Electric Heating

Prof. Tejas H. Panchal

Electric Heating
Heating is required for
1.

Domestic Purpose
Hot plates for cooking
Room heaters
Immersion heaters for water heating
Electric irons
Electric toasters
Electric ovens for bakeries
Pop-corn plants etc.

Electric Heating
2. Industrial Purpose

Melting of metals
Heat treatment processes
Moulding of glass
Baking of insulators
Enameling of copper wires
Welding etc.
The use of electrically produced heat is always
economical proposition on account of present low
cost and availability of electrical energy.

Advantages of Electric Heating

Free from dirt. It is a clean system requiring min. cost
of cleaning.
Does not product any flue gas. No provision is
required for their exit.
Simple & accurate temp. control can be made.
It is economical as electric furnaces are cheaper in
initial cost and in maintenance cost.
Automatic protection against overcurrents and
overheating can be provided.
Overall efficiency of electric heating is much higher.
Safe and responds quickly.
No upper limit to temp. obtainable except the ability
of the material to withstand heat.

Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer is defined as the transmission of heat
energy from one region to another as a result of temp.
gradient.
It takes place by the following three modes:

(i) Conduction

(ii) Convection

(iii) Radiation.

Methods of Electric Heating

Power
Frequency
Heating

Resistance
Heating

Direct
Resistance
Heating

Indirect
Resistance
Heating

Arc
Heating

Direct
Arc
Heating

Indirect
Arc
Heating

Methods of Electric Heating

High
Frequency
Heating
Induction
Heating
Direct Coretype Induction
Heating

Dielectric
Heating

Coreless type
Induction
Heating

Infrared
Heating

Direct Resistance Heating

Electric current is passed through the body to be
heated.
This method has high efficiency since the heat is
produced in the material itself.
This principle of heating is employed in:
Resistance welding;
Electrode boiler for heating water

Indirect Resistance Heating

Electric current is passed through a resistance
element which is placed in an electric oven.
Heat produced is proportional to I2R losses in the
heating element.
The heat produced is delivered to the charge/body
either by radiation or convection or by combination of
two.

This method is used in:

Immersion heaters;
Resistance ovens
Domestic and commercial cooking
Heat treatment of metals etc.

Arc Heating
The arc drawn between two electrodes develop high temp.
(about 3000 3500 C) depending upon material of
electrode.
The arc may be used in following different ways:
1. By striking arc between the charge & electrode or
electrodes. In this method heat is directly conducted and
taken by the charge. The furnace operating on this
principle is known as direct arc furnace.
2. By striking arc between two electrodes. In this method
heat is transferred to the charge by radiation.
3. By striking an arc between an electrode and the two
metallic pieces to be joined, as in arc welding.

Direct Induction Heating

In this method the current is induced by electromagnetic action in the body to be heated.
The induced currents when flowing through the
resistance of the body to be heated develop the heat &
thus raise the temp.
In induction furnace heat is used to melt the charge.
Eddy current heaters are employed for heat treatment
of metals.

Indirect Induction Heating

In this heating method the eddy currents are
induced in the heating element by electromagnetic induction.
Eddy currents set up in heating element produce
the heat which is transferred to the body to be
heated up, by radiation and convection.
This principle is employed in certain ovens which
are employed for heat treatment of metals.

Dielectric Heating
It is also called high-frequency capacitive heating
and is used for heating insulators like wood,
plastics and ceramics etc. which cannot be heated
easily and uniformly by other metals.
The supply frequency required for dielectric
heating is between 10-50 MHz and the applied
voltage is 20 kV.
The overall efficiency of dielectric heating is about
50%.

Infrared or Radiant Heating

In this method of heating, heat energy from an
incandescent lamp is focused upon the body to be
heated up in the form of electromagnetic
radiations.

This method is employed to dry the wet paints on

an object.

