimplestdesign.AdisadvantageoftheUtubedesignisthatit
SOMEMETHODSFORDETAILED
cannotnormallyhavepurecounterflowunlessanFTypeShellisused.Also,Utubedesignsarelimitedtoevennumbersof
NUMERICALSIMULATIONOF
tubepasses.
RADIATIVETRANSFER
SOMEVALIDITYSTUDIES
WTyperearheader
SONICOSCILLATOR
This is a packed floating tubesheet with lantern ring. It is the cheapest of the floating head designs, allows for unlimited
SONICVELOCITY
thermalexpansionandallowsthetubebundletoberemovedforcleaning.Themainproblemswiththistypeofheadare:
SONOCAPILLARYEFFECT
SOOT
SORETANDDUFOUREFFECTSON
FREECONVECTION
SORETEFFECT
thelargebundletoshellclearancesrequiredtopullthebundleand;
thelimitationtolowpressurenonhazardousfluids(becauseitispossibleforboththefluidstoleakviathepackingrings).
Itisalsopossiblefortheshellandtubesidefluidstobecomemixedifleakageoccurs.
SORPTIONHEATPUMPS
SOUNDABSORPTION
SOUNDGENERATION
SOUNDPROPAGATION
SOURGASES
GeometricOptions
Tubediameterlayoutandpitch
Tubesmayrangeindiameterfrom12.7mm(0.5in)to50.8mm(2in),but19.05mm(0.75in)and25.4mm(1in)arethemost
commonsizes.Thetubesarelaidoutintriangularorsquarepatternsinthetubesheets.SeeFigure4.
SOUTTERIONPUMP
SPACEHEATING
SPACERS
SPACERS,EFFECTONCHF
SPARKIGNITIONENGINES
SPARSELYPACKEDPOROUS
MEDIUM
SPATIALDISCRETIZATION
SCHEMES
SPATIALTEMPORALCORRELATION
SPECIFICHEATCAPACITY
Figure4.Tubelayouts.
SPECIFICWORK,INTURBINES
SPECKLEMETHOD
The square layouts are required where it is necessary to get at the tube surface for mechanical cleaning. The triangular
SPECKLEPHOTOGRAPHY
arrangementallowsmoretubesinagivenspace.Thetubepitchistheshortestcentertocenterdistancebetweentubes.The
SPECTRA,EMISSIONAND
tubespacingisgivenbythetubepitch/tubediameterratio,whichisnormally1.25or1.33.Sinceasquarelayoutisusedfor
ABSORPTION
cleaningpurposes,aminimumgapof6.35mm(0.25in)isallowedbetweentubes.
SPECTRALANALYSIS
SPECTRALDENSITYFUNCTION
Baffletypes
SPECTRALEMISSIVITY
Bafflesareinstalledontheshellsidetogiveahigherheattransferrateduetoincreasedturbulenceandtosupportthetubes
SPECTRALEXTINCTIONMETHOD
thusreducingthechanceofdamageduetovibration.Thereareanumberofdifferentbaffletypes,whichsupportthetubes
SPECTRALRADIATIVEPROPERTIES
andpromoteflowacrossthetubes.Figure5showsthefollowingbafflearrangements:
OFDIESELFUELDROPLETS
SPECTRALRADIATIVEPROPERTIES
OFDISPERSESYSTEMS:
THEORETICALMODELINGAND
SingleSegmental(thisisthemostcommon),
DoubleSegmental(thisisusedtoobtainalowershellsidevelocityandpressuredrop),
EXPERIMENTAL
CHARACTERIZATION
DiscandDoughnut.
