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    Sonjce Marceva
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    Battle of Chaeronea, a decisive battle in Boeotia, central Greece, in which Macedonians led by Philip II of Macedonia defeated a coalition of Greek city-states led by Thebes and Athens. The victory, partly credited to Philip’s 18-year-old son Alexander the Great, cemented the Macedonian hegemony in Greece and ended effective military resistance to Philip in the region, which meant, essentially the end of Greek independence. ---- This article examines two funerary monuments associated with the battle of Chaironeia in 338: first, the mound, covering a mass cremation, by the Kephissos; second, near the town of Chaironeia, the mass burial surrounded by a stone enclosure and topped by a colossal stone lion. The accepted identifications are confirmed (the mound is that of the Macedonian dead, the lion monument that of Theban dead, in all probability the Sacred Band), and two propositions developed: the mound does not relate to the tactical dispositions of the battle, and hence the generally accepted reconstruction of the battle must be discarded; the lion monument must date to much later than 338. In developing these propositions, I examine material which has been long known, but never considered in depth; I notably present what I believe are the first photographs of some of the osteological material from the mass burial under the lion monument. More generally, the two monuments, located at different points of the battlefield, set up by different actors and at different moments, offer the opportunity for considerations on the different functions of 'memory' surrounding an historical event: the Macedonian mound reflected the needs and self-imagining of the victorious army, imposing a trace in the landscape; the lion monument embeds itself in preexisting topographies, for a more reflective, and more troubled, effect.

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    Battle of Chaeronea, a decisive battle in Boeotia, central Greece, in which Macedonians led by Philip II of Macedonia defeated a coalition of Greek city-states led by Thebes and Athens. The victory, partly credited to Philip’s 18-year-old son Alexander the Great, cemented the Macedonian hegemony in Greece and ended effective military resistance to Philip in the region, which meant, essentially the end of Greek independence. ---- This article examines two funerary monuments associated with the battle of Chaironeia in 338: first, the mound, covering a mass cremation, by the Kephissos; second, near the town of Chaironeia, the mass burial surrounded by a stone enclosure and topped by a colossal stone lion. The accepted identifications are confirmed (the mound is that of the Macedonian dead, the lion monument that of Theban dead, in all probability the Sacred Band), and two propositions developed: the mound does not relate to the tactical dispositions of the battle, and hence the generally accepted reconstruction of the battle must be discarded; the lion monument must date to much later than 338. In developing these propositions, I examine material which has been long known, but never considered in depth; I notably present what I believe are the first photographs of some of the osteological material from the mass burial under the lion monument. More generally, the two monuments, located at different points of the battlefield, set up by different actors and at different moments, offer the opportunity for considerations on the different functions of 'memory' surrounding an historical event: the Macedonian mound reflected the needs and self-imagining of the victorious army, imposing a trace in the landscape; the lion monument embeds itself in preexisting topographies, for a more reflective, and more troubled, effect.

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    230 views23 pages

    Chaironeia 338: Topographies of Commemoration - John Ma

    Uploaded by

    Sonjce Marceva
    Battle of Chaeronea, a decisive battle in Boeotia, central Greece, in which Macedonians led by Philip II of Macedonia defeated a coalition of Greek city-states led by Thebes and Athens. The victory, partly credited to Philip’s 18-year-old son Alexander the Great, cemented the Macedonian hegemony in Greece and ended effective military resistance to Philip in the region, which meant, essentially the end of Greek independence. ---- This article examines two funerary monuments associated with the battle of Chaironeia in 338: first, the mound, covering a mass cremation, by the Kephissos; second, near the town of Chaironeia, the mass burial surrounded by a stone enclosure and topped by a colossal stone lion. The accepted identifications are confirmed (the mound is that of the Macedonian dead, the lion monument that of Theban dead, in all probability the Sacred Band), and two propositions developed: the mound does not relate to the tactical dispositions of the battle, and hence the generally accepted reconstruction of the battle must be discarded; the lion monument must date to much later than 338. In developing these propositions, I examine material which has been long known, but never considered in depth; I notably present what I believe are the first photographs of some of the osteological material from the mass burial under the lion monument. More generally, the two monuments, located at different points of the battlefield, set up by different actors and at different moments, offer the opportunity for considerations on the different functions of 'memory' surrounding an historical event: the Macedonian mound reflected the needs and self-imagining of the victorious army, imposing a trace in the landscape; the lion monument embeds itself in preexisting topographies, for a more reflective, and more troubled, effect.

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    of 23

    JournalofHellenicStudies128 (2008) 72-91

    CHAIRONEIA338: TOPOGRAPHIES OF COMMEMORATION*


    Abstract:This articleexaminestwo funerary
    monuments
    associatedwiththebattleof Chaironeiain 338: first,
    the
    themassburialsurrounded
    mound,coveringa masscremation,
    bytheKephissos;second,nearthetownofChaironeia,
    areconfirmed
    bya stoneenclosureandtoppedbya colossalstonelion.The acceptedidentifications
    (themoundis that
    of theMacedoniandead, the lion monumentthatof Thebandead, in all probabilitythe Sacred Band), and two
    propositions
    developed:themounddoes notrelateto thetacticaldispositionsofthebattle,andhencethegenerally
    ofthebattlemustbe discarded;thelionmonument
    mustdatetomuchlaterthan338. In develacceptedreconstruction
    these
    I examinematerialwhichhas been longknown,butneverconsideredin depth;I notably
    oping
    propositions,
    ofsomeoftheosteologicalmaterialfromthemassburialunderthelion
    presentwhatI believearethefirst
    photographs
    monument.
    Moregenerally,
    thetwomonuments,
    locatedat different
    setup bydifferent
    actors
    pointsofthebattlefield,
    andat different
    offertheopportunity
    forconsiderations
    on thedifferent
    functions
    of 'memory'surrounding
    moments,
    an historical
    event:theMacedonianmoundreflected
    theneedsand self-imagining
    ofthevictorious
    army,imposinga
    traceinthelandscape;thelionmonument
    embedsitselfinpreexisting
    for
    a
    more
    andmore
    reflective,
    topographies,
    effect.
    troubled,

    'AufChroneasHeide
    Im altenSchlachtgefild'
    in Leide
    Liegtwie versteint
    Ein marmorn
    Lwenbild.'
    E. Geibel,Erinnerungen
    aus Griechenland,
    stanza20.
    'In thisroomareexposedthebonesofthosewhodiedat Chaeronea,withthesword-cuts
    showing.This
    has no bearingon art,andis a rather
    shockingsight.It wouldhavebeenbetterto leavetheseheroesin
    thegravestheyearnedso nobly.'
    MacmillanGuideto Greece(1908).

    On 2 August338 BC, in theplainbetweenChaironeiaand theKephissos,PhilipII decisively


    defeateda coalitionofGreekstates,especiallyAthensandtheBoiotianLeague.1The subsequent
    settlement
    confirmed
    Philip'spoliticaldominanceovertheGreekstates.Thismostvnementiel
    ofevents,onceheldto symbolizea watershed
    in Greekhistory,
    tookplace as a concretehappenit
    then
    existed
    not
    as
    a
    but
    also
    as a monumental
    andcultural
    ing;
    construct,
    just
    historiographical
    in
    a
    thebattlefrominterrelated
    phenomenon particular
    landscape.Thepresent
    paperre-examines
    thedetailsofthebattle,ritualpractices,
    ofmemory.
    viewpoints:
    topographies
    I. CHAIRONEIA
    AncientChaironeia(Plate 4(a)),2likeitsmodernsuccessors(Kpraina,knownto generations
    of
    andthecontemporary
    dhimosofChernia),
    liesinan important
    lieudepassage,thewest
    travellers,
    endoftheKephissoscorridor.Theplainstretches
    easttowest,aboutthreekilometres
    widefrom
    thesouthern
    mountainrangeto theriver.On theotherside oftheriver,therangeofAkontion
    * I thank
    PollyLow,GrahamOliverandPeterRhodesfor
    theinvitation
    to givean originally
    verydifferent
    paper;I
    owe theexpression
    'culturesofcommemoration'
    tothem.
    Researchforthispaperwas carriedoutthanksto a Philip
    Leverhulme
    Prize,forwhichI amgladtothanktheLeverhulmeTrust. Workin Greece was enabled by James
    Helen Clark,VassiliosPetrakos,IoannaNinou,
    Whitley,
    VassiliosAravantinos,
    IannisPhappas,GiorgiosKorres,
    Roza Proskynitopoulou,
    Mika Palaiokrassa.I also thank
    the followingpersonsforassistance:Kostas Buraselis,
    ChristopheChandezon(withwhom I trampedaround

    Kpraina,and who helpedme withhis Plutarchanand


    Chaironeianexpertise),
    AngelosChaniotis,JimCoulton,
    SylvianFachard,thelate PeterFraser,Tonio Hlscher,
    AlistarJackson,
    MariaListon,ParaskeviMartzavou,
    Josh
    Ober,Karen Schlott,AntonySpawforth.Mistakesand
    omissionsremainmyown.
    1Plut.Cam. 19.8
    Hammond(1973)
    (7 Metageitnion);
    567.
    2Paus.
    9.40-1,withFrazer(1898); Fossey(1988) 37585; Kountouri
    (2006).

    CHAIRONEIA338

    73

    PhokisandthepassofParapotamioi,
    defines
    thenorthern
    edgeoftheplain.Theplainleadstowards
    whichseparatestheplainofChaironeiafromthebasinofElateia.3
    An important
    roadleads fromThebesto Phokis,via Haliartos,thesouthedge of theKopais
    intothegreatbendthat
    wheretheroadshiftsfromitseast-westdirection
    basin,andChaironeia,
    offthisroad,afterPanopeus.
    willtakeittothebasinofElateia.ThemainroutetoDelphibranched
    towardsa crossingon theKephissosandOpous.4
    roadleadsnorth-east,
    FromChaironeiaanother
    Orchomenos
    mayhavebeenconnectedwithChaironeiaby tworoads,one alongthefootofMt
    Akontion,
    pastthevillageofAkontio(Bisbardi),untiltheKephissosbridge,theotheralongthe
    rightbankoftheKephissos.5
    Chaironeia,at thefootof a double crag,Petrachos,occupies a small north-south
    valley.
    vale of
    thereare threemoresuchvalleys. Firstcomesthewell-watered
    Reckoningeastwards,
    thevalleyleads up to a metalled
    by threechurchesand a monastery;
    distinguished
    Lykouressi,
    a shrineofHerakles;thestreamin thevalleyis the
    roadtowardsLebadeia. The valleysheltered
    orHaimon.6Thenextvalleyis thatoftheancientriverMolos:7thelowerpart
    ancientThermodon
    savanna.The thirdvalleyleads,byan
    theupperpartbyMediterranean
    is takenbyoliveculture,
    thendowna longslopeto
    a
    modern
    to
    a
    small
    road
    quarry),
    plateau(and
    through
    garrigue,
    easy
    takes
    nowexclusively
    'Keratapass'.8 Moderntraffic
    Lebadeia. Thisis theoncemuch-frequented
    thewindingroad at thefootof themountain.The mountainseparatingChaironeiafromthe
    valleyof Lebadeia shouldnotbe calledThourion,as on modernmaps;thenameshouldbe rewestofChaironeia.9
    servedforthemountain
    is
    also
    structured
    The landscape
    by man-madelandmarks.Earliestis a Neolithicmound
    a
    enclosure,
    Second,a funerary
    including
    (MagoulaBaloumenou)neartheKephissoscrossing.10
    as thetomboftheThecolossalstonelion,was erectedeastofthecity.Thishas beenidentified
    the255 deadmenlaidtorestthereina hasty,offeringbansmentioned
    byPausanias;specifically,
    withthecracktroopsoftheThebans,theso-calledSacredBand.
    poorburialhavebeenidentified
    totheeastoftheNeolithicmound:thisis the
    about3 kilometres
    Finally,thereis a largetumulus,
    on thebasis ofthesarissa
    andidentified
    mentioned
    Macedonians
    of
    the
    Plutarch,
    by
    polyandrion
    are convincing
    The
    identifications
    level.
    in
    cremation
    the
    found
    coin
    Macedonian
    and
    a
    heads
    andmutually
    (see below).
    reinforcing
    II. THE BATTLE OF 338 BC
    We
    Thereis a standardaccountof thebattle,createdby Sotiriadis,Hammondand Pritchett.11
    thearmy;Philiptooktherightwing,theroyalposiknowthatPhilipandAlexandercommanded
    tion,andprinceAlexandertheleft.Philipis said to have deceivedtheAtheniansby a planned
    3 On the
    plain,Conner(1979) 134 fig.2, 138 fig.4;
    Belle (1881) 135.
    4 Flauberttooktheroadon 10 January
    1851,setting
    outfromMolosontheMalianGulf,andtakingeighthours
    to reach'Rapurna'as thenameis misspelledin thepublishedversionofhisnotes:Flaubert(1998) 558, fromthe
    byhisnieceCaroline;sinceR forK is a comtranscription
    monmistakemadebyreadersofFlaubert'shand,correct
    to Kapurna.My thanksto S. DordCrouslforadvice.
    5On theroad(unearthed
    Aravantion a 35 m stretch),
    IG 7.3170,mennos(1993). AnOrchomenian
    inscription,
    tions'theroadto Lebadeia'and 'theroadto Chaironeia'.
    6 Sotiriadis(1904) 45-50,(1905) 113-20,fortheHerakleionand Plutarch.Not a cul-de-sac,as claimedin
    Hammond(1973) 542: a modernpiousinscription
    (1970)
    inEaster1912forchildren
    recordstheVirgin'sprotection

