Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pipelines Handbook
3rd Edition
ELSEVIER
ADVAN CE D
TECHNOLOGY
UK
USA
JAPAN
TS277.D53 1999
621.8'4-dc21
99-26575
CIP
Preface
11
vii
CONTENTS
Section 1.
Section 2.
Section 3.
Fundamentals
Classification of Valves
Basic Valve Nomenclature
Valve Selection Guides
Pipes and Pipelines-Definitions and Explanations
3
11
14
27
41
47
63
67
85
91
98
107
110
118
127
133
138
146
164
168
172
185
200
225
236
243
.....J
With over I00 years of manufacturing experience, Hattersley know that the differenc
between success and failure can be a fine balancing act. It's knowing business trends can
change at any time, that has helped Hattersley to stay at the forefront of the valve
industry, by developing and manufacturing hundreds of
different valves for a multitude of industrial and HEVAC
r-
0
u
Hattersley have the largest selection of quality vJives available: Bronze Gate Valves Cast Iron and Ductile Iron Gate Valves Knife Gat
Bronze. Cast Iron. Ductile Iron and Steel Globe Valves Bronze. Cast Iron and Ductile Iron Check Valves Bronze Rad1ator Vatvcs - Drain Taps -1
Bronze Ball Valves Bronze Plug and Gland Cocks Commissioning Valves Autoflow Bronze and Ductile Iron Automatic Balan em
Cast Iron Lubricated Plug Valves Eccentric Plug Valves Cast Iron Non-lub1icated J-way PlugValves Butterfly Valves Pop Safety Valves - Reli1
Diaphragm Valves Equilibrium Ball Valves GroovEnd Ductile Iron Valves
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CALL OUR
SALES TEAM ON THE NUMBER BELOW
QuALITY RELIABILITY
&
SERVI CE
Ass
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd Ormskirk Lancashire L39 2XG Telephone: 01695 577199 Facsimile: 01695
Em a iI: u ksa Ies@hattersley-valves.co. uk export@ hatters Iey-va lves .co.uk Web site: http://www. ha ttersley-val ve'
ix
Section 4.
Valve Actuators
Control Valves
Float Control Valves
Temperature Control Valves
Regulators
Section 5.
Pipes
479
497
511
522
325
339
356
396
427
443
457
462
465
Pipelines/Pipework
Pipeline Cleaning
Pipe Cutting and Bending
Pipeline Inspection and Evaluation
Jacketing and Dual Containment
Section 7.
249
280
301
306
314
533
556
572
584
601
610
628
637
645
658
667
682
Water Services
Hygienic Services
Steam Services
Fire-Safe Valves
Fire Hydrant Valves
693
718
728
743
754
Marine Services
Vacuum Services
Cryogenic Valves
Nuclear Services
High Pressure Services
Section 9.
759
763
768
775
784
Engineering Data
Glossary
Standards and Designations
Section 10. Author's Acknowledgements
793
800
851
855
863
865
867
872
Page Number
Company
Page Number
Company
Neles-Jamesbury
Neles-)amesbury
Neles-Jamesbury
B F Goodrich
Biwater Industries
Serck Audco Valves
Johnson Valves
Serck Audco Valves
International H wash en
Corporation
Fortune Manufacturing Co
Worcester Controls
Worcester Controls
Neles-Jamesbury
Orbit-Harwin Vi:!lves
Flow Safe. Inc
Tyco Valves and Controls
Argus
Argus
Neles-Jamesbu.ry
Neles-jamesbury
Neles-Jamesbury
Argus
Worcester Controls
Argus
Neles-jamesbury
Argus
Guest and Chrimes
Guest and Chrimes
Guest: and Chrimes
KSB Armaturen GmbH
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Neles-Jamesbury
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Neles-Jamesbury
Neles-)amesbury
l3aronshire Engineering Ltd
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Wouter Witzel GmbH
74 Figure 6
75
76 Figure 7
77 Figure 8
77 Figure 9
79 Figure 10
81 top
81 bottom
82 Figure 12
8 7 Figure 5
88 Figure 6
89 top
89 Figure 7
93 bottom left
93 bottom right
94 Figure 3
95 top
95 Figure 4
95 Figure 5
Neles-Jamesbury
Guest and Chrimes
Tyco Valves nnd Controls
Posi-Flate
Posi-Flate
Neles-Jamesbury
Tyco Valves and Controls
Tyco Valves and Controls
Charles Winn (Valves) Ltd
Quality Controls Inc
Quality Controls Inc
Quality Controls Inc
Nu-Con Equipment
OMBSpA
ASAHl/America
Hitachi Valve
OMBSpA
KSB Armaturen GmbH
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Brooksbank Valves Ltd
KSB Armaturen GmbH
KSB Armaturen GmbH
johnson Valves
Guest and Chrimes
OMBSpA
OMBSpA
m..mspA
OMBSpA
Johnson Valves
Red Valve Company inc
Red Valve Company Inc
Crane u Resistoflex
Crane'~ Resistoflex
Crane "!> Resistoflex
Humphrey Products
Kemutcc Powder Technology
Kemutec Powder Technology
Hopkinsons Ltd
Hopkinsons Ltd
8 top
8 bottom
28
29
42 top
45
46 Figure ()(a and b)
47
48 Figure 1
49 top
49 bottom
50 top
50 Figure 2
52 top
52 bottom
53 Figure 4
54
55 figureS
55 Figure 6
56Figurc7
56 Figure 8
57 top
57 Figure 9
59 Figure 10
60Figure 11
63
64
64 Figure 1
67
68
69 Figure 1
70 top
70 Figure 2
71 Figure 3
71 Figure 4
72
73 Figure 5
98
99 bottom
102 top
I 02 bottom
103 bottom
I 04 Figure 5
I 04 Figure 6
l 04 Figure 7
lOS
108 bottom
lll Figure 2
112 Figure 4
115 Figure 10
116 Figure 11
116Figure 12
122 Figure 3
124 Figure 6
l25Figure7
129Figure3
130 Figure 5
xii
Page Number
Company
Page Number
Company
131 Figure 6
134
135
136
137
146
147 figure l
148 Figure 2
149 Figure 3
150 Figure 4
151 Figure 5
152 Figure (i (a and b)
1 52top
15 3 Figure 7 (a and b)
1 53 FigureR (a and b)
154 Figure 9
154 Figure 10
155
156 Figure J 1
156 Figure 12
158 top left
15 8 top right
164 Figure I
165 bottom
16n figure 3
Bush-Wilton
Grasso
Spir<lx Sarco
Spir<lx Sarco
jo hnson Valves
Asco Joucom<ttic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco Joucomotic Ltd
Asco Joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco Joucomatic Ltd
Automatic Switch Co
Asco )o ucom a tic Ltd
AutomCJtic Switch Co
Automatic Switch Co
Asco Joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatiC Ltd
Asco Joucoma tic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco Joucomatic Ltd
SOC LA Dan foss Water Valves
Simon Ha rtley Ltd
Abacus Valves
Manufacturing Ltd
K. Controls Ltd
Sim on Hartley Ltd
Simon Hartley Ltd
Simon Ha rtley Ltd
Crosby Valve Inc
ltalvalvole/Zella
Apporecchi e Macchine
Idrauliche Speciali
Apporecchi e Macchine
Idr<~uli c he Speciali
Dezurik. a division ofSPX
Banjo Corp
Banjo Corp
Worcester Controls
SchuF Armatu ren &
Apparatebau GmbH
Schur Annatureo &
Apparatebau GmbH
Schuf Armaturen &
Apparatebau GmbH
SchuF Armatu ren &
Apparatcbau GmbH
K. Controls Ltd
Johnson Valves
Delta Pacific Valves
SOCLA Danfoss Water Valves
SOC LA Danfoss Water Valves
Johnson Valves
SOCLA Dan foss Water Va lves
SOCLA Danfoss Water Valves
SOCLA Dan foss Wa te r Valves
SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
DurablCJ Fluid Technology
Inc
192
167Fip,ure4
1 70 Figure 3
171 Figure 4
171 Figure 5
172 Figure 1
174 Figure 2
175 Figure 3
176 Figure 5
177 Figure 6
1 78 Figure 8
1 78 Figure 9
179 Figure 10
179 Figure 1 1
1 79 Figure 1 2
180 Figure l2
180 Figure 13
185
186 top
186 figure 1
188 Figure 3
188 bottom left
188 bottom righ t
189figure5
190 Figure 6
190 Figure 7
191 Figu re 8
19 1 Figure 9
193
1 94 Figure 10
195 Figure ll
19 5 top
19 6 Figure 12
19 7
19 8 Figurel3
19 8 Pigure 14
2 01 Figure 1
202 Figure 2
202 Figure 3
2 0 2 figure4
204-206 Table 1
207 Figure 5
208 Figure 6
209 Figure 7
210 Figure 8
211 Figure 9
212 Figure 10
2 1 2Figure ll
213 Figure 12
213 Pigure 13
214 Figure 14
2 14 Figure IS
2 1 5 Figure 16
2 1 nFig ure 17
217 top
2 1 7 bottom
2 18 Figure 18
2 18figure 1 9
2 18 Figure 20
2 1 9 Figure 2 1
22fi Figure 1
227 Figure 2
227Figu re3
233 Figure 5
233 Figure 6
235 figure 8
238 top left
238toprighl
24 0
243 Figure 3
244 to p
244 Figurt' 2
245 Figu re 3
24 5 figure 4
245 Figure 5
246 Figure 6
249
2.52
25 3
2.54
255
256
257
xiii
Page Number
Company
Page Number
Company
258
260 Figure J
260 Figure 2
261 Figure 3
262 figure . 4
263 Figure 5
264 Figure 6
265
267 Figure 7
268 Figure 8
268 Figure 9
2o9 figure 10
2 70 Figure 11
271 Figure 12
27 3 Figure 1 3
274 Figure 14
Shafer Valve Co
KSB Armaturen GmbH
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Neles-jamesbury
Shafer Valve Co
Shafer Valve Co
Bel Valves
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Rotork Controls Ltd
Hitachi Valve
Rotork Controls Ltd
Rotork Controls Ltd
Rotork Con trois Ltd
Rotork Controls Ltd
Rotork Controls Ltd
Dreamo Electro-Mechanik
GmbH
Dream9 Electro-Mechanik
GmbH
Rotork Controls Ltd
El-0-Matic International
Tyco Valves and Controls
Exeeco Ltd
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Dewrik. a division ofSPX
Plast-0-Matic Valves Inc
Severn Glocon
Guest and Chrimes
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Dezurik. a division ofSPX
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
APV / In vensys
APV /Iovensys
APV /lnvensys
K. Controls Ltd
Realm
Osmonics
Gemi.i Valves Ltd
SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
SOCLA Daofoss Water Valves
Emile Egger-Co. AG
Emile Egger-Co. AG
Asco Joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Asco joucomatic Ltd
Cmtis Wright Control Flow
Corporation
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sa reo
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Si'lrco
Spirax S<~rco
Spirax Sarco
31 5 top left
315 top right
316 Figure 3
316 figure 3
317Figure4
317 bottom
318 Figure 6
319 figure 7
325
326
327
328
329Tablel
330 l:igure 1
3 30 [:'ig ure 2
330Table2
331 Table 3
3 31 Table 5
333 Figure 3
334
275 Figure 14
276
277 Figure 16
2 77 top
278l:igurel7
280 Figure 1
281 top
281 bottom
282 bottom right
282 top left
282 top right
284 Figure 2
284 Figure 3
285 figure4
286 Figure 5
287 Figure 6
287Pigure7
288 Figure 8
288 Figure 9
288 Figure 10
289 Figure 11
2 90 Figure 12
291 Figure 13
292 Figure 14
293 Figure 15
294 top
294 Figure 16
295
296
297 Figure 17
297 Figure 18
298 l:igure 19
298 Figure 20
299Figure21
299 Figure 22
304 Figure (i
305 Figure 7
307 Figure 2
308 Figure 3
310 Figure 5
310 Figure 6
335 Table 7
336
337
338 Figure 4
339 Figure J
340 Figure 2
341
3 56 Table 1
357
3 58 Figure 1
359 top
360
361
368
369
3 70 top
3 70 bottom
371
372
3 74 Figure 4
378
379
380
384Table 6
391 top
393 Table 7
395
396
400-401 Figure 1
402
403 Figure 2
403 figure 3
404 Figure 4
405 Figure 5
405 bottom
406 Figure 6
407
408 Figure 8
xiv
Page Number
Company
Page Number
Company
410 top
411
412 Figure 13
413 Figure 14
414 top
422 Figure 15
422bottom
423
425 top
Biwater Industries
Biwater Industries
APV /Invensys
3X Engineering France
3X Engineering France
George Fischer
George Fisc her
George Fischer
International Hwashen
Corporation
George Fischer
Victualic
Metal Samples
Metal Samples
Metal Samples
Pi Conversion Engineering
Ltd
Pi Conversion Engineering
Ltd
Plascoat International
Dow Chemical Co
Dow Chemical Co
Biwater Industries
Dow Chemical Co
Dow Chemical Co
Dow Chemical Co
T. D. Williamson. lnc .'lj)
I.S.T. Molchtechnik GmbH
T. D. Williamson. lnc.QJ)
T. D. WiUiamson, Inc. 1'
T. D. Williamson. Inc. 1
T. D. Williamson. Inc. 1
E. H. Wachs Co
E. H. Wachs Co
E. H. Wachs Co
Tubelar Engineering
E. H. Wachs Co
T. D. Williamson . Inc. 1'
T. D. Williamson. Inc. 11
T. D. Williamson. Inc.'1'
T. D. Williamson . Inc. 1 ' '
T. D. \1\'illiamson. Inc.m>
Radiodetection
Oyno-Rod
Dyno-Rod
Cabletime Systems Ltd
Radiodet.ection
Sharer Valve Co
Controls Southeast I oc
Controls Southeast Inc
Controls Southeast Inc
Controls Southeast Inc
Controls Southeast Inc
International Plastic Systems
Ltd
Enfield Industrial
Corporatioo
Spirax Sarco
Weir Pumps
Weir Pumps
656Table2
661 Figure 5
665
668
670 Figure 1
670 Figure 2
671Figure3
672 Figure4
672 Figure 5
673 Figure 6
673 Figure 7
674 Figure 8
674 Figure 9
675 Figure 10
Spirax Sarco
Kent Process Control
Dresser Valve Division
Neles-Jamesbury
Neles-Jamesbury
Fisher Rosemount
Fisher Rosemount
Fisher Rosemount
Fisher Rosemount
Fisher Rosemount
Fisher Rosemount
Neles-Jumesbury
Neles-Jamesbury
Neles-J amesbury
Crosby Valve Inc
Engineering Applications Ltd
Engineering Applications Ltd
Engineering Applications Ltd
Engineering Applications Ltd
Tour+ Andersson AB
SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
Spirax Sarco
APV / lnvensys
Dezurik, a division ofSPX
KSB Armaturen GmbH
Guest and Chrimes
Wouter Witzel GmbH
Dezurik. a division ofSPX
Guest and Chrimes
Adams
Brooksbank Valves Ltd
Johnson Valves
SOCLA Dan foss Water Valves
Lancashire Fittings Ltd
Delta Capillary Products Ltd
IMI Bailey Birkett Ltd
IMI Bailey Birkett Ltd
Realm
Realm
Bray Valves+ Cootrols (UK)
Quality Controls Inc
GSR VentiltechnikGmbH
Dresser Valve Division
Schott lndustrietl Glass
Harvel Plastics
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
Spirax Sarco
J. G. Black Polymers Ltd
Crosby Valve Inc
Crosby Valve Inc
Spirax Sarco
B.T.G.
Spirax Sarco
Solvent+ Pratt
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
OMBSpA
Solvent+ Pratt
Solvent+ Pratt
OMBSpA
441 Figure 13
445 top
449 Figure 4
450 top
450 Figure 5
454 Figure 7
454 Figure 8
467
468 top
468 bottom
472 Tuble 2
474
4 75 top
475 bottom
483 Table 3
484 top
484 Figure 2
486-487 f-igure 3
488-489 Figure 4
492 Table 5
497
498
499 top
499 bottom
501 top
507
508 top
508 bottom
509
510
514
515 Figure l
516 Figure 2
517 Figure 3
519
520
522 Figure 1
523 Figure 2
523 Figure 3
525 Table 1
526 Figure 4
528 Figure 5
529 Figure 6
638
640
641
677Te~blel
6 79 Figure 12
6 79 Figure 13
680 Figure 14
fi80 f-igure 15
684
694
695 Table 1
697 Figure 3
698 Figure 4
699 Figure 5
699 right
700 Figure 6
701 Figure 7
702
703 bottom
703 top
7 04
707
708 top
708 bottom
716 Figure 8
716Figure9
719
720
721 Figure 1
721 Figure 2
722 Figure4
723 Figure 5
725 f-igure 8
726
729 Figure 1
730 Figure 2
731 Figure 3
733 bottom
733 top
734 bottom
735 Figure4
739 f-igure 5
739 figure 6
746 Table 1
748 f-igure 3
749 bottom
749 Figure 4
750Table 3
753
XV
Page Number
Company
Page Number
Company
754
755 Figure 1
75 5 top
756 Table 1
757 Figure 2
759
761 bottom
761 top
764 bottom
764 Figure 2
765 Figure 1
766 Figure 4
768
769
770 Figure l
771 Figure 2
772 Figure 3
773 top
773 Figure 4
775
776
777 Figure 2
778 Figure 3
782
784
786
788 Figure 6
788 middle
789
Note:
Figures from T . D. Williamson. Inc. 0'; :
Reproduced with the permission ofT. D. Williamson. Inc.\!<'' Registered Trademarks ofT. D. Williamson. Inc. in
the United State~ and in foreign countries.
SECTION 1
Fundamentals
Classification of Valves
Basic Valve Nomenclature
Valve Selection Guides
Pipes and Pipelines-Definitions and Explanations
Classi-fication of Valves
Valves may be classified in a number of ways, e.g. by category (general type),
specHic type, purpose or name: or by flow characteristics (e.g. straight-through,
full-flow or throttled-flow). Descriptions can also differ slightly in different
countries although the main type names are established internationally (with
some exceptions).
Classification of valves by category is given in Table 1. This follows British
Standards and general practice adopted by British manufacturers. but is also
generally applicable to American practice. One major difference in this respect
is that the important class of ball valves is considered as a type of plug valve in
the tabular summary, whereas American practice would favour regarding it
as a separate category. The baH valve is, in fact, a major type in its own right.
Fundame11tals
Category
Patterns
Types of construction
Remarks
Cock
1. Plug
Tapered plug
Plug retained by gland
or packing
Packing between plug
face and body seat
Stuffing box in cover
1. Taper plug
2. Parallel plug
3. Ball plug
2. Gland
3. Packed cock
4. Compound gland
Plug
valve
l. Plain
2. Lubricated
Screwdown
stop valve
1. Inside screw
- -
1. Globe vnlve
2. Angle
3. Oblique
4. Others
Gate VCIIve
(wedge
gate valve)
1. Inside screw
2. Outside screw
3. Lever
(a) Sliding stem
(b) Rotary stem
2. Sluice (valve)
3. Double disc
l. Swing (check)
2. Lift
(a) Disc
(b) Piston
(c) Ball
3. Foot (valve)
Gate valve
(slide valve)
Check
valve
l. Horizontal
2. Vertical
3. Angle
----f-
Butterfly
valve
Spherical body.
Spherical body with ends at righl
angles.
Spherical body. stem axis oblique.
Usually described by type
(e.g. needle valve)
or geometry of body
(e.g. tee valve).
------Closure effected by wedge action .
-----------------
l--
l. Double flanged
2. Water
(a) Single Oange
(b) Flangeless
Each flange is
individually bolted.
Primarily designed for
insertion between pipe
flanges
------~-------------------4-----------------------
Diaphragm
Flexible diaphragm
mounted over a weir.
valve
Ball
(float valve)
1. Single beat
2. Double beat
1. Direct (lever)operated
2. Pressure-operated
3. Droptight
4. Non-droptigbt
Classification of Valves
Table 1 (ronlinued)
Types of construction
Category
Patterns
Safety
valve
I. Direct spring-loaded
2. Direct weight-loaded
~.Lever and
spring-loaded
4.Leverand
weight-loaded
5. Ten sion
spr ing-loaded
6. Torsion ba r
4. Electrically-assisted va lve.
I. Direct spring-loaded
2. Direct weight-loaded
Relief
valve
-Pressure
control
valve
1. Self-contained
2. Spring-loaded
3. Weight-loaded
4. Pressure-loaded
5. Externally-piped
6. Tight-closing
7. Non-tight-closi ng
8. Relay-operated
1. Pressure-reducing
2. Pressure-retaining
3. Indirect
Air relief
valve
1. Single-orifice LP
2. Single-orifice HP
3. Single-orifice with
integral isolating
va lve
4. Double-orifice with
integral isolating
valve
Turbine
valve
1. Regulating
2. Quick-closing
3. Starting
4. Exhaust
5. Guarding
Free
disch a rge
valve
1. Needle-type
2. Hollow jet-type
3. Sleeve-type
Remarks
--
Valves are classified and described by specific type in Section 2, which also
include a number of individual designs best categorised as miscellaneous.
Some other valve types are given in Table 2.
Descriptions of various valve types may also differ and Table 3 lists some
other descriptions, standard terminology in this case being based on that adopted
for Table 1. This is by no means complete, but is offered as a general guide.