SPECTRALRADIATIVEPROPERTIES
OFGASESANDPLASMA:
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THEORETICALMODELSAND
EXPERIMENTALDATA
SPECTRALRADIATIVEPROPERTIES
OFSOMEIMPORTANTMATERIALS:
EXPERIMENTALDATAAND
THEORETICALMODELS
SPECTROFLUORIMETRY
SPECTROSCOPICDATABASES
SPECTROSCOPY
SPECULARREFLECTION
SPEEDOFLIGHT
SPEEDOFSOUND
SPENTFUEL
SPHERE,DRAGCOEFFICIENTFOR
SPHERES,CONVECTIVEHEATAND
MASSTRANSFER
SPHERES,DRAGANDLIFT
SPHERES,SOLID,DRAGON
Figure5.Bafflearrangements.
SPHERICALPARTICLES
SPHERICITY
SPIRALCLASSIFIER
SPIRALHEATEXCHANGERS
SPIRALTUBES,USEINBENSON
BOILERS
SPIROPYRAN
Thecentertocenterdistancebetweenbafflesiscalledthebafflepitchandthiscanbeadjustedtovarythecrossflowvelocity.
Inpracticethebafflepitchisnotnormallygreaterthanadistanceequaltotheinsidediameteroftheshellorcloserthana
distanceequaltoonefifththediameteror50.8mm(2in)whicheverisgreater.Inordertoallowthefluidtoflowbackwards
and forwards across the tubes part of the baffle is cut away. The height of this part is referred to as the bafflecut and is
measuredasapercentageoftheshelldiameter,e.g.,25percentbafflecut.Thesizeofthebafflecut(orbafflewindow)needs
tobeconsideredalongwiththebafflepitch.Itisnormaltosizethebafflecutandbafflepitchtoapproximatelyequalizethe
velocitiesthroughthewindowandincrossflow,respectively.
SPLATTERING,EFFECTONJET
IMPINGEMENT
Therearetwomaintypesofbafflewhichgivelongitudinalflow:
SPONTANEOUSCONDENSATION
SPRAYCHARACTERISTICS
SPRAYCOLUMNS
OrificeBaffle,
RodBaffle.
SPRAYCONDENSERS
SPRAYCOOLING
Inthesetypesofbaffletheturbulenceisgeneratedastheflowcrossesthebaffle.
SPRAYDRYER
SPRAYDRYING
SPRAYEQUATION
SPRAYEVAPORATORS
SPRAYFLOWS
HeatTransferEnhancementsDevices
Therearethreemaintypes.
Specialsurfaces
Thesetendtobeusedtopromotenucleateboilingwhenthetemperaturedrivingforceissmall.
SPRAYFORMATION
SPRAYNOZZLES
Tubeinserts
SPRAYTOWERS
These are normally wire wound inserts or twisted tapes. They are normally used with medium to high viscosity fluids to
SPRAYERS
improveheattransferbyincreasingturbulence.Thereisalsosomeevidencethattheyreducefouling.Inordertousethese
SPRAYING
mosteffectivelytheexchangershouldbedesignedfortheiruse.Thisusuallyentailsincreasingtheshelldiameter,reducing
SPRAYS
SPREADINGOFLIQUIDSON
the tube length and the number of tubeside passes in order to allow for the increased pressure loss characteristics of the
devices.
LIQUIDS
SPUTTERING
STABILITY
STABILITYCRITERIA
STABILITYOFEMULSIONS
STABILITYOFFLOATINGBODIES
STACKS,POLLUTIONFROM
Extendedsurfaces
Theseareusedtoincreasetheheattransferareawhenastreamhasalowheattransfercoefficient.Themostcommontypeis
lowfintubingwheretypicallythefinsare1.5mmhighat19finsperinch.(SeealsoAugmentationofHeatTransfer.)
SelectionCriteria
Inmanycasestheonlywayofensuringoptimumselectionistodoafulldesignbasedonseveralalternativegeometries.In
thefirstinstance,however,severalimportantdecisionshavetobemadeconcerning:
STAGGEREDTUBEBANKS
STAGNANTFILMMODEL
STAGNATIONPOINT
allocationoffluidstotheshellsideandtubeside;
selectionofshelltype;
STAGNATIONPRESSURE
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STAGNATIONTEMPERATURE
selectionoffrontendheadertype;
STANDARDCONDITIONS
STANTONGAUGE
STANTONNUMBER
selectionofrearendheadertype;
selectionofexchangergeometry.