    pointof thepilwalkingto themonastery.The starting


    butis likelyto be Lebadeia,ora
    grimageis notrecorded,
    villageon theLebadeiasideofthemountain.
    7Sotiriadis
    (1904), (1905); Hammond(1973) 536-40;
    Campeia/. (1992).
    8Lolling(1989) 221-2. Earlier,e.g.Clarke(1818) 172
    ('the antientpaved way to CHAERONA'); Hobhouse
    (1813) 266 ('wild andrugged'road);Stephani(1843) 645 (good road);Flaubert(1998) 559.
    9
    Campeia/. (1992).
    10Sotiriadis
    (1902), (1910); Tzavella-Evjen(1995).
    11Sotiriadis
    (1958);
    (1903); Costanzi(1923); Pritchett
    Hammond(1973) 534-57,withthemeagresources;Kromayer(1905) 16-23; Braun (1948); Rahe (1981), etc.
    Buckler(2003) is cautious.See also Bucklerand Beck
    (2008) fora critiqueofthereceivedversion.

    74

    JOHNMA

    so theAthenianswerepostedoppositePhilip,on thealliedleft;Alexanderdefeatedthe
    retreat,
    SacredBand,so theBoiotianswerepostedoppositehim,on thealliedright.Alexandercamped
    underan oaktree,notfarfromthepolyandrion
    oftheMacedoniansidentified
    which
    byexcavation,
    givesus an idea ofwheretheMacedonianleftwas; thetumulusis supposedto markthespotof
    thehardestfighting,
    no doubtthesitewheretheSacredBandwas overwhelmed
    byAlexander.
    The tumulusoftheMacedoniansanchorsthewholescheme. Sotiriadisreconstructed
    theoplines
    to
    the
    posing
    perpendicular
    Kephissosvalley;butthisdoes notallowthealliesaccesstothe
    Keratapasstowards
    Greekstookrefuge.So theGreeklinemusthave
    Lebadeia,wherethedefeated
    forward
    from
    the
    of
    the
    Macedonian
    mass
    tomb.SincetheGreekcampoccupiedthe
    angled
    spot
    HerakleionintheLykouressi
    the
    left
    flank
    of
    the
    Greeklinemusthavestarted
    westofthis
    valley,
    valleyattheridge(behindthemodernmuseum)betweentheLykouressi
    valleyandtheKapraina
    withthebesttroops,theBoiotians
    valley.Hencewe havea longbattleline,nearlydueeast-west,
    andtheSacredBand,on therefusedrightflank,andtheAthenians
    thrown
    forward.IftheMacedonianleftwas indeedlocated'notfar'fromthetumulus,
    as indicated
    by 'Alexander'soak', then
    a greatpartoftheMacedonianbattlelineformed
    up inan acuteanglebetweenthealliedrightand
    thecourseoftheKephissos,withitsbackhardagainsttheriveranditsmarshy
    bed.12
    None of thisholds. Thereis no reasonto supposethattheMacedonianmoundmarksany
    at Marathon,forinstance,thesoros is locatedquitefarfromthe
    precisespotofthebattlelines;
    actualbattlefield.
    ThedetailaboutAlexander'soak doesnotestablish
    thelinkbetweenmoundand
    battlelines:theoak couldhavebeenlocateda kilometre
    orthreeaway;in addition,
    thedetailof
    Alexander'ssleepingtherecouldsimplybe folklore.The SacredBand mightwellhavebeenon
    theotherwing: the storythatAlexander'shook' the Sacred Band belongsto theAlexander
    does notvouchforit.13Therefore,
    thealliedlineformed
    tothewestofthe
    Vulgate,andPlutarch
    entrance
    oftheLykouressi
    and
    stretched
    across
    the
    a
    valley,
    Kephissosvalley shortlineallowfor
    the
    usual
    Boiotian
    The
    courseof thebattlehad to negotiatethelocal
    ing
    deep phalanxes.
    micro-topography
    (notablythevariousriversflowingoutofthesouthern
    ridge),butwe haveno
    idea how. The Boiotians,including
    theSacredBand,perhapsfought
    on theleft,thrown
    forward
    to
    the
    tactics
    have
    faced
    and
    hisbest
    according
    inaugurated
    byEpameinondas;
    theymight
    Philip
    The
    allied
    with
    Athenians
    werekilled,two
    troops.
    troopslost,
    heavycasualties.One thousand
    thousand
    madetheirwaytoLebadeia,whencetheycontacted
    captured.Alliedsurvivors
    Philipthe
    nextday. The slaughter-strewn
    fieldmayhavecontributed
    to theplaguethatfollowed,ragingin
    winter338/7.14
    Thereis another
    sourcethatcanbe explored:battlearchaeology.15
    In thisparticular
    case,there
    aretwosecurely
    identified
    massgravesfromthebattleof338 (see below),theMacedonianmound
    andtheThebanpolyandrion.FromtheMacedonianmoundcomesa setofinstructive
    finds.First,
    thehumanremainsfromthecremation.The excavator'sdescription
    of a vastandthicklayerof
    number
    ofMaceashes,75 cmthickinthemiddle,100squaremetresinarea,impliesan important
    doniandead. Thisis confirmed
    atChaironeiaMuseum:twolargecrates,
    bythematerial
    preserved
    withbone fragments,
    sievedoutof theashes.16Secondly,theexcavationproduceda
    brimming
    number
    of
    metal
    artefacts,
    large
    mostlyweaponsofthedead,heavilydamagedbythecremation
    andgroundhumidity.
    Swordsarerepresented
    byhandles(fromxiph,straight
    swords)andblades,
    12On thelower
    Kephissosvalley,Theophr.HP 4.11;
    Paus. 9.41.7 (marshflowers).
    13Buckler
    (1992) 4801-3considersthatPlutarch'sinformation
    is goodandmustcomefromhiswritten
    sources;
    see also Leito (2002). But 'it is said', used hereby
    denotesbentrovato
    storiesandsayingsinhisLife
    Plutarch,
    ofAlexander:forinstance,2-3 (storiesaboutPhilipand
    10.4
    Olympias),6.5 (Boukephalas,Philip'sexclamation),
    toThe(EuripidesquotedtoPaus.),13.2(allegedkindness
    bans), 14.3 (Diogenes), 36.1 (marvelof dyed clothat

    Persepolis),37.4 (DemaratosofCorinth
    weeps),42.1 (ear
    coveredwhenlistening
    to capitalaccusations).
    14Theophr.
    HP 4. 11.3.
    15Foran overviewofthe
    ofthecommon
    'archaeology
    soldier', Osgood 2005; earlier,e.g. Ingelmark(1939);
    Carman(1997); Fioratoetal (2000); Salazar(2000) onthe
    ancient
    world.On thearchaeology
    ofthemassgravesfrom
    thebattleofChaironeia,
    Clairmont
    (1983) 240-2(nos.77d3), Pritchett
    (1985) 136-8,bothwithbibliography.
    16Sieve:
    Cooley(1904) 141 (andphotograph).

    CHAIRONEIA338

    75

    mostbelongingto machairaiorkopides,curvedsabres.17Some smalljavelinheadsarepresent.


    One spearpointandseveralbutt-spikes
    mustbelongtotheusualdoru;otherspearpointsarevery
    42
    best
    one
    is
    preserved
    cm),witha centralstiffening
    long(the
    ridge,andprobablycome from
    sarissas.Theyarecomparable
    toothersarissafindsfromVerginaandDerveni.18
    However,many
    otherelementsdo notseemto be attested
    in theChaironeiafinds:theflangedbuttspike19
    andthe
    ironsleeveusedtojoin thecornel-shafts
    in
    other
    the
    Macedonian
    words,
    together
    troopswere
    armedwithan earlyversionofthesarissa.Thefindsalso includea fewarrowheads.
    Oneperfectly
    three-finned
    bronzeexemplarmighthavelodgedin thebodyofa Macedonian.Some
    preserved
    findsgivea vividimageofMacedoniansoldierson campaign:knifeblades,20
    ora well-worn
    whetcord.Generally,
    thematerial
    illustrates
    sarissastonewitha holefora retaining
    theforcespresent:
    armedinfantry,
    probablycavalry,
    light-armed
    javelineers(thecrackAgrianians
    already?),archers
    on bothsides.
    remainsrelating
    Theothersetofmaterial
    tothebattleof338 comesfromthemassgraveofthe
    oftheskeletonsfoundinthegraveinsiston
    Thebans,on theothersideoftheplain. Descriptions
    beforetheevacuationof 1940,in
    visiblewound-marks.21
    Some skeletalmaterialwas exhibited,
    Museum.22
    case 93 ofthe'thirdvasesroom'intheeastwingoftheNationalArchaeological
    battle'.23
    The
    bones
    showmany
    offers
    direct
    evidence
    for
    the
    'face
    of
    Thismaterial
    shockingly
    cutmarks,a typeofwoundparalleled
    trauma.Shinbonesexhibitmultiple
    tracesofcirca-mortem
    combatwith
    in theskeletonsfromthemedievalmassgraveat Wisby,andreflecting
    close-range
    ofblows
    sword
    blows.
    The
    skulls
    bear
    marks
    of
    Several
    phenomenon
    multiple
    edgedweapons.24
    it
    is
    not
    in
    evidence
    the
    medieval
    head
    is
    well
    tothe
    (though
    yetpossibletopoint
    notably
    paralleled,
    ofmvivodamagetotheleftfronto-parietal
    toanyrecurrent
    regionoftheskull,suchas atpattern
    'aft-fore'
    man
    a
    with
    One
    received
    teststoface-to-face
    cut,followed
    powerful
    fighting swords).25
    a
    of
    the
    'furniture
    from
    rear
    of
    the
    left
    to
    the
    a
    de
    butt-spike
    probably
    part
    parietal,
    by coup grce
    leg' or 'Stabspitze'type(usednotablybytheMacedonians).Thisblowproduceda smallhole
    theskull surrounded
    wherethespikepunctured
    cracks,
    by a widercircularmarkandradiating
    or
    the
    from
    the
    of
    in otherwords,a depressedfracture
    ring flangeabove
    flaring
    resulting
    impact
    horrendous
    case ('Gamma16', i.e. 'row3, skeleton16',
    thespike(Plate 4(b)).26In oneparticularly
    17Sotiriadis
    (1903) 309. The materialawaitsdetailed
    publication.
    18Andronikos
    (1970); Markle(1977), (1980), (1982);
    ThemelisandTouratsoglou
    (1997) 109;andmostrecently
    oftheMacethepublication
    However,
    Connolly(2000).
    doniantombat HagiosAthanassioschallengesConnolly
    sarissahad large
    by clearlyshowingthatthe 'infantry'
    heads:Tsimbidou-Avloniti
    (2005).
    19
    Andronikos
    (1970). Derveni:Themelisand
    Vergina:
    forparallels,109.
    (1997) 84 withliterature
    Touratsoglou
    20On 'soldier's'knives,Markle(1980), (1982).
    21 Frazer
    (1898) 6.210; also Journaldes Dbats,
    quotedinRev.Arch1880,2.182-3,lurid;New YorkTimes
    9 January
    1881,p.4 (fromTheAthenaeum).
    22Mentionedin
    pre-WWIIguidesto Greece:forinundKleinasien
    Griechenland
    stance,MeyersReisebcher.
    (1901) 170; Macmillan's Guide to Greece (1908) 78
    (quotedas an epigraphto thispaper);GuideBleu. Grce
    is also attested
    bythepaper
    (1935) 119. Theprovenance
    tagsleftwiththeboxesinwhichthematerialwas packed
    in 1940('thirdsarcophagus
    room');theboxesstillcontain
    brokenglassfromthecase. The materialwas notexhibin guidebooks).
    itedafterthewar(nevermentioned
    23Inv.no.A.X.28 A /
    I, II, IV,V,VI, VIII.
    Xcupcoveioc
    I examinedthismaterialin 2005 and 2006: now 6 skulls