Resistance Heating
This method of heating is based upon I2R effect and
has wide applications such as heat treatment of
metals(e.g. annealing,
normalizing, hardening,
tempering etc.), drying and baking of potteries,
domestic cooking etc.
In oven where wire resistance are employed for
heating, temp. to the time of 1000 C can be obtained.
Following are the two methods of heating:
1. Direct resistance heating
2. Indirect resistance heating

Resistance Heating
1. Direct resistance heating
In this method the material or charge to be heated is
treated as a resistance and current is passed through
it.
The charge may be in the form of powder, small solid
pieces or liquid.
The electrodes are inserted in the charge and
connected to either A.C. or D.C. supply.
In case of D.C. or single phase A.C. supply two
electrodes will be required, while in case of 3-phase
A.C. supply three electrodes will be used.
This method of heating has high efficiency because
the heat is produced in the charge itself.

Resistance Heating
1. Direct resistance heating

This heating method is employed in

Salt bath furnace

Resistance welding
Electrode boiler for heating water

Resistance Heating
2. Indirect resistance heating
In this method the current is passed through a high
resistance wire know as heating element.
The heat produced due to I2R loss in element is
transmitted to the body to be heated by one or more modes
of heat transfer viz. conduction, convection and radiation.
This method of heating is used in
Room heaters
Bimetallic strips used in starters
Immersion water heaters
Various types of resistance ovens used in domestic and
commercial cooking
Salt bath furnaces
For industrial purposes where a large amount of charge
is to be heated

Properties of a good heating element

High specific resistance

High melting temperature
Low temperature coefficient of resistance
High oxidising temperature
Positive temperature coefficient of resistance
High ductility and flexibility
High mechanical strength of its own
Every heating element; with passage of time; breaks
open and becomes unserviceable. Some of the
factors responsible for this failure are:
Format of hot spots which shine brighter during operation
Oxidation
Corrosion
Mechanical failure

Materials of Heating Element

1. The materials commonly employed for low and
medium temperature services are:
Alloy of nickel and chromium: Ni = 80%, Cr = 20%
Alloy of nickel, chromium and iron: Ni = 65%,
Cr=15%, Fe = 20%
Ni-Cr is suitable for temp. upto 1150 C.
Ni-Cr-Fe alloy is suitable for temp. upto 850 C.

Materials of Heating Element Cont

2. For temp. above 1150 C resistors are made of silicon
carbide, molybdenum, tungsten and graphite.
Silicon Carbide is the basis of a resistor material
for operating in air for temperatures upto about 1500
C. The material is formed into rods of diameters and
lengths for combination into circuits of the required
electrical rating.
Molybdenum resistors are suitable for temp. upto
1650 C. This metal is ductile enough at room temp.
for drawing into wire for resistor windings. Owing to
its high vapour pressure, molybdenum is not suitable
for resistors of vacuum furnaces.

Materials of Heating Element Cont

Tungsten resistors can be employed for temp. upto
2000 C. The maximum temp. is limited by the
refractory supports of the resistor. The low vapour
pressure of tungsten makes it useful for resistors of
vacuum furnaces.
Graphite resistors are suitable for any temp. that
can be used. The resistors require protection against
oxidation above about 600 C. Due to the chemical
activity of carbon, special consideration need to be
given to the surrounding atmosphere.

Resistance Furnaces or Ovens

They are suitable-insulated closed chambers with a
provision for ventilation.
Used for heat treatment of metals, pottery work,
commercial and domestic heating.
Power frequency voltage is utilized as the supply
source.
Temp. upto 1000 C can be obtained by heating
element made of nickel, chromium and iron.
Ovens using heating elements made of graphite can
produce temp. upto 3000 C. Heating element may
consist of circular wires or rectangular ribbons.