Fundamentals
Category
Description
Flow-regulating valve
Temperature-regulating valve
Automatic process-control valve
Anti-vacuum valve
Blow-down valve
Bulkhead valve
Free-ball valve
Hydraulic valve
Jet-dispersal valve
Penstock
Plate valve
Radiator valve
Rotary-slide valve
Rotary valve
Solenoid valve
Spectacle-eye valve
Thermostatic mixing valve
Throttle valve
Classification of Valves
Table 3. Terminology
Standard terminology
Back-pressure valve
Block and bleed valve
Clack valve
Conduit valve
Controllable check valve
Controllable non-return valve
Dash pot valve
Excess-flow valve
Excess- or minimum-pressure valve
Flap valve
Follower-ring valve
FuJI way valve
Governor valve
Non-return self-closing valve
Parallel-gate valve
Proportional-flow valve
Reflux valve
Retention valve
Screw-down non-return and flood valve
Wheel valve
Y-type valve
Check valve
Gate valve
Check valve
Gate valve with full-bore aperture
Screw-down stop and check valve
Screw-down stop and check valve
Check valve (piston-check disc-type)
Flow-regulating valve
Flow-regulating valve
Check valve (swing-type)
Gate valve
Gate valve
Pressure-control valve
Check valve
Safety valve (direct spring-loaded)
Flow-regulating valve
Check valve
Check valve
Screw-down stop and check valve
Screw-down stop valve
Oblique valve
-- - - - - - - - - - - -
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Pressure control.
Directional flow control.
Sampling.
Flow limiting.
Valves classified by duty or the service they are intended to perform are
described in Section 3. Necessarily these embrace types already described
under specific types and the relevant chapters can be studied together where
appropriate. A further source of reference and information in this respect is
the chapter on Valve Selection Guides.
Industrial valves operate under many different situations and temperatures
which range from the cryogenic to high-temperature applications and with
different materials including grit, sludge, corrosive chemicals, gases and
liquids. In general, valve technology is mature.
There are two main divisions in the industry: control valves giving precise
control of flow and on/off valves which may be further subdivided into linear
(multi-turn) and rotary (quarter-turn). Actuators which control the movement
of a valve can be manual or automatic and are a major ancillary item for valves.
Valves can be purchased as standard products (commodity valves) or as
engineered units, purpose-built for a specific application. The emphasis today
is on providing solutions to problems and automation wherever possible.
Fundamentals
High-performance butterfly valve with sectioned spring-diaphragm actuator for modulaLi11g control.
Classification of Valves
Valves are normally designed to take either threaded pipe ends, or with flanges
for flanged connection. Threaded connections are simpler and cheaper to
produce and more easily installed. However, it can prove difficult to remove
valves so mounted without dismantling a considerable portion of the piping
unless a number of extra fittings. such as unions, are incorporated.
db db
9P 9[?
etaill fac e
Ruised fuce
l.ar~ c
/11(1/('
Small
ond ( '111111'
/ . IIIX('
1011g11e
dq
Small
Ring joint
10
Fundamentals
Trim is the term used to describe the parts of a valve which are replaceable, i.e.
normally those parts likely to be subject to wear or degradation. The following
parts are considered as trim:
Gate valves-stem, seat ring, wedge. back-seat bushing.
Globe and angle valves-stem, seat ring, disc. disc nut, back-seat bushing.
12
Fundamentals
Screwed bonne!.
Union bonner.
Bolted flanged
bonnet.
IBBM
IPS
ISNRS
ISRS
NRS
RP
RS
SIB
sw
SintorintS
S ren or ren S
OS&Y
WOG
13
solid wedge.
internal seat.
renewable seat.
outside screw and yoke.
water. oil. gas pressure rating.
Table 1.
15
Vu lve cutq:ory
Screw-down
c:tuatinn
Rt'marks
- -stop valve
Cock
l sually manual
pressure/low-volume systems
becilusc of relatively high cost.
(b) Limited suitability for handling
viscous or contaminated fluids.
Limited application for steam services.
( i)
( v) Hydraulic actuator
()
Electric motor
( ii) hydruulic systems aetna or
( )
Parallel-slide
vulve
Buttrrny \'alve
Handwheel
Air motor
(a) OtTers unrestricted bore at full
opening.
(b) Can incorporate venturi bore to
reduce operating torque.
()
Hand wheel
( i)
Electric motor
Industries. petrochemical industries. ( ii ) hydraulic systems actua or
hydroclectrir power stat ions and
( v) H ydrmwc actuator
( ) Air motor
thermal po wer stiltions.
pipelines in waterworks. process
Diaphragm
()
Handwbeel
valve
( i)
Electric motor
(il)
( v) Hydraulic actuator
l Air motor
Hand wheel
( i) Electric motor
( ii) hydraulic systems actua <Jr
( v) Hydraulic actuator
Bill! valve
()
valve.
Piuch valve
() Mechanical
Particular! y suitable for handling
corrosive 10 cdia. solids in suspemion ( i) Electric motor
slurries. etc
( ii) hydraulic systems actua o r
( v) Hydraulic actuator
( ) l'luid pressure
(modified design)
Automatic
processcontrol
cooditions
valve
Air-relief valve
Turbine valve
s rvice conditions
16
Fundamentals
Service
Main
Gases
Butterfly valves
Check valves
Diaphragm valves
Lubricated plug valves
Screw-down stop valves
Liquids, clear up to
sludges and sewage
Butterfly valves
Screw-down stop valves
Gate valves
Lubricated plug valves
Diaphragm valves
Pinch valves
Butterfly valves
Pinch valves
Gate valves
Screw-down stop valves
Lubricated plug valves
Steam
Secondary
Butterfly valves
Gate valves
Screw-down stop valves
Turbine valves
Pressure-control valves
Pressure-relief valves
Pressure-reducing valves
Safety valves
Relief valves
--
Check valves
Pressure-control valves
Pre-superheated valves
Safety and relief valves
Cv
14.28
0.07
0.0589
0.83 57
17.0t)
1.1 t)6()
17
Valve type
Service or function
0..
t::
c;:l
Oil
t::
-;:::
.....
a::
0
t::
!:3
<!)
<!)
....
....
<!)
1.1)
1.1)
;:::;
0
....
<!)
Oil
0
....
0....
.....
:>
'-
0....
.....
t::
1.1)
1.1)
<!)
0...
....
Oil
t::
::I
....
::::l
"'
"'"'
o.oc
t::
::0"'
c ::I
1.1)
<!)
....
0..
....
'"0
.~
::I
<!)
....
...!.<:
-:9c:
-o._
o
<!)
t::
0..
0
....
u
~
cOil
<!)
<!)
::::l
....
v-~....
1.1)
'"0
<!)
<!)
<!)
- 0..
cc
t::
0
...t::
E-<
i5
0..
LS
....
0
.....J
t:.t..
1.1)
tr:: .=:
-
Ball
Butterfly
--
Diaphragm
Gate
Globe
Plug
LS
Oblique (Y)
Pinch
- --,. -
f--
s
s
Sampling
Needle
Swing-check
Tilting-disc
Lift-check
Piston -check
Butterfly-check
Pressure-relief
Pressure-reducing
SliM
Key:
S = Suitable choice
M =May be suitable in modified form
18
Fundamentals
{M
Q= Cv
v~
where
Q = 16.07 Cv
Z(Pi - P~)
T x (s.g.)
where
= flow, SCFM
Cv = flow coefficient
P 1 = upstream pressure. psia
P 2 = downstream pressure, psi a
Z = compressibility factor
T = absolute temperature (F+460)
s.g. = specific gravity (air= 1)
For gases (critical flow):
P2/P1
= R,
and
;-z-()
VTXTsi:J
Q = 16.07 CvP1J
where Rand Jare functions of the specific heat ratio 'r' as follows :
1.20
1.22
1.24
1.26
1.28
1.30
1.32
1.34
0.564
0.561
0.557
0.553
0.549
0.546
0.542
0.539
0.825
0.828
0.831
0.833
0.836
0.838
0.840
0.843
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.42
1.44
1.46
1.48
1.50
0.535
0.532
0.528
0.524
0.521
0.528
0.515
0.512
0.845
0.847
0.849
0.851
0.853
0.855
0.857
0.859
19
~y = ( c~
Where the flow characteristics through the valve are of significance, the
following notes can be useful.
Plug valves (Figure 1) offer a straightway passage through the ports with a
minimum of turbulence. Flow can be in either direction and a quarter-turn
will fully open or fully close the valve. Similar comment applies to ball valves.
Gate valves (Figure 2) present a substantially straightway flow through the
ports in the full-open position since the wedge or 'gate' is lifted clear of the flow
passage. Turbulence and pressure drop are low. Again flow can be in either
direction.
Globe valves (Figure 3) are normally installed so that pressure is under the
disc, assisting operation and eliminating a certain amount of erosive action.
Turbulence and pressure drop are higher than with straightway valves.
Angle valves (Figure 4) have similar characteristics to globe valves, with
flow directed through 90. Again flow is normally directed under the disc.
Reverse flow may be used in the case of high-temperature steam. Ball, globe
and angle valves are suitable for throttling.
22
Fundamentals
, ......
100
Nominal
Size
90
KviOO
41
80
70
95
80
180
327
484
725
1130
1700
#.
50
:G
0
40
30
20
?;
1()
u
0
u::
100
Nominal
Soze
1/
,_ -
49
77
#. 60
3;4
146
437
70
'h
1V.
'I'
80
3fs
:L60
90
Kv)OO
~ 40
~ 20 30
10
u::
f-
~,
-I-
10 20 30 40 50 80 70 80 90 100
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
%open
%open
Gate
Lubricated plug
,.
100
Nomonal
Size
'Is
'14
3fe
'12
3;~
1
1'Ia
1'1:!
2
3
4
oo
I-- c---
KviOO
8
22
32
71
185
350
700
1000
1600
3100
6500
11000
81
'
> "'
0
"'
"' 40
v--
30
u::
/2
3;.
'lC'
~ ~0
90
Kv lOO
l _
fil )
Nominal
Size
-"
?/?.
'0
0
- "
~ r-
1- 1-
10
?0
:w "
11/4
,...-
1'h
2
3
'
>O
%open
,/
80
70
63
121
'Q
GO
&0
187
332
416
704
1700
2700
"'"'
40
su
I
I
II
30
20
10
u::
I
~
10 lO 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 tOO
%open
Diaphragm
'
Kv l OO
- : - I--
.
'
1500
3000
5000
5
6
8000
12000
17000
2~
Ball
Nominal
Size
1/
60
0
0
II
'
,_
r-
1--
"
"
~
-----'---~
;::;:; ;>""
"
lr
1'
% open
r1,1
1--
1-- -
lj
.,
..
"
Butterfly
The Kv table for angle-seat valves gives a Kv 100 factor of 3 2 7 for size 1 in,
484 for size 1 1 I 4 in and 72 5 for size 1 1 h in.
In this example the correct size to use is 1 1 I 4 in (See also Table 5 ).
Example 2 (Figures 9 and 10)
(i)
(ii)
23
Table 4. Typicai'K' values and pressure drops for various 150 mm (6 in) bore valves
Pressure drop*
Service
K value
bar
lbf/in 2
0.59
8.5
Globe
-txJ-
5.0
Swing-check
-{*
3.5
0.40
5.9
Y-pattern
2.9
0.34
4.9
Angle (globe)
2.2
0.25
3.7
1.1
0.13
1.9
Butterfly
1><1-
1.0
0.12
1.7
{X}-
0.15
0.021
0.3
0.05
0.007
0.1
0.05
0.007
0.1
0.045
0.005
0.075
Figure 9.
Given:
Q
y
~p
300 1/min
1 kg/dm 3
P 1 -P 2 =0.5-0=0.5 bar
24
Fundamentals
of
Then:
Kvp
-Kvp
300a
424
Valve
Size
Min.
Pressure range
Max.
mm(in)
Ball
erd
50
(2)
25
(1)
3
Butterfly
e 14)
(6)
Gate
e ls )
3
Globe
(1 I sl
6
(114)
6
Plug. non-lubricated
e14)
6
Swing-check
(114)
Swing-check. Y-type
50
250
(10)
760
(2)
(30)
610
(24)
760
(30)
1900
( 7 5)
305
( 12)
25
( 1 1~;)
(1)
Lift-check
( t I 4)
Tilting-disc
Diaphragm
el/3)
Y (oblique)
(
Slide
Pinch
Needle
Key:
A = Atmospheric
V =Vacuum.
I sl
50
(2)
25
( 1)
Max.
v
A
v
v
A
A
525
(7500)
84
(1200)
84
(1200)
700
(10.000)
700
(10.000)
350
(5000)
210
(3000)
A
A
A
v
v
A
175
(2 500)
175
(2500)
175
(2500)
84
(1200)
21
( 3 ()())
175
(2500)
28
(400)
21
(300)
700
(10.000)
Max.
Min.
bar (lbl in 2 )
(72)
1830
(72)
1220
(48)
760
(30)
760
(30)
406
(16)
610
(24)
150
Butterfly-check
Plug, lubricated
1220
(48)
1830
Min.
Temperature range
"' C (oF)
-55
(-65)
-30
( -20)
-18
(0)
-277
(-455)
-272
(-455)
-40
(-40)
-75
( - 100)
-18
(0)
- 18
(0)
- 18
(0)
-260
(-450)
-50
300
(575)
538
(1000)
260
( 500)
675
(1250)
540
(1000)
315
-272
( 45 5)
-18
(600)
220
(425)
540
(1200)
540
(1200)
540
(1200)
590
(1100)
230
(450)
540
(1000)
650
(0)
(1200)
-75
( -100)
-78
( -100)
260
(500)
260
(500)
(-60)
25
First it is necessary to calculate the Kv factor for the total system (Kvt) .
Figure IO.
Given:
--
--
~p
--
Kvt
--
oflp
--
250/ls
--
354
2 50 1/ min
1 kg/dm 3
P 1 - P 2 = 0.5-0 = 0 .5 bar
Then:
Kvl
The Kv factor for the valve (Kvv) can now be established by subtracting the
Kv factor for the pipeline (Kvp) from the kv factor for the total system (Kvt). For
this purpose, the formula for calculating the flow factors in series should be
used, which is:
1
1
1
1
- 2-
Kvx
= - 2-
Kv 1
+-
2-
Kv2
thus:
+ ... -2Kvn
26
Fundamentals
1
2
Kvv
1
-
354 2 -424 2
= 7.98
10- 6
= 2.42
10- 6
K, =
=
2.42
5.56
10- 6
~ 10-'
643
The calculation shows that the valve used must be one with a minimum Kv 100
factor of 640.
From the Kv tables it can be seen that a 1 1 I 4 in ball valve has a Kv too factor
of 1000 and a 1 1 I 4 in diaphragm valve has a Kv 100 factor of 3 32.
Therefore only the 1 1 I 4 in ball valve can be used .
28
Fundamentals
29
we have called them lines, not pipes or tubes. The industry itself may call them
hydraulic pipes. hydraulic tubes or hydraulic lines; and larger hydraulic tubes
(pipe sizes!) are produced for cylinder tubes.
Industries and applications concerned with the conveyance of fluid
products almost invariably refer to their tubular products as pipes or piping.
Again. sizes may range dov,rn into tube sizes (and even be drawn or extruded
products or true tubes)-e.g. gas pipes and small-bore water service pipes. But
they are still pipes or piping. And the system they provide is a pipeline.
Hopefully this has established a satisfactory definition and explanation of
\Vhy the title of this handbook is specifically concerned with pipes and pipelines,
for these are the areas mainly covered. And those who work in these areas call
30
Fundamentals
Manufacturing
process
Size range
Typica l applicalioos
Remarks
Cryo~cnir
and chemical
pipelines: lightweight hydraulic
pipes.
Marine application s.
Hot water services (domestic).
Resistant to corrosion
but costly.
Spi nning
Up to600mm
(24 in}
Casting
Up to 1200 mm
(48 in}
Brittle matcri;~l .
Malleable iron
Steel
Heat-treated casting
Vadous
Stainless steel
Va rious
Aluminium
Drawing or rolling
(seamless tube)
Copper
Drawing or rolling
(seamless tubing)
Ductile iron
Tungsten
Extrusion
Upto4000mm
(l60in)
Marine applications.
Specialised hydra ulic systems.
but
high cost.
Corrosion-resistant.
n on-sparki ug mulcrial.
their tubular products pipes, but tubes are mentioned and described where
appropriate.
There remains one distinction between British and American practice to
clarify. In the UK the handling and installation of pipes, performance
calculations, etc., embracing the complete system are commonly referred to as
pipework, e.g. pipework installations, pipework calculations, etc. In the USA
the word 'pipework' does not appear to be accepted and is seldom. if ever.
used. In the interest of rationalisation, this handbook uses the single
description pipeline. It means the same as pipework.
It is to be regretted that similar rationalisation is not possible between
British and American and metric units and standards. This leads to differences
in values of 'flow loss coefficients for pipe bends, valves, etc .. the British/
American coefficient being based on m 3 /hat 1 bar pressure loss.
Equally, pipe sizes are standard in both millimetre and inch sizes, together
with match fittings and valves. There are no exact equivalents. You work in
standard manufactured sizes, either in millimetres or inches. To give
equivalent sizes in tabular data for either would be meaningless. With rare
exceptions. the exact equivalent size is just not obtainable.
That is a problem, too, which complicates the presentation of working
formulae. We have attempted, within reason. to cover most possibilities in the
case of the main formulae for flow-performance calculation in other forms
embracing all the units most likely to be used, both in metric and Imperial
units. Here. in fact. Imperial units are often less rational than their metric
equivalents, with volumes expressed in cubic inches, US gallons. Imperial
Mnteri a l
size range
Asbestos
cement
Clay
50 t o lOSOmm
12 to 42 in)
Concrete
Spun concrete
Prc-str<'~sed
concrete
Pitcb/fibre
Plastic pipes
ABS
rcslst~ncc
Typical applications
l3uricd water pipelines and
drainnge system~ .
Drainage pipelines <~nd ducts.
DraJnage pipelines.
Sewerage. drainage. etc.
l2t o 150mm
Corrosion-free but
lower chemical
resistance than PVC.
Corrosion-frce.
Upt o4800mm
( 190 in)
Polyvinyl
chloride
UPVC
Corro sion-free.
Polyvinyl
chloride
CPVC
Polypropylene
(PPl
Upto 360mm
()4 inl
Corrosion-free.
Upt o )000nun
(40 inl
[UK sizes up to
tnt n]
Uplo300mm
(12 in)
Jligh chemical-
Polypropylene
(PVDFl
Upt o f>OOmm
(24 in)
Polytheoc (PEJ
(PELl
Polythene (PEMJ
Up t o 200mm
(8 iJ u
lip t o '500 mm
(20 In)
Polythenc
(PEHl
Up to t800 mm
(70 in)
Polythcne
{Jp t o 1200mm
(48 in)
(H,\IIW-PEHJ
PEX
Fluoroc;Jrbon
(FEP. PFA.
I'TI'E)
Brittle mnterial.
Normally salt-glazed.
Produced in unreinforced
and rein forced forms.
Smooth. conce ntric bore.
Smooth external fioisb.
High-density, steelreinforced.
Suitable for very la rge
diameters.
GRP
Polybutylcnc
(PBl
Brittle material.
Up t o 3000 m.m
(12!liol
50 to 225 mm
(2to 9inJ
Polypropylene
Remarks
Subject to embrittlement
at low temperatu res.
31
w
N
"Tj
1::
.
3
<:">
::s
Description
BS970
EN no.
12/1 4% chromium
Low carbon
331S42
(56A)
420S29
(568)
(560)
431S29
(57)
18% chromium
Swedish
AISI
type
Avesta
Fagersta
410
393
R.R.J.10
410
393H
420
739H
431
249EH
French
Nyby
Sandvikan
Uddeholm
Government
Ugine
Krupps
1410
2.C.27
S/S.1
Z.12.C.13
FIA/ FIB
Vl3F
R.R.J.l1
1415
4.C.27
S/ S.31
FIU12
VSM
R.R.S.72
1435
7.C.27
S/S.6
Z.36.C.13
S12
V3M
4N2C36
S/S.22
Z.15.CN
430
18% chromium
8 % nickel
0.08% carbon
VIM
249
R.R.M.20
1710
I.C. 36
S/S.2
2.C.34
453E
R.R.V.62
27-4
I.R.8
S/S.45
V.2.A.
Supra
Special
V.8.A.
Supra
Special
F17
12%chromium
12% nickel
German
18-02
26% chromium
5% nickel
260.<. chromium
5% nickel
1.5% molybdenum
I
453S
R.R.V.64
27-SMO
I.R.lO
S/S.44
832P
R.R.N.J.39
14-12
2.R.l.
SjS.33
832M
R.l.M.291
18-8EL
O.R.2
S/S.3.M.M.
(58 0)
301Sl5
(58 3 /~J
304
Z.S.CN.
18-08
Vl7F
Extra
Inoxargent
V. l2.A .
Supra
N.S.22.S.
V.2.A.
Supra
18%chromium
8% nickel
320S25
(58A)
302
832
18% chromium
8% nickel
Free machining
303S21
(58M)
303
832C
18% chromium
10% nickel
1.5% molybdenum
18%chromiu m
8 % nickel
1.5% molybdenum
18% chromium
8/10% nickel
1.5% molybdenum
18- 08
2.R.2.
S/ $.3
2.R.2.A.
S/ S.43
832SV
31SS16
(58H)
832S
R.R.N.J.41
O.R.3
18- 8EMO
I
I
V.2.A
Norma l
Z.lO.CN.
18- 08
315$16
(58H)
321S12
(58 B)
R.R.N.J.32
S/ S.4.M.M.
'
I
R.R.N.j.40
1 8- 8 1MO
2.R.3
S/S.4
I
321
8321'
R.R.N.J.51
1 8-81'
I.R.4
S/ S. 53
V.8.A.
Normal
I
Z. 10 .CNT.
18-08
N.S.2 0C
V.2.A.
Extra
18% chromium
10/12% nickel
1 % niobium
347S17
(58 G)
347
8321'
17% chromium
20% nickel
254
25% chromium
20% nickel
I
R.R.T.80
20-20
310
254E
R.R.T.83
25- 20
316
832SK
R.R.N.J.44
18-20MO
<'>
"'
!:)
I.R.41
s::...