    (encasedinplaster)andpartsoftwomore,andan assortmentofbonesfromthelowerlimbs(includingtwofeet).
    M. Listonkindlysharedherobservations;I remainrehere(andamguiltyofthe
    sponsiblefortheinterpretations
    usedby
    thanperimortem
    rather
    circa-mortem,
    expression
    enA further
    forensic
    skeleton,
    entirely
    anthropologists).
    cased in plaster,has turnedup in theNationalArchaeological Museum(in theceramicscollection,inv.9802:
    underthisinv.numberin
    and misunderstood
    mentioned
    theGuideBleu (1935) 119 as a 'castofa skeleton').There
    andperhapsa third,
    is a secondskeleton,
    waiting
    probably
    see n.76.
    tobe rediscovered:
    164, 171-8.
    24Ingelmark(1939)
    25
    (1939).
    E.g. Wakely(1997); earlierIngelmark
    26On this
    (2001) 64-70(I
    Baitinger
    typeofbutt-spike,
    toA. Jackson).Itappearsinthe'second
    owethisreference
    tomb'oftheBella TumulusatVergina(Andronikos
    (1984)
    37 fig.16). An examplenowintheGreekMuseumofthe
    ofNewcastleuponTyne(inv.Ill) bearstheletUniversity
    a sugofMaK(eovo)v),
    tersMAK,perhapsan abbreviation
    the
    recorded
    Foster
    Brian
    of
    13;
    Shefton,
    (1978)
    by
    gestion
    issue'. The hole
    weaponwouldhave been 'government
    measuresabout6 mmacross(8 mmat thewidestpoint,
    wherebone flakedoff).On theNewcastlespike,thediameasures
    undertheflange,
    meterofthepoint,immediately

    76

    JOHNMA

    a blowperhapsdeliveredfromtheman'sleftsliced
    oftheexcavator),
    to giveitthenomenclature
    fromtempleto templeacrossthetopoftheforehead,shearingofftheface(Plate 4(c)): thisis
    drivingpasthimin a mleand
    againstan infantryman,
    fighting
    compatiblewitha cavalryman
    thechargeoftheBritish
    heavycavalry
    during
    hackingdownbackhanded.Suchblowsarerecorded
    the
    finds- from
    are
    Five
    at
    Waterloo.27
    d'Erlon's
    (?)
    javelin
    points
    preserved
    among
    corps
    against
    thebodies,orsweptintothegravewiththefill? Hundredsof 'bonebuttons'areprobablyeyelets
    to individualskeletons
    sandals':thefindswererecordedby proximity
    fromtrochades,'running
    (Plate 6(a)).28 The mendied,and wereburied,withtheirbootson. At leastsomeof thehead
    woundsmighthave been producedby thekopis,theslashingsabreto whoseblows a forward
    - exactlythetyperepresented
    centreof gravitylentextramomentum
    by ironblades fromthe
    swordcutsgivedirectevidencefortacticsand
    Macedonianmassgrave.The tracesofnumerous
    inLivy(derived
    inaction;thewoundsuffered
    an indication
    by 'Gamma16' contradicts
    weaponry
    feltbyMacedoniansbeforetheRomangladius.29
    fromPolybios)aboutthehorror
    Froma thigh-bone
    (possiblybelongingtothesamemanas theskullwiththecoupde grceto
    we havetheheightoftwoofthemen:both
    thebackofthehead),andthesole completeskeleton,
    taller
    measuredaround1.79m(5' lOi/2"),
    significantly thantheaverageGreekmaleoftheClassical period.30The sample(twoindividuals,
    one incomplete)
    is tiny,
    butitis at leastlikelythatthe
    Thebanfull-time
    cracktroopswerechosenlarge. The pattern
    ofwoundsimpliesa lack ofprotectionofthelegs,andperhapsonlylightprotection
    forthehead. Late fourth-century
    Atticgrave
    stilai showhopliteswearingmusclecuirassesbutno greaves;attheriskofa hyper-positivist
    readI
    if
    the
    of
    the
    visual
    wonder
    Theban
    also
    eschewed
    and
    furthermore
    evidence,
    ing
    hoplites
    greaves,
    iftheyfought
    inthe'light'stylefavoured
    inthelatefifth
    andearlyfourth
    underPeloponcentury,
    nesianinfluence:
    pilos helmet,no greavesor bodyarmour.If so, theywereat a disadvantage
    Macedonianphalanx.31
    againsttheheavilyarmoured,
    sarissa-equipped
    The archaeological
    materialgivesdirectaccess to an ancientbattle- weaponry,
    Macedonian
    casualties,butalso theragewithwhichtheThebanswerecutdownas theyheldout. The encounter
    transcends
    thepornography
    ofviolence('fighting
    oftheancients'):themodtechniques
    ernvieweroftheremnants
    is experiencing
    a memorial
    encounter
    withan oldbattle- similartothe
    butalso totheexperience
    oftheancientinhabitviewingofrelicsfromWaterlooortheSomme,32
    antsofBoiotia,whoselifeandsurroundings
    ofteninvolvedinvoluntary
    battlefield
    archaeology.33
    Thearchaeology
    ofbattleis a culturalexperience,
    it
    when
    concerns
    monuments
    setup
    especially
    intheaftermath
    offighting.
    9 mm(thanks
    toA. Spawforth
    andA. Parkinforchecking),
    buttheholeleftbypenetrating
    woundscanbe smallerthan
    theweaponsthatinflict
    them,sincelivingboneflexesas it
    admitsthepoint(I owe thisinformation
    to M. Liston).
    dedicatedat Olympiahave
    Squareholesin bronzearmour
    beeninterpreted
    as butt-spike
    (1890)
    punctures
    (Furtwngler
    Anderson
    152-3;doubtfully,
    (1991) 24).
    27LifeGuardsman
    JackShawis saidtohaveslicedoff
    a Frenchman's
    face'likea bitofapple',inthewordsofan
    eyewitness,admittedlyin combatwith a cavalryman
    theEagle ofthe45th
    (Knollys(1876) 32); whencapturing
    Rgimentde Ligne, SergeantC. Ewart (Royal Scots
    theface'(and
    Greys)cutdowntwoinfantrymen
    'through
    onecavalryman
    theteeth'):Cotton(1862) 60'up through
    1; Dalton1904(1971) 258,Ewart'sownwords.Butthese
    sourcesperhapsdeservecaution.
    oft-quoted
    28Inv.no.A. X. 28 A /
    III (263 buttons,
    13
    Xaipcoveiot
    buttons).The findswerekeptin smallboxes
    fragmentary
    labellede.g. It' ' veicpo7, 'Row 2, corpse7', butthe
    originalclassificationis not preserved. A piece of
    metatarsal
    (a bonefromthefoot)remainsattachedto one

    theidentification
    as parts
    button,
    fragmentary
    strengthening
    offootwear.On ancientboots,Morrow(1985),especially
    an 'unusuallycomplex'formof
    63-4,84-5on thetrochas,
    footwear
    (also Hdt.1.195for'Boiotianboots');on similar
    eyeletsfoundontheAthenian
    Agora,Thompson
    ( 1954) 515 (associatedwithhobnails,
    notpresent
    at Chaironeia).
    29Liv. 31.34.
    30
    E.g. Bisel (1990), on the 'grave precinctof the
    ofthefourth
    cenMessenians',whereadultmaleskeletons
    turyaverage 1.70 m. Thereare no good publishedandatafromBoiotia(suchas thecemeteries
    of
    thropomtrie
    Akraiphiamightprovide).
    31On the
    'lighthoplites',Anderson(1970).
    32TheMusede l'ArmeinParis
    displaysrelicsfrom
    of a Carabinierofficer,
    Waterloo,
    notablythebreastplate
    marredbythehugeraggedholes,entry
    andexit,leftbya
    cannonball.On Waterlooandon WWI I owe muchtopaandG. Oliverat a conference
    persgivenbyL. Yarrington
    on warandcommemoration
    (July2004).
    33Plut.Dem. 19
    ofthenameof
    (on thefolketymology
    theriverHaimon);Sulla 21 (Orchomenos).

    CHAIRONEIA338

    77

    III. THE MACEDONIAN TOMB


    ThemoundintheplainofChaironeiais a Macedoniantomb,buta veryspecialone. It is located
    in southern
    Greecerather
    thanintheMacedonianflatlands;
    itis collectiverather
    thanindividual;
    itwas setup bytheMacedonianstate,rather
    thanprivately.
    The sitewas locatedbeyondtheactualbattlefield,
    on thenorthern
    edgeoftheplain,closerto
    theriverbedthantheroadandthesouthern
    mountain
    wall (whichlies overone kilometre
    away).
    A pyrewas erected;theexcavationuncovereditsremains,
    withindications
    ofitsconstruction
    evidenceforthetypeofwoodused(themounlargestones,bronzeandironnails butno recorded
    tainson bothsidesoftheKephissoscorridor
    arecurrently
    notwellwooded). The 'Brandschicht'
    a
    sense
    of
    the
    size
    ofthepyre,butalso ofthedensity
    withwhichtheMacedoniandeadwere
    gives
    piledup.
    The graveofferings
    werenotspectacular:
    a fewcoins(one Macedonian),34
    someceramic,an
    some
    and
    wine,
    amphora,
    perhapscontaining
    strigils weapons. Thattheweaponswereburned
    withtheirdeadownersis provedbymanyofthembeingfusedtogether.
    Thereseemsnottohave
    been anydefensiveequipmentamongtheofferings.Thereis also a completelack of precious
    metalor evenbronzevessels;eventhecoinswerebronze. The simplicity
    of offerings
    standsin
    contrast
    to otherMacedoniantombs,notablyTombII atVerginaandthecistgravesat Derveni.35
    The Chaironeiacremation
    reflected
    thepracticalcircumstances
    ofan armyon campaign.Defensive equipment
    was recoveredand recycled.Gold offerings,
    thoughpopularat home(and inlavish
    later
    after
    were
    not
    left
    behind
    in a massgraveawayfrom
    on,especially
    creasingly
    323),
    Macedonia.
    In spiteof thelack of Macedoniangold,thiswas a grandfuneral.The pyre,bedeckedwith
    andcremation
    arebothattested
    inMaceweapons,madeforan impressive
    spectacle.Inhumation
    and
    connotadonia;nonetheless,
    cremation,
    complex costly,probablyhad heroizing,
    heightened
    as fighters,
    thusgeneralizing
    aristocratic
    warrior
    tions;theweaponsemphasizedtheiridentity
    theMacepracticesand valuesto thedead ofthewholearmy.The grandfuneraldistinguished
    doniandead fromthehastierburialsoftheiropponents.36
    The cremation
    was partofa widerset
    ofgestures.In hisaccountofthebattleDiodorostellsus explicitly
    ofvictory
    andhence
    sacrifices,
    andhonourspaid to thefallen.37
    Theseritualsconstitute
    thenomosandkosmosforthe
    feasting,
    dead,to use Arrian's wordsin describingmilitaryfuneralsperformed
    byAlexanderafterhis
    victories.38
    Arrianhelpsus expandDiodoros'baldmention
    of 'honours':thekosmosmighthave
    includeda paradeofthewholearmyin fullarray,
    perhapsevena funerary
    agon,hippieandgymnic. All theseritualsexplainthechoiceofthesiteforthecremation:
    theMacedonianarmyneeded
    tensofthousands
    ofmen. Iftheroadattested
    openspacefortheevents,involving
    archaeologicsouth
    of
    the
    existed
    in
    it
    have
    servedbothforthegathering
    ofthebod338, might
    ally
    Kephissos39
    ies andforthemovements
    ofmenandhorsesduringthepost-battle
    celebrations.
    was followedby monumentalization.
    The remainsofthepyrewerecoveredby a
    Ceremony
    mound:in 1902 Sotiriadismeasureditas 7 m highandno less than70 m across. As a comparisows is 9 m highbutonly50 m across;theaveragedimensions
    ofthetumuli
    son,theMarathon
    in theVerginanecropolisare 20 m in diameterand at most3 m in height;thegreattumulus(a
    TheChaironeiamoundis locatedintheuppersizespecialcase) is 110m acrossand 12mhigh.40
    a
    monumental
    both
    southern
    GreekandbyMacedonianstandards.The
    structure, by
    range: large,
    earthwas removedfromthesurroundings
    of thepyre:Sotiriadiscould stilldetectthebroad
    34Sotiriadis
    37Diod.17.86.6.
    (1902), (1903), (1904) 50.
    35Andronikos
    38Arrian,
    Anabasis1.16.5,2.12.1,5.20,5.25.6.
    (1982); Themelisand Touratsoglou
    (1997).
    39Aravantinos(1993).
    36See below
    40Andronikos
    pp. 82-3fortheThebans;also Sotiriadis
    (1982) 188, 192. The forty-cubit-high
    Alex. 56 forDemaratosof
    (1904) 50-1 fora mass gravefoundclose to therailway moundrecordedby Plutarch,
    Corinthis unparalleled
    track,'notfarfromthe[Macedonian]mound'.
    (emendto forty
    feet?).