 An enclosure for charge which is heated by radiation

or convection or both is called a heating chamber.
The chambers are used to:
i. Control the distribution of heat within the chamber
ii. Control the cooling rate of charge, if required
iii. Confine the atmosphere around the charge
iv. Store as much of heat supplied as may be practicable
and economical
Heating chambers may be of batch or continuous
type.
In batch type the charge remains stationary during
the heat application. The cycle may include cooling the
charge in the chamber.

 In continuous type the charge is heated as it moves

through the chamber. It is extended for more or less
cooling of the charge before it leaves the chamber.

It is recommended where flow of material is

reasonably uniform and continuous.

Temperature control of resistance furnaces

Following are the three ways by which
temperature (I2Rt or V2t/R) can be controlled:
(i) Voltage
(ii) Time
(iii) Resistance

the

1. Tapped Transformer: Voltage can be varied by

using tapped transformer for supply to oven or by
using a series of resistance so that some voltage is
dropped across this series resistor.

2. On-off switch: An on-off switch can be employed to

control the temp. The time for which oven is
connected to supply and time for which it remains
isolated from supply will determine the temp.

3. Variation in circuit configuration: The temp. can

be controlled by switching in various combinations of
groups of resistances used in the oven.
In single phase supply, various series and parallel
combinations along with some resistances being in the
circuit, others out of the circuits will give various
temperatures.
For 3-phase ovens, different connection with star-delta
arrangements will give different temperatures.
If the temp. is to be controlled automatically some
form of thermostat should be used in the circuit so
that it operates and switches out or switches in the
oven whenever temp. goes above or below a certain
predetermined value respectively.

 Protective equipment:

An instantaneous overload relay to trip the circuit at

10 or 15% above normal current
Fuses to provide protection in case of failure of
automatic control system
Maximum operating voltage: It is limited by
electrical insulation at high temperatures and from
safety consideration to 600 V.

 Efficiency and Losses: The heat produced in the

heating elements, besides raising the charge to
required values, is also to overcome the losses
mentioned below:
i.

Heat used in raising temperature of oven or

furnace: This loss can be calculated by knowing
mass of the refractory material, its specific heat and
rise of temp. (mcT).

ii. Heat used in raising temp. of the containers or

carriers: This loss is calculated exactly the same
way as for oven or furnace.
iii. Heat conducted through walls: This source of
heat loss is most important since the heat is
continuously conducted through the walls.

 Heat loss by conduction through walls =

k A (T1 T2 )
t

Where k = Thermal conductivity of walls, W/m K,

A = Area, m2
T1, T2 = Inside and outside temperatures, K
t = Thickness of the walls, m.

iv. Escapement of heat due to opening of door:

Although there is no specific formula for
determination of loss occurring due to opening of door
for inspection of the charge, however, this loss may be
taken as 0.6 to 1.2 MJ/m2 of the door area if the door
is opened for a period of 20 to 30 seconds.

Heat required to raisetemp. of

Efficiency of the oven

the ch arg e to the required value

Heat required to raisetemp. of
the ch arg e to the required value losses

The heat required to raise the temperature of the

charge to the required value,

Q m c T joules
Where,

m = Mass of charge, kg
c = specific heat of charge, J/kg K,
T = Temperature rise, K

The efficiency lies between 60 and 80%.

Design of Heating Element

The heating elements are normally made of wires of
circular cross-section or rectangular conducting
ribbons/strips.
Under steady state conditions, a heating element
dissipates as much heat from its surface as it receives
the power from the electric supply.
If P is the power input and H is the heat dissipated by
radiation, then
P = H under steady-state conditions

Design of Heating Element Cont

Heat radiated by a body, as per Stefans law of
radiation, is given by

T1 4 T2 4
2
H 5.67 e

W
/
m


100 100

__(1)

Where rad = Radiating efficiency

e = Emissivity
T1 = Temperature of hot body, K
T2 = Temperature of cold body(or cold
surroundings), K.