'i;l
2.R .6.
'i:)
-s
3.R.9.
S/ S.l5
S/ S.2 5
Z.20.CNS
25/ 20
N.$ .30
S/ S.24
Z. 8 .CND.
18-08
N.S.M.C.
N.C.T. 3
"'"'
I
t::J
~
~
18% chromium
10% nickel
2.5% molybdenum
304Sl5
(SSE)
I
O.R. ll
V.4 .A.
Supra
c;
~
"'
::s
!:)
s::...
lt'l
;..:
;::;.....
c;
:::
!:)
::s
"'
34
Fundamentals
ASTM
A120
A53 Gr.A
A53Gr.B
Al06 Gr.A
AP[ SL Gr. A
A106 Gr.B
API SLGr.B
A333 Gr.l
A333Gr.3
A335 Gr.Pl
A335 Gr.Pl2
A335 Gr.Pll
A335 Gr.P22
A33 5 Gr.PS
A335 Gr.P7
A335 Gr.P9
A312 Gr.Tp304
A312 Gr.Tp304L
A312 Gr.Tp316
A312 Gr.Tp316L
A312 Gr.Tp321
A312 Gr.Tp347
Material
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Carbon steel
Killed carbon steel
3.5%nickel
1
/.~ %molybdenum
l%Cr 1I 1 %Mo
1 1 I 4 %Cr 1 /2 'Jfo Mo
2 1I 4 %Cr 1% Mo
So/oCr 112 % Mo
7%Cr 1h %Mo
9%Crl%Mo
Austenitic chromium nickel
Austenitic chromium nickel
(extra low carbon)
Austenitic chromium nickel
molybdenum bearing
Austenitic chromium nickel
molybdenum bearing
(extra low carbon)
Austenitic chromium nickel
titanium stabilised
Austenitic chromium nickel
niobium stabilised
BS equivalent
1387
3601 / 23
3601127
3602/ 23
3602/ 27
3602127
3602/ 27
3603/ LTSO
3603/ 503LT100
36041240
3604/ 620
3604/621
3604/ 622
36041625
3604/ 62 7
3604/ 629
3605/304Sl8 (ENS8E)
3605/304 Sl4
3605/316 Sl8 (EN58J)
3605/ 316Sl4
35
Type or steel
070 M 20
080 M 30
'30'Cstcel
'40" C steel
070M 55
'55' C steel
AIS!
1020
Cl020
l03S
Cl030
DIN
Cl035
C22
OS01
C3S
OS03
ClOSS
C4S
--
f-
Cl040
10S5
0402
1-
1040
Werkstoff
- -
1030
Bright C steel
080 A40
SAE
0503
C45
0601
C60
--
S26 M 60
'60' C- Cr steel
5160
51f>O
8161
58 Cr-V4
150M 28
C- Mn steel
30Mn 4
1% Cr steel
1% Cr steel
1'Yo Cr steel
1% Cr steel
1% Cr-Mo steel
Cr-Mo steel
J% Cr-Mo steel
Cl027
1330
5140
5132
5135
5140
4140
4140
4140
5066
530A40
530 A 32
530 A 36
5301\40
709 fv140
708 M 40
708 A 42
1027
1330
5140
5132
Sl35
5140
4140
4140
4140
7035
7035
7034
703S
7220
7225
7225
41 Cr 4
34 Cr4
37 Cr4
41 Cr4
34 Cr- Mo 4
42 Cr-Mo 4
42 Cr- Mo4
653M3!
817 M 40
3% Ni-Cr steel
5755
22 (31 ) Ni-Cr41
6582
34 Cr-Ni-Mo 6
---
4340
Cr-rust-resisting steel
Sl410
1-
4340
410 s 21
-- 420 s 29
x 20Crn
51420
420
4021
C 20 Cr 13
')1420
420
4034
-- 4024
x 40 Cr l3
6582
34 Cr- Ni- Mo 6
420S37
Cr-rust-resisti ng steel
420545
Cr-rust-resisting steel
420S2l
Cr-rust-resisting steel
- f-
5141 (~
416
51416 Se
(Sl416 Se)
416Se
816 M 40
4021
51410
--
x 10 Cr 13
4006
410
Cr-rust-resisli ng steel
410
--
- -
- --
x 20 Cr 1 ~
f-
36
Fundamentals
BS 1710: 1984 Optional colour code indications for general building services
Pipe contents
Water
Drinking
Cooling (primary)
Boiler feed
Condensate
Chilled
Central heating (Ioooc
Central heating <100C
Cold down services
Hot-water supply
Hydraulic power
Sea. river, untreated
Fire extinguishing
Oils
Diesel fuel
Furnace fuel
Lubricating
Hydraulic power
Transformer
Other suggestions
Natural gas
Compressed air
Vacuum
Steam
Drainage
Electrical conduits and
ventilation ducts
Acid and alkalis
Basic colour
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Green
Brown
Brown
Brown
Brown
Yellow ochre
Light blue
Auxiliary blue
White
Crimson/ white/ crimson
Crimson/ emerald green/crimson
White/ emerald green/white
Blue/ crimson/blue
Crimson/blue/crimson
White/blue/white
White/crimson/ white
Salmon pink
Green
Red
White
Brown
Emerald green
Salmon pink
Crimson
Yellow
Light blue
White
Silver grey
Black
Orange
Violet
37
CLW
HWS
TvV
ww
BFW
B
MWS
cws
DWS
FWS
PWS
CWDS
CHW
PE
FH
Gases
Town
Oxygen
Nitrous oxide
02
N20
Heating
Low-pressure water
Medium-pressure water
High-pressure water
LPHW
MPHW
HPHW
Valves
Air-release
Air
Auto air
Ball
Gate
Lockshield
Non-return
Pressure-reduction
Safety
Sluice
Wheel
Sewers
Foul water
Surface water
Drains
Foul water
Surface water
Pipes
Discharge pipe
Rainwater pip<::
Vent pipe
Effiuents
Foul water
Radio-active water
Rainwater
Surface water
ARV
AV
AAV
BV
GV
LSV
NRV
PRY
sv
sv
wv
FWS
sws
FWD
SWD
DP
RWP
VP
FW
RAW
RW
sw
Fittings
Bath
Bidet
Wash basin
Shower
Urinal
Flushing cistern
Sink
Drinking fountain
Water closet
Manholes, etc.
Back drop
Invert
Inspection chamber
Manhole
Fresh air inlet
b
bt
wb
sh
u
fc
s
df
we
BD
lNV
rc
MH
FAI
Position
High level
Low level
Prom below
To below
Prom above
To above
Flow
Return
HL
LL
FB
TB
FA
TA
F
R
Gullies
Access
Back inlet.
Grease trap
Road
Sealed
Yard
AG
BIG
GT
RG
SG
YG
Miscellaneous
Half-round channel
Rainwater head
Condensate
Fuel
Vacuum
Cold feed
Feed and expansion
Plug cock
Access points
Access cover
Cleaning eye
Dry-weather flow
Pire hydrant
Compressed air
Refrigerants
(identified by symbol
for particular gas)
Draw-off point
Open vent
Stop cock
HRC
RWH
v
CF
F&E
PC
A/C
CE
DWF
FH
CA
Ro
DO
ov
sc
38
Fundamentals
Water
Steam
Oils-mineral. vegetable
or animal;
combustible liquids
Gases in either gaseous or
liquefied condition
(except air)
Acids and alkalis
Air
Other liquids
Electrical services and
ventilation ducts
BS identification colour
reference BS 4800
Green
Silver grey
Brown
lOA03
06 c 39
Yellow ochre
08
c 3.5
Violet
Light blue
Black
Orange
22
c 37
12D45
20 E 51
0053
06 E 51
Safety colours
Red
04 E 53
Yellow
08 E 51
Auxiliary blue 18 E 53
04D45
14E.53
04C 33
10 E 53
18 E 51
SECTION 2
Valve Types Design and Construction
Figure I.
42
Figure 2.
Plug Valves(Cocks)
43
Handle Nut
Handle
Neck Bush
Plug
_"rl--
Body
Eyelet
Packing Sleeve
Tightening Nut
Figure 3.
into both top and bottom of the body provides for temperature variations and
thereby prevents binding.
In the UK, the description ' plug valve' is specifically given to a cock which
incorporates special design features to reduce the friction between the plug face
and the body seat. The plug itself may be tapered or parallel and the movement
plain or lubricated (Figure 4). There is also a further variation known as a
ball-plug valve. where the plug element is spherical. with circular ports rotating
between circular seats of concave section (Figure 5 ).
0
A
B
C
D
Figure 4.
Figure S.
44
l Pon
2 Positions
T PORT
4 Posrtions
Position 1
Pon 'A' feeds both Pons
Position 2
Pon "A' feeds Pon
Pon
s closed
Posllion 3
Pon c fe~s Pon
Port 'A' closed
s and c
s or vice versa
,; A I
Posrtron 2
Pon "A' feeds Pon
t~
'l
only
Position 4
Pon 'A ' feeds Pon s only
Pori c closed
3-way2-port
3-way 3-port
4-way 4-port
Transflo plug
Plug Vnlves(Cocks)
Parallel-plug valve
1. Body
2. Bottom cover
Ball-plug valve
3.
4.
5.
6.
3. Seal
4. Bonnet
Plug port
Plug
Lubricant grains
Lubricantscrew
45
1. Body
2. Ball
5. Spundle
6. Handle
Materials
Cocks and plug valves are produced in a variety of metals and plastics and also
include lined types. Metals most commonly used are brass, bronze, steel and
stainless steel.
Basic design proportions
46
balanced plug. line pressure in an open valve can find its way into the large
end chamber which exists below the plug. Under these conditions a resultant
force exists tending to push the plug into its tapered seat with the danger or
taper locking causing a seized valve, as shown in Figure 6(a) . This resultant
force persists whether the line pressure subsequently remains high or is
reduced.
The development of an out-of-balance force on the plug is not an inevitable
event with ordinary taper-plug valves. as there is normally sealant pressure
acting on the small end of the plug. Nevertheless it can occur and can cause
valve seizure.
With a pressure-balanced valve, the live-line pressure is used to replace
sealant pressure by allowing the line to pressurize the small end chamber. A
balancing force is produced which prevents taper lock without the need for
sealant pressure. Figure 6(b) shows how a more balanced position is reached
when line pressure is allowed to equalise the pressure acting on the end of the
plug.
The pressure-balance system consists of two holes in the plug connecting
chambers at each end of the plug with the line pressure. The hole in the small
end of the plug contains a non-return valve. This enables sealant pressure to
be built up if necessary, while allowing access of the line pressure to the small
end chamber. Thus the pressure in the large end chamber always equals line
pressure and the pressure in the small end chamber is always equal to. or
greater than, the line pressure.
Ball Valves
The ball valve, or spherical-plug valve as it is sometimes known. was developed
around 19 3 6. although the idea of a ball valve dates back to ancient times.
Modern ball valves, depending on type and pressure class, should be designed
in conformity with international standards, e.g. BS 53 51. API 60 and AN SIB
16.34. Normally, ball valves have polymer-based seals.
Ball valves are among the least expensive but most widely used of all valve
types, as well as being available in an extremely wide range of sizes. Basic
geometry involves a spherical ball located by two resilient sealing rings in a
simple body form (Figure 1 ).
The ball has a hole through one axis, connecting inlet to outlet with full-bore
flow when aligned with the axis of the valve. Rotating the ball through 90
48
1----- --
Materials list:
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Part
Body
Specification
ASTM A351-CF8M(3J 6)
ASTM A351-CF8l\11(316)
R.TFE
ASTM A351-CF8M(316)
ASTM A276-316
PTFE
PTFE
AISI 304
AISI 304
AISI 304
AISI 304
Plastic
PTFE
Quantity
]
l
2
1
]
1
1
1
1
l
1
1
1
completely closes the flow passage with positive sealing via the sealing rings .
Sealing is equally effective in both directions.
Body forms and matching ball hole may provide straight-through (full-bore
parallel), reduced flow, or venturi flow. Ends can be flanged or threaded .
The ball itself may be free floating. in which case the squared oif or splined
end of the stem fits into a matching recess in the top of the ball. On larger
valves the ball may be trunnion-mounted. Trunnion mounting reduces operating
torque to about two-thirds that of the floating ball (Figure 2).
Ball valves are produced in top-entry and split-body forms for assembly and
for renewal of the seals and ball. They are also produced in multi-port
configurations. thus normally requiring a larger size of ball to accommodate
multi-port drillings. These ports can be proportioned to give positive lap or
negative lap as required (see also Figure 3 ).
Ball Valves
49
Section view clearly illustrating how a characterised 'V' seat allows for precise flow coni rol in a rnodu/ating
ball valve.
50
Ball Valves
51
3way L-PORT
~ ~~i~ ~
Form- /
Form -]
/-'(11111 -.l
0 Form-..J
........_
3way T-PORT
~ ~~L~ ~
0
Form - /
Form-2
,..orm -3
'-----
Form -..J
Combination of
Flexible and Braided
Graphite Packing
for Flresafe
Applications
Predrllled
and Tapped
Mounting Pads
Double-Sealed
End Plug
BlowoutProof Stem
Low-Friction
Engineered
Seat Design
Positive-Stop
End Piece
fitted with die-formed packing rings. In some ball valves the ball is held
against the seat by the cam action of a specially shaped stem. By turning the
valve hand wheel the ball is pulled away from th e seat before being rotated . A
precision spira l groove turns the stem and ball 90, without ball-to-seat
friction. to full-straight through-flow when open. The reverse action lowers the
stem, turning the ball to the closed position, and the final handw heel turn tilts
the ball and mechani cally wedges it against the seat to seal the valve closed.
52
Predrilled
and Tapped
Mounting Pads
Split-Body
Construction
Full-Bore
Design
Low-Friction
Engineered
Seat Design
Graded Body Bolts
and Nuts
Historically. ball valves have been produced with soft, not metal seats
because generally soft seats have covered most applications satisfactorily.
Many valves of this type have seals made from PTFE, compounded with
graphite, glass or steel powder to improve the material properties. However,
abrasive media, high pressures and high temperatures can severely stress the
polymeric seals normally used and lead to damage (Figure 4).
Ball Valves
53
Figure 4. Tllis ball was taken from a valve that had seen 3 years service in a ce111ent works. The polymer
sea/in{] rings /rave been destroyed. tire /mil and the body srverely da111aged. Nletal/ic seals can prevent such
problen1s.
For nominal diameters of# DN 50 PTFE. seals can only be loaded to a full
pressure ofPNl 00 up to a temperature of approximately 1 00C; with nominal
diameters above DN80. the operating pressure is limited to 50 bar. Only gradual
improvements can be made if highly resistant polymers such as POM are used.
Upper temperature limits are 2 50C with huge restrictions on pressure/ load
capacity.
Metal-seated ball valves
Metal-seated ball valves first came to prominence in the 1960s. They offer a
number of advantages including: tight shut-off, smooth control, no jamming,
low torque, wide temperature range, good corrosion and wear resistance and
stability under pressure. The greatest risk to metal-seated ball valves is posed
by corrosion through pitting, fretting corrosion. intercrysta lline corrosion
and stress corrosion cracking. Media that contain even low quantities of
aggressive substances are capable of causing corrosion.
Metal seals do not bed in as easily as soft seals under pressure. It is therefore
important for the ball and sealing rings to be machined precisely and have
both hard- and low-friction coatings appJied to the base material.
54
Ball valves with metallic seals are suitable for use in high-solids abrasive media. for /Jigh nnd low
temperatures,for extreme operating pressures. and for frequent operation. Even with critical media. they
can be used for flow regulation. This pneumatically-activatPCI ball valve is an ideal con1ponent for
increasing plant safety. In the event offailure of the compressed-air supply Llze spring-loaded. pnwmatic
drive closes the valve autonzatical/y, rapidly and reliably.
Metallic seats tend to employ both nickel- and cobalt-based alloys and elements
such as chrome and tungsten. However, the trend appears to be towards
the use of different surface coatings for ball and sealing rings and choosing
between them to suit the various circumstances.
With the seat-supported ball valve (Figure 5). the valve seals on the
downstream side. The upstream pressure pushes the ball against the downstream
seat. closing it tightly.
In the trunnion-mounted ball valve with a bellows seat (Figure 6), the valve
seals on the upstream side. The internal pressure expands the bellows axially ,
pushing the seat against the ball. The seat is pressure-assisted and springenergised. The bellows seat acts as the seating component. This type of ball
valve is suitable for the most demanding on-off services.
The special control seat shown in Figure 7 works like a normal pressureassisted seat in trunnion-mounted ball valves. The upstream pressure is led
through the hole behind the seat, pushing it against the ball.
The seat is spring-energised to ensure low-pressure tightness. In control.
the high-velocity flow passes through the restriction point of the partly open
Ball Valves
55
Back
seal
Ball
Valve body
+-------_J
Figure S. The metal seating principle in a typical seat-supported ball valve.
Ball
+---1- __
Seat ring
_ _ 1----- _
--t-
va_lv_e_b_od: _ _ _
Bellows
valve. The high velocity creates low pressure, which is led behind the ball seat
through the hole located in the vena contracta. The seat will thus be unloaded.
The sealing principle of the floating-ball valve example shown in Figure 8 is
effected at the downstream seat where the baH is pressed against the opposite
seat by the medium pressure. In doing so the seat rings have a double
function. They seal off and at the same time serve as a bearing. The seal at the
upstream seat can be relieved in order to avoid a build-up of pressure.
The sealing principle of the fixed-ball valve example shown in Figure 9 is
one where the sealing is effected at the upstream seat where the springsupported seat is pressed against the fixed ball by the medium pressure.
The ball itself can be fixed by bearing pads in the body, by trunnions or by
bearing stems. A pressure build-up is prevented by the spring-supported seats
in connection with the fixed ball . To summarise, effective sealing depends on:
56
- - - .L.:--
....._____ _ _
---
In control
Pvc< P2
P1 Back seal
r,
Flow
port
Seat nrtg
Body cavity
__P
- =2 l_
T1ght shut-off
clown-stre;"n
up-stre<J n>
Ba//Valves
Lantern Ring
57
down-stream
up-stream
Generally, ball valves are sealed by applying a load to a soft seating material
between the valve body and ball to create localised yielding.
Seals of plastic material usually depend on localised yield to achieve bubbletight sealing. The problem with a jam seat is that increasing the shut-off
pressure can increase plastic deformation. As long as pressure remains at a
58
high level this is not a problem; leakage may occur if the shut-off pressure
is decreased. A jam seat has no pressure compensation. Another area to
consider about jam seats is temperature swings.
With increasing temperatures, metallic ball and valve casings expand.
PTFE valve seats expand at a much higher rate and if the temperature change
is high enough, the jam seat will tend to generate a 'self stress' above its yield
strength and deform plastically beyond its initial state. When the valve is
cooled, shrinkage of the additionaJly deformed seat may result in leakage.
A possible way of overcoming this is to employ valves with flexible lip seats
(Figure 1 0) or seats that incorporate a separate double block and bleed design.
Another aspect to consider with soft-seated ball valves is built-in body-cavity
pressure relief. Ordinary water trapped in a valve cavity without air will increase
in pressure by about 100 lb/ in 2 . The pressure/ temperature relationships of most
common liquids are in the orderof90-110 lb/in2 perF (11.2-13 . 7 bar per C).
The cavity area created by the two soft seats of a ball valve is a typical area
for pressure increases. While the valve is open, any pressure in the cavity zone
created by the ball. seat and body can be vented via a hole from the bottom of
the stem slot to the ball waterway.
In the closed position, relieving cavity pressure is more difficult. Some
valves have a vent hole in the ball.
Cavity-pressure increases derive from the differential thermal expansion
rates of incompressible fluids and typically a venting of one hundredth of a cc
of trapped liquid will bring cavity pressure back to normal.
The key to ball-valve performance is the sealing (seating) structure. regardless
of whether the seats are metal or plastic.
Pressure-temperature ratings
Ball Valves
59
16
9
15
16
~50
e-
g.-
70
18
~ 7
~- , 0 :25
(SOCKET WELD 0~
BUTTWELD ONLY)
Stainless steel
ASTM A812 F 3 16.
ASTM A351 CP8M
orBS970S316
ASTMA812F316L
ASTM t\351 CF8M/CF3 M
orBS970S316
Body
Body cap
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
15
16
18
19
Ba ll
Stem
Seat
Body seal
Gland packing
Stem-thrust bearing
Stem-tab washer
Stem-thrust seal
Handle
Stem nut
Gland
Nut
20
Body bolt/stud
25
29
30
50
70
13
60
3600
250
psi
bar
2880
200
-- -- -- -POM
a:
::J
(/)
- - - -
(/)
2160 a:
Q.
150
_j
i=
LU
----
a:
u.
u.
1440 i5 100
ON 50
720
50
275
20
-50
- 58
32
50
120
100 '
150
200
:?!iO C
21?.
302
392
<1fl2 f
I CMPERATURE
Flow data
Typical flow data is shown in Table l. The flow rates were determined for ball
valves in fully-open position and a water temperature of l5 C (59 F).