    78

    JOHNMA

    after2,239years. The fillin themoundcontaineda greatamountoftile


    dish-shaped
    depression
    tothefourth
    andfifth
    inconcentrated
    and
    dated
    thesereflect,
    fashion,
    fragments sherds,
    century:
    a phenomenon
    wellknowninBoiotia,thescatter
    ofsherdsincultivated
    fields,duetothepractice
    ofspreading
    At somepoint,an urnwiththeashesofa cremation
    householdrubbishas fertilizer.
    was buriedin themound:theremainsof one or severalMacedoniansoldierswho died of their
    woundsafterthefuneral.
    The locationofthemoundprojectedmeaningintothefuture,
    oncetheMacedonianarmyhad
    leftthebattlefield.
    Itsposition,pushedforward
    towardstheenemycitiesofThebesandAthens,
    is aggressive:symbolicconsiderations
    determined
    thepositionofthemound,as well as ritual
    activities.The tombfunctioned
    as a victory
    monument
    anda reminder
    ofMacedonianpower:it
    acted as a trophy an institution
    whichtheMacedoniansdid nothave, as Pausanias states
    ofAlexander'sbattles.41Thereis anotherway in
    (9.40.7-9), and as is clearfromthenarrative
    whichthesiteofthemoundmattered.
    Locatedalongtheriverrather
    thanthehighway,
    itimitated
    theNeolithictumulusfurther
    it
    to
    which
    was
    connected
    the
    road
    west,
    perhaps
    by
    parallelto the
    river.By aligningthepost-battle
    moundon theold tumulus,
    theMacedoniansclaimedtheheroic
    statusforthosecrematedand buriedalongtheKephissos,by analogywiththeancientmound.
    claimedthesamedurability
    in thelandscapeas theoldermonument,
    withpolitical
    Theyfurther
    for
    Macedonian
    and
    its
    nature
    as
    heroic
    implications
    power
    project.However,theMacedonians
    didnotassociatetheirmonument
    witha pre-existing
    focalpointor landmark,
    butcreateda new
    intheplain. The visualimpressiveness
    landmark
    ofthemoundinthelandscapeis confirmed
    by
    theaccountof E.D. Clarke,who noticedits highprofileas he crossedtheeasternend of the
    theshapeoftheearthen
    coneechoesthegrandmountain
    ofParnassosinthe
    Kephissoscorridor:42
    ofthespotchosenexpressespower.
    background.The veryarbitrariness
    Theidentity
    ofthemoundwas remembered
    A nearbyoakwas associated
    bytheChaironeians.
    withAlexanderandthenightbeforebattle:thetopography
    ofthispartofthefieldsignified
    Macedonianvictory,
    bothinthe'pre-victory'
    stageofAlexander'ssleepbeforetheclashandinthepostbattlemonument
    ofMacedonianfighting
    TheChaironeian
    tradition
    shows
    poweranddomination.
    theefficacy
    oftheMacedonianmoundinshapingthelandscapetoexpressive
    The
    absence
    purpose.
    ofanysherdsaroundthemoundsuggests
    thefieldsarounditwereno longerfertilized,
    becausethey
    wereno longercultivated.If thisexplanation
    is correct,
    thefunerary
    andmonumental
    natureof
    themoundwouldhavebeenrespectedintheuse oflocal landscape.
    * * *
    document
    Sotiriadis'1902excavation,
    andthe
    Photographs
    showingthemoundclosetotheriver,
    workersdeep inside.43Some timeaftertheexcavation,
    themoundwas denselyplantedwithcyintheplainandis alsobriefly
    visiblefrom
    theAthenspresses:theresulting
    grovestandsoutdarkly
    Thessalonikitrainas it flashesby (Plate 4(d)). The moundis now difficult
    to visit. Heavy
    has eradicatedanytraceofthescoopingoutofthefillanddamagedthemounditself.
    ploughing
    Underthecypresstheslopeis steepandtreacherous;
    at thetopthereareno moretrees,onlythe
    hackedoutby Sotiriadis.Rushesspringout,tallanddenselypacked,like
    lip ofthehugetrench
    sarissas.Peeringbackat Chaironeiaclearlyshowstheunlikelihood
    ofanyreconstruction
    ofthe
    battleplacingthebruntofthefighting
    as fareastas thisspot. In contrast,
    theopengroundis suitable fora Macedonianmilitary
    withtheParnassosas backdrop.
    funeral,
    41See further
    42Clarke
    Pritchett
    (1974) 262-3. Diod. 16.86.6
    (1818) 179-80:themoundbore a Turkish
    mentions
    a trophy
    afterChaironeia,
    butthismaybe a slip; flag;also Wyse(1871) 160: Veryvisibleevenat a great
    thetrophyat 16.88.2is a metaphor
    in a speechby Lyk- distance... island-like,pointingconewiseup fromthe
    ourgosagainsttheAthenian
    generalatthebattle,Lysikles. plain'.
    QuintusCurtius7.7.14 mentionsMacedoniantrophies
    43Coolley(1904).
    underAlexander,
    butas partofa highly
    wrought
    speechattributed
    to theking.

    CHAIRONEIA338

    79

    IV. THE LION OF CHAIRONEIA


    Theothermonument
    oftheclashof338 is wellknown:thecolossalLionofChaironeia
    (Plate 5(a)).
    Itnowsitson a towering
    base bythesouthsideofthemodernroad- aftera complicated
    storyof
    excavation
    and
    re-erection.44
    discovery,
    on 3 June1818,by fourEnglishtravellers,
    JohnSanders,William
    The Lion was discovered,
    accountintheLiteraryGazetteon 24 April
    EdwardCresy(whopublishedan anonymous
    Purser,
    imThetravellers
    1824)andGeorgeTaylor(whoseaccountwas publishedforty-odd
    yearslater).45
    furand
    as
    of
    the
    Lion
    described
    identified
    the
    head
    byPausanias,
    largepaw part
    mediately
    huge
    theLion to theSacredBand, a piece of speculationnotfoundedon Pausanias.
    therattributing
    andtriedvainlytoobtainthemfortheBritishMuseum.The
    reburied,
    Theyhadthetwofragments
    thanthe
    Louis Dupr,who drewotherfragments
    Lion was seenin 1819bytheFrenchtraveller,
    Who uncoveredit in themeantime?
    head and paw discoveredby thefourEnglishtravellers.46
    leaderoftheEastern
    whomAli Pashaappointed
    is OdysseusAndroutsos,
    Onepossibility
    military
    butmistaken
    accountthattheLionwas blownup
    Stereain 1819;thiswouldexplainthepersistent
    in 1830sThebes).All publishedGreekaccounts
    insearchforgold(alreadycurrent
    byAndroutsos
    ofthe
    indication
    of
    theemotionsat stakein therebuilding
    this
    canard
    (a good
    strenuously
    deny
    in a crosssaw thegreatheadlyinggraffito-covered
    AfterDupr,manytravellers
    monument).47
    were
    of
    circumstances
    in
    the
    actual
    a
    low
    excavation
    brush-choked
    mound;
    discovery
    shaped,
    quicklyforgotten.48
    was consideredin 1839 by theGreekArchaeologicalSociety.49In 1842 U.
    Reconstruction
    torebuildtheLionalongtheplans
    theking,Othon,forpermission
    Welckersuccessfully
    petitioned
    financed
    a 24 fttallbase). Theprojectwas tobe entirely
    C. Siegel(involving
    ofa Germansculptor
    and
    the
    1843
    revolution
    of
    the
    to
    came
    The
    donors.
    ensuing
    griefduring
    project
    by German
    insultsbythe'uppityGreekmini-country'
    (Welcker)againstthe'greatGermannation'.Welcker
    enpassant
    A rebuilding
    atleastpublished
    projectis mentioned
    Siegel'sprojectforreconstruction.50
    were
    two
    of
    the
    In
    1862
    casts
    in
    I860.51
    Dora
    d'Istria
    writer
    the
    Rumanian
    largestfragments
    by
    takenfortheBritishMuseum.52
    withSiegel and the
    In 1879 theArchaeologicalSocietystartedafresh.Two archaeologists,
    studiedtheremainsoftheLion. Subsequentexcavationbytheephor
    L. Phytalis,
    Teniotsculptor
    P. Stamatakisuncoveredtheoriginalbase, and a perbolos,preservedup to thetop course.
    sent
    no humanremainswerefound.In spring1880 Phytalis,
    surprisingly,
    Duringthisexcavation,
    44Kawadias
    ofdis(1902) 27-32(extendednarrative
    Oikonomos(1938);
    andultimate
    fulfilment);
    appointment
    Conner(1979),
    local history;
    Lappas (1939), a truculent
    Clairofdiscovery;
    andcontext
    onthehistory
    illuminating
    mont(1983) 240-2,no.77d;Petrakos
    (1987); MallouchouDavidson
    Tufano(1998) 31 andn.84,231. Mostrecently,
    (2007) 249-53(inaccurate).
    45Vaux(1866) withCresy's accountfrom1824;TayVaux (1866) and exlor(1870-2) 1.109-14(reproducing
    pandinghisearlieraccountin TheBuilder,20 Dec. 1862,
    's mis(160) againstWelcker
    protests
    908). Taylorfurther
    ofCresy's accounttotheeditoroftheLiterary
    attribution
    Gazette,'Crawford'
    (whosename,alas,appearsas thatof
    oftheLion on themodernplaquerecently
    thediscoverer
    setup beforethemonument).
    46Thisis clearfromDupr's description
    (Dupr(1825)
    22-3, 32), and fromhis engravingof a Tatarbeforethe
    Lion (pl.17): thehead and whatseemsto be theLion's
    lowerfront
    (minusgenitals)arerepresented.
    47
    AlreadyMure (1842) 218-20; Gttling(1846) is
    e.g.inJacobsuitably
    scepticalaboutthetale;itis repeated