Design of Heating Element Cont

Now

V2
P
R

and

l
4 l
R

a d2 d2
4

V2
d2V 2
P

4 l
4 l
d2
l
V2

2
d
4 P

__(2)

__(3)

If H is the heat dissipated by radiation per second per

unit surface area of the wire, then,
Heat radiated per second = (d)lH
__(4)

Design of Heating Element Cont

From eq. (2) and (4), we get

P ( d ) l H

d V
( d ) l H
4l
d 4 H
2

__(5)

From eq. (3) and (5), we can find the values of l and d.

Design of Heating Element Cont

Ribbon type element:
If w and t are the width and thickness of the ribbon
respectively, then
2

V
V
V
V wt
P

R
l / a
l / (w t )
l

l
V2

wt P

__(6)

__(7)

Heat lost from ribbon surface = 2wl H

__(8)

(neglecting side area 2tl, as thickness is negligible)

Design of Heating Element Cont

Equating eqn. (6) and (8), we have
2

V wt
2wlH
l
t
2 H

__(9)
2
2
l
V
The value of l and w can be solved by solving
equations (7) and (9).

Induction Heating
The process of induction heating makes use of
currents induced by electro-magnetic action in the
charge to be heated.
Induction heating is based on the principle of
transformer working.
The primary winding which is supplied from an A.C.
source is magnetically coupled to the charge which
acts as a short-circuited secondary of a single turn.
When A.C. voltage is applied to the primary, it
induces voltage in the secondary i.e., charge.

 The secondary current heats up the charge in the same

way as any electric does while passing through a
resistance.
If V is the voltage in the charge and R is the resistance of
the charge, then heat produced = V2/R.

So to develop heat sufficient to melt the charge, the

resistance of the charge must be low, which is possible only
with metals, and voltage must be higher, which is obtained
by employing higher flux and higher frequency.
Types of Induction furnaces:
1. Core type or low frequency induction furnace
(i) Direct core type
(ii) Vertical core type
(iii) Indirect core type

2. Coreless type or high frequency induction furnace

Direct Core Type Induction Furnace

It consists of a transformer in which charge to be
heated forms a single-turn short circuited secondary.
The secondary is magnetically coupled to the primary
by iron core.
The furnace consists of a circular hearth which
contains the charge to be melted.

When there is no molten metal in the ring, the

secondary becomes open-circuited thereby cutting off
the secondary current. Hence, to start the furnace,
molten metal has to be poured in the annular.
Since the magnetic coupling between primary &
secondary is very poor, it results in high leakage flux
and poor power factor. For this reason, the furnace is
operated at low frequencies of the order of 10 Hz or so.

Direct Core Type Induction Furnace

 The melting is rapid and clean and the charge is

capable of accurate control as far as temp. and
alloying elements are concerned.
The inherent stirring of the melt ensures a greater
uniformity of the end product.
However, if the current density exceeds about
500 A/cm2, the current flowing around the crosssection of the melt, interacts with the alternating
magnetic field and exerts constricting forces on the
cross-section of the metal which may squeeze it to the
extent that a complete interruption of the secondary
takes place. This is known as Pinch effect(formation of
bubbles and voids).

 This type of furnace has the following drawbacks:

i. Leakage reactance is high and so power factor is low
on account of poor magnetic coupling.
ii. Low frequencies have to be employed as normal freq.
causes turbulence of the charge. This requires motorgenerator set or frequency converter.
iii. The crucible for the charge is of odd shape and not
convenient from the metallurgical point of view.
iv. The furnace cannot function if the secondary circuit
is not closed. This requires a complete ring of the
charge around the core. For starting the furnace,
either molten metal is poured into the crucible or
sufficient molten metal is allowed to remain in the
crucible from a previous operating.

v. It suffers from pinching effect.

Such furnaces are not suitable for
intermittent services.
On account of these drawbacks these
furnaces have become obsolete these
days.