Typical major application areas for ball valves include:
Refineries
shut-off and isolation valves for tower bottom lines and thermal-cracking
units with coke problems
gas/oil separation
gas distribution includin g measuring, metering and pressure regulation
stations
controlling oil loading
pumping and compressor stations
emergency shut-down
refining units
Bn/IValves
61
Full bore
Nominal flow rate
Nominal size
Cv
US gallons
per min
19.4
45 .6
71.5
170
275
905
1414
3674
7155
12,500
20.780
3 7.000
70.700
22.6
53.2
83.4
198
321
1056
1650
4288
8350
14,590
24,250
43.100
82.500
in
mm
15x15x 15
20 x 20 x 20
25 x 25x25
40 x 40 x 40
50x50x50
80x80x80
lOO x lOO x lOO
150 x 150 x l50
200 x 200 x200
250 x 250 x 250
300 x 300 x 300
400 x 400x400
SOOxSOOxSOO
Kv
m 3/ h
l / 2 x l /2x l /2
~ / 4 x 3/4x 3/4
lxl x l
ll / 2 x ll/2xl1/2
2x2 x 2
3x3x3
4 x 4 x4
6x 6x6
8x8 x S
lO x lO x 10
12 x 12x 12
16x1ox16
20 x 20x20
Reduced bore
Nominal flow rate
Nominal size
mm
20 x l 5x 20
25 x20x25
40 x 32 x 40
50x40 x 50
80x65 x 80
100 x 80 x 100
150 x l00 x l50
200 x 150 x 200
250 x 200 x 250
300x250 x 300
4()() X 3()() X 4()0
S00x400x 500
m 3 /h
Cv
US gallons
per min
14.3
40.1
89.8
146
484
800
728
3.5 77
6933
11.392
1600
33 ,333
16.7
46.8
105
170
564
934
850
4175
8090
] 3,294
1.8.672
38.900
Kv
in
Kv value is the full-capacity flow rate through the ball valve in cubic metres per hour (m 3/ h) with a
pressure drop ofl bar.
Cv value is the full-capacity flow rate through the ball valve in US gallons/min of water at 60F with a
pressure drop ofl psi.
62
Design geometry calculations for ball float valves can be tedious. As far as fluid
forces are concerned there is an upward force at the valve position due to
mains pressure tending to force the float downwards, which will normally be
resisted by the displacement force generated by the float under equilibrium
conditions (Figure 2 ). These equilibrium conditions correspond to the valve
being held closed by a surplus of 'displacement' force. (In the event of the
water level falling , of course, the valve will open to allow inflow of water until
equilibrium conditions are restored.)
64
140
I
I
130
120
I
I
110
100
1
1
I
90
L
.c:::.
80
~ 70
I
(l)
E'
60
ro
800
1
700
600
.~ 50
500
40
/
400
~~
300
/
200
30
,/
100
10
0
.,../
.c.
20
900
50
65
80
100
12 5
150
200
(7)
(9")
250
300
Vr
= 0.7854 PN x d 2 2
L
where
P
N
L
d1
d2
The displacement force (Of) is governed by the volume of the ball float (or
diameter in the usual case of a circular float) and its depth of immersion. It is
usual in the case of spherical-ball floats to design for socyo immersion, when :
Dp
65
dia H x L length
B
A
ftem description
5 Valve
6 Keep plate
7 Split pins and washers
8 Nut
9
10
ll
12
l3
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Pins to links
Pins to fulcrum
Spindle
Links
Liner
Winged-valve plate
Seat ring
Keep ring
Lever
Studsandnuts
Cup washers
Cover joint
Body joint
Seat \-\'as her
Float
(ii)
The necessity of maintaining a positive closing force on the valve for fluid
tightness. An empirical figure here is to make Dp equal to 1.2 5 x VF
Additional movements introduced by the weight of the lever on both
sides of the fulcrum or pivot point and the weight of the float. These
can be calculated or eliminated by counterbalancing.
66
(iii) Frictional resistance of the pivot and rising part(s) of the valve. This
will call for an additional increase in displacement force. i.e. float size.
It is difficult to establish required values except on empirical lines as
frictional forces may be subject to change with age.
It may be further necessary to evaluate the displacement force with the float
fully submerged (when OF= 0.02 D3 ) and the resulting loading on the fulcrum
pin. Design should allow adequate sheer strength on the pin to allow for this
contingency, particularly in ball float systems used with level controls in large
tanks and/ or inaccessible positions.
Butterfly Valves
Since it was first introduced well over one hundred years ago, the butterfly
valve has come through many development stages to become one of the most
successful high-performance valves in use today.
The first butterfly valve was used by James Watt, the Scottish engineer, for
his steam engine. It was also used in the Mercedes motor car in 1901 for the
fuel intake linked to the accelerator pedal.
Initially, butterfly valves were limited to low pressure drop applications and
sizes that were about six inches or more. They also tended not to seal too well.
68
In basic terms, a butterfly valve uses a flat disc in which the closure device
rotates about an axis regulating the flm.v of liquids with off-centre or in-line
sealing. Smaller sizes usually have manual operation, but much larger devices
such as penstock control valves are usually motorised.
Butterfly valves can offer attractive cost savings and operating benefits over
conventional globe valves. With high flow capacities, butterfly valves enable
the use of smaller units which reduces cost, weight and space requirements.
With only two wetted parts and a range of valve linings, butterfly valves
isolate the body from the media, thus eliminating the need for expensive exotic
materials.
The smooth contoured, crevice-free disc produces lower torques. while the
butterfly valve design makes it easy to install, maintain and service.
The two main groupings are general purpose butterfly valves and highperformance butterfly valves. Butterfly valves have the disadvantage that they
restrict the flow through the pipe and solids catching on the disc can cause
a blockage or prevent the valve from closing. Butterfly valves are used in
high-temperature, high-pressure applications or those involving toxic or
corrosive fluids. Modern butterfly valves are normally of wafer design , fitting
Butterfly Valves
69
The seat (closure member) of the butterfly valve is an area where there are as
many designs as there are manufacturers of butterfly valves. A single-piece
First o ffset
Sealing plane
Shaft
cente rline
Second offset
70
Pressure
Insert
Disc
Body
Seat
Figure 2. Wafer-sphere sealing principle with tlzr disc downstremn of the seat.
Butterfly Valves
Insert
Clearance for flexibility
Disc
L - - - 1 ' - - --
Body
t t t t
Pressure
Figure 3. Wafer-sphere sealing principle with tfle seat downstream of the disc.
o-9
9-s
I Body cartridges
2 Top adaptor
3 Seat
4 Disc/Stem
5 Centre bush
6 Top bush
7 Bottom bush
8 Plus
9 '0-ring'
10 Body securing screws
11 Top adaptor securing screws
12 Notch plate
13 Lever
14 Notch plate fixings
71
72
flexible PTFE seat has proved to be a popular choice, with thick cross-sections
throughout the seat. pre-compression of the seat for low-pressure sealing and
clearances surrounding the seat to allow flexibility .
The significance of the single-piece seat is that there are no 0-rings or
metallic springs to limit the temperature or corrosive conditions that the PTFE
seat can be exposed to.
A typical example of PTFE seat design is shown in Figure 2 where the disc is
downstream of the seat.
As line pressure is applied. the full cross-section of the seat is pressurised .
which causes the seat to follow the natural deflections of the disc under pressure.
Pressure activation of the seat enhances sealing with increasing line pressure.
despite the fact that the disc is moving away from the seat due to the same
pressure.
With the flow in the opposite direction, with the seat downstream of
the disc, the seat is supported by the seat retainer (Figure 3). The disc is
deflected by pressure into the seat. enhancing the sealing as the pressure
increases.
A wafer-type butterfly valve is shown in Figure 4 . Typically the valve consists
of a stainless steel disc/ stem in a polymer seat. fastened by two half-body
cartridges. This particular valve has three side thrust-absorbing bushes, one
top and bottom and one directly above the seat with a secondary 0-ring sea t
adjacent.
Buue~{ly
Valves
73
Shof1 SQuiJre
Topflongc ISO 52 11
Shah (ccnccn1uc)
C:enHtC
Vi)iVO diSC
VnlvR
74
any butterfly valve is normal and can be retained for a considerable time
before seal replacement is necessary.
Metal seats in butterfly valves have particular advantages and should
incorporate the following:
SEATING PRINCIPLE
The d1s~ of the valve IS rnach1ned to close tolerances to (.reate an
elhptcal shapr ~lm~<ar lo an oblique slice ldken ffom a sol;d metal
conc. \Nhen the v~lve s closed, the elhpt1cal d1sc at the maJOr ax1s d S
places the sea: nng outwdrd. causu1~ trc seal nng to ronldct the disc
at the minor ax1s. \J\Ihen the v;<lv: s opened, the contact s rclcaseJ
dnd tnc !.eat nng retums to 1ts ong1nal c1rcular 5hc1pc.
Butterfly Valves
75
TOP OF OIS(
PATH Of DOOR
STAINUII ITHL
\(AIRING
ITAIHUIIITEH
Uii'I<R~
The cone angle allows the seal ring to touch the seat with a contact angle
that is uniform and allows a slight amount of wedging.
This type of valve is particularly suited for process and steam duties from
cryogenic to high-temperature applications.
Another novel butterfly valve is shown in Figure 8. This valve is designed
specifically for dry solids processing. The valve has an inflatable seat that has
only 'casual' contact with the valve disc during opening and closing. In
operation. air and electric controls operate the valve. They automatically inflate
and deflate the seat. allowing a single control input to operate the valve.
When supplied with air, the control assembly moves the disc to the closed
position and then automatically inflates the seat. When the control signal is
received, the seat is instantly deflated and the valve disc moves to the open
position. When the control signal is dropped, the assembly returns the disc to
the closed position and automatically inflates the seat (Figure 9).
76
Actuation
All types of control mechanisms can be used to operate butterfly valvesmanual by lever or handwheel with reduction gear, electrical by actuator or
reduction gear. hydraulic actuator or pneumatic actuator. Choice largely
Offset 1
Achu:ved by placlJJg the >haft
bchrnd the ccntnlinc of the >o.:a.lrng
surface
Offset 2
Achieved by placing the shaft off.<et 10
on<..: side of tht: pipe :Lnd valve cenrerline
('he purpose of theM: offsets is to reduce
~mel ~cal
during
vai\'C travel.
Offset 3
Pro,itk~
the
~cornetry
Butterfly Valves
77
depends on the size of the valve and the specific application. Special control
systems can also be used for automatic closing, e.g. see Table 1.
Fieldbus control
Closed
Closed, inflated
Open, deflated
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
78
The diagnostic role of a field bus system means it can give advance warning
of potential problem areas so that corrective action can be taken. This
instrumentation technology has resulted in a new breed of valve controls
instrumentation.
See also the chapter on Valve Actuators.
Inherent flow characteristic
The inherent flow characteristic of a valve has been defined so as to keep the
differential pressure across the valve constant. When the differential pressure
across the valve is constant, the flow rate (q) through the valve is proportional
to the valve flow coefficient (Cv). Because the valve flow coefficient (Cv) reflects
the effective flow cross-section of the valve, the valve inherent flow characteristic
No
Is power available?
... During emergency closing?
... Any voluntary remote control?
--
Yes
-
1-
--~
'--
__i l -~-- i
--
--
Hydraulic jack
Counterweight
<1)
:;
Oleopneumatic
accumulator
----
- --
--
- - --
<1)
'"0
0!-.<
....,
c
0
u
Mechanical locking
Manual resetting
Automatic resetting
o..... -roc
!-.<
COil
u0 -rn
Defect transmission
Mechanica L
Electrical
Optional
Electrical remote control
Butterfly Valves
79
The size of butterfly valves to be used for control purposes should not be
dictated by the nominal diameter of the pipe, but should be calculated on the
basis of the operating characteristics in order to achieve the correct control
characteristics.
To determine the size of a control valve, the opening angle characteristics
need to be considered. Typically, some butterfly valves are designed with
approximately equal percentage characteristics over an opening of 60.
The example in Figure 11 shows how to calculate the Kv (flow coefficient)
from liquids and gases.
Pressure/temperature ratings
The maximum working capability of a valve is either the body rating or the
seat shut-off capability, whichever is the lower.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
-&
<V
0.6
/]
0
;..=
Qj
0
v
0.5
3
_g 0.4
<V
>
"_.3
"'
Qi
0:::
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 ~~=-~~~~~~~----~----~
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
04
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
Relative travel h
1 quick opening
2 linear(~= h)
3 equal percentage
4 hyperbolic
(~=
1 ...
METHOD
co
0
Where
<G
;::,
Kv =
a) Liquids
6p
Liquid sizing formula is o nly applicable for subcritica l f low
51';) ~ p.P2
50
65
80
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
4 50
500
of pipe
in <m2
19.6
33.2
50. 3
78.5
123
177
31'491
707
962
1257
1590
1963
6~ '-- ~2_7 -
Kv
111
170
256
470
96 1
1666
2777
4273
6L.l0
85lo7
10 683
14957
18803
]_2 393 1
90'
Cv
Kv
130
19 8
299
548
112 1
1944
32L.O
4986
7Lo80
9973
12466
17453
21940
27924
89
136
205
405
854
141 0
.2329
3675
5170
6923
9230
11965
14957
20512
so
Cv
10lo
159
239
473
996
16lo5
2718
4288
6033
8078
10770
13961
17453
28955
"'""\::l
"'""
;::,
:::
J::l..
(J
0
:::
"':;;::..........,
"'c;......
:::!
Cross- sec[ion
ON
">::::
=
=
Kv=Vn_~
b) Gases
'-3
t!::
O pening Ang le
Kv
75'
Cv
76
89
111 130
175 20Lo
34 1 398
709 an
11 53 13'5
1880 2194
3076 3589
4273 4986
5726 6681
7692 8975
10256 11967
12820 14959
17521 204lo5
Kv
70'
Cv
Kv
45
59
69
104 I
70
89
106
136
159
260
303
200
534
418
623
880 1027
683
1111
1495 1744
183 7
2350 2742
3L.61 4039
2649
4358 5085
3504
43 58
5555 6482
7863 91 75
6068
9829 11469
74 35
14 102 16455 1 100L.2
60'
Cv
Kv
53
82
12lo
233
488
797
1296
21 44
3091
4089
5085
708 1
8676
16455
50'
40'
Cv
Kv
23
27
35
53
102
213
350
598
982
1367
1880
2264
3162
3931
5213
41
62
119
249
408
1lo
22
16
26
32
37
62
132
2 13
358
572
854
1111
1452
1965
2393
3247
72
15lo
249
1< 18
667
996
1296
1694
2293
2792
3789
698
11 46
1595
2194
2642
3690
458 7
6083
Cv
Kv
7
12
18
35
75
123
213
333
470
30'
25'
Cv
Kv
8
14
21
12
23
51
83
145
222
324
lo27
555
769
961
1282
14
27
60
97
169
259
378
498
6lo8
897
11 21
1496
lol
88
144
249
389
S lo B
748
6-41
769 897
1068 1246
1367 1595
1880 2194
Cv
6
!
Butterfly Valves
81
82
In Figure 12 the seat ratings shown are based on data from API 609 and the
body ratings shown are from ANSI B16.5/BS 1560 part 2.
Butterfly check valves
ANSI 300.3 16 SS
SOOPSI
V3
c..
"-'
<1)
.....
:::1
400PSI
"'"'.....
<1)
c..
300PSI
200PSI
lOOPS!
300F
tsooc
400"F
SOOoF
600"F
700oF
800"F
200C
260C
315C
370C
400C
Temperature Of
oc
Butterfly Valves
83
Butterfly valves are compact, require less space, less weight, less raw
materia] and are generally less costly than other valve types.
Butterfly valves are quarter-turn valves, easy to operate by lever, gearbox
or actuator. They have excellent gland integrity.
Butterfly valves have few parts and are generally easy to maintain .
Butterfly valves are suitable for control purposes with linear flow
characteristics between 30 and 70 of opening.
Butterfly valves offer excellent rangeability from 30:1 to 100:1.
84
Exhaust
~
Pressure
Figure 1.
86
Ro tating disc
Fi.qure 2.
Figure 3.
This type of valve differs from the typical rotary valve in that the valve design
allows for transitional flow to occur when changing valve positions . Transitional
flow eliminates dead-heading problems associated with positive displacement
pumps .
Typically the rotor valve (Figure 5) consists of four flow types with many
flow-pattern combinations and 'piggable' versions. The stem and rotor are
Mmirnum turbulence =
Minimum pressure drop
Figure 4.
2-Way
Tri-Ciamp
3-Way
CherryBurrell
1-Line
Carbon Steel
4-Way 150# Flange
87
88
usually of a one-piece construction that can eliminate the source of wear and
repair common to the typical ball valve design . Full-port diameter reduces the
pressure drop across the valve, thereby increasing the flow. An independent
leaf seal design eliminates the large cavities common to the ball valve and also
the need for cavity fillers, which still create stagnant seams for product to
enter.
Position 1
Position 2
2-WAY
3-WAY
S-
L-
4-WAY
T-
s-
LL
..T-
**L-
~ ~~~~~
~ ~ ~~~~~
0 ~ ~~~~~
~
~
~~~~~
**
Position 3
Position 4
5-WAY
8- (with special porting)
PORTING
B-
BS
BL
BT
A,B,C&E
Position 1
Position 2
Position 3
Position 4
~~~~
~
~ ICIAJ cf}. ~
~
~ lj~ ljJ ~
~
~~~~
c
A,C&E
A,B&E
~ j Ci;
~ 'I ~
~ ~ ~
fJ I ~;
c
89
Typical Parts
120 Ported "Piggable"
3-way Valve
(2'h " Valve Size Shown)
l
2.
3
4.
Valve body
Roto r
Top co ver
Hat1dk
5. Washer
6. Hex nut
0
120 ported piggable 3 -way valve.
7 Hex head bo lt
8 Ported seal
9. Bod y o-ring
10. Stem o-nng
Bono m roto r washer
ll (not shown)
12. To p rotor washer
13. Co ver o-ring
14 . Sea l o-nng
15. Solid seal
(no t shown)
19. Bo ttom co ver
90
De-mountable rotary valves (Figure 7) are mainly used Cor sanitary duties
in dairy, food, pharmaceutical and chemical applications with powder or
granular product. This type of valve is usually produced in 316 stainless steel
with the rotor end-plate and shaft seals easily disassembled without tools and
the unit capable of being cleaned in place (CIP). Capacities up to 1500 cubic
ft/ hr in either drop-through or convey-through configurations are common.
[C.:.:~~~~JI ISO-~~OlQualityAssurance
- -~ Certifted Factory
FIRE SAFE
API&o7
VALVES
AUTOMAnON VALVES
Globe Valves
Over the last 60 years, globe valves have been re-appraised in the light of new
materials available for use. They are popular as industrial valves because they
have fine adjustment and permit unobstructed opening through pipelines.
The globe valve is characterised by a baffle or partition separating the two
halves of the body. with an interconnecting part at the centre opened and
closed by a screw-down/screw-up disc or plug mounted at right angles to the
body (Figure l ). The name derives from the fact that original body shapes
were spherical, the more usual modern form being semi-spherical or even
substantially parallel-sided.
The globe valve offers good regulation characteristics but high resistance
because of the tortuous flow path. This can be reduced to some extent by making
the throat area equivalent to that of the pipe (calling for a more bulbous body),
~--2
l. Body.
2. Bonnet
3.Cover.
4.Giand packing.
5.Stem.
6. Handwheel.
u
Figure I. Screw-down globe valve.
92
Figure 2.
Globe Valves
For{Jed-steelgloiJe valve.
93
94
Seats
Globe valve seats may be cast integral with the body or take the form of
screwed-in, pressed-in, or spot-welded rings. A variety of materials may be
used for seats, depending on the application, including coated seat rings with
plastic inserts. Normally only screwed-in seat rings are replaceable.
Stems
Possible stem assemblies include inside screw and outside screw (both rising
stem) and sliding stem. Inside stem rising screw is usual. A stem seal (stem
gland) is necessary to eliminate leakage. This is normally a gland-type packing
or gland rings. A diaphragm bonnet seal or bellows bonnet seal may also be
used on globe valves, the former isolating the working parts of the valve from
the fluid as well as preventing leakage to the atmosphere. Metallic bellows
seals are often used on valves intended for high-vacuum duties.
The valve shown in Figure 3 is manufactured from malleable iron. This
valve is widely used on standard pipelines for steam, oil and water.
No.
l
PART NAME
BODY
MATERIAL
Malleable Iron
2 BONNET
Malleable Iron
13 Cr Stainless Steel
No.@@
--i
4 DISC
Carbon Steel
13 Cr Stainless Steel
6 BONNET BUSH
13 Cr Stainless Steel+
H350
7 PACKING BUSH
13 Cr Stainless Steel
8 STEM
13 Cr Stainless Steel
9 BONNET BOLT
Carbon Steel
lO NUT
Carbon Steel
11 GLAND BOLT
Carbon Steel
12 NUT
Carbon Steel
l3 GLAND FLANGE
Malleable Iron
14 YOKE SLEEVE
15 SET PIN
Brass
Globe Valves
'Y '-pattern globe valve: bellows seal. inside screw and yoke.
----
Locking device
Protecho:l !(Qm W11r\lent100al
acluaton
- -
Vibration-damped
thronle disc
LOW-flOiSO UO'N f:GiliWI
pos.sble
Lead - s~alabte
C.:l P
95
96
Malleable iron provides a high yield point, a more important property than
tensile strength for valve materials. It is also stable against temperature
change. Low-pressure valves of this type generally have PTFE seats. Valves
for use at higher pressures have the valve disc and body seat ring made
from hard-faced stainless steel. The hard face is an alloy containing cobalt,
chromium and tungsten. Valves of this type can also be fitted with replaceable
PTFE discs when used with liquefied petroleum gases. The gland packings are
usually of a synthetic rubber of butadiene-acryl-nitrile polymer V packing
design to provide for good oil and wear resistance. Over time, the V packing
will harden: tell-tale signs are: a friction sound when the valve is opened and
Globe Valves
97
closed; the opening and closing operation becomes difficult to operate; and the
gland actually leaking. The packing must then be replaced.
An example of a standard globe valve for use in hot- and warm-water
heating and boiler installations is shown in Figure 4. This particular valve has
a metallic seat. The temperature range is from -1 ooc up to + 3 50C, with
pressures up top= 2 5 bar.