    Felsch(1969) 136, and Pritchett


    (1985) 136 n.133. See
    also Kastorchis(1875), an attackon 'theEnglishman
    [sc.
    thatthereconstruction
    forsuggesting
    Mahaffy'
    Irishman]
    oftheLion wouldbe an easytask,and thatthefailureto
    Greekneglect.
    reflected
    themonument
    re-erect
    48Mure
    d'Istria
    218-20;
    (1863) 1.95-6;Wel(1842)
    cker(1865) 2.55-6;Wyse(1871) 158;Flaubert
    (1998) 559;
    (1905) 223.
    Mahaffy
    49The
    in Praktika1839-40,88
    projectis mentioned
    {nonvidi).
    50Welcker
    (1856) 1-5;also Welcker(1864).
    51D'Istria
    (1863) 96 (proposalbeforetheArchaeological Society).
    52Times,12 December1862,p.4 (arrivalofthecast);
    of theLion of
    4 September1863,p.9 (exhibitedin front
    Knidos); Vaux (1866) 1; Smith(1892-1904) 3.442-4
    no.2698 (head,paws). Conner(1979) 140,believesthe
    cast lost(buriedunderthegreatlawnof theBritishMuseumsinceWWII),butitis infactkeptina BM storeroom
    me.
    informs
    as I. Jenkins
    off-site,

    80

    JOHNMA

    thefeasibility
    ofreconstruction,
    sankdeeptrenches
    and foundserriedranks
    againto investigate
    ofskeletons.Phytalis'
    and
    are
    and
    notalways
    soundings report extremely
    competent useful,though
    he
    includes
    a
    sketch
    of
    his
    finds
    the
    record
    the
    excavation
    of
    clear;
    completely
    onlypublished
    of thepolyandrion(Plate 5(b)).53 Stamatakisreturned
    to uncoverthewholemass grave. Six
    cratesofbonesweretakentoAthens.Stamatakis
    have
    contracted
    malariaduringtheexcamay
    he
    died
    of
    it
    in
    without
    his
    excavation
    notesarelost).54
    The
    vation;
    1885,
    (his
    publishing findings
    on
    how
    to
    of themonument
    or
    ArchaeologicalSocietydisagreed
    proceed(fullreconstruction
    oftheLion,without
    thebase), andtheprojectfaltered.
    simplyre-assembly
    rebuilding
    In 1894,an offerfrom'foreignarchaeologists
    and scholars',notablyfromGreatBritain(mediatedbytheBritishSchoolinAthens),to financetherebuilding
    was turneddownbytheGreek
    The CrownPrinceofGreece(thefuture
    Constantine
    oftheArchaeogovernment.55
    I), president
    ofthemonument,
    at all costs,in 1896;workstarted
    logicalSociety,urgedtherebuilding
    onlyin
    varioussetbacks.56
    Theprojectwas carriedoutbythesculptor
    LazarosSochos. Photo1902,after
    graphs,notablyin thearchiveoftheArchaeologicalSociety,document
    earlystagesofthework:
    theareawas cleared,theancientfragments
    thebase shoredup,a castsetup undera shed
    gathered,
    to serveas a guidetothereconstruction
    ofthestatue.57
    In 1904,theanastylosis
    was finished,
    the
    enclosurewallscompleted
    withone courseofnewstonetoprotect
    theancientstonework.58
    TheLionmattered,
    becauseitwas mentioned
    inPausaniasas themonument
    oftheThebanswho
    fellintheBattleofChaironeia:
    fromthebeginning
    theLionwas identified
    as a monument
    ofGreek
    It
    also
    offered
    the
    of
    an
    ancient
    more
    than
    liberty.59
    lion-monument, prestigious
    advantage being
    modernlionssuchas thoseat Lucerne(1821,fortheSwissguardskilledat theTuileriesin 1792),
    Waterloo
    (1826) orBelfort
    (1879). SiegelhadearliermadetheLionofNauplion,commemorating
    Bavariansfallenin theGreekwarof Independence.However,theexactcontext,
    apperanceand
    hencemeanings
    ofthemonument
    arefarlessclearthanitseemedinthenineteenth-century.
    * * *
    Whatwe nowsee atChaironeiais a monument
    of 1902. Theenclosurewall,preserved
    toitsoriginal heightin 1879,degradedoverthefollowingtwenty
    years.60By 1902 whatwas leftwas a
    mereoutline. The originalcoursesare now invisible,and all thatappearsis themisleadingly
    weathered
    laid in 1902,whichdoes notshowtheancientinternal
    cappingstonework
    buttressing.
    toa considerable
    Likewise,thebase,preserved
    heightwhenexcavated,seemstohavedecayedor
    beenplundered.Themoderntallbase,builton Sochos'instructions
    in 1902,is basicallythatproin
    1842
    he
    admits
    was
    a
    the
    posedbySiegel
    (which
    only possibility: mainpurposewas togivean
    idea ofcosts);itdoes notreston anyancientevidence.61
    The complex,steppedbase is typicalof
    53Kastorchis
    inMarch1880;report
    (1879),written
    by adis (1903) 325, fig.5. The castwas latermovedto the
    S. KoumanoudisinPraktika1880 (for1879),22-5; Phy- ThebesMuseum(e.g. Praktika1905,22; BCH 60 (1936)
    talis(1880); reportby Koumanoudisin Praktika(1881) 15),butis no longertobe seen.
    58Richardson
    16-18;Petrakos(1987) 53 fig.21, draftofPhytalis'plan,
    (1907) pl. no. 84 (fig.9).
    59Kawadias
    morecompletethanthepublishedversion(butextremely
    (1902) 29-30 (on thespecialmeetingof
    difficult
    to read).
    theArchaeological
    Societyof 18 November1896,andthe
    54Kastorchis1880
    (157-8); Petrakos(1987) 279-82. speechoftheCrownPrince).
    60Sanborn
    Stamatakis'illnessis reportedin theThebesSphinx,24
    (1897) 97 (also inCollignon(1911) 233 fig.
    June1879 (mentioned,
    in 152: 'photogr.
    de l'Inst.arch.');Bintliff
    probablyby L. Kaftantzoglou,
    (2004) 146: DAI
    Parnassos3 (1879) 623-4). I thankProfessor
    G. Korres Athens,c. 1900); ErlangenUniversityphotographic
    fordiscussingStamatakis'
    notes.
    archive,VS/XII OH (www.aeria.phil.uni-erlangen.de/
    55
    Brandt(1894) 46-8,describes
    BosanquetandTod (1902) 380. Thereis no surviv- photohtml/topographie).
    inthearchivesoftheBSA.
    theperbolos,butwithno indication
    on preservation.
    ingcorrespondence
    56Times2 December
    61The base is discussedin Jacob-Felsch
    1896,p.7; Kawadias (1902) 30(1969) 136
    1. The unsuccessful
    warof 1897 mayhave reducedthe no.241 amongancientmonumental
    bases, but without
    ofthereconstruction
    awarenessthatitis a modernreconstruction.
    The profile
    priority
    project.
    57Petrakos
    (1987) 99 fig.60 (fromseriesinArchaeo- of theSiegel-Sochosbase is apparently
    inspiredby the
    logicalSocietyarchive;see also,inthesamearchive,nos. 'Theseion',thetempleofHephaistosabovetheAthenian
    2218-21,2225-7,2894,3110,takenin 1903); also Sotiri- Agora.

    CHAIRONEIA338

    81

    in
    modern'statue-mania'
    (as seen in Sochos' nextwork,theequestrianstatueof Kolokotronis
    inAthenson StadiouStreet).
    front
    oftheancientparliament
    whichpartsoftheLion
    in front
    ofthemonument,
    itis impossibletotell,standing
    In addition,
    reconstruction
    topermit
    Therewereenoughlargefragments
    areancientandwhicharemodern.62
    ofthegeneralshapeofthestatue,as thecastsetup in 1902shows. However,thestatuehasbeen
    with
    as can be seeninthebackofthestatue:comparison
    withrecarving,
    patchedup extensively,
    fora massiveclamphave
    showsthatcuttings
    incontemporary
    thecast(documented
    photographs)
    Lion's snoutwas probin
    the
    mane
    have
    the
    lower
    of
    and
    the
    details
    addition,
    vanished,
    changed;
    ancient
    out
    of
    built
    a
    modern
    This
    is
    touched
    statue,
    (on a steelskeleton,
    fragments
    up.63
    ably
    ofcypresstreeson
    the
    barrier
    N. Baianos).64Finally,
    ofKavvadiasandhisengineer
    characteristic
    ontheMacedonianmound,
    Likethecypresses
    thereconstruction.65
    threesideswas plantedduring
    monument.
    thetreesmaketheChaironeiaLion intoa modernfunerary
    look like?Excavationrevealedan enclosure22.55 m wide,
    Whatdid theancientmonument
    13.45m deep,oriented
    NNW/SSE,surrounded
    bya wall 2.18 m high,andwithinwhichthebase
    oftheLion,3.65 mwideand4.30 m deep,projected.Thewallandbase weremadeoflocalporos.
    Thoughit does notseem,fromtheplanpublishedby Phytalis,thatthemasonryof thebase is
    The
    bondedwiththatoftheperbolos,itis likelythatbothbase andperbolosarecontemporary.
    executedin thesame
    topcourseoftheperbolosandtheuppercladdingofthebase werefurther
    itself.
    at
    Chaironeia
    from
    as
    the
    marble'
    'Boiotian
    Lion,
    quarries
    grey-blue
    thatsomeblocksfromtheperboloswallwere
    mound?Phytalis
    Wastherea funerary
    reported
    thewholeenclosure;however,
    foundatthefootofthewall,thusrulingoutanymoundoverlaying
    insidetheperbolosimpliedthatthesewereprotected
    stateofthebuttresses
    thewell-preserved
    by
    as a tumulusrisinginsidetheenclosure,withtheLion
    fill. Phytalisvisualizedthemonument66
    In the
    atThespiaiis reconstructed).67
    fromthefront
    slope(thisis howthepolyandrion
    emerging
    thiswas the
    theLionwas foundinsidea lowmound;butitis notclearwhether
    nineteenth
    Century
    remainsofan ancientmound,orbuild-upfromalluviation.68
    Thereis littleevidencefortheoriginalappearanceofthebase,whichwas despoiledofitsporos
    coreanditsgreymarblecladding.A feworiginalblockslie neartheLion; itis likelythatsome
    neartheancienttheatre.69
    ofthemarblewas reusedin thechurchofPanagiaand in thefountain
    The
    now
    much
    and
    reclad
    still
    fountain
    diminished.)
    originalheightis also
    exists,though
    (The
    The difference
    in
    1818.70
    level
    unclear.The head of theLion was foundjust below ground
    62TherecentcleaningoftheLionprevents
    J.L.
    theviewer atelyafterdiscovery)andthesketchby thearchitect
    and Wolfe(executedin 1821), both reproducedand combetweenancientfragments
    fromeasilydistinguishing
    Deltion 53 (1998); mentedon inConner(1979); theviewbyDupr(1825) is
    modernadditions(Archaiologikon
    in Collignon fanciful.
    Chronika2.1, 354-5); see thephotograph
    69Some of the
    originalblocks,witha characteristic
    (1911) 235 fig. 153. Iron clamps were replacedwith
    of
    x
    cm
    5
    bronzein 1960:BCHS5 (1961) 748.
    cm),
    alreadyappearon a photograph
    step(12
    63Sanborn
    showingthe 1902 (Arch.Soc. no.2225),andprobablycome fromthe
    (1897) 98 fora photograph
    wornstateofthehead;also Belle (1881) 132.
    top courseof thebase. As faras I can tell,theyare not
    64
    on
    Mallouchou-Tufano
    99;
    (1998)
    published.Theblocksinthechurchhavea steppededge,
    (1910)
    Armagnac
    measurements
    andKavvadias'policy. butof different
    ofmonuments,
    modernrebuilding
    (4 cm x 5 cm). Fountain:
    65Arch.Soc. 2225; also thephotograph,
    antient
    fromthesame e.g.Clarke(1818) 175('a beautiful
    fountain');
    Tayexseries,publishedin Petrakos(1987) 99 fig.60; Richard- lor(1870-2) 1.160 ('Of thepedestalI knownothing,
    builtup in
    son (1907) pl. 84; Armagnac(1910) 97; herePlate 5(a). ceptthattherewereseveralpiecesofmouldings
    ?) an ironrailing. theConduitnear').
    (mistakenly
    (1905)225mentions
    Mahaffy
    70
    66
    a plastermodelofthemonument
    Cresywritesthatthehead was foundby theroadPhytalisexhibited
    thatthe
    what
    But
    Street.
    onZoodochouPigis
    inhisworkshop
    hap- side,whichconcurswithKastorchis'indications
    his
    horse
    account
    of
    of
    the
    base.
    south
    in
    head
    the
    died
    in
    the
    model
    to
    Taylor's
    1909,
    when,
    lay
    Phytalis
    pened
    on theheadwouldimplythatitlaynorthofthe
    stumbling
    poorhouse?
    67Low
    (2003), based on Schilardi(1977); Clairmont base,undertheroaditself;thisshouldbe consideredemsincethereis no mentionof theincidentin
    no.48c.
    232-4
    bellishment,
    (1983)
    68The moundis difficult
    to recognizeon theearliest his,admittedly
    laconic,journal(Taylor(1870-2),1.109).
    evidence,thewatercolour
    by Taylor(executedimmedi-