Vertical Core Type Induction Furnace

Or The Ajax-Wyatt Furnace

Vertical Core Type Induction Furnace

It is also known as Ajax-Wyatt Furnace and is an
improvement over the core type of furnace.

It has vertical channel for the charge so that the

crucible used is also vertical which is convenient from
metallurgical point of view.
The top is closed by an insulated cover which can be
removed for charging.
Since it is a vertical core type furnace the tendency of
the currents to interrupt the secondary circuit due to
Pinch effect is avoided due to weight of the charge in
the main body of the crucible.

Vertical Core Type Induction Furnace

The circulation of molten metal is kept up round the
Vee portion by convection currents and by
electromagnetic forces between the currents in the two
halves of the Vee.
It is to be noted that the Vee must be kept full of
charge in order to maintain continuity of the
secondary circuit. For this reason this furnace is
useful for continuous operation.
The p.f. of the furnace is of the order of 0.8 to 0.83 and
it can be operated at power frequency.
This is normally used for melting and refining brass
and other non-ferrous metals.

Vertical Core Type Induction Furnace

With normal supply frequency its efficiency is about
75% and its standard size varies from 60-300 kW, all
single phase.

Advantages:
i. Consistent performance and simple control.
ii. Accurate temperature control, uniform castings,
reduced metal losses and reduction of rejects.
iii. Highly efficient heat, low operating costs and
improved production.
iv. High power factor(0.8 to 0.85).
v. Local working conditions in a cool atmosphere with
no dirt, noise or fuel.
vi. Absence of crucibles.

Indirect Core Type Induction Furnace

Indirect Core Type Induction Furnace

In this type of furnace, a suitable element is heated by
induction which, in turn, transfers the heat to the
charge by radiation.
In fig, the secondary consists of a metal container
which forms the walls of the furnace proper. The
primary winding is magnetically coupled to this
secondary by iron core.
When primary winding is connected to A.C. supply
secondary current is induced in the metal container by
transformer action which heats up the container.
The metal container transfers this heat to the charge.

Indirect Core Type Induction Furnace

The part LM of the magnetic circuit situated inside
the oven chamber consists of a special alloy which
loses its magnetic properties at a particular temp. but
regains them when cooled back to the same temp.
As soon as the chamber attains the critical temp.,
reluctance of the magnetic circuit increases manifold
there by cutting off the supply of heat.
The bar LM is detachable and can be replaced by
other bars having different critical temperature.

Coreless Type or High Frequency

Induction Furnace

Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

Construction: It consists of three main parts:
(i) Primary coil

(ii) Ceramic crucible(container) containing charge

which forms the secondary and
(iii) Frame which includes supports and tilting
mechanism.
It contains no heavy iron core. So there is no
continuous path for the magnetic flux. The container
and the coil are relatively light in construction and
can be conveniently tilted for pouring.

Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

Working: The charge is put into the crucible and

primary winding is connected to high frequency A.C.
supply. The flux created by primary sets up eddy
currents in the charge.
These eddy currents heat up the charge to its melting
point and also setup electro-magnetic forces producing
stirring action which is essential for obtaining uniform
quality of metal.

Since flux density is low(due to absence of the

magnetic core) high frequency supply has to be used
because eddy current loss, Pe B2 f2.

Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

However this high frequency increases the resistance

of primary winding due to skin effect, thereby
increasing primary copper losses.

Hence the primary winding is not made of copper wire

but consists of hollow copper tubes which are cooled by
water circulating through them.
As the magnetic coupling between the primary and
secondary windings is low, the furnace p.f. lies
between 0.1 and 0.3.
Static capacitors are, therefore, invariably employed
in parallel with such a furnace in order to improve the
p.f.

Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

Applications:
1. Steel production (Energy consumption is 600 to 1000
kWh per tonne of steel)
2. Melting non-ferrous metals like brass, bronze, copper
and aluminium etc. along with various alloys of these
metals
3. Vacuum melting
4. Melting in controlled atmosphere
5. Melting in precision casting
6. Electronic industry
7. Industrial activities like soldering,
brazing,
hardening and annealing in instruments.