STANTON,SIRTHOMASEDWARD
(18651931)
Toalargeextenttheseoftendependoneachother.Forinstance,theallocationofadirtyfluidtotheshellsidedirectlyaffects
STARKBROADENING
theselectionofexchangertubelayout.
STARKNUMBER
STARS,FUSIONREACTIONSIN
STATICHEAD
STATICINSTABILITIESINTWO
PHASESYSTEMS
STATICMIXERS
STATICREGENERATORS
STATIONARYPHASE,SP,
Fluidallocation
Whendecidingwhichsidetoallocatethehotandcoldfluidsthefollowingneedtobetakenintoaccount,inorderofpriority.
1. Consideranyandeverysafetyandreliabilityaspectandallocatefluidsaccordingly.Neverallocatehazardousfluidssuch
theyarecontainedbyanythingotherthanconventionalboltedandgaskettedorweldedjoints.
2. Ensure that the allocation of fluids complies with established engineering practices, particularly those laid down in
customerspecifications.
CHROMATOGRAPHY
STATISTICALBANDMODELS
STATISTICALMECHANICS
STATISTICALTHEORY,OF
TURBULENTFLOW
STATISTICALTHERMODYNAMICS
3. Havingcompliedwiththeabove,allocatethefluidlikelytocausethemostseveremechanicalcleaningproblems(ifany)
tothetubeside.
4. If neither of the above are applicable, the allocation of the fluids should be decided only after running two alternative
designsandselectingthecheapest(thisistimeconsumingifhandcalculationsareusedbutprogramssuchasTASCfrom
theHeatTransferandFluidFlowService(HTFS)makethisatrivialtask).
STEAMENGINES
STEAMGASTURBINEUNITS
Shellselection
STEAMGENERATORS,NUCLEAR
Etypeshellsarethemostcommon.Ifasingletubepassisusedandprovidedtherearemorethanthreebaffles,thennear
STEAMJETEJECTORS
countercurrentflowisachieved.Iftwoormoretubepassesareused,thenitisnotpossibletoobtainpurecountercurrent
STEAMJETREFRIGERATION
STEAMTABLES
flowandthelogmeantemperaturedifferencemustbecorrectedtoallowforcombinedcocurrentandcountercurrentflow
usinganFfactor.
STEAMTURBINE
Gtype shells and H shells are normally specified only for horizontal thermosyphon reboilers. J shells and Xtype shells
STEAMWATERSEPARATION
should be selected if the allowable DP cannot be accommodated in a reasonable Etype design. For services requiring
STEELANDTUBECONDENSERS
STEELS
STEFAN'SLAW
multiple shells with removable bundles, Ftype shells can offer significant savings and should always be considered
providedtheyarenotprohibitedbycustomerspecifications
Frontheaderselection
STEFAN,JOSEF(18351893)
TheAtypefrontheaderisthestandardfordirtytubesidefluidsandtheBtypeisthestandardforcleantubesidefluids.The
STEFANBOLTZMANNCONSTANT
Atypeisalsopreferredbymanyoperatorsregardlessofthecleanlinessofthetubesidefluidincaseaccesstothetubesis
STEFANBOLTZMANNLAW
required.Donotuseothertypesunlessthefollowingconsiderationsapply.
STEFANMAXWELLEQUATIONS
ACtypeheadwithremovableshellshouldbeconsideredforhazardoustubesidefluids,heavybundlesorservicesrequiring
STEPWISEHEATRELEASE
frequentshellsidecleaning.TheNtypeheadisusedwhenhazardousfluidsareonthetubeside.ADtypeheadoraBtype
STEREOSCOPICIMAGING
headweldedtothetubesheetisusedforhighpressureapplications.Ytypeheadsareonlynormallyusedforsingletube
STEWARTNUMBER
passexchangerswhentheyareinstalledinlinewithapipeline.