    82

    JOHNMA

    betweenthetopoftheenclosurewallandthegroundlevelin 1879 is aboutonemetre.71


    However,
    thebase couldhavebeenhigher,
    ifalluviation
    didnotreachthetopofthebasebythetimetheLion
    felloff(perhapsbecausethemasterclampin itsbackgave out). At leastitis clearthatthebase
    stoodoutfromtheenclosurewall,becauseofitsheight,
    butalso itsmarblesurfaceandmasonry:
    thesethreefeatures
    have
    evoked
    a
    fortification
    a formwhichtheHellenisticmilitary
    tower,
    may
    writer
    PhilonofByzantion(86.13-18)recommends
    forthemonuments
    ofthewardead.
    Theperboloswall does notreston a foundation
    buton a wide,shallowfoundation
    trench,
    course,one blockthickandthreeblockswide;accordingto Phytalis'planthetotalwidthofthis
    courseis 1.95m. The reasonforthisarrangement
    is thatthebuildersdidnotwishto disturb
    the
    massburial.A possibleexceptionis thebase of theLion,aroundwhicha soundingby Phytalis
    foundno bodies.72Weretheskeletonsremovedto ensurea stablefoundation
    undertheheavy
    stonelion? In thatcase, whereweretheskeletonsreburied?One possibility
    is thattheywere
    withinthemodernmonument.
    placedwithinthebase itself;ifso, theymaystilllie undisturbed
    Fromthepreliminary
    we knowthat45 cmbelowthefoundation
    report,
    layeroftheperbolos
    254 skeletons
    werefound,insevenrows,manyshowingthetracesofwounds;inaddition,
    inrow
    thecremation
    ofone
    2, betweenskeleton13 and 14,a 'heap ofbonesand ashes' mustrepresent
    manorperhapsseveralmen,placedthereat a latertime.73
    The finds,
    mentioned
    earlier(pp. 75-6),
    are modest:in additionto thebonebuttons(Plate 6(a)), therewerea fewcoins,someceramic
    Mostoftheskeletons
    werereburied
    under5 cmof
    (Plate 6(b)), andmanysimpleironstrigils.74
    with
    numbered
    the
    head
    each
    of
    and
    there.
    In addistill
    lie
    earth,
    one,75 may
    apparently
    plaquesby
    there
    is
    one
    stillencasedintheplasterusedbythe
    tion,
    completeskeletonfromthepolyandrion,
    excavatorsto keep ittogether
    and transport
    it: sinceitwas handedoverby theArchaeological
    SocietytotheNationalMuseumin 1894,itmustcomefromtheexcavationof 1880.76
    71
    arepresumPhytalis(1880) 348; Petrakos(1987) 53 fig.21.
    Archaeological
    SocietyinthePolytechneion)
    72
    Phytalis(1880) 348-52. Skeletonswere found ably lost; theyincludedtwo pots, a glass vessel, five
    'belowthebase' (mcoGevxox>
    hissound- bronzecoins(as well as twolegs andone skull). The ofKprimcouaio);
    werekeptintheNationalMuseumas inv.no.A. X.
    ingnexttothebase (rjonhisplan)revealednobones(even ferings
    to a depthof 1.90 m); he dis- 28 A Xcupcoveia
    IX-XI. Thereare
    thoughhe drovethetrench
    II, III, IV,VII (pottery),
    coveredskeletons
    ina row,'belowthebase' (mxcoOev
    iox> now14 itemsofceramic:3 black-glazecups,2 black-glaze
    mustmean'at a lowerlevel',rather saucers,9 commonone-handled
    bowls. The pottery
    was
    aGpoi)). KoVccGev
    thanliterally
    'underneath':
    Phytalis
    ((1880) 352) executed seenbyUre((1913)23 n.4). Sotiriadis
    mayhaveconducted
    a sounding'under[lowerthan]thefoundation,
    at a dis- further
    soundings:in a postcardto P. Wolters(23 August
    tanceof 2.30 m fromthewall' (k on hisplan). I assume 1906)hementions
    sherdsfound'beimLwenmonument
    im
    andStamatakis
    couldnotexcavateunderthemas- theban.Polyandrion'
    Phytalis
    (Braun(1981) 3; manythanksto K.
    siveporos base (at thistime,over2 m high);however, Schlottforthisreference);
    theGreeknewspaper
    Skrip(21
    of two
    Phytalis'drawingseems to indicatesomething(a leg?) November1904, p.3) mentionsthe rediscovery
    underthebase,inhissoundingimmediately skeletons
    workonthenewbase. Thestrigils,
    intheir
    half-engaged
    during
    southofthebase. Thereis no description
    offinding
    skele- present
    beencompleted
    state,haveoften
    bythegluingonof
    tonswhenthebase of theLion was shoredup in 1902 cupulaenexttothehandle;thisseemsunparalleled
    (Kotera
    (Kawadias (1902) 27-32;Armagnac(1910) 99: modern Feyer(1993) containsno similarmaterial).
    cementfoundation).
    75Sanborn(1897).
    73
    76Kawadias
    oneskeleton
    Phytalis(1880) 350 (I amnotsurehowtoreconcile
    (1900) 82 mentions
    brought
    hisdiscovery
    ofskeletons
    ata depthof45 cm,withthe40 toAthens(thoughthereis no mention
    inPhytalis'andStacmhe mentions
    as separating
    forexamvirginearthfromthelowest matakis'reports).I thankR. Proskynitopoulou
    courseofthebase,348). I wonderifthe45 cmarein fact iningtherelevant
    recordsoftheNationalMuseum.There
    measuredfromthedeepestlevelreachedby Stamatakis' areprobablytwoskeletonsfromthegrave:theBaedeker
    firstexcavationof theperbolos,so thatthe skeletons for1905(Eng.trans.),88,mentions
    indications
    oftrauma
    wouldhavebeenfoundat a depthof85 cm(40 + 45); but on 'no.9801' (yetunlocated),
    whereastheskeleton
    recently
    thisdoesnotseemtobe whatPhytalissays. (The account rediscovered
    attheNationalMuseumis cataloguedas no.
    inRev Arch.1880,2.182-3,wrongly
    mentions 9802 - and,beingentirely
    encasedin plaster,could not
    reproduced
    a depthof4 m.)
    haveshowntracesofwounds.HitzigandBttner
    intheir
    74The finds
    attribute
    these
    broughtby Phytalisto theVarvakeion noteon Paus., 3 (1907) 522, mistakenly
    School (and probablylatertakento thecollectionof the skeletonstotheMacedonianmound.

    CHAIRONEIA338

    83

    reflects
    theunfavourable
    circumstances
    ofThebesafterthebatthancremation,
    Burial,rather
    has
    is thepolyandrionof theThebans. The statement
    tle. Pausaniasstatesthatthemonument
    the
    construction
    would
    not
    have
    allowed
    on
    been
    sometimes
    challenged politicalgrounds:Philip
    infunerary
    thedistancefromthe
    Butthedifference
    afterChaironeia.77
    ofthismonument
    practice,
    andthepoverty
    ofgravegoods,all argue
    moundandthelikelysiteofthepost-battle
    ceremonies,
    againstthegravebeingMacedoniandespitean overlapinmaterialgoods(bothpolyandriashow
    must
    theexplanation
    thesamepottery,
    black-glazeflutedcups,andthesametypeofironstrigils;
    be thattheMacedonianscollectedtheseofferings
    locally).78
    cannotbe strictly
    However,manymorethan255 Thebansfellinbattle;Pausanias'information
    thatthegraveis
    it
    assumed
    was
    has
    been
    the
    Lion
    From
    the
    moment
    correct.
    discovered,
    widely
    ofcracktroops,famousfor
    detachment
    full-time
    thatoftheTheban'SacredBand',the300-strong
    Band was wipedoutat
    Since
    the
    itspartin BoiotianandThebanvictoriesofthefourth
    century.
    themissing45
    in
    makes
    the
    identification
    the
    number
    of
    dead
    the
    attractive;
    Chaironeia,
    grave
    orsimplybodiesthatwerenotfoundon thebattlefield.
    couldbe survivors,
    members
    oftheKadThe 'SacredBand' or 'CityCompany'ofThebeswas foundedaftertheliberation
    meia in 378.79It foughtagainsttheSpartangarrisonsin Boiotia,and won a notablevictoryat
    atLeuktrain371,andinthesubroleinthevictory
    playedan important
    Tegyrain375; itprobably
    sequentinvasionsof Lakonia. But a Thebanlitetroophad existedearlier.A groupof 'chosen
    Thebans',withtheirown leader,had alreadylefta dedicationat Tanagrac. 600. A 300-strong
    at Plataia in 479; thesame fateprobablybefellthelite
    and been destroyed,
    bandhad fought,
    Thebantroopswho endured'unbearablegrief at OinophytawhentheAtheniansconquered
    whenBoiotiafreeditselfin446,andfought
    recreated
    Boiotiain458. Thelitebandwas probably
    in
    in
    battleofDelion.80The unitdisappeared
    the
    Athenian
    invasion
    an
    424,
    victoriously
    against
    in
    beforebeingrecreated
    taken
    over
    a
    whenThebeswas
    garrison,
    by pro-Spartan
    again,probably
    and specifically
    378. The SacredBand was associatedwiththevicissitudesof Thebanhistory,
    culture
    The
    after
    defeat.
    of
    Theban
    the
    of
    withtheconstant
    military
    power
    re-emergence
    possibility
    the
    reflects
    and
    heroic
    oftheSacredBand,centredaroundathletictraining,
    titles,
    homosexuality
    the
    unit:
    the
    natureof
    butalso thecommemorative
    Thebes,81
    politicalprojectoffourth-century
    to use theconceptdevelopedby P. Nora
    SacredBand was a 'siteofmemory',lieu de mmoire,
    to theancientworld).
    (andwhichcan be appliedfruitfully
    soldiers
    was simple,butitslocationwas visibleandsignificant.
    Theban
    lite
    Theburialofthe
    ofthegreathighwayfromThebes,the
    It was sitedat thefocalpointoftheplain,theconfluence
    to Lebadeiaoverthe'Keratapass', andtheLykouresi
    short-cut
    valley. Thislocationat a crossofthebattle.As suggestedabove (p. 74), itis possiblethatthe
    thetopography
    roadsmayreflect
    to
    laststandoftheSacredBandtookplace on thealliedleft;theSacredBandwouldhavefought
    towardstheKerata.Themassburialcouldhavetakenplaceclosetothisdramatic
    covertheretreat
    theclockback
    site:itis lockedin an emotionaltopography,
    recallingtheGreekalliance,setting
    the
    went
    before
    the
    the
    to 'pre-battle'
    time, starting
    wrong.Specifically, graveis close
    day
    point
    theroad,at
    to a shrineofHerakles,probablyatthechapelofH. Paraskevion a ridgeoverlooking
    liteis buriednearto a shrineofthe
    thestartoftheLykouressivalley.82The Thebanmilitary
    77Costanzi
    (1923) arguesfortheLion beinga MacebelievesAnth.Pal 9.288,a
    he further
    donianmonument;
    a
    dedication
    under
    fictional
    by Philipand alludepigram
    ingtoDem. Cor.208,torefertotheLion. See also Hammond(1973) 553-7.
    78Sotiriadis,in his
    postcardto P. Wolters(Braun
    (1981) 3), declares the potteryfromthe Macedonian
    tobe thesame(Kabirion
    tumulusandtheLionmonument
    ware).
    79Plut.
    (1970) fortheTheban
    Pelopidas18;Anderson
    criticism
    Bandinitscontext.Leito(2002) offers
    salutary

    butlendstoo muchvalueto Xenophon's


    of thetradition,
    on V.D. Hanson'sminimalist
    silenceandis toodependent
    ofLeuktra.See nowDavidson(2007) 249interpretation
    53.
    80'ChosenThebans':NomimaI, no.70. Plataia:Hdt.
    PindarIsthmian
    7; bothpassagesaredis9.67; Oinophyta:
    cussedinKirsten(1984) 100. Delion:Diod. 12.70.
    81On thelinkbetweenTheban
    affirmation
    and
    military
    Herakles,Ritter(2002) 102-20.
    82Sotiriadis
    (1904) 45-50.