Coreless Type or High Frequency Induction Furnace

Advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Fast in operation.
Low erection cost.
Low operating cost.
Can be operated intermittently.
Operation is free from smoke.
Charging and pouring is simple.
Less melting time.
Precise control of power.
Possibility of employing vacuum heating necessary for
precious metal melting.
10. Most suitable for production of high grade alloy steels.

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

In order to heat an article by eddy currents, it is
placed inside a high frequency A.C. current-carrying
coil.

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

The alternating magnetic field produced by the coil
sets up eddy currents in the article, which
consequently, gets heated up.

Such a coil is known as heater coil or work coil and the

material to be heated is known as charge or load.
Primarily it is the eddy current loss which is
responsible for the production of heat although
hysteresis loss also contributes to some extent in the
case of magnetic materials.
As eddy current loss Pe
B2 f2, this loss can be
controlled by controlling flux density B and supply
frequency f.

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

This loss is greatest on the surface of the material but
decreases as we go deep inside.
The depth of penetration(d) of eddy currents into the
charge is given by

1
d
2

109
r f

cm

Where = Resistivity of the molten metal

f = Supply frequency
r = Relative permeability

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

Since d 1

eddy current heating can be restricted

to any desired depth of the material to be heated by

judicious selection of frequency of the heating.
The supply frequency is usually employed between
10 kHz to 40 kHz.

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

Advantages of eddy current heating:
Temperature control is very easy.
The heat can be made to penetrate into the metal
surface to any desired depth.
This heating method is quick, clean and convenient.
Very less wastage of heat(as heat is produced in the
body to be heated up directly)
The equipment can be operated even by unskilled
operator.
The surface area over which heat is produced can be
accurately controlled.

High Frequency Eddy Current Heating

Advantages of eddy current heating:
The amount of heat produced can be accurately
controlled by suitable timing devices.

It can easily take place in vacuum or other special

atmosphere(whereas other conventional types of
heating are not possible in such places)
The work coils are not required to fit closely around
the object being treated.

Demerits:
The generation of heat is costly.
Efficiency of equipment is quite low(less than 50%)
Initial cost of the equipment is high

Applications of eddy current heating:

1. Surface Hardening: The bar whose surface is to be
hardened by heat treatment is placed within the
working coil which is connected to an A.C. supply of
high frequency.
After a few seconds, when surface has reached the
proper temperature, A.C. supply is cut off and the bar
is at once dipped in water.

Applications of eddy current heating:

2. Annealing: In conventional method of annealing the
process takes long time resulting in scaling of the
metal which is undesirable. But in eddy current
heating, time taken is much less so that no scale
formation takes place.
By this method temp. of the order of 750 C can be
attained in one minute(approx.) upto a depth of 25
mm.
3. Soldering:
Eddy
current
heating
can
be
economically employed for soldering precisely for
high temperature soldering where silver, copper and
their alloys are used as solders.

Applications of eddy current heating:

Other applications of eddy current heating include the
following:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Drying of paints.
Welding.
Melting of precious metals.
Sterilization of surgical instruments.
Forgings of bolt heads and rivet heads.

Arc Heating Arc Furnaces

If a sufficiently high voltage is applied across the airgap, the air becomes ionized and starts conducting in
the form of a continuous spark or arc thereby
producing intense heat.

When electrodes are made of carbon/graphite, the

temp. obtained is in the range of 3000 - 3500 C.
The high voltage required for striking the arc can be
obtained by using step-up transformer fed from a
variable ac supply(fig. .
An arc can also be obtained by using low voltage
across two electrodes initially in contact with each
other as shown in fig. (b).