The valve illustrated in Figure 5 is fitted with a soft seat for high-temperature
operation from -1 ooc to + 200C. Typical applications included hot-water
heating systems, district heating plants and low-pressure steam plants. The
valve has a short face-to-face length which makes it particularly compact.
Globe valves are a traditional standard solution for many control applications
because of the ability to modify the trim design for different throttling purposes.
Oblique valves
The oblique valve or Y-valve is a hybrid globe valve characterised by the stem
being angled (Figure 6 ). As a consequence the flow path is less tortuous, with
reduced pressure drop compared with a conventional globe valve. It retains
the same good throttling characteristics as a globe valve and can be fitted with
similar types of plugs.
Construction is basically the same as globe valves with the option of integral
or fitted seat rings, stem options and stem seal gland treatment.
Gate Valves
The main feature that distinguishes a gate valve is the flat face or vertical disc
or wedge that slides in a track or seat which can be lifted in a direction at right
angles to the valve until clear of the flow path. Generally gate valves are used
for on- off non throttling service, i.e. they are intended to be either fully open.
when they offer little resistance to flow, or fully closed . For this reason , they
are the principal valves used in bulk pumping practice.
Large gate valves tend to be power operated. Throughout the water industry.
for example, automation with actuated valves has been introduced in response
to the requirement for lower manning levels.
Gate valves are divided into a number of classes, depending on the design of
the 'gate' and its seating faces.
Gate vnlves.
Gate Valves
8
6
IH-7'' ----
I. Body .
2.Bonnct.
}. Wedge.
4.Scat ring.
S.G iand packing.
o.G iand follower .
7.Stem.
~. H r.~ n d wh eel.
~~~L3
. -t -- -+- 2
~wJ)~~L1
4
Solid wedge gate valve.
! .Body.
2. Di sc.
J .Spring.
4.Bonnet.
5.Giand.
6.Stem.
7. Y okc.
8. H andwheel.
r---
Non-rising handwheel
Favourable in confined
spaces
Movable wedges
Precise adaptation
body seats
Wedges are easy to replace
Htgh reltability
Long life
'- -
- - _
_ .
99
100
Wedge~gate
valves
The gate is wedge-shaped and seals on corresponding faces in the faces of the
valve body. Wedges and seats can be made of, or coated with, resistant
material or faced with plastic such as PTFE. The plastic is often contained in a
groove to prevent it spreading. Figure 1 shows a wedge-gate valve with
external screw, and Figure 2 one with internal screw.
Flexible-wedge valves and split-wedge valves are similar to the aforementioned .
but with provision for slight seat misalignment.
Wedge-gate valves can be further described as inside-screw or outside-screw
patterns (see Figure 3). They are widely used for oil, gas and air services. and
also for handling slurries, etc.
Double-disc valves
In these valves the gate is in the form of two discs which a re forced apart
against parallel seats by a spring. This provides tight sealing without relying
on fluid pressure, making this type of valve particularly suitable for steam
duties as well as handling gases and light oils.
Parallel-slide valves
Thrust rlate
"'-llo.o:-~"'""
Sea ting)
W edge
ga te
Gate Valves
HANDWHl( L
STUFFING BOX
BONNET
GASKET
W EDGE NUl
SEATS
WE OG (
101
102
The system is still popular today and the simplest (and probably most effective)
layout employs two discs as valve members initially separated by a spring (see
Figure 4). The function of the spring is to prevent the discs from rattling and to
encourage a wiping action on the downstream disc when under pressure and
on both discs when there is virtually no pressure in the line.
This is to avoid-as far as is possible-grit or scale becoming trapped
between the vulnerable seating faces which might impair their sealing properties.
Parallel-slide valves are used extensively in the pulp and paper industry.
Sluice valves
GateValves
Parallel slide
valve
inside <;crew
pattern
Parallel slide
valve
outside screw
pattern
Figure4.
103
104
_____L
r
-~'"1. --r-~---
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Gate Valves
105
The bellows is a metallic device capable of sealing between the valve stem and
the bonnet to prevent escape of the system fluid to the atmosphere. The bellows
take the form of convolutions that can move linearly. A hermetic seal is
achieved by welding the bellows to the valve stem at one end and to the
BELLOWS SEAL VALVES
....---~~
106
bonnet at the other end (Figure 5). The structural shape of the bellows provides
resistance to high pressure, even with thin wall thicknesses (Figure 6 ).
In operation, the bellows eliminates a leak path to atmosphere. The stem/
packing area is sealed from the medium being processed and the bellows
becomes the primary seal since the bellows assembly is welded to the stem and
to the bonnet as shown in Figure 7.
Replaceable bellows are gaining popularity with valve users in process
plants.
In replaceable bellows valves, the bellows is not welded to the bonnet;
instead, it is welded to a transition piece that is clamped between the body
with standard gaskets to seal the joint. The lower end of the bellows assembly
is welded to the disc which is attached to the stem by a threaded connection .
The gasket on the media side is generally a spiral-wound gasket. The gasket at
the top of the bellows assembly only comes into operation if the belJows fails.
Where maintenance is difficult, the welded bonnet valve may be the better
choice.
Gate valves are used mainly in general industry. power stations, process
engineering, pulp and paper and marine engineering for water. steam, gas, oil
and non-aggressive media.
Actuation
Needle Valves
Small sizes of globe valves fitted with a finely tapered plug are known as needle
valves. This description also applies to any type of valve incorporating a
tapered needle having axial movement relative to the axis of a concentric
orifice and thus controlling the effective opening of the orifice.
Three basic configurations are shown in Figure 1: (A) is a simple screwdown valve; (B) is an oblique version, offering a more direct flow path: (C) is
another form where the controlled outlet flow is at right angles to the main
flow (and may be distributed through one or more passages). In these basic
d l
c
A
Figure I.
108
Oblique and 'T'-type needle valves typically used for process duties.
Pan
BS
H a ndwheel N ut
1760
Malleable hon
309
Sterr"
Stau1lcss
Gl ond Nul
Carbon Srecl
1506 I ll
Gl and
Caroon Steel
15061 11
P ackmg
V al v .1~ .. ~a nd
Sl~t!l
1506 713
A STM
A l82 G R F6
Piastr e
N o 1: M c r.,ILt
Stecf P ac:..rnq Rrng
Mdd S1ecl
970 ENIA
Bonne(
Carbo n S1e c1
150() 11 1
U1 1et
Bo d y
Gasket
Am'K O Iro n
1501 161 G R J2
At 05 G A 2
Needle Valves
109
versions a threaded needle is shown, the thread itself acting as a seal to eliminate
leakage past the needle. This is normally quite satisfactory in very small sizes
or needle, although a more leak-tight arrangement is to mount the needle in
an externally threaded end piece [Figure 1 (D)]. This end piece can also act as
a grip for adjustment of the needle. Sealing in this case can be further
improved if necessary by incorporating an internal seal. such as an 0-ring.
The other common form of needle valve is the float-controlled, carburettor-type
valve.
See also the chapter on Globe Valves.
Pinch Valves
The 'working' element of a pinch valve, also known as a clamp valve, is an
elastomeric tube or sleeve which can be squeezed at its mid-section by some
mechanical system until ultimately the tube walls are pinched or clamped
together producing full closure of the flow path.
In its simplest form it can consist merely of a length of elastomeric tube
fitted with a pinch bar mechanism incorporating a closure stop to prevent
over-pinching of the tube. More usually the moulded rubber tube is housed in
a metal body which also incorporates the pinching mechanism (Figure 1 ).
This can be a simple scre\r\r-operated mechanism. where the pinch is applied
only to one side of the tube, or a differential screw controlling two pinching
mechanisms working in vertical opposition . The latter produces lower-stress
working of the tube.
Other types of pinch valves dispose with mechanical mechanisms entirely,
the tube being squeezed shut by air or hydraulic pressure injected directly into
the body of the valve (Figure 2). With a regulated fluid pressure the valve may
I .Bouy .
2 Flexible tulle .
3. U ppe r pinch bar
4. Lowe r pinch
S. Spimlk .
oar
6. H andwhc c l.
Pinch Valves
l.ll
capability of sealing
with entrapped solids.
be used for throttling as well as shut-off (full closure) (Figure 3 ). The particular
advantage of the fluid-operated pinch valve is that it will still close tight over
entrapped solids (making it particularly suitable for handling products with
solids in suspension). Also, because the tube is flexed under uniformly
distributed pressure, its life should be much longer than that or a similar tube
working with a mechanical pinching system.
In common with the diaphragm valve, the operating mechanism is not in
contact with the working fluid at any time, and nor is the body. In this respect,
pinch valves have the advantage over diaphragm valves, unless the latter are
ru bber-lined or otherwise surface-protected. This exclusion of the working
fl uid from all parts excepting the sleeve itself makes it ideal for the handling of
aggressive fluids and those which readily attack metal; and its straight-through
characteristics mean it is suitable for the handling of slurries, pastes and
semi-fluids generally, even those containing sizeable solid lumps in suspension.
OPEN
A1r lnlel
THROTTLING
Fig1ue 3.
Aor lnlel
CLOSED
112
The flow pattern of a pinch valve is streamline and laminar. The non
turbulent flow pattern even in the wide-open position means that wear on the
valve sleeve is minimised.
The linear characteristics of some control pinch valves result in flow rates
which are directly proportional to the amount of sleeve travel throughout the
stroke of the valve while under constant-pressure and pressure-drop conditions.
Typical valve sleeves are shown in Figure 4. These include standard, double
wall for very abrasive conditions, cone sleeve for throttling control and
variable orifice sleeve for improved flow characteristics where a high pressure
drop is required.
Another form of pinch valve is shown in Figure 5. In addition to a resilient
sleeve this also incorporates a streamlined core on to which the sleeve closes
to seal. This valve can be operated in a variety of modes. In mode 1, the valve
Standard Sleeve
Double Wall
Sleeve
Cone Sleeve
Variable Orifice
Sleeve
Pinch Valves
113
Control port
Control space
V c\IVC housing
Supporting beam
Core
Resilient sleeve
Figure 6.
FigureS.
remains closed when no pressure is present, due to the resilience of the sleeve
(Figure 6 ). In the presence of pressure in the pipeline, the valve opens and
remains open (Figure 7). It closes again in the absence of flow pressure. Line
pressure of about 1 bar (14 lbf/ in 2 ) is sufficient to hold the valve in the fully
open position.
In mode 2, inlet pressure is tapped and fed to the control space between the
sleeve and body, closing the valve. The valve opens when the operating
pressure is relieved from the control space (Figure 8). At extremely low line
pressures, circa 0.5 bar (7 lbf/in 2 ), the valve remains closed and drop-tight,
even when operating pressure is relieved from the control space.
In mode 3, the operating principle is the same. except that the control space is
pressurised from an independent source, e.g. compressed air or a hydraulic supply.
In mode 4, the flow is tapped to feed the control space which is only partially
filled and then isolated, holding the sleeve in a partially closed position (Figure 9).
In this mode the valve operates as a throttling valve or pressure-regulation valve.
Various low-hardness, high-tensile elastomeric compounds are used for the
tubes, choice being made on chemical resistance and/ or abrasion resistance
required and service temperature. Typical materials used are:
Figure 7.
114
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
GRS
Bun aN
Neoprene*
Butyl
Hypalon*
PTFE
Silicone
FDA
EPDM
Pinch Valves
115
Fluid performance
A pinch valve presents full-bore flow in the open position, with a straight,
uninterrupted flow passage. Pressure drop or head loss under such conditions
is thus minimal, related only to flow velocity and tube length. for a given fluid.
There is no slamming when the valve closes against back pressure and the
elastic nature of the tube tends to eliminate hammer (although this feature is
absent in a hydraulically-operated pinch valve).
Vacuum services
Pinch valves tend to have limited suitability for vacuum services because of
the tendency for the tube to collapse inwards. This is particularly true in the
case of pinch valves with simple exposed tubes. Where the tube is enclosed in a
body it is possible to adapt the valve for vacuum duties by applying a vacuum
within the casing to balance the internal (vacuum) pressure.
Sizes and ratings
Sizes commonly available range up to 300 mm (12 in), with standard bodies
suitable for pressures up to 14 bar (200 lbf/ in 2 ), or steel or stainless-steel
HANDWHEEL
POSITION INDICATOR
Slatnless Steel
SHEAR PIN Sta1nlcss Steel
POSITI VE STOP COLLAR
Stain less Steel
BO DY Duclile Iron
LIFT FO RK STUD
Stainless Steel
TFE TUBE
LINK S
Stamless Steel
TFE REINFO RCING JACKET
RADIU S CLAMP
Stamless Steel
116
bodies for pressures up to 28 bar (400 lbf/in 2 ). Larger sizes are also available,
those over 600 mm (24 in) diameter usually being individually made with
fabricated steel bodies.
Clamp valves
This type of pinch valve (Figure 10) consists of a flexible tube and clamp. The
flexible tube has a heat-shrunk reinforcing jacket with both made from virgin
TFE fluorocarbon resin. The clamping mechanism consists of a compressor
which travels down a stem with rotation of a handwheel or power operator.
and a yoke which travels up the stem at the same time.
Lift forks pull open
Lrnkage
system
pulls
inward
Compressor clamps
closed
Linkage
system
pushes
outward
Pinch Valves
117
Radius clamps are connected to the yoke and to the compressor by means of
links and pins. Working together, they provide a 'scissor-jack' action which
pushes the tube element inward during the opening cycle and pulls it outward
during closing. The actions of the valve mechanism are shown in Figures 11
and 12.
Pinch valves are ideal for use in many industrial applications including:
Chemical plants- where there are corrosive chemicals and for pump
isolation.
Power industry-FGD systems, ash handling and wet lime scrubbers.
Mining industry-centrifuge control, solids separation, tailings systems.
coal washing.
Waste water treatment-flow equalisation, polymer feed systems,
sludge control, grit systems, carbon slurry and raw sewage.
Diaphragm Valves
The distinguishing feature of a diaphragm valve is the closure device. This is
usually an elastomeric diaphragm or tube which acts as a flexible seal when
compressed against a ridge in the valve body. The diaphragm valve handles
corrosive and erosive materials.
Diaphragm valves fall into two main types-weir valves and straightthrough valves. In the former geometry (Figure 1 ). the body has a dividing
weir, above which is mounted an elastomeric diaphragm. In the closed position
the diaphragm sits on the weir. In the open position, it is fitted to provide a
streamlined flow through the valve body. The amount of lifting is variable, so
the valve can act both as a flow controller or a stop valve.
The straight-through diaphragm valve (Figure 2) may have a parallel.
top-tapered or venturi-pattern body with closure provided by a wedge-shaped
projection of the diaphragm. Because of the full-bore opening. it offers
minimum resistance to flow in the open position. can pass suspended solids,
and is capable of being rodded through for clearing any blockage.
Because the diaphragm isolates the moving parts. these valves are
particularly suitable for handling aggressive ~uids, as well as for 'clean fluid '
1. Body
Weir
Diaphragm
Diaphragm movement
Bonnet
Spindle
7. Handwheel
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Diaphragm Valves
119
2. Operating mechanism,
protected from line fluid
corrosion; permanently
lubricated bonnet neck
applications, the type of elastomer being chosen accordingly. The body itself
can also be lined for corrosive duties.
Particular advantages of the diaphragm valve are the glandless construction
and absence of seating problems. Its main limitation is that the maximum
service temperature and pressure are limited by the temperature/ pressure
rating of the elastomeric material.
Typical body materials are cast iron, malleable iron, bronze, gun-metal and
stainless steel. Lined diaphragm valves normally have cast-iron bodies lined with
rubber, neoprene, polypropylene, PTFE or glass. Typical diaphragm materials and
their main uses are summarised in Table 1. Reinforced diaphragm materials may
be used for more arduous duties and are virtually standard for vacuum services.
Typical flow coefficients for weir-type and straight-through diaphragm
valves are given in Tables 2A and 2B.
120
Size
mm
Temperature
Main uses
in
Butyl rubber
15 to 350
0.6 to 14
-30 to 90
-22 to 134
Nitrile rubber
1 5 to 3 50
0. 6 to 14
-1 0 to 9 0
+ l4 to 134
Neoprene
1 5 to 3 50
0. 6 to 14
- 2 0 to 9 0
-4 to 134
Natural/
synthetic rubber
15to350
0.6to14
-40to90
-40 to 134
White natural
rubber
15tol25
0.6to5
-3 5to90
-3ltol34
Foodsaodpharmacenticals
White diaphr<Jgm
White butyl
15to150
0.6to6
-30tol00
-22to212
Naturalcolour.foodstuffs
plasticisers and
pharmaceuticals
Vi ton*
15 to 350
0.6 to 14
+5 to 140
+41 to 284
Hydrocarbon acids.
sulphuric and chlorine
applications
Hypalon*
l 5 to 3 50
0. 6 to 14
0 to 9 0
+32to 134
Acid-andozone-resistant
Butyl rubber
15 to 350
0.6 to l4
-20 to 120
-4 to 248
Operation
Diaphragm Valves
Table 2A.
Valve size
Cast iron
Rubber-lined
Halav / glass-lined
ON
C,.
Kv
Cv
Kv
Cv
Kv
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
150
200
225
250
300
350
5.8
11.5
17.4
26.5
4.3
84
126
180
320
420
600
1260
1630
1990
2580
3840
1.6
3.2
5
7.5
12.2
21.4
30.5
44.4
77.7
108
147
305
388
500
625
833
1.3
9.4
14.5
22
35
70
102
147
264
348
504
996
1320
1620
2088
3060
4.4
2.6
4
6
9.8
17
24.4
35.5
62
86.4
117.6
244
.310
400
500
666
1.7
3.4
5.6
8
12.8
22.5
32
46.6
81.6
Table 2B.
121
12
18
28
45.5
88
132
185
336
444
630
1320
1680
2076
2700
4020
113
154
320
407
525
656
875 .7
Valve size
Cast iron
Rubber-lined
ON
Cv
Kv
15
20
25
32
40
50
65
80
100
125
ISO
200
250
300
350
8.6
1.8
3 7.8
55.8
75
128
238
330
588
924
1680
2580
4020
6060
.10.300
7.9
12.5
20
34
68
90
150
235
385
789
1050
1510
2800
Cv
30.6
45.6
66
107
195
264
480
720
1260
2196
3420
4884
9950
Kv
6.5
10.1
18
28
55
73
123
184
293
665
900
1221
2360
Halav / glass-lined
Cv
Kv
1.9
39
58.2
79
138
254
342
618
960
1800
2724
4296
6204
8.2
12.9
21
36
72
92
158
274
545
825
1100
1550
12 2
position indicator, e.g. parallel with the pipeline in the fully open position and
at right angles to the pipeline in the fully closed position.
Diaphragm valves are particularly suited for rapid closure/ opening because the
cushioning action of the flexible diaphragm minimizes the shock throughout the
pipeline, compared with equally rapid but less resilient types of valve movement.
Double-diaphragm valves
123
Diaphragm Valves
15
1-
14
1-
,-r
--
<
IJ 1-II
10
\\
\
P\C-Uf"'l7)1 \
I'\
f'l.<
U L)
"~~~
0..~'\' \
1-
Area of application
0
-40 -30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
r~
-- -
PIIC
l
r\_
:t
J.I'
50
- 1--- -
I~
-1--~
f'I.C C ~ IOf
MSrNlOJ'
-~-
--r-
12
60
70
Tempero lure in
80
- --f- --
90
100
110
120
I.JO
140
oc
16
IS
14
13
ABSJ'N 1ol
1 -
10
1-
" I"
PIICU~Il' '\(
-10
10
20
30
1-
~~
-o~r
-30 -20
--
\\
r\ \.
1\\ ABS
I"
f'I.< U\
Area of application
t- -:-
PIIC-ca"' '01
PIIC-U.fN ~~
- t - _I_
-
12
11
-+-
-- -
40
50
~ PIIC
r
'
60
Tempero ture in
=-r
--- -
~10
so
90
I
100
oc
).
no
120
I
1JO
140
124
Dinpf!ragm V nlves
12 5
highly corrosive or ultra-pure liquids, when space is critical. This type of valve
has numerous applications in the electronics/semiconductor industry for use
with concentrated etchants and ultra-pure water.
Generally, the valves open with air pressure and close with a return spring.
Diaphragm valves play a significant role in air-pulse jet-dust control equipment
and valve performance has a great influence on the cleaning efficiency of the
generated air pulse.
Air-pulse diaphragm valves need to open and close very rapidly at high
flows. Fluttering of the diaphragm during opening and closing increases air
consumption and will affect valve performance. The opening time of the pulse
valve must be as short as possible, i.e. between 8 and 14 ms to achieve best
performance. Long closing times increase air consumption.
Iris-type diaphragm valves
126
Slide Valves
Slide valves are one of the many variations of the gate-type valve and were
originally designed for use in the pulp and paper industry to overcome the
problems in handling wet and dry fluidized solids in pipelines.
The slide valve, or knife or plate valve as it is sometimes called, in its original
form was a simple rattle-fit plate in a fabricated body. Opening or closing was
achieved by pushing or pulling the plate to give a crude shut-off. Although
design improvements have been made, this simple form of valve is still commonly
used as a diverter or hopper outlet valve on dry powders or solids where a
pressure seal is not required. In such applic ations the body of the valve will
probably be of square or rectangular bore to suit the hopper outlet or duct on
which it is fitted .
The logical advancement from this design was the fitting of resilient seals
and an operating screw and handwheel to open and close the slide. With the
improvement in sealing that this gives, the slide valve is suitable for a much
wider range of services and can handle solids suspended in liquids or gases.
Although they are simple valves, there are a variety of designs on the market
all sharing, to a greater or lesser degree. the following advantages:
(a)
(b}
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
The resilient seals. which can be fitted in the body or on the slide depending
on individual design, are available in various materials to suit the fluid being
handled. For most applications they will be in rubber, e.g. Nitrile or Vi ton*.