    84

    JOHNMA

    ThebanherocloselyassociatedwithBoiotianmilitarism
    inthefourth
    century.UnliketheMacedonianmound,setup ina virginsitecreating
    itsownspatialmeanings,
    theThebangravemeshes
    withpre-existing
    topography.
    - butwhenexactly?After
    Thestonelionandperboloscamelater
    thedefeat,
    Thebeswastreated
    exceptionally
    harshly.The litewas decimatedby exile and execution,and a pro-Macedonian
    faction
    atthesametimePhilipresurrected
    Boiotiancitieswitha strong
    anti-Theban
    installed;
    past,
    The
    faction
    was expelledin335,as ThebesrePlataiai,Orchomenos,
    Thespiai.83 pro-Macedonian
    reactedbyrazingthecity.Neither
    theyears338-335,northeyearofrevolt,
    volted;Alexander
    335,
    arelikelycontexts
    forthemonument,
    evenifwe cannotknowwhatPhilipdidortolerated;84
    inthe
    case of335Alexander'sswiftreaction
    doesnotleavetimeforquarrying
    a highperistone,building
    andsetting
    bolos,fashioning
    up theLion.
    Hencea lowerdate.85
    AttheearliesttheperbolosandLionweresetup after3 16, whenThebes
    was refounded
    suchas 'Kassandroswouldnothaveallowedthis',or
    byKassandros.Arguments
    'Thebeswouldhavebeenpro-Macedonian'
    cannothold.86Kassandros'policywas 'revisionist'
    and
    thefoundation
    ofKassandreiareversedPhilip'sdecisionto deprivetheChalkidike
    idiosyncratic:
    ofa strong
    urbancentre.Therefounding
    ofThebeswas specifically
    criticized
    byAntigonos.The
    erectionof theLion monument,
    with
    Kassandros'
    financial
    perhaps
    assistance,would fithis
    thecitywalls,wouldprovidea context.87
    The
    policy;Kassandros'visitin 3 15,whenhe financed
    monument
    wouldrepresent
    a veryvisiblehomageto theThebanpast,at a timewhenthecity's
    monuments
    and dedications
    werebeingrepaired.If Thebeswas re-integrated
    intotheBoiotian
    as
    late
    as
    c.
    as
    thiswouldprovidea context
    fortheLion:fifty
    285, recently
    Leagueonly
    suggested,
    andreyearsaftertheoriginalevents,at a momentwhenBoiotianunitywas beingreinvented
    inforced.Thougha monument
    to a Thebangroup,theLion was setup in theterritory
    ofanother
    Boiotiancity,Chaironeia,and exploitedthatcity'slocal marbleresources:ifunderKassandros,
    hisauthority
    willhaveenabledthisgesture,
    evenifThebeswas notyetpartoftheBoiotianLeague;
    ifc. 285, themonument
    was setup withthepermissionof theBoiotianLeague forthenewly
    Thebes.I cannotsee anywayofdecidingbetweenthetwocontexts,
    butanylaterdate
    reintegrated
    is unlikely.Thereis no stylistic
    whichrevealsan important
    argument
    againstthislatedating,88
    a memorialgap ofa generation
    ortwo,fortherawnessandviolenceofeventsto
    phenomenon:
    settleintosomething
    thatcouldbearablybe reifiedandmonumentalized.89
    Ifthissolutionis correct,
    itwouldexplainthefillbetweenthemassgraveandthefoundation
    oftheperbolos.Theshallowfoundations
    arealso understandable
    ifthemonument
    was builtupon
    a pre-existing
    massgrave.Theremightbe morebodiesoutsidetheperbolos:theexcavators
    were
    determined
    to cleartheenclosedarea,butmadeonlysoundingsoutsidethewall (threeskeletons
    wereindeedfoundtothenorth).90
    Is therean eighthrowofskeletons
    tothesouthsideoftheperbolos,wheretheexcavationdidnotclearawaythe'low tumulus'in whichtheLion was found?
    The SacredBandwouldthushavebeenburiedeightdeep,andthemissingrow(aboutthirty-five
    ofthreehundred.
    skeletons)wouldbringthenumberclose tothefullcomplement
    The sequenceofritualactivity
    on thesiteis therefore
    thefollowing.Shortly
    afterthebattle,
    thebodiesoftheThebanhopliteswereburiedin a massgrave,tightly
    packed,withfewofferings
    (butstillwearingtheirboots),in a phalanxofthedead. Thismassgravemayhavebeenmarked
    witha simplemonument
    Laterfuneral
    tookplace aroundthismass
    (nowirrecoverable).
    activity

    83Justin9.4.4; Diod.
    87Diod.
    17.13.5; Paus. 4.27.10, 9.1.8,
    19.62.2,63.4; Paus. 9.29. On Kassandros'
    9.37.8.
    urbanism,
    Touratsoglou
    (1996).
    84
    88On
    return
    ofthebones
    Philip'sremovalandsubsequent
    sculptedlions,Willemsen(1959); Vermeule
    of theThebanheroLinos showbothharshtreatment
    and (1972); Knigge (1976); MertensHorn (1986), (1988);
    'leniency'(Paus. 9.29.8).
    Waywell(1998).
    85
    89
    andmemory
    insaKmgge(1976) 170(notdisproved
    byMertens-Horn
    Mayo(1988) onwarmonuments
    52
    Mee
    and
    319.
    cred
    (1988) n.307);
    Spawforth
    (2001)
    landscapes.
    86Costanzi
    (1923) 63; Hammond(1973) 553-7,re90Phytalis(1880)352.
    tractedinHammond(1987) 237.

    CHAIRONEIA338

    85

    chosenspotoftheoriginal
    grave:thedepositofremainsfroma cremation,
    possiblyat a carefully
    burialofotherskeletons
    aroundthe'phalanx'.Othermassburialsmay
    burial;perhapsthescattered
    havetakenplace on thebattlefield.91
    enclosure(with
    Thirtyor forty
    yearslatera monumental
    was drawnon thearea ofthemass grave;itwas builtwithparticular
    colossalsculpture)
    careto
    avoiddisturbing
    theburial.
    The Lion's headis turnedto itsright,
    at an angleof40 degreesor so, whichgivesthewhole
    statueitscharacteristic,
    introduced
    dynamicstanceThisis nota feature
    bySochosinthemodern
    ofthemonument
    ofthecastfrombehindmakeclear).Whatis theLion
    (as photographs
    anastylosis
    of
    gazingat? One answeris ThebesandtherestofBoiotia;theLion's stanceactsas a reminder
    thedeadmen'scityandofBoiotianhistory.Butthereis a moreimmediate
    of
    the
    Lion's
    recipient
    attheMacedonianmound,atleastinitsgeneraldirection.
    The
    gaze. Itlooksacross,ifnotdirectly
    itforcestheviewerto lookoverhisshoulder,
    Lionrelatesthetwomonuments;
    tonoticethehuge
    Macedonianmound,to thinkofthegeography
    beyondthemound,ofthewaythemoundtriesto
    itsown meaningson thisgeography,
    thusturning
    theKephissosplainintoa memorial
    imprint
    Thistypeof 'intermonumental'
    meditation
    is wellknownin another
    sceneofconfrontation.
    conin
    between
    dedications
    international
    shrines
    as
    and
    the
    such
    text, competition
    Olympia Delphi.92
    In addition,
    It is probablycontemporary
    thechoiceofa lionwas significant.93
    witha colossal
    stonelionatAmphipolis,
    whosenatureandappearanceremainunclear.94
    The choicemighthave
    the
    beeninfluenced
    Macedonian
    turn
    of
    the
    head
    on
    theChaironeiaLion
    However,
    by
    practice.95
    is original:thisadaptationofthegeneralmodelofthesittinglion showshow themonument
    is
    embeddedin a local contextandin local meanings.
    setup by
    Therearetwoearlierlionmonuments
    nearby.The firstis thelionat Thermopylai,
    in honourof Lenidas and the300 Spartiates.96
    The Chaironeiamonument
    theAmphiktions
    andtheThebanlite,who also died
    parallelbetweentheheroicSpartiates
    proposeda historical
    in a nobledefeat.In 479 atPlataiathreehundred
    lite
    againsta king,forGreekfreedom,
    fighting
    forthePersianKing,
    Thebans- theancestorsof theSacredBand of 338 - had fallenfighting
    Greekfreedom;
    thepreviousyear,atThermopylai,
    theThebanconagainstthealliancedefending
    surrendered
    to thePersians,and itsmenwereapparently
    branded.The ChaironeiaLion,
    tingent
    in proposinga parallelwithThermopylai,
    erasedtheshameof themedizingof theThebansin
    thebattleof 338 in a pan480-479,an act of historiography
    throughmonument;it reframed
    branchoff
    Hellenicnarrative.The roadto Opous,evenifin ancienttimesitdidnotnecessarily
    the highwayexactlyoppositethe ChaironeiaLion as the modernroad does, connectedthe
    monument
    andThermopylai,
    Chaironeia
    actingas a visualcue fortheimpliedparallel.Thepathosforfreedom,
    ladencomparison
    betweenthedefeatbeforeChaironeiaoftheGreekalliancefighting
    defenceofGreekfreedom
    andtheearliervictorious
    duringthePersianwars,was madeearlyon,
    forinstanceat Athensin Demosthenes'speechOn theCrown,and in an inscribedepigramfor
    forholyGreece,inthegloriousfieldsofBoiotia'.97
    thosewhodied 'fighting
    is thepolyandrionat Thespiai,probablydatingto 424. The general
    The secondmonument
    at Chaironeia:a mass cremation,
    surrounded
    by a perbolos,
    shaperesemblesthearrangement
    coveredbya mound,witha largecouchantstonelion. The relationbetweenthetwomonuments
    becausethehistorical
    is unfavourable.
    is problematical,
    background
    ThespiairesistedtheTheban
    as a polis
    of
    the
    Boiotian
    after
    and
    was extinguished
    take-over
    378,
    (or consolidation)
    League
    91Sotiriadis
    (1904) 50-1.
    92Hlscher
    (1999).
    (1974); Jacquemin
    93On lionsandanimals
    ontombs,publicand
    generally
    private,Newton(1862-3) 2.2, 494-501; Frazer(1898)
    6.210; Lethaby(1918); Vermeule(1972); Stupperich
    (1977) 68-9; Vermeule(1979) 85-8; Woysch-Mautis
    (1983) 65; Koch (1984); Oakley
    (1982) 73-7; Clairmont
    (2004) 202.

    94
    Roger(1939); Broneer(1941); Millerand Miller
    AtticgravesteleforLeon of
    (1972). The fourth-century
    no.770; Woysch-Mautis
    Museum,
    (National
    Sinope
    lionlooksverysimilar
    (1982) 133no.358)withitssitting
    toboththeChaironeiaandtheAmphipolislions.
    95Ritter
    (2002) 121-34forPhilipII andHerakles.
    96Hdt.7.233; Clairmont
    (1983) 114-15,no.8a.
    97Dem. Corona208; IG II2 5226
    (theancientcontext
    is unclear,andthetextneedsre-examining).