STEWARTNUMBER
STEWARTSONTYPEFLOW
Rearheaderselection
STIELTJES'INTEGRAL
For normal service a Fixed Header (L, M, Ntypes) can be used provided that there is no overstressing due to differential
STIRREDTANKREACTOR
STIRREDTANKS
expansionandtheshellsidewillnotrequiremechanicalcleaning.Ifthermalexpansionislikelyafixedheaderwithabellows
canbeusedprovidedthattheshellsidefluidisnothazardous,theshellsidepressuredoesnotexceed35bar(500psia)and
theshellsidewillnotrequiremechanicalcleaning.
STIRREDVESSELPHASE
INVERSION
A Utube unit can be used to overcome thermal expansion problems and allow the bundle to be removed for cleaning.
STOCHASTICDIFFERENTIAL
However,countercurrentflowcanonlybeachievedbyusinganFtypeshellandmechanicalcleaningofthetubesidecanbe
EQUATIONS
difficult.
STOCHASTICPROCESS
STOICHIOMETRICCOMBUSTION
An Stype floating head should be used when thermal expansion needs to be allowed for and access to both sides of the
exchangerisrequiredfromcleaning.Otherrearheadtypeswouldnotnormallybeconsideredexceptforthespecialcases.
STOKESEQUATION
STOKESFLOW
SelectionofExchangerGeometry
STOKESLENGTH
STOKESPARADOX
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Tubeoutsidediameter
Fortheprocessindustry,19.05mm(3/4)tendstobethemostcommon.
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STOKESPROBLEM
STOKESSHIFT
Tubewallthickness
STOKESSTREAMFUNCTION
Referencemustbemadetoarecognizedpressurevesselcodetodecidethis.
STOKES'LAWFORSOLIDSPHERES
ANDSPHERICALBUBBLES
Tubelength
STOKESEINSTEINEQUATION
Foragivensurfacearea,thelongerthetubelengththecheapertheexchanger,althoughalongthinexchangermaynotbe
STOKESEINSTEINEQUATION,FOR
feasible.
DIFFERENTIALCOEFFICIENTSIN
LIQUIDS
STOMATALCONTROLOFWATER
LOSSFROMPLANTS
STOPPINGDISTANCE
STORE'SFORMULA
STRAIN
STRAINGAUGES
Tubelayout
45or90degreelayoutsarechosenifmechanicalcleaningisrequired,otherwisea30degreelayoutisoftenselected,because
itprovidesahigherheattransferandhencesmallerexchanger.
Tubepitch
Thesmallestallowablepitchof1.25timesthetubeoutsidediameterisnormallyusedunlessthereisarequirementtousea
largerpitchduetomechanicalcleaningortubeendwelding.
STRAINRATE
STRANGEATTRACTORS
Numberoftubepasses
STRATIFICATION,UNSTABLEAND
This is usually one or an even number (not normally greater than 16). Increasing the number of passes increases the heat
STABLE
transfercoefficientbutcaremustbetakentoensurethatthetubesidev2isnotgreaterthanabout10,000kg/ms2.
STRATIFIEDGASLIQUIDFLOW
STRATIFIEDWAVYFLOW
Shelldiameter
STRATOSPHERE
Standard pipe is normally used for shell diameters up to 610 mm (24). Above this the shell is made from rolled plate.
STREAMANALYSISMETHOD
Typicallyshelldiametersrangefrom152mmto3000mm(6to120).
STREAMAVAILABILITY
STREAMFUNCTION
Baffletype
STREAMLINE
Single segmental baffles are used by default but other types are considered if pressure drop constraints or vibration is a
STREAMLINEFLOW
STREAMLINEDBODIES,FLOWOVER
STREAMLINES
STREAMLINES,VISUALIZATION
problem.