*Dupont Dow Elas tomers registered Trade Ma rk.
128
but for higher temperatures or in the food and chemical industries it may be
necessary to specify PTFE or other special elastomers.
There are many individual designs of slide valve on the market. In some
ways, this is advantageous as it gives the valve user more scope for finding a
valve specifically designed to overcome a unique problem. Generally speaking,
slide valves are used on services such as:
viscous media
dry powder
(iii) dry solids of small and large particle size
(iv) slurries and sludges
(i)
(ii)
'------10
Fig uri' 1. Knife-edge slid!' valve.
Slide Valves
129
in addition to which the seal is housed in the body of the valve and shrouded
by the body to avoid damage from solids in the line. [n this design the seal seats
on the edges of the slide, which means that the valve will seal equally well
with flow in either direction and the slide has a chamfered leading edge which
enables it to slice through any obstruction and seat effectively against the
body seal (Figure 2). These features ensure bubble-tight shut-off against
pressure or vacuum.
Figure 2. Features of the slide vnlve shown in Figure l. l. Built-in horizontal seal; 2. internal seal
located in vahw body; 3. valve slide with chmnfered end: 4. intl'rnal contours designed to ensure that
deposits arefhtshed into tlwflow.
0:
Bearing~ in bridge for ease of operation.
Stop ( crosshead)
e xternal to pressure
-----
envelope, limits travel
a nd gives position
indication
Spindle and ~eating
components are free
to adjust dimensionally
in response to thermal ---_
changes within the
---pressure envelope
Bonnet
pressure sealed
(as shown) on valves
to Class 900/PN 150
and above . Bolted on
Class 600/PN 100 valve~
Back scat
, / Belt eye
j Seat
pressed-in (as shown)
on carbon steel valve~
welded-in on alloy
steel valves
.~--=JJ
Figure 3. Venturi pnrnllel-slide valve.
130
Unlike conventional gate valves, the slide passes through the body and a
standard gland packing cannot therefore be used . In the design shown here.
profiled transverse seals are employed. These comprise two lengths ofV-section
rubber with the open sides of the V facing each other. During assembly, the
diamond-shaped opening is filled with an oiled-fibre packing which is forced
Valve closed
Valve open
Slide Valves
131
in and pushes the lips of the transverse seals into contact with the body and
the slide. In this way. leakage to atmosphere is prevented. Also. by removing
the screws on the sides of the body, more packing can be inserted at a later
date to maintain a tight seal even if the valve is on-stream and under pressure
or vacuum. An optional extra on this design of valve is a set of scraper blades
set below the transverse seals. During the opening phase, this enables the slide
faces to be scraped clean over their whole width before they are drawn
through the transverse seals, and damage to the seals is thereby prevented.
This is particularly important when handling sugar, sticky media such as
honey, chocolate compound. glues, tenacious powders. etc.
A venturi parallel-slide valve is shown in sectioned form in Figure 3. This
valve incorporates a pressure-sealed bonnet design and is used as a general
purpose stop valve for main steam and feedwater isolation on power sta tion
boiler plant. The parallel-slide action is shown in Figure 4.
A cutaway view of the internal cross-section of the valve is shown in
Figure 5.
When power operation is required, slide valves are particularly easy to
operate pneumatically as the pneumatic cylinder can be mounted directly on
Figurf 6. Slide valves used in (top left ) brewi11g. ( top right ) food processing rmd (bottom) dust control.
13 2
the valve pillars and the end of the piston rod connected direct to the valve
slide. Electric actuation is also widely used on slide valves and, to a lesser
extent, hydraulic actuation. In addition, a very useful alternative to hand wheel
operation is the lever-operated slide valve which gives a very quick open/ close
operation.
When powders and granular materials are stored in silos or conveyed by
belt and screw conveyors, actuated rectangular valves are often required, as
shown in Figure 6. This is particularly true for pulverised fuels. ash and grain .
as well as brewing, food processing and dust control.
See also the chapter on Gate Valves.
Screw-down Valves
The general classification "screw-down valve" is taken to refer to all types of
valves sealing by a disc or p.lug. etc., and in which the sealing element is lifted
from and lowered on to the valve seat by rotation of a threaded stem, the axis
of which is perpendicular to the valve seat. Mainly this embraces various types
of stop valves , e.g. globe valves, oblique or Y-valves, gate valves, lift-type plug
valves and angle valves. Much of this has been covered in other chapters. It
also includes certain types of throttling valves, i.e. needle valves in particular.
Screw-down valves are also categorised as:
(i)
(ii)
Inside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is fully enclosed
within the bonnet.
Outside screw, where the threaded portion of the stem is exterior to the
bonnet and (usually) carried in a yoke (see Figure 1).
Handwheel
Handwheel
Bridge
Gland
Yoke sleeve
Stem
Pillars
Gland
Bonnet
Bridge
Stem
Bonnet
Gasket
Gasket
Wedge nut
Stem nut
Seats
Seats
Wedge
Body - - --
lnside screw
Outside screw
134
(ii)
Screw-down Valves
135
6
10
9
8
7
No Part
1
Body
Valve Seat
2
3 Valve
4
Locknut
5
Bonnet
6
Stem Y2" - 1"
1 Jj.,"- 2"
3
2
Operating range
u
0
ro
260
~:;
200
(i)
0.
E 100
~team
Saturation
(j)
f-
[;.;'{:;.:,.:,;::=:. :i)()";.:;
r---
Curve
I
0
0
10
15
20
25
Pressure bar g
7
8
9
10
11
12
Washer
Gland Packing
Gland
Packing Nut
Handwheel
Handwheel Nut
136
N0Part ----- 1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Body
Bonnet
Seat
Disc/Plug
Bellows
Stem
Handwheel
Stem Packing
Bonnet Studs
Bonnet Nuts
Body/
Bonnet Gasket
Operating range
(ANSIJOO)
u
0
Q)
::>
Q;
a.
i1l
E
20o~hd--~q===mllfl
Steam
-f"C-----+---Saturation --+-----+-t----=~~
Curve
10
E:'.:~::(.'./]
20
30
Screw-down Valves
13 7
(b)
Spool Valves
Spool valves embody two basic elements: a cylindrical barrel in which slides a
plunger or spool. Port blocking is provided by glands or full diameter sections
on the spool, with intervening waist sections which provide portinterconnection
through the barrel. This makes it easy to provide multi-way and multi-position
switching.
Sliding-spool valves are generally used in hydraulic and pneumatic fluid
power systems for directional and flow-control purposes. There must be an
annular clearance between the spool and the body, so there is always some
leakage flow across the spool and this must be taken into consideration.
Spool valves are relatively simple and economic to manufacture, although for
adequate sealing a fine surface finish is required on both the spool and the barrel
bore. with close tolerances to ensure practical minimum clearances. Glandless
spool valves thus normally require a lapped fit between spool and body.
Pneumatic-spool valves with static seals offer simpler construction in this
respect and also rather more flexibility in design with seals positioned between
valve spaces so that a seal is situated between each subsequent port and one
seal on the outside of each of the two outer ports (see Figure 1).
Spool valves operate on a sliding principle, so design normally follows the
basic requirement of all slide valves, i.e.:
Pressure-balanced ports are required so that there is no net pressure
force acting axially on the spool.
The valve diameter should be a minimum consistent with suitable
stiffness.
(i)
(ii)
2
2
5
4-way va lve
3-way valve
Spool Valves
139
(iv) Friction forces must be minimised and are largely controlled by material
selection for rubbing/ sliding parts.
(v) Annular flow should be symmetricalin order to avoid radial unbalanced
forces which could increase friction .
(vi) Bernoulli forces. arising from changes in fluid momentum. must be
minimised.
Parameters (v) and (vi) are largely controlled by the detail design of the
spool.
Spool-cushioning passages can be built into the valve as shown in Figure 2.
These equalise hydraulic forces on the ends of the spool and cushion the spool
shift. v\lhen the spool is shifted. the fluid displaced from one end of the spool is
transferred to the other end through the passage which is designed to provide
a cushioning effect and balance the spool.
Forces may also be set up due to the changes in fluid momentum through
the valve, generally described as Bernoulli forces. Thus, typically, there may
be a reduction in pressure on the valve spool at the controlling edge, leading to
a force being generated producing unbalance or tending to close the valve. At
the same time, if backlash is also present in the system, Bernoulli forces may
produce high frequency 'chatter' of the valve spool.
The hydraulic unbalancing effects of fluid momentum between the cylinder
and tank ports of a vale can be minimised by contouring the spool shape as
shown in Figure 3. Flow forces that are developed at the conventional square
land orifice lP to B) are partially compensated for by the force-balancing contour
on the outer spool lands (A toT).
Accurate sequencing of land opening and closing also provides maximum
axial stability. as shown in Figure 4. In this example, it is important that flow
path A toT is opened before the path P to B to prevent pressure intensification
which could upset axial balance and limit valve function.
The spool can be moved manually, mechanically, by pilot pressure or by an
electric solenoid. Directional-control valves usually have finite spool positioning
to change the direction of flow from one port to another.
...
Figure 2.
140
Pigure 4.
Figure3 .
I .Surply.
2. Ex hilust .
1 .T orque moto r .
C l il nd C2 to load.
Spool Valves
141
Split-spool valves
To reduce the number of critical axial dimensions of the four-way valve, two
separate three-way valves may be linked together, as shown in Figure 6, and a
means of zero adjustment can be provided in the links. Although manufacturing
problems associated with porting are reduced, further difficulties are introduced
in that two parallel bores have to be made, and there may be additional backlash
in the linkage. Furthermore, its weight is usually more than that of the simple
four-way valve .
A design in which manufacturing difficulties associated with axial tolerances
are eliminated is the Elliott adjustable lap valve. This is a split, three-way
valve in which the two spools are mounted back-to-back and are actuated by a
central ram against restraint. The correct valve lap is obtained after assembly
by axial adjustment or the sleeves.
Sliding-plate valves
This design . shown in Figure 7. may be likened to an unwrapped spool (that is,
two-dimensional). or even to the original D-type steam valve. It overcomes the
difficulties associated with the manufacture of the bores in spool valves, and
hole-and-plug porting techniques may be used. However, some manufacturers
consider. the difficulties associated with the production of flat and parallel
plates greater than those or making spools and sleeves. Various methods are
used to reduce friction forces; in some valves the sliding member is suspended
on spring plates to prevent metallic contact, and others achieve hydrostatic
pressure balance.
Rotary-plate va lves
An alternative form of the plate valve is the rotary type shown in Figure 8.
Reaction-force compensation may be fairly easily introduced by the use of
deflector vanes which have the added advantage of being adjustable.
!. Supply .
2. Exhau~t.
3.Torque motor
Cl and C2 to load .
142
! .Input.
2.Exhamt.
3. Torque motor.
CI anJ ('2 to load.
!.Input.
2. Exhaust.
3.Torquc motor.
Askania-type valves
The main advantages claimed for this type or valve, shown in Figure 9. are
that it is less susceptible to contamination clogging, and the ease or rna n u facture .
Although it has been fairly extensively used [or control purposes in lowpressure applications, its design for medium- and high-pressure systems
presents a far more difficult problem because it is based on empirical methods.
A comment has been made that large reaction forces leading to serious
instability can occur, although the reasons for this are not known. This
valve, whose action depends upon the conversion of kinetic energy of the jet
into static pressure at the spool or ram, is referred to in the United States as the
'jet-pipe' design. However, it is probably preferable to avoid this term to
prevent confusion with other nozzle or jet designs used in two-stage valves.
Two-stage valves
144
--oo-c- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----,
I
----~----------,
II
I
I
I
I
I
+I
!.Supply.
2. [xhausl.
}.Torque motor
4. 1nput force.
5 First stage
6 .SeconJ stage posit1on feedback.
7. SeconJ stage.
I( Restrict or
C I and C2 to loild.
I
I
I
-
- - __ j
C!
C2
~~--------------------~
---------------------,
I
I
I
I
I
__ JI
! .Supply .
2. Exhaust.
3.Torque motor
4.Jnput force.
:'i. First stage.
6.Sccond stage position feedback.
C! and C2 to load.
causes an increase in the pressure in the chamber between the nozzle and the
restrictor which causes the second stage spool to move and thus deliver oil to
the load. Movement of the flapper in the other direction will reduce the chamber
pressure, causing the spool to move in the opposite direction and produce
reverse motion of the load. Thus the nozzle and flapper act as a variable
impedence, and a variable percentage of the supply pressure acts on the
right-hand end of the second stage spool.
Double nozzl~flapper spool valves
Spool Valves
145
I. DLtncing roll .
2. Lever
Figurl' 13. Corrtrolli11g weiJ tension wit/1 hydraulic servo-operated variable delivery pump and hydraulic
motor drive.
both ends of the second stage spool and thus the operation of the first stage
may be likened to that of the four-way valve. Although a fairly high quiescent
flow is inevitable with this design, the power loss is not significant for most
applications.
The introduction of the nozzle-flapper device as the first stage. with its low
inertia and short stroke, was a major contribution in the field of two-stage
valve design. The design shown in Figure 13 is basically one of the earliest of a
family of valves having nozzle- flapper as the first stage.
For more detailed information on spool valves, refer to the Pneumatic
Handbook also published by Elsevier Science Limited.
Solenoid Valves
A solenoid valve is basically a valve operated by a built-in actuator in the form of
an electrical coil (or solenoid) and a plunger. The valve is thus opened or closed
by an electrical signal. being returned to its original position (usually by a spring)
when the signal is removed. Solenoid valves are produced in two modes-normallyopen or normally-closed (referring to the state when the solenoid is not energised).
The solenoid itself may be operated by d.c. or a.c. A d.c. supply may be provided
by a battery, d.c. generator or through a rectifier. An a.c. supply is normally
taken from a.c. mains voltage, through a transformer if necessary.
Valve types and classifications
So /maid valves.
Solenoid Vnlves
SLIDE DISC
CORE DISC
FLAPPER DISC
IJ
FLOATING DIAPHRAGM
LEVER
HUNG DIAPHRAGM
POPPET
PISTON
SPOOL
14 7
148
Two-way valves have one inlet and one outlet pipe connection (see Figure 2).
They are of either
Solenoid Valves
149
Three-way solenoid vales have three pipe connections and two orifices
(when one is open the other is closed and vice versa). They are commonly used
alternately to apply pressure to and exhaust pressure from a diaphragm valve
or single acting cylinder (see Figure 3 ). Three modes of operation are available.
...
.. 3
150
Manual reset valves must be manually latched into position and will return to
their original position only when the solenoid has been energised or de-energised
depending on construction (Figure 5 ). Four modes of operation are possible:
Valve classifications
SolenoidValves
Figure 5.
Ma~rual-resct
151
valves.
Direct-acting valves
When the solenoid is energised in a direct-acting valve, the core directly opens
the orifice of a normally-closed valve or closes the orifice of a normally-open
valve (Figures 6a and 6b ).
The force needed to open the valves is proportional to the orifice size and
fluid pressure. As the orifice size increases, so does the force required. To open
large orifices while keeping the solenoid size small, internal pilots are used.
Pilot-operated valve
This type of solenoid valve is equipped with a pilot and (smaller) (bleed) orifice
and utilises the line pressure for operation. When the solenoid is energised.
the pilot orifice is opened and releases pressure from the top of the valve piston
or diaphragm to the outlet of the valve.
15 2
Solenoid coil
Bonnet
Hung spring
Body
Disc
FLON
FLON . .
DfEIIERGIZED
o+
EIIERCliZfD
This results in an unbalanced pressure which forces the line pressure to lift
the piston or diaphragm off the main orifice and open the va lve.
When the solenoid is de-energised, the pilot orifice is closed and full line
pressure is applied to the top of the piston or diaphragm through the bleed
orifice. producing a sealing force for tight closure. There are two common
types of construction:
Solenoid Valves
(i)
(ii)
153
Pressure-operated valve
OUTLET
DEENEROIZED
ENERGIZED
FLOW-
FLOW-
DE-ENERGIZED
ENERGIZED
154
Solenoid Valves
155
vVith a two-way normally-closed valve, both the spring force and the fluid
inlet pressure act to close the valve. As a consequence, the return spring can
be made relatively weak, and in some designs eliminated entirely. The latter
would require mounting the valve so that the solenoid was vertical. return
action being by gravity plus fluid pressure.
\!\lith a two-way normally-open valve, the spring holds the valve open,
assisted by fluid pressure. The solenoid force must be sufficient to overcome
both spring pressure and inlet pressure to close the valve.
Three-way valves require an upper and a lower spring. The lower spring
presses the valve against its seal opened by inlet pressure. The upper spring
acts in a direction to force the valve open. The following are the combination
of spring strengths required:
Three-way normally-closed
Three-way normally-open
Mixer valve
Divider valve
Lower spring
Strong
vVeak
Medium
Strong
Upper spring
Weak
Strong
Medium
Weak
15 6
Normally
Closed
e;;;;E~~~
Operator
Exhausted
Operator
Pressurized
Normally
Closed
Operator
Exhausted
Operator
Pressurized
Solenoid enclosures
Various types of enclosures may be used for solenoid coils, ranging from
general purpose enclosures to protect from indirect splashing and dust. through
dust and watertight enclosures to full explosion-proof enclosures. Requirements
in this respect are specific to the application and selected accordingly.
Glandless solenoid valves
By arranging the solenoid armature to work in a sealed tube with the solenoid
coil enveloping it, the sealing glands can be dispensed with, so simp lifying the
construction and eliminating one possible point ofleakage.
This principle has been applied extensively to smaller valves. A typical type
is shown in Figure 13.
This valve is T-shaped with two ports opposite each other. while the third is
at right angles to them. The plunger, usually of a corrosion-resistant ferrous
material, is spring-biased so that when unenergised it closes the lower orifice
while leaving the other open . When energised. the plunger is pulled up so that
the lower orifice is opened and the upper closed. rr desired. the spring can be
arranged to bias the plunger in one direction.
The plunger is provided with plastic valve discs, usually of synthetic rubber
or nylon. Because the plunger is unbalanced. the force due to the pressure
must be limited and the size of orifice, and therefore the flow and pressure
drop, is usually related to the pressure.
Solenoid Valves
1 57
!.Plunger.
2.Synlhetic seats.
3.Sieeve .
4.Coil.
A. Cylinder.
B. Pressure.
T.Exhaust.
The maximum pressure is also related to the type of valve and may be as
high as 210 bar (3000 lbf/in 2 ) with an 0.85 mm
32 in) orifice. Flow
depends on the allowable pressure drop and this in turn depends on the orifice
size and the fluid.
Sealing is normally 'bubble-tight' but this is to some extent dependent on
the cleanliness of the fluid . Lubrication is not essential but if used with air the
valve life is increased by air-line lubrication.
Glandless valves can be installed in any position and will withstand appreciable
shock loads. Response time is extremely short, 5 ms on a.c. and 10 to 15 ms on
d.c. and it is said that speeds of up to several hundred cycles per minute are
possible.
For hazardous atmospheres, most manufacturers supply explosion-proof
materials which are slightly heavier and bulkier than the standard type.
Although these valves were originally developed for aircraft and missile
application, there is no doubt that they have many uses in hydraulics, both as
main valves for low-power systems and as pilot valves.
Where pressures do not exceed 17.5 bar (2 50 lbf/ in 2 ), a 1. 6 mm
16 in)
diameter orifice is suitable and this gives a flow of 2.31l/min (0.50 gal/min)
for 3.5 bar (SO lbf/ in 2 ) pressure drop. On a 50.8 mm (2in) diameter cylinder,
this would give a piston speed of 760 mm (30 in) per minute, while when used
as a pilot valve for 2 5.4 mm (1 in) diameter spool with 12.7 mm (2 in) movement.
the operating time is about half a second.
When acting as pilot valve, the actual flow would almost certainly be
greater than that for a 3 .5 bar (50 lbf/ in 2 ) pressure drop, as for a large part of
the time the pressure drop will be nearer 14 bar (200 lbf/ in 2 ), until the
resistance to piston or spool builds up .
e/-
e/
158
valves~pool
type
Figure 14. Small solenoid valve used as pilot. employing pr'ssure-reiease prirtcip/P.
Solenoid Valves
159
1. \Vet solenoid.
Encapsulated units.
Plug a nd socket connectors.
Valve body.
Spoo l.
6. 0-ring sea ls.
7. Mounting s urfa ce.
2.
3.
4.
5.
bar (2000 lbf/ in 2 ) and has a flow of9ljmin (2 gal/min) for a pressure drop of 2
bar (30 lbf/ in 2 ) on light hydraulic oil at 2 7 to 38C (80 to 100F). It is gasketmounted and when used as a pilot valve is bolted on top of the main valve.
Another example of a glandless valve with a 'wet' armature is shown in
Figure 16. All seals are static 0-rings.
Selection
Pressures
Maximum operating pressure differential (MOPD). i.e. the pressure the
electrical solenoid has to overcome to open the valve and allow flow to
occur.
160
Safe static pressure, i.e. the maximum pressure the valve can be subjected to
in normal service.
Proof pressure, i.e. 5 times the safe working pressure.
Temperatures
Normal ambient temperature
Maximum ambient temperature
Minimum ambient temperature
Maximum fluid temperature
Viscosity
Viscosity is greatly dependent on temperature and to know the actual
viscosity of a fluid, the real temperature of the fluid must be considered.
Oil grades-both hydraulic and fuel oils are classified relative to
viscosity and are roughly distinguished in heavy and light oils.
Response time
This is the time lapse after energising (or de-energising) a solenoid
valve and depends on the valve size and operating mode, the kind of
electrical supply, a.c. or d.c., fluids handled by the valve, temperature,
inlet pressure and pressure drop.
Approximate values for a.c. valves on air service under average conditions are:
Small direct-acting valves: 5-10 ms
Large direct-acting valves: 20-40 ms
Internal pilot-operated valves:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Solenoid Valves
161
Valve sizing
......