Arc Heating Arc Furnaces

The low voltage required for this purpose can be
obtained by using a step-down transformer.
Initially, a low voltage can be applied, when the two
electrodes are in contact with each other. Next, when
the two electrodes are gradually separated from each
other, an arc is established between the two.

Arc Heating Arc Furnaces

Arc Heating Arc Furnaces

Arc Heating Arc Furnaces

Arc furnaces are of two types:
Direct arc furnace
Indirect arc furnace

Direct Arc Furnace

In this type of furnace, arc is formed between the two
electrodes and the charge in such a way that electric
current passes through the body of the charge as
shown in fig.
Such furnaces produce very high temperatures.

Direct Arc Furnace

Single phase direct arc furnace

Direct Arc Furnace

Three phase direct arc furnace

Direct Arc Furnace

A 3-ph direct arc type furnace consists of a circular
steel casting lined inside with refractory material. The
roof is provided with three holes through which three
electrodes are passed.

The electrodes used may be of graphite or amorphous

carbon.
Graphite has double the conductivity than amorphous
carbon and will carry 2.5 times higher current than it.
Though graphite electrodes are costly they are used
for these advantages.
To maintain desired length of arc the electrodes are
raised and lowered individually by electric motors
operated by automatic regulators.

Direct Arc Furnace

The voltage between steel and electrodes may be 40-145
volts.
The longer the arc, higher the voltage require and the less
the input of heat to the furnace.
Electric power is supplied in a bulk in the form of three
phase ac current at 6.6 or 10 kV.

A transformer set up close to the furnace reduces the

voltage down to that required for the arcs.
Its primary windings have tapping which allow for
adjustments to the arc voltage.
As the power supply is a three phase circuit, three
electrodes are arranged in an equilateral triangle over the
metal.

Direct Arc Furnace

The usual size of the furnace is between 5 to 10
tonnes, though 50 to 100 tonnes furnaces have been
produced. This type of furnace is used for making alloy
steels such as stainless steel.
The advantage of this furnace is that purer product is
obtained and composition can be exactly controlled
during refining process. Even though initial and
operating cost of this furnace is higher than other
furnaces, it is preferred over other types of furnaces.
Due to its higher cost its use is restricted to refining
than melting.
It operates at a power factor about 0.8 lagging.

Indirect Arc Furnace

In an indirect are furnace arc is formed between two
electrodes above the charge and heat is transmitted to
the charge by radiation.

Fig. shows a 1- indirect arc furnace which is

cylindrical in shape. The arc is struck by short
circuiting the electrodes manually or automatically for
a moment and then, withdrawing them apart.
The heat from the arc and the hot refractory lining is
transferred to the top layer of the charge by radiation.
The heat from the top layer of the charge is further
transferred to other parts by conduction.

Indirect Arc Furnace

Indirect Arc Furnace

In this type of furnace, since no current passes
through the body of the charge, there is no inherent
stirring action due to electromagnetic forces setup by
the current.

Hench such furnaces have to be rocked continuously

in order to distribute heat uniformly. For this
different layers of the charge is exposed to the heat of
the arc.
An electric motor is used to operate suitable grinders
and rollers to impart rocking motion to the furnace.
Rocking motion also increases furnace efficiency and
the life of the refractory lining material.

Indirect Arc Furnace

In this furnace, since the charge is heated by radiation
only, its temperature is lower than that obtainable in
a direct arc furnace.
Power input is regulated by adjusting the arc length
by moving the electrodes.
The power factor is about 0.85 lagging.
The capacity of furnace varies from 0.25 to 3 tonnes.

These furnaces are mainly employed for melting

non-ferrous metals. However they can be used in iron
foundaries where small quantities of iron are required
frequently.

Indirect Arc Furnace

Advantages of indirect arc furnaces:
1. Lower overall production cost per tonne of molten
metal.
2. Sound castings in thin and intricate designs can be
produced.
3. Metal loses due to oxidation and volatilisation are
quite low.
4. Flexible in operation.