Bafflespacing
Thisisdecidedaftertryingtobalancethedesireforincreasedcrossflowvelocityandtubesupport(smallerbafflepitch)and
pressuredropconstraints(largerbafflepitch).TEMAprovidesguidanceonthemaximumandminimumbafflepitch.
STREAMTUBE
STRESS
Bafflecut
STRESSINFLUIDS
Thisdependsonthebaffletypebutistypically45%forsinglesegmentalbafflesand25%fordoublesegmentalbaffles.
STRESSINSOLIDMATERIALS
STRESSTENSOR
Nozzlesandimpingement
STRESSVECTOR
For shellside nozzles the v2 should not be greater than about 9000 in kg/ms2. For tubeside nozzles the maximum v2
STRESS,NORMAL
should not exceed 2230 kg/ms2 for noncorrosive, nonabrasive single phase fluids and 740 kg/ms2 for other fluids.
STRESS,SHEAR
Impingement protection is always required for gases which are corrosive or abrasive, saturated vapors and two phases
STRETCHINGSHEET
mixtures.Shellorbundleentranceorexitareasshouldbedesignedsuchthatav2of5950kg/ms2isnotexceeded.
STRETCHINGSURFACE
STRETCHING/STABILIZINGEFFLUX
MaterialsofConstruction
FLUIDFILMS
In general, shell and tube exchangers are made of metal, but for specialist applications (e.g., involving strong acids or
STROUHALNUMBER
pharmaceuticals),othermaterialssuchasgraphite,plasticandglassmaybeused.
STRUCTUREOFPLASMASPECTRA
STRUCTUREDSURFACE
STUARTNUMBER
SUBCHANNELANALYSIS
ThermalDesign
The thermal design of a shell and tube exchanger is an iterative process which is normally carried out using computer
programs from organizations such as the Heat transfer and Fluid Flow Service (HTFS) or Heat Transfer Research
Incorporated (HTRI). However, it is important that the engineer understands the logic behind the calculation. In order to
SUBCHANNELMIXING
calculatetheheattransfercoefficientsandpressuredrops,initialdecisionsmustbemadeonthesidesthefluidsareallocated,
SUBCOOLEDTWISTEDFLOW
thefrontandrearheadertype,shelltype,baffletype,tubediameterandtubelayout.Thetubelength,shelldiameter,baffle
SUBCOOLING
pitch and number of tube passes are also selected and these are normally the main items that are altered during each
SUBCOOLINGEFFECTSONPOOL
iterationinordertomaximizetheoverallheattransferwithinspecifiedallowablepressuredrops.
BOILING
SUBLAYERFENCE
SUBLIMATION
Themainstepsinthecalculationaregivenbelowtogetherwithcalculationmethodsintheopenliterature:
1. Calculatetheshellsideflowdistribution[UseBellDelawareMethod,seeHewitt,Shires,andBott(1994)].
SUBMERGEDCOMBUSTION
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SUBMERGEDCOMBUSTION
EVAPORATORS
SUBMERGEDJETS
SUBROUTINES
SUBSTITUTENATURALGAS(SNG)
SUBSURFACEBARRIER
SUBUNDALFLOW
2. Calculatetheshellsideheattransfercoefficient(UseBellDelawareMethod)
3. Calculatetubesideheattransfercoefficient(see,forexample,Tubes:SinglePhaseHeatTransferIn).
4. Calculatetubesidepressuredrop(see,forexample,PressureDrop,SinglePhase).
5. Calculatewallresistanceandoverallheattransfercoefficient(seeOverallHeatTransferCoefficientandFouling).
6. Calculatemeantemperaturedifference(seeMeanTemperatureDifference).
SUCTION
SUCTIONEFFECTS
SULFUR
SULFURDIOXIDE
7. Calculatearearequired.
8. Comparearearequiredwithareaofassumedgeometryandallowedtubesideandshellsidepressuredropwithcalculated
values.