0\
Problem
Possible cause
Probable solution
Replace parts.
"''""
"'"'
~
CJ
::;
c
::::
....
"'....
~
....
:::
"'
c;
Damaged spring
<:::l
=:..
<::;
Clean orifice.
Wire drawing
Coil failure
Overvoltage
' [n explosion-proof solenoids. a binding core. high-input voltage. or excessive ambient or fluid temperature may cause the solenoid's non-resettable thermal fuse to open.
If this occurs. the solenoid must be replaced.
V:J
0
:::;
I-'
0'
16 5
larger valves the disc or flap may be double hung. Flap shapes are normally
(but not necessarily) circular.
Swing check valves present relatively high resistance to flow in the open
position as well as creating turbulence , because the flap 'floats' in the fluid
stream. They may also tend to chatter in systems having frequent flow reversals.
Swing check valves are normally used in horizontal pipelines. They can also
be used in sectional pipelines with upward flow. They are not suitable for
use in systems with pulsating flows. However, weight added to the flap or disc
Door hinge
bracket
Door
Anchor bolt
Lifting handle
Flexible seal
166
01
L
Fiyure 3. Sprung swing check valve.
16 7
Body materials used for swing check valves include cast iron. bronze. cast
steel, forged steel, stainless steel. high-duty alloys and also plastics . Valve
discs may be in similar materials or composites.
Applications
Main application areas for swing check valves are the water industry, including
pumping and water treatment, irrigation, and the petrochemical industry
including hydrocarbons and industrial processes. Other applications can be
found in air conditioning and general industry.
Penstocks
A penstock is a single-faced valve consisting of an open frame and a door. This
form of valve is normally located in tanks or channels as a means of controlling
flow into a pipe. Many types are available to suit particular requirements and
operating conditions. The main ones are:
Penstocks for operating against pressure , i.e. pressure forcing the door
onto the frame.
(ii) Penstocks for operating against off-seating pressure, i.e. pressure
forcing the door away from the frame.
(iii) Penstocks designed to accommodate both seating and off-sea ting
pressures.
(i)
I
Ill
DO
...
Sid e Wedg es
t-
'== F=
=
Sid e. Bo tt o m an d To p W edges
Penstocks
169
IM---+11------ SEALING
FACES
the time of installa tion being the determining factor as far as leakage is
concerned .
Penstock frames may be circular or rectangular. In the latter case a preferred
proportion of width to depth is 2:3 for vertical form, and 4 :3 for horizontal
form. Frames and gates are commonly made of cast iron, although plastic
materials (usually reinforced steel) are also used for gates operating in
aluminium. stainless steel or epoxy-coated frames for corrosive applications.
Frames may be for channel or wall-mounted application (Figure 3 ). Sealing
faces in suitable materials are embedded into both the frame and door
surfaces.
Handwheel operation of the gate is normal, using a rising stem supported
by a suitable headstock or bracket. The advantage of a rising stem is that
the screw thread at the bottom of the stem is not usually immersed and is
readily accessible for lubrication. A non-rising stem eliminates the need for a
headstock and merely rotates through a nut in the penstock door (see Figure
2). The threaded portion at the bottom is then usually immersed in the
product being handled . Different systems for raising and lowerin g the gate
may be employed on modulating penstocks used for flow-control purposes
(Figures 4 and 5).
170
Spindle
Gusset
Door
lifting
bracket
Adjustable
seal
/
/
Chased-Invert
Type.
Fixed
top seal
Door wedge
Frame
Concreto
wall
Anchor
bolt
Reinforcing
gusset
Spindle
__. Gusset
/'
Door
lifting
bracket
fiKed
top seal
Door
Flush-Invert
Type.
Frome
Q (Imp gal/min)
Q (US gal/min)
3
Q (m /s)
x
x
x
J2 g x head (ft)
J2 g x head (ft)
J2 g x head (m)
Penstocks
Fixed seal
pindle
Adjustable seal
Anchor bolt
/
Concrete wall
Door
lifting
bracket
Adjustable
seal
Frame
End cap
Fixed
vertical
seal
/
Door
Shroud
angle
Flexible
/
seal
Figure 5. Chnnnelpenstock.
171
Miscellaneous Valves
Where processes or storage applications require continuous safety. the three-way
changeover valve allows the user to cross over from one relief-valve system to
another. The design permits two valves on a single riser. This arrangement
protects the system with one active valve while the other valve is either in
reserve or being serviced. Construction details are shown in Figure 1.
The valve works with many general and specialised applications and can
incorporate an interlock system that allows either valve to be discharged into
Vent valve (not shown)
Vents cavity between
rsolated crossover
valve seat and
relief valve
Provides port(s)
lor in situ testing
Stop plate
Provides posrlion adjustment and posrtive stop
lockrng locatron
Integral handle
No tools
Fast operation
Short operatrng stroke (76)
Rotary motion
Highly vrsible posrtron
indicator
Green safety indicator"
shows operator proper
alignment
Balance valve
For balancing pressure
i!c.ross closed seat to
provide low actuation
torque
Locking arrangement
Cannot be locked until
all components are
transferrea and properly
aligned
Tamper-proof handle
and locking mechanism
Load ring
Provides controlled seat
loading at assembly
Closure member
Partrally sphencal closure member
Three-ported/two-way ball
Flow path never completely closes
High Cv values
Overpressure protection at all times
Spool seats
Spnng-loaded. floatrng seats provrde
easy marntenance, and are pressureactuated for rn srtu testrng
Cannot be overloaded by operator
Seats protected from media
Miscellaneous Valves
1 73
a single header. One valve mounts on the riser, the other on the outlets of
the relief valves. The valves are operated simultaneously through a simple
linkage. This type of valve can also be adapted for remote actuation, still
maintaining the single movement rotary change-over action.
Typical areas where the valve is used include chemical plants, fertilizer
plants, offshore platforms, refineries, pulp and paper mills, gas distribution
systems, toxic service, environmental protection. chlorine storage tanks,
refrigeration, dual filtration and process systems.
Pneumatic piston controlled on-off valve
Typically, this type of valve is best suited for controlling the flow of fluids ,
gases, steam and other substances apart from explosive substances (Figure 2).
The valve is equipped with a position indicator. Generally the material
of construction is either AISI 316, bronze or brass. Although the valve can be
fitted in almost any position, it must be fitted so that the direction of flow is
opposite to the plunger-closing position, otherwise water hammer can result.
Tunnel diverter valve
This valve is designed for use in pressure or vacuum systems to divert or converge
pellets: granules, fine powders or abrasive materials. Two types of sea ls are
174
used: 0-ring seals for applications conveying pellets and granular materials.
and air-assisted seals for conveying powdered or abrasive materials where
three air inlets introduce compressed air into the diverter-valve housing.
An unusual design of check valve is shown in Figure 3 . This features a lipped
elastomeric membrane as the working element, offering virtually unrestricted
flow in the open position with a capability of passing suspended solids up to
the full bore diameter. The membrane itself is held open to a full circular form
by the flow. the circumference of the membrane in this condition being D. Loss
of head is thus minimal (e.g. directly comparable with that of a swing check
valve).
With reverse flow. the membrane assumes a closed position with the lips in
mating contact (Figure 4), i.e. the natural 'unloaded' form of the membrane.
Closure is further assisted and maintained by the reverse flow impinging on
the sides of the now wedge-shaped membrane. The length of seal in this case is
rc.D/2, or substantially half that of a conventional check valve (i.e. the
potential leakage path is reduced by half).
The membrane itself is not subject to elastic deformation. merely flexure.
and thus has a long life. particularly if the fluid does not contain abrasive
solids in suspension. When servicing is required, replacement of the membrane
Miscellaneous Valves
1TD
~I
I
I
I
OPEN POSITION
Figurr4.
CLOSED POSITION
1 75
176
Figure 5.
Miscellaneous Valves
177
100
80
3:
0_.J
......
2
:::>
~
x<X:
......
0
20
60
VALVE% OPEN
80
100
17 8
Open Position
Polymer valves
Polymer valves are used to drain feed, changeover, sample, inject. distribute
and control polyester (including PET), nylon, PVC, PP, PU, HOPE. LDPE and
related polymers.
The difi'erent types of valves used in the polymer processes include:
Feeding valves-disc valves are better suited than ram valves for feeding
low viscosity feedstocks into reactors (Figure 10). Typical feeding valves
are used to regulate the flow of polyester into esterification and
polymerization reactors. For vacuum service. bellows are generally
used. These should be of the external type due to the possibility of failure
in a crystallising environment.
Discharge valves-ram and disc-type bottom outlet valves are used to
drain reactors or control access to the transfer lines between reactors
and crystallisers (Figure 11).
Miscellaneous Valves
179
Rather than emptying the reactor when an exothermic reaction goes out of
control, the injection and stripping valve (Figure 12) injects a stopper.
Another injection valve injects protective colloids. This type of valve is a lso
used to inject steam to heat a reactor.
180
181
SECTION 3
Pressure Valves and Services
Check Valves
Safety and Relief Valves
Self-Acting Reducing Valves
Air Relief Valves
Foot Valves
Check Valves
In general terms. check valves are intended to prevent reverse flow in a line
e.g. after a pump has stopped and to prevent water hammer. They are also
known as non-return valves. reflux valves, flap valves. retention valves and
foot valves in different services. The basic principle of the valve is to only allow
flow in one direction only and with non-return valves, the check valve is self
actuating when flow is reversed. Discs, wafers or membrane diaphragms are
used in this type of valve.
There are numerous types of closing systems in check valves but basically
the check valve can be categorised as follows :
(i)
Q{-1o
2
!.Body.
2.Body connector
3.Seat housing.
4.Retaining plate .
5.Ciack.
6.Seat.
7.Bodyseal.
8.0rientation pin.
9. Body connector bolt.
IO.Body connector nut.
ll.Optional clock spring .
12. Body label.
13. Identification label.
18 6
Buttweldmg End
CheckValves
187
(ii)
Tilting disc check valves, similar to swing-type check valves but with a
profiled disc.
(iii) Guided or lift-type valves where the check mechanism incorporates an
element which lifts along an axis in line with the axis of the body seat.
These may be further sub-divided into:
(a) disc check valves.
(b) piston check valves.
(c) ball check valves.
(iv) Foot valves: specifically check valves fitted to the bottom of a suction
pipe.
(v) Spring-loaded check valves.
(vi) \t\lafer check valves: includes swing-type, sprung disc twin plate.
(vii) Check and surge-suppressor valves: including multi-door check valves
for larger pipelines. and electrically- and pneumatically-operated
surge-suppressor valves.
(viii) Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves.
Tilting disc check valves
The basis of the tilting disc check valve is a 'lifting' section disc. pivoted in
front of its centre of pressure and counterweighted and/ or spring-loaded to assume
a normal closed position. With flow in one direction the disc lifts and 'floats' in
the stream. offering minimum resistance to flow. The balance of the disc is such
that as flow decreases the disc will pivot towards its closed position, reaching
this before flow has actually ceased, sealing before reverse flow commences.
With reverse-flow, reverse-flow pressure and the counterweight system hold
the disc closed (Figure 2). Operation is smooth and silent under all conditions.
Valves of this type normally have resilient sealing rings mounted on a metal
face. Metal seals may be used for high-temperature applications.
Guided or lift-type disc valves
Lift-type disc valves are similar in configuration to globe valves except that the
disc or plug is automatically operated, i.e. is capable of floating in its seat. The
Full flow
Low flow
Reverse flow
18 8
disc or plug is lifted by flow in one direction, permitting through flow. With
reverse flow the disc or plug is held on its seat by reverse-flow pressure. giving
shut-off. A typical standard check valve is shown in Figure 3.
Valves of this type are further categorised by geometric configuration, i.e.
horizontal. angle (oblique) and vertical.
Piston check valves
The piston-type lift check valve incorporates a dashpot applied to the check
mechanism (Figure 4), otherwise it is basically similar to a lift-type disc valve. The
advantage of the dash pot is that it provides a damping effect during operation.
Lift-type piston check valves are commonly used in conjunction with globe
and angle valves on piping systems subject to surge pressures or frequent
changes in flow direction.
CheckValves
lit-~+---.-
""'*~~
189
l.Body.
2. Disc.
3.Disc holder .
4.Cover.
Foot valves, which often include a strainer, are fitted to the end of a suction pipe
and prevent a pump emptying when it stops and therefore not needing priming
when restarting. They should have a minimum resistance to flow, with the
Figrtre 5. Ball rlrl'ck valve. The closing system is a ball lifted up by thefluid and guided ton lateral housing.
190
Lift-type check valves may be spring-loaded for more positive shut-off action,
particularly as regards more rapid-response cessation of flow. i.e. they can be
adjusted to close before flow has fully ceased rather than having to rely on
reverse-flow pressure. They can be of disc, plug or ball-type and can work in
any position. i.e. horizontal, inclined, upward or downward flow (Figure 8 ).
Spring-loaded check valves can be made in the widest variety of materials
with stainless steel or high-duty alloy springs as necessary. Opening
characteristics are governed by the spring rate.
In-line spring assisted valves
The advantages of valves of this type are that they can be installed in the line
in any orientation and typically they do not rely on gravity or reverse flow to
close. Instead, as the forward velocity of the fluid slows, the spring assist starts
to close the disc.
Due to the spring assist and short travel distance of the disc, by the time
forward velocity has decreased to zero, the valve disk has reached the seat and
the valve is closed. With reverse flow eliminated, the forces necessary to
produce water hammer on both upstream and downstream sides of the valve
are substantially reduced.
CheckValves
191
In-line check valves of this type are probably among the most popular types
and are used in many industries including chemical, food and beverage. mining,
oil and gas. pulp and paper, building services and general industry duties .
A basic in-line check valve is shown in Figure 9.
A list of typical applications for spring-assisted in-line check valves is
shown in Table 1 .
Water hammer
DISC
BODY SEAL
"O"AING
19 2
CileckValves
193
Applications
Building maintenance
Compressor discharge
Condensate lines
Pump discharge
Steam lines
Water lines
Chemical processing
Boiler feed and discharge
Compressor discharge
Condensate lines
Cooling towers
Cryogenics
Evaporators
Metering pumps
Mineral dewatering
Nitrogen purge
Process lines
Pump discharge
Steam lines
Vacuum lines and breakers
Water treatment
Food, beverage and drug
Autoclaves
Boiler feed and discharge
Chemical lines
Compressor discharge
Condensate lines
Cookers
Evaporators
Metering pumps
Pump discharge
Refrigeration (hot gas defrost}
Steam lines
Vacuum lines and breakers
Mining
Boiler feed and discharge
Mine dewatering
Textiles
Boiler feed and discharge
Chemical dye lines
Compressor discharge
Condensate lines
Metering pumps
Pump discharge
Steam lines
194
NUT
in-line check valves directly to the outlet of such devices as it can result in
decreased life due to turbulence caused by the fitting. Some manufacturers
recommend that in-line check valves be installed a minimum of five pipediameters downstream of any fitting that would cause turbulence. The flow
arrow on the body casing, if shown, must be pointed in the direction of the flow .
Wafer check valves
Check Valves
19 5
01
DO
196
PressureValvesandServices
100
70
~
~
50
30
Q)
20
=
~
3:
~ \<JIJ
2.-~~
/
.L'
10
7
5
c;:
.....
3"'
50
30
20
I--'
~ ...
.....
I
j_
1
0.7
~co<J I"'
~ v v
~v v
~~~
L--'
lLr"
~\':>
v--
3
2
2.....
....
L--'
...-'
--
=
Q)
I'
..t!.
~~~ ........
</)
........
10
1--"
~~:;..;-
if"
~
v ,;'"",..
......
3:
Q)
-<;;;
:s::
0.5
0.2
0.01
0.02
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.5
Vw-~
xV
=
=
Figure 12. Typical wrifer-type check valve and pressure loss diagra111.
CileckValves
197
Cause
Solutions
Reverse flow.
In-line spring-assisted
check valve.
Reciprocating compressor.
-Missing internals.
Various types of hydraulic and pneumatic check valves are shown in Figure
13. The distinguishing feature of these valves is their zero leakage achieved by
a flexible seal seat (Figure 14).
The flexible seal seat design allows the poppet in the check valve to impact
only slightly on the '0' ring in the closed position. The metal-to-metal contact
between the poppet and the end cap serves as a mechanical seat. Under
reverse pressure, the '0' ring flexes only as much as is needed to seal around
the nose of the poppet and to expel any foreign particles. As a result the '0'
rings are protected from excessive wear.
Five flow holes drilled into the poppet core are positioned to provide a
streamlined flow path through the valve. The combined area of these holes is
greater than the area of either the inlet or outlet parts. The flow is directed
through the centre of the spring.
Typically, hydraulic and pneumatic check valves incorporate ball-type,
poppet, cartridge shuttle and split-flange designs and are used in a wide variety
198
ZERO PRESSURE
NO FLOW
Relaxed seal rong an d gentle seal-to
poppet contact guarantees low pres
su re sea1 1ng and ellm 1nates va l ve
c ha tter.
HIGH PRESSURE
FULL FLOW
Seal flexes to close ott all external
leakage around end cap Enclosure
protects seal ring. prevents s.:a l displacement.
HIGH PRESSURE
REVERS E FLOW CH EC KE D
Seal Still hold1ng external leakage now
cJiso tlexC's arouno poppet. H 1gner
PI<)SSurcs t1ghten th e seal. l eakage
Zero.
Figure 13. Hydraulic and pneumatic check valve 1vithjlexiblP spa [ seat. design.* Flexible sC'al sl'at.
Figure I 4. Hydrau lic and pnertmn.tic check and relief valvrs. *Flexible seal seat.
Check Valves
199
(i)
201
Materials of construction
Item
I
-?-3
4
5
6
Component
Ma1enat SV 57 7 SV54
S00y________________G
~G~G
__
40~t~~
~G7S~C~25
Seat
1.4507Bonnet
GG G-4 0.~GS-C25
Cap
GGG-40.3
DISC
_________________::_ I 4SOi
----...
D~
ISC:-:9::-:U:-:;I
d:
.. : : - - - - - - Sk1rt
GGG-40 3
t.4031
s----~
sp~~n~d~
te----------------------,~.4~0~
34
9
Body Botts
DIN-931 5.6 ZNIOIN-933 CK-35
10
_ sgnng washers
CK 45
-1-t Retatner ung
t 4034
t2
Guide steeve
t .403 t
Sprtng adjustment screw
1.4034
13
--:1-i4- - - -, L'-'oc
=k--"n'-ut
Carbon steel DIN 1651 95 Mn 36 -Zp
15
Sprtng
Carbon Steel DIN 17225 so crv4--:1i6 ------7c<':::a~
p .::
bolt
OIN-931 5.6 ZN
17
Collar
Carbon steel Zlnc
18
Lever
GGG 40.3
Ptn
19
Carbon steel Zmc
ciiCiip
DIN-4 71 Carbon steel
~
-21
P1n
OIN-7343
l'l SSPDra1n Role
22
1.4034
23
Sp1ndle Bail
Alum1mum
ldeniiilcatton plate
~
25
Cock1ng Screw
OIN-913 A~
OIN-t48t
26
Rmg ptn
Lever stem
1.4034
GGG-40.3
28
Cam
l'ack1ng
Grapfitte
29
1.4305
30
Gland
i51N-t471
Nut
31
1.4031
32
0 - 1'\mg relatner
O - l'i1ng
Accordmg 10 SeiVICC
33
C. steel
34
Gland nut
Gasket ! rellel only )
Asbestos lree
35
-36
Asbestos lree
Gasket ( rehel o~
v-
34
30 29
28
27
Packed easing
lever
Gas light
cap
32
33 31 --~=-~~~--~
0-rlng seal
Figure I . Safety valve suitable for steam, gas and liquid service.
202
toOY
~ o~
GUIDE
.~-- ---o ~
- -SPIIING
- PIAU
SPIIING
COVlR
S"NOU
-
12
13
ADJU$11NG SCRIW
- IOCKHUI-
OOMt
NAMEPLAU
RlNEWAIU SEAl
VALVE INLET
203
(ii)
Since all of these types of valves are safety devices, there are many codes and
standards throughout the world written to control their design and application.
Some of these codes and standards are shown in Table 1. Among the most
widely used is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, commonly referred
to as the ASME Code.
More specific information may be found by referring to this code, various
published standards and by consulting literature published by safety and relief
valve manufacturers.
Safety Valves
Typical operating parameters for safety valves are given in Table 2. Safety
valve set pressure and temperature limits are governed by a number of factors
and may not always coincide with manufacturers' published limits for the
applicable materials and flange ratings. Particular limits may be based on
spring limitations. specific material selection or other design considerations.
With boiler applications, for example, set pressures and total capacity
requirements for safety valves are usually established by the design agent or
boiler manufacturer.
Safety valves are intended to open and close within a narrow pressure
range; therefore, valve installations require careful and accurate design, both
as to inlet and discharge piping. The higher the operating pressure and the
greater the valve capacity. the more critical becomes the need for proper
design of the installation.
Safety valves should always be mounted in a vertical position directly on
nozzles having a well rounded approach that provides smooth, unobstructed
flow from the vessel or line to the valve.
A safety valve should never be installed on a nozzle having an inside
diameter smaller than the inlet connection to the valve, or on excessively long
nozzles. The pressure drop occurring in the inlet piping should be calculated
at actual flow of the valve. Where safety valves are installed to protect
piping systems, as on the low pressure side of a reducing valve or on a turbine
by-pass, the pipe or header must be or sufficient size to maintain flow under the
safety valve while it is discharging . A typical design of a pop-type safety valve
is shown in Figure 5.