    86

    JOHNMA

    inthe
    itwas resurrected
    afterChaironeia,
    andin335 participated
    soonaftewards;
    enthusiastically
    sackofThebeswithBoiotiansfromothercitiesthathad suffered
    becauseofThebes.
    Did theChaironeiaLion alludespecifically
    to theThespianpolyandrioriiThe latteris in fact
    andwas inunliketheChaironeiamonument:
    theenclosureis larger,
    containsa masscremation,
    scribedwithcasualtylists,in imitation
    ofAthenian
    thewar
    the
    of
    practice; verypractice burying
    deadathomerather
    thanon thefieldalso imitates
    theThesAthenian
    habit.98
    Ratherthanimitate
    at Chaironeiamighthavebeencouchedin a local idiom(mound,
    piantomb,thelionmonument
    butina rendition
    ofproblematically
    massivedimensions
    perbolosandsculpture),
    (thecrouching
    liontowersat 6 m high,incomparison
    withthesupineThespianlion,about3.30 m longand2 m
    seemsto alludetotheBoiotiangenre,butalso transcends
    it,as
    high).The Chaironeiamonument
    a reflection
    ofpreciselythoseThebes-centred
    tendencies
    whicharousedstrongoppositionin the
    fourth
    The
    Sacred
    Band
    embodied
    Theban
    and renewalmilitarism,
    early
    century.
    continuity
    problematic
    meaningsafter338, andevenafter316.
    Thefirst
    monumental
    thelionofThermopylai,
    enriches
    oftheLion
    intertext,
    anyinterpretation
    ofChaironeia,
    itintoa pan-Hellenic
    narrative
    ofliberty
    andremembered
    bywriting
    gooddeaths,
    in an actof selectivememory.The secondintertext,
    thelionoftheThespians,referstheviewer
    backto a bitterlocal history.The battleofChaironeiaandthedeathoftheThebanSacredBand
    werenotsimpleevents.The monument
    does notbearan inscription,
    as notedandpuzzledover
    thedifficulty
    ofarticulating
    whatthebattleactuallymeantfor
    byPausanias.Thisabsencereflects
    different
    Boiotians." Butat thesametime,thelackofpreciselyarticulated
    as would
    meanings,
    havebeendefinedbyan epigramora casualtylist,allowedthemonument
    to operateeffectively:
    itwas expressiveand 'obvious',thusmobilizing
    theviewer'sknowledgeintheacceptableforms
    ofwhathe wantedto remember
    or referto - thebattleagainstPhilip,thehistory
    of GreekfreedomfromMarathonto Chaironeia.At thefootof theimpressive
    butwordlessmonument,
    forandremembering
    didtheirwork;Strabospokeofindeterminate
    getfulness
    'publicburialsofthose
    whofellinthebattle'.
    V. CONCLUSION: IN THE SHADOW OF THE LION
    ThispaperelaboratestwoproposalsaboutthebattleofChaironeia:first,
    itdissociatestheMacedonianmoundfromtacticaldispositions;
    it
    downdates
    the
    lion
    monument
    fortheSacred
    second,
    Bandto c. 316 orlater.Unpackingthesetwosuggestions
    leadsto studying
    the
    commemoration:
    afterthebattle;theunfinished
    funercelebratory
    gestures
    bytheMacedonianarmyimmediately
    erecteda generation
    andhistory
    topresent
    itsmessage,
    later,usinglocaltopography
    arymonument
    butalso prevented
    these
    same
    local
    elements
    from
    its
    by
    fullyarticulating meanings.
    Chaironeiawas a muchmorecomplicated
    siteofmemory
    thanthesounding
    inthis
    performed
    forthedeadof338 mentioned
    Plutarch.
    Another
    papersuggests.Therewereothermonuments
    by
    battletookplacein245,another
    Boiotiandefeat,
    thistimeagainsttheAitolians.Yetanother
    battle
    tookplacein86,betweenSullaandArchelaos,Mithradates'
    tooka decisive
    general;Chaironeians
    andthenameofthetwoleadersoftheChaironeian
    wereinscribed
    partinSulla'svictory,
    contingent
    on thetrophy
    setup on Thourion.100
    Plutarch
    in
    a
    small
    Boiotian
    grewup
    polis denselytextured
    withhistorical
    monuments
    ofwhichtheLion,nevermentioned
    was onlyonepart.
    byPlutarch,
    The layeringofmemorycontinuesto ourday: theLion has a modernstoryof itsown. Its
    reconstitution
    was onlythebeginningofitssecondlife.'AltergewaltigerLwe
    long-desired
    von Chronea! Eine Thrnetratmirheimlichin's Auge, als ich vor Dir stand,Dir schnes
    98Low
    100
    Sotiriadis
    (2003).
    (1904) 50-1;battleof245: Pol. 20.4,Plut.
    99For modern
    see
    Rainbird
    on
    the
    Aratos
    16.1; Camp et al (1992), paralleledin therecent
    (2003)
    parallels,
    'BrokenHill Digger',or theacrimoniousdebatesabout discovery
    ofanotherSullantrophy
    at Orchomenos,
    as retheWorldTradeCentremonument
    in LowerManhattan. portedintheGreekpressin December2004.

    CHAIRONEIA338

    87

    unddochfrimmerverlorenen
    GriechenSinnbilddes ruhmreich
    kmpfenden
    altehrwrdiges
    it
    offered
    a satthe
    of
    the
    Lion
    was
    that
    was
    which
    lands!' Fornon-Greek
    broken,
    visitors, point
    tobe seen
    meditation
    aboutthevariousformsofbrokenness
    formelancholy
    starting-point
    isfying
    institutions
    ofnineteenth-century
    in Greeceold andnew;forthenationalarchaeological
    Greece,
    ofinheritance
    andidentity.101
    itwas imperative
    torebuildtheLion as partofa broadernarrative
    who had
    themonument
    seemsto have lostitsinterest;102
    But afterreconstruction,
    Mahaffy,
    the'easy' taskofreconstructing
    theLion,foundthe
    railedat theGreekstatefornotundertaking
    in
    is
    the
    Lion
    modern
    Greece
    another
    The cultural
    of
    resultbathetic.103
    topic;a pointeris
    history
    to
    'the
    of
    in
    1930
    as
    a
    set
    a
    full-size
    homage
    fighters 1821' in Vathy
    replica up
    providedby
    bypalmtrees.Back inCentralGreece,
    Square,surrounded
    (Samos),whereitstandsonPythagoras
    routetoDelphipassesthrough
    themodern
    Livadhia,leavingtheroadsideLionoffthemaintourist
    anddoubtlessenlivenscountless
    circuits.Nowadays,theLion gracesguidebooksandtextbooks,
    courses.
    Greek
    slideorPowerpoint
    survey
    during
    history
    projections
    - topography,
    monument
    butill-known
    HereI exploredwhatwe couldknowaboutthisfamous,
    old excavationreports(involving'journalsarchaeology')-and in theNational
    photographs,
    forwhichtheGreek
    ArchaeologicalMuseum(Athens),materialfromtheThebanpolyandrion,
    andon whichI practised'storea publication
    Servicegenerously
    permit,
    granted
    Archaeological
    hasnowbeensenttotheChaironeia
    roomarchaeology'.Thismaterial
    Museum,thustobe reunited
    withtheoriginalsiteafter125 years,and soontobe exhibitedagainafternearlyseventyyears'
    absencefromthepublic.
    ofcommemoration.
    aboutcultures
    invitesus tothink
    oftheLionofChaironeia
    Thearchaeology
    Theban/Boiotianmonutheincomplete
    ofthevictorious
    Theseincludethegestures
    Macedonians,
    such
    ortwolater- butalso modernarchaeological
    setup a generation
    mentabouta defeat,
    activity,
    ofcomthestratigraphy
    oftheLion. Exploring
    andlongdrawn-out
    as therediscovery
    rebuilding
    skullof 'Gamma 16'
    twoobjects. First,themutilated
    has led to ourencountering
    memoration
    tobehold,all thatremainsofa 50-yearold whoselife(c. 388-338)spanned
    (Plate 4(c)), terrible
    inBoiotia:104
    thistraceofhisviolentdeathraises
    revivalandmilitarism
    ofTheban-led
    theduration
    ofviolence
    andmeanings
    questionsaboutthe'faceofbattle',the'sharpend'ofbattle,thecontexts
    - to quotetheneurologist
    manifested
    man
    as
    'man's
    to
    Courville,
    bywounds
    inhumanity's
    Cyril
    but
    answered
    All thesequestionsarechannelled,
    ofhispast'.105
    oftheheadis a heritage
    tailored,
    Lion (Plate 5(a)), setoverthebodyof 'Gamma16' a generaalso silenced,bythemonumental
    abouthis lifeandhisdeath,in
    tionor so afterhisviolentend,andproposing
    multiplestatements
    and
    attheheartofthedisciplinesofarchaeology
    oftheparadoxesoftimeandmemory
    a reminder
    history.
    JOHNMA
    Christi
    Oxford
    College,
    Corpus
    101
    also usesE. Geibel's
    Hettner
    (1853) 291-7;Hettner
    at
    of thispaper:
    the
    on
    the
    Lion,
    beginning
    quoted
    poem
    theLion thereservesas an emblemforthefallof Greek
    to modernGermany
    andas a warning
    andculture,
    liberty
    ':
    ('0 schau'indiesenSpiegel| Schau'her,meinVaterland!
    on
    the
    151-8
    See
    Geibel(1918) 2.155).
    e.g. Wyse(1871)
    Lion andtheplainas melancholy
    (plagiarized
    experience
    inBelle (1881) 130-2);Mahaffy
    (1905) 223-4.
    102
    inaugLappas(1939) pointsoutthattheceremonial
    scheduledto coincide
    urationof therebuiltmonument,
    withtheFirstInternational
    CongressofClassicalArchaeology(1905), seemsneverto havetakenplace. A lecture
    byE. Norden,givenin 1928,is a lateexampleofthemeduninscribed
    itationbeforethemonument,
    yet'moreeloof
    in
    new
    than
    word',
    meaning thecontext
    given
    any
    quent

    Norden(1966) 555. Thereis a fourGermany:


    post-defeat
    in Gothicletterson theback of thebase
    lettergraffito
    (CDRE), whichI do notknowhowto interpret.
    103
    'ludi(1905) 225: 'greatdisappointment',
    Mahaffy
    crouseffect'.
    104At some
    point beforehis death at Chaironeia
    - perhaps
    teethtotrauma
    'Gamma16' losttwoofhisfront
    inan earlierbattle,ortheresultof
    thetraceofparticipation
    violenttraining?Thisindividualmighthavebeensevendurteenoreighteen
    whenLeuktratookplace,twenty-six
    ingthecampaignandbattleofSecondMantineia.
    105
    ofviolence,see Carman(1997);
    On thearchaeology
    Courvilleis quotedand discussedthere:Wakely(1997)
    ofdeath,Tarlow(1999).
    25; on emotioninthearchaeology

    88

    JOHNMA
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    PLATE 4

    CHAIRONEIA 338

    JHS 128 (2008)

    (b) SkullfromtheThebanmass
    grave,showinga coupde grce
    witha buttspike

    (a) Chaironeiaand surroundings


    afterSotiriadis(1903)

    (c) SkullfromtheTheban
    graveGamma16,with
    massivehead-wound

    (d) The gravemound


    oftheMacedonians

    JHS 128 (2008)

    CHAIRONEIA 338

    (a) The Lion


    (photoChr.Chandezon)

    (b) Phytalis'soundings

    PLATE 5

    PLATE 6

    CHAIRONEIA 338

    JHS 128 (2008)

    withbox
    (a) Bone buttons,
    and skeletonnumber:
    row5, fromskeleton16

    (b) CeramicsfromtheThebanmassgrave

    (c) The Lion


    the
    through
    stereoscope

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