SULFURHEXAFLUORIDE
SULFURPOLLUTION
9. AdjustassumedgeometryandrepeatcalculationsuntilArearequiredisachievedwithintheallowablepressuredrops.
SULFURICACID
BooksbyE.A.D.Saunders[Saunders(1988)]andG.F.Hewitt,G.L.Shires,andT.R.Bott[Hewittetal.(1994)]providesa
SUN,HEATTRANSFERIN
goodoverviewoftubularthermaldesignmethodsandexamplecalculations.
SUPERPHENIX
SUPERCAVITATION
SUPERCOMPUTING
SUPERCONDUCTINGMAGNETS
MechanicalDesign
The mechanical design of a shell and tube heat exchanger provides information on items such as shell thickness, flange
thickness, etc. These are calculated using a pressure vessel design code such as the Boiler and Pressure Vessel code from
ASME(AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers)andtheBritishMasterPressureVesselStandard,BS5500.ASMEisthe
SUPERCONDUCTORS
mostcommonlyusedcodeforheatexchangersandisin11sections.SectionVIII(ConfinedPressureVessels)ofthecodeis
SUPERCRITICALHEATTRANSFER
themostapplicabletoheatexchangersbutSectionsIIMaterialsandSectionVNonDestructiveTestingarealsorelevant.
SUPERFICIALVELOCITY
SUPERHEATING
SUPERSATURATION
Both ASME and BS5500 are widely used and accepted throughout the world but some countries insist that their own
national codes are used. In order to try and simplify this the International Standards Organization is now attempting to
developanewinternationallyrecognizedcodebutitislikelytobeasometimebeforethisisaccepted.
SUPERSONICEXTERNALFLOW
SUPERSONICFLOW
SUPERSONICFLOW,INNOZZLES
SUPERSONICHETEROGENEOUS
FLOW
References
1. TEMASeventhEdition.(1988)TubularExchangerManufacturersAssociation.
2. Saunders,E.A.D.(1988)HeatExchangersSelection,DesignandConstruction,LongmanScientificandTechnical.
3. Hewitt,G.F,Shires,G.L.,andBott,T.R.(1994)ProcessHeatTransfer,CRCPress.
SUPERSONICJET
4. BoilerandPressureVesselcode,ASME(AmericanSocietyofMechanicalEngineers).
SUPERUNDALFLOW
5. BritishMasterPressureVesselStandard,BS5500.
SUPPRESSIONOFNUCLEATE
BOILING
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SURFACEACTIVESUBSTANCES
SURFACEALLOYINGOFMETALS
SURFACEANDINTERFACIAL
TENSION
SURFACECONDENSERS
SURFACEDIFFUSION
SURFACEDIMPLES
SURFACEEFFECTSONBOILING
SURFACEEFFICIENCY
SURFACEENERGY
SURFACEEXTENSIONS
SURFACEFLOWVISUALIZATION
SURFACEROUGHNESS
SURFACETENSION
SURFACETENSIONDEVICES
SURFACETREATMENT
SURFACE,CIRCULAR
SURFACE,PERMEABLE
SURFACTANTCOLLECTORS
SURFACTANTS
SURGETANKS
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SUSPENSIONOFPARTICLESIN
LIQUID
SUTHERLANDCOEFFICIENT
SWEATING
SWEETENINGOFGASES
SWIRLBURNERS
SWIRLFLOWDEVICES
SWIRLINGFLOW
SWIRLINGTAPES,FORINCREASING
BURNOUTFLUX
SYMMETRICTENSOR
SYMMETRYANALYSISOFSECOND
GRADEFLOW
SYNCHROTONRADIATION
SYNOPTICSCALECIRCULATION,
OFATMOSPHERE
SYNTHETICZEOLITES
SYSTEMOFUNITS
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
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