204
Regulatory body
20 5
Table 1 (co11Unued)
- -
-----~
Regulatory body
-,---
---------------------------
CCNASTHOL
Shenogina Street
123007 Moscow, Russia
206
Table 1 (continued)
Regulatory body
I.S.C.I.R. Central
Bucuresti
Frumoasa nr. 26. Romania
Manufacturers' Standardization
Society of the Valve and Fitting Industry
1815 North Fort Myer Drive
Arlington. VA 22209. USA
SP-6
NACEMR01 7 5
NFPA 10 FlammableandCombustibleLiquids
Code
Verband derTechnischen
Ubenvachungs-Vereine e. V (TlJV)
KurfurstenstraEe 56
4300 Essen 1. Germ any
207
Parameter
Definition
(i)
(ii)
Overpressure
Blowdown
Back pressure
Accumulation
Operating pressure
No
1
2
3
4
PART
SEAT
VALVE DISC
BODY
SPINDLE
5 SPRING END PLATE
6 SPRING
7 ADJUSTING SCREW
8 LOCK NUT
9 LEVER
10 DOME
11 SLOWDOWN RING
12 SETTING SCREW
13 BALL
MATERIAL
GUN METAL
GUN METAL
GUN METAL
H.T.BRASS
BRASS
STEELZINC PLATED
BRASS
BRASS
BRONZE
GUN METAL
GUN METAL
H.T.BRASS
STAINLESS STEEL
208
The discharge piping from safety valves should be equal in size to, or larger
than, the nominal valve outlet and should be as simple and direct as possible.
Good practices must be observed with discharge manifold lines. All discharge
piping in the discharge system must be vented to a safe disposal area to prevent
personnel injury when the valve discharges.
The valve shown in Figure 6a is typically used for steam generators and
steam systems. It is a high capacity reaction-type valve designed specifically
for saturated steam service on boiler drums having design pressures above
103 bar(l500lb/in 2 ).
A typical valve operating cycle (Figure 6b) is as follows:
As pressure in, say, a boiler increases to the safety valve set point the valve
will pop open. After the valve opens steam passes through a series of annular
flow passages (A) and (B) which control the pressure developed in chambers
(C) and (D) . The excess steam is exhausted through guide ring openings (E) to
the valve body bowl (F).
As pressure in the boiler decays, the dynamic forces on the lower face of the
disc holder assembly are reduced and the safety valve disc begins to close.
Assisted by pressure in chambers (C) and {D), the valve at this point closes
sharply and tightly.
209
Figure 7. Basic safety valve for process applications (closed bonnet type).
210
Relief Valve
A basic difference between the design of spring-loaded safety valves and relief
valves is that, in safety valves. the poppet or disc overhangs the seat to
promote faster lift whereas, in a relief valve, the area exposed to overpressure
is the same whether the valve is open or closed. As a consequence, a safety
valve pops open while a relief valve lifts gradually with increasing pressure
until it reaches its fully open position.
The relief valve shown in Figure 10 is a standard type suitable for relieving
excess pressures of water oil, air, gases or steam where high discharge rates
are not required. Duties include the protection of pipelines against overpressure
and protection against thermal expansion. It is filtered in the upright position.
A spring-loaded side-discharge version is shown in Figure 11.
Other spring relief valves have cartridge-type assemblies for easy cleaning.
They are usually suitable for use with positive displacement pumps of the rotary
or reciprocating type. They can also be used as combined relief and by-pass valves.
The relief valve (Figure 12) is manufactured from plastic -PVC, PVDF and
CPVC with solid Teflon'!{)* shaft, intended as a chemical-resistant relief valve for
corrosive and pure liquids . The relieving pressures can be adjusted by screwing
the adjusting bolt up or down to decrease or increase the pressure setting.
This type of valve is not a pop safety-type valve.
"'Dupont registered trade mark.
1 Body
2 Cover
11
12
13
14
l4a
15
16
17
18/19
20
Spindle Ball
Spring Steel
Easing Lever
Dome
Screwed Dome
Dome Cap
Adjusting Screw
Locknut
Spring Plate
Disc Retaining Clip
211
21 Body Gasget
2 2 Locking Pin
23 SeatSecurring Pin
2 5 Padlock
26 Body Stud
2 7 Body Stud Nut
28 Nameplate
29 Nameplate Screw
30 Locknut
Emergency relief valves of the type shown in Figure 13 are designed to meet
the stringent conditions of container, rail, road and static tanks for emergency
venting under total fire engulfment conditions. Usually manufactured from
316 stainless steel, these types of valves can incorporate a manually operated
vacuum vent button.
The type of relief valves shown in Figure 14 is ideally suited for air, acetylene,
ammonia, freon 12 and 22. hydrogen, carbon dioxide, oxygen, aromatic
fuels, synthetic oils, tetrachloride and toluene, at operating pressures up to
2400 lb/in 2 . It can be mounted in horizontal and vertical positions.
In closed operation, the spring load is carried by a metal-to-metal seat. An
0-ring provides a tight seal and the sealing efficiency increases as the pressure
increases up to cracking pressure. At cracking pressure the ports in the poppet
open fully and eliminate the rapid increase in pressure. Flow is throttled
between the poppet shoulder and seat and a regularly increasing flow area is
212
'
[1]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
lOa
Seat
Valve Disc
Body
Spindle
Spring End Plate
Spring
Sheradized
Adjusting Screw
Lock Nut
Lever
Lever Dome
Leak ProorDome
Gun metal
Gun metal
Gun metal
H.T. Brass
Brass
Brass
Brass
Bronze
Plastic
Gun metal
213
provided with increasing flow rates. When fully open, the inline construction
and full flow ports permit maximum flow with minimum increase in system
pressure (see Figure 15).
High pressure variants operate at pressures up to 10,500 lb/ in 2 .
ADJUSTING
ADJUSTING
..,..-- BOLT
DOLT~
----
LOCK NUT
PLUNGER__
~-
SPRING ~
PLUNGER
r --
VENT
"U" CUP
SEALS (3)
VALVE
SEAT
TEFLON SHAFT
INLET
VALVE SEAT
RESILIENT
SEAT
214
The basic spring-loaded pressure relief valve (Figure 16) has been developed
to provide overpressure protection.
CLOSED
CRACKING
OPEN
Figure l S. High-pressure relief valve method of operatio11.
215
;:s::GPS~- SPRING
~~ ~- BONNET VENT
PLUGGED
DISC
216
r ..1
Figure I 7. Pressure relief valves: top left- standard valve: top right- screwed valve with single tr im:
lower-sanitary valve for foodst.uffs and plumnnceuticnls.
This type of valve consists of a main valve with a piston- or diaphragmoperated disc and a pilot. Under normal conditions the pilot allows system
pressure into the piston chamber. Since the piston area is greater than the disc
seat seal area, the disc is held closed. \1\lhen the set pressure is reached. the
pilot actuates to shut off system fluid to the piston chamber and simultaneously
vents the piston chamber. This causes the disc to open (Figure 19).
Another version of a pilot-operated pressure reducing valve is shown in
Figure 20. Other constructions have integral porting, eliminating the need for
tubing to activate the valve and relieve the system pressure, as all pressurisation
is performed through porting machined into the main valve and the mating
pilot valves.
217
218
PILOT
MAIN VALVE
~ Control sp11ng
Pilot dtaphragm
-/
Downstream
externa:
sensing p;pe
connection
Flow_.
Mam
~~._- diaphragm
Figure 20. Standard pilot-operated pressure-reducing valve(or steam. air and industrial gases.
Modulating pilot valve designs limit fluid loss and system shock. However.
this type of valve is generally only recommended for clean service and is found
in a broad range of applications and industries including steam. air and
industrial gases, petroleum-refining offshore applications, chemical processing,
pulp and paper mills and general manufacturing. There are numerous styles
and designs available from many manufacturers.
219
~
[@]
@]
@]
~0
[I]
~
OJ]
OJ
[I]~
[2]
.
r~ - .. t '
3
3a
4
5
6
Body
Seat
ResiJJent Disc
Disc
Spindle
Spring Cap
Spring
...
' -...... .
'
....... ....... ........... . --.......
Gun metal
Gun metal
Brass-EPDM/ Viton
Brass
Brass
Brass
Chrome Vanadium or
Stainless Steel
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
--- - ...
Adjusting Screw
Locking Ring
Dome
Lever
Ball
Padlock
Bush
Pinning Screw
Brass
Brass
Plastic
Brass
Stainless Steel
Brass
P.T.F.E
Steel
220
When such a discharge system is adopted, the safety relief valve must be
designed in such a way that the effects of the variable back pressure on the set
pressure are minimised. This requires the use of a balanced bellows valve.
The safety relief valve should be as maintenance-free as possible.
Sizing Safety and Relief Valves
Proper sizing and selection of safety and relief valves is critical. The first step in
applying overpressure protection to a vessel or system is to determine the type
of fluid, set pressure. back pressure, allowable overpressure and required
relieving capacity; the next step is to establish inlet temperature, compressibility
factor, gas constant or isentropic coefficient, molecular weight, specific weight,
specific gravity and viscosity.
Sizing equations are available from manufactures and regulatory bodies.
e.g. British Standards BS 6759. American Standards to ASME Code Section
VIII and European Standards A.D. Merkblatt A2. All capacities can be calculated
in accordance with the internationally accepted sizing equations using the
certified coefficients of discharge. Typical sizing equations in accordance with
specific standards are, for example:
In accordance with
BS 6759: 1984
For steam:
A=
E
0.52 5 P.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
or
E = 0.525 P.A.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
Ql
fi8s
0 .193 P.Kdr.Fp.Fb.y r
[288
= 0.193 P.A.Kdr.Fp.Fb .v T
or
Ql
or
Q2 = P.A.C.Kdr.Fp.F b.v ZT
or
Q2
For gases:
A=
For liquids:
A=
Q2
P.C.Kdr.Fp.Fb.[f~
Q2
,{M
= 1.61 A.Kdr.Fv.Fw.V{JM
Q3
0.329 Kdr.P.Hws.
or
Q3
221
Key to equations
Office area
= Required capacity of steam
= Required capacity of compressed air
Required capacity of gas/liquid
Required capacity of hotwater
Absolute inlet pressure (set pressure+ overpressure+ 1.013)
= Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure + overpressure- back pressure)
Inletten1perature
= Liquid density
Molecular weight
= Compressibility factor
= 10 5 P.V.M.
R.T.
=
=
=
T
p
=
=
mm 2
kg/hr
ljs
kg/hr
kW
bar abs
bar gauge
oK (C + 2 73)
kg/m 3
kg/kmol
where
R
V
C
rr
Isen tropic exponent at the relieving in let conditions. the value of K is not avai Iable at
these conditions the value at 1.013 5 bar abs and l5Cshould be used
rp
Fb
Fv
Fw
=
=
Fsh
Fdr
Hws
=
=
=
In accordance with
A.S.M.E. Code Section
VIII and API RP 520
Note:- When sizing valves in accordance with ASME Code Section VII, the
certified capacity may only be calculated at 10% overpressure or 3 psig,
whichever is the greater and without the use of correction factors Fp, Fb, Fv,
Fw and Fsh. Set pressures below 15.0 psig may not be ASME stamped.
222
For steam:
w
51.5 Pg.Kdr.Fp.Fb.FsH
or
or
Q = 1.175 Pg.Cg.At.Kdr.Fp.Fb
JG.Tg.Z
Q.JG.Tg.Z
1.17 5 Pg.Cg.Kdr.Fp.Fb
= ~--------
For liquids:
3 8v'3]\ Kdr.Fv.Fw
or
v," --
38A 1 )PLKdr.Fv.Fw
---------==-- - -
JG
Key to equations
AI
w
VL
Pg
~pL
Tg
G
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Cg
Office area
Required capacity of air/gases
Required capacity of steam
Required capacity of liquid
Absolute inlet pressure (set pressure+ overpressure+ 14. 7)
Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure+ overpressure - back pressure)
Tnlet temperature
Specific gravity
Compressibility factor for the gas or vapour at PorT conditions
(if not given use Z = 1)
Imperial gas constant. Use the following formula
Cg
in 2
SCFM
lb/ hr
usgpm
psia
psig
OR ( F + 460)
K( K+l
2 )W
Isentropic exponent at the relieving inlet conditions. If the value of K is not available at
these conditions the value at 14.7 psi abs and 59F should be used
Pp
Fb
Fv
F'w
Fsh
Kdr
In accordance with
A.D. MERKBLATT A2
For steam:
223
Qm.x
Qm
Ao.Kdr.P.Fb.Fp
Ao = --------,-Kdr.P.Fb.Fp
or
0.1791 Qm
Ao = - - -- - - - l/!Kdr.P.If/r Fp.Fb
or
Om =
or
Ao.Kdr.J/]XP Fv.Fw
Qm- - -- - - - - 0 .6211
Ao.ljrKdr.P.If/r Fp.Fb
_ __ ____:___ __
0.1791
For liquids:
0.6211 Qm
Ao = -----===--Kdr.J/]XP Fv.Fw
Key to equations
Ao
Qm
P
fl.P
T
p
M
K
1/1
= Office area
mm 1
Required capacity of steam. air, gases or liquids
kg/hr
= Absolute set pressure (set pressure+ 1.013)
bar abs
= Relieving pressure- Back pressure
(set pressure- back pressure)
bar gauge
= Inlettemperature
K(C+273)
= Liquid density
kg/ m 3
= Molecular vve ight
kg/ kmol
= Isentropic exponent at the relieving inlet conditions. If the value ofK is not available at
these conditions the value at 1.01 3 5 bar abs and l5C should be used
A.D. Merkblatt outtlow function for air and gases
= A.D. Merkblatt pressure medium coefficient for steam
= O.fi2ll JPV
1/1
V =Specific volume in m 3 /kg for supercritical pressure relief
Fp
Fb
Fv
Fw
=
=
Kdr
Capacity correction factor for the effects of low set press ure
Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (balanced bellows valves only)
Capacity correction factor for the effects of viscosity (liquids only)
Capacity correction factor for the effects of back pressure (liquids only: balanced bellows
valves only)
De-rated coefficient of discharge. Select Kdr appropriate to the tluid
224
Safety valves should be tested regularly to ensure that they have retained
their capability of operating at design lift-off pressure. Two basic methods of
testing are:
On-line testing by deliberate overpressure of the system to determine the
actual pressure at which the valve lifts off its seat.
Off-line testing by removal of the valve from its line or position and
determination of active lift-offby hydraulic test.
It is also possible to apply a hydraulic test for on-line testing using a
portable hydraulic test pack.
226
16- -
16
2 --
- 6
- 9
- 17
-10
- - - -12
- 11
-13
- - - - t4
- - - - - - t5
No. Part
Materoal
1 Spnng Housing
Alumilllufll - Epoxy coattld LM 24
2 Adjustment Hand Wheel Mineral ReonlorCOld Nylon
3 Top Spring Plate
Cast Iron
DIN 1691 GG 20
4 Pressure Adjustment
Srhcon Chrome BS 2603 685 ASS
Spnng
Spnng Steel
Range 2
5 Bellows Assembly
Stainless Steel
3t6Ti/J16L
Option
Phosphor Bronze/Brass
S Bellows AssemblyG asket Slainless Steel Reinforced
-=-..--c-----,-;----,----;;-;:-- - ,E
;;,cxlolia led Graphite
7 Spring Housing Bolts
Steel- - Z,nc plated BS 3692 Gr 6.6
M6 x 25mm
8 Body
Screwed
SG Iron
DIN t693 GGG 40 3
Flanged
SG Iron
DIN t 69J GGG 40.3
Graphite lilled PTFE
9 Guide Bush
tO Pushrod
Staonless Steel A STM A276 316L
Staonless Staal
BS 9/0 431 529
11 Valve Seat
12 Valve Seal Gasket - -Stamless Steel BS 1449 316 S1t
13 Valve
AISI420
Staontess Steel
14 Valve Return Sprmg
Staontess Steel BS 20056 316 542
Staonless Steel -BS 1449 316 SH
15 Straoner Screen
16 Spring Range
ldenlilicalion Disc
Polypropylene
Staonles"-:
s'-;;
S':-:
to-=el; - - - - -316 L
17 BulkheHd Plate
:,.I:;.:.
Id""Steel Copper Plated
18 Tamperproof Prn - --'M
Iac.:n;:;
kir:.:119c.:,P~Iu:.:,g.:.__;__ _-cS;;:I=
a,~
nl.ess Steel
BS97()43 I S29
7.
19~B;20 Compressoon Frt1on9_
Brass
The valve body, which contains the main valve and seat piston assembly.
The control head, which houses the pilot valve assembly with its associated
diaphragm and main adjusting spring.
Par1
Mateml
Spnng housing --:-:-:-::--=-~~7
A;I~-=m:in
u ='"o~
um
=--"e:::p-::-ox:::y-:-c::o:::a::1ed
:-:;-;L--;M-.--;;-24
Ad1us1men1 Hand Wheel PlastiC - Polypropylene
Top Spring Plate
Cast Iron
DIN 1691 GG 20
Pressure Adjustment
Silicon Chrome BS 2803 685 ASS
Spring
Spnng Steel
Range 2
5 Bellows Assembly
Phosphor bronze/brass - - BS2872 CZt22
(Siainless Steel oplional 31 6Ti/
316L)
6 Bellows Assembly GaSket Reinforced Exloloated Graphofe
Steel - Zone plated
7 Sprong Housong Bolts
BS 3692 Gr 8.8 MS x 2Smm
- 8- Body
Gunme1a1 BS 1400 LG2
9 Guode
7-;B
;;;-u- s7h_ _ _
Graphite lolled PTF E
10 Pushrod ------;:S,.-ta~onless Sleel ASTM A276 3 1Gl
11 va:-,v-o-;::
Sc
:-,a
- :t, - - S1ainless Steel BS 970 43 I S29
12
16
Straoner Screen
~Cap
Cap Gasket
t9 Spnng Range 10 Plale
-;a20
21
Bulkhead Plate
Tamperproof Pin
----sliiiniOSs Steel
316 L
Mild Steel - Copper Plated _ _
Control
C+ - t- - port
Main
- diaphragm
~~-~-"'
22 7
228
Under stable load conditions, the pressure under the pilot diaphragm
balances the force set on the adjustment spring. This settles the pilot valve,
allowing a constant flow across the main diaphragm. This ensures that the
main valve is also settled to give a stable downstream pressure. When the
downstream pressure rises, the pilot valve closes and pressure is released from
the main valve diaphragm through the control orifice, to close the main valve.
Any variations in load or pressure will immediately be sensed on the pilot
diaphragm which will act to adjust the position of the main valve. ensuring a
constant downstream pressure. In order to achieve the most stable operating
conditions an external pressure sensing pipe is used. This becomes more
important as the valve is used near its maximum capacity or under critical
flow conditions.
A solenoid will provide for remote on/off control and a fully adjustable set
point is possible using an air-driven pilot. The set point can then be adjusted
via a compressed air regulator situated away from the valve. For example, the
valve may be high up in a pipeline but adjustment can be made from an air
regulator at ground level.
The characteristics of both pilot-operated and direct-operated reducing
valves are shown in Figure 4. Both curves are shown for 25 mm (l in) valves
reducing from 10 to 3.5 bar (150 to 509lbf/ in 2 ).
It should be noted that in the case of the direct-acting valves (including
those with balance pistons) the outlet pressure falls as the flow through the
valve increases. Thus if the valve is set at a no-flow setting of 3. 5 bar (50 lbf/
in 2 ), the outlet pressure falls by about 0.35 to 3.15 bar (5 to 45 lbf/ in 2 ) when
Values given arc for I inch valves re ducing from 100 !o 50 lb/in'g
55
50
Dead en d
seuing .....
PILOT-OPERATED VALVE
. , pressure
I d rop
5 lbf/tn'
f""o
I
D,l?
~0:-1
~IJV,
~-
200
362 400
600
BOO
' ...
'...
...
'
I
I
!'...
30
I
I
!
Cv
i"
... ...
I
... ...
...
...
- r----
I M axomum capaci1y o
1 pil01 -opcrated
Lt
1000
1200
valve
1800
229
passing an average flow for this type of valve. The direct-acting valve is
usually made equal in size to the inlet pipe.
In the case of the pilot-operated valve it will be seen that apart from an
initial pressure drop of 0.03 5 bar (2 lbf/ in 2 ) from the dead-end setting of 3. 5
bar (50 lbf/in 2 ) the outlet pressure remains constant until maximum-rated
capacity is reached.
It should also be noted that. in the examples shown, the 2 5 mm (1 in) pilotoperated valve is capable of passing a flow of more than four times that of
the direct-acting valve, and with only 0.035 bar (2 lbf/in 2 ) pressure drop
as compared with a drop of0.35 bar (5 lbf/ in 2 ).
Applications of reducing valves
Reducing valves are used for reducing one pressure to another. control being
via throttling of the fluid through the valve and its seat. Reducing valves
should never be deliberately oversized as if the valve is too big then the lift of
the valve will be small and wire drawing or erosion of the valve and seat can
result. Additionally, small variations in valve opening cause large changes in
flow which at small flow demands can lead to pulsating pressure being generated
in the downstream flow.
The following notes designate the main fields of application of self-acting
reducing valves.
Air or gases
This application includes all compressed air systems for use with power
tools, pneumatic control systems, etc., and control valves for the storage and
distribution of industrial gases. etc.
Both direct-acting and pilot-operated reducing valves may be used for these
duties and are selected according to the accuracy of control required and whether
or not the valves are intended to give a dead tight shut-off under no-flow
conditions.
Water
230
Pressure ValvesandServices
In this field, reducing valves are used for such applications as: controlling ram
pressures on hydraulic presses; bearing lubrication systems in rolling mills
and heavy industrial equipment; and for pressure control in fuel-oil systems.
Again valves are normally used for these applications. In many applications
the flow is relatively constant and the outlet pressure from the reducing valve
therefore remains constant.
In fuel-oil systems the flow variations are normally of the order of 50 to
100%, in which case the outlet pressure variation would probably be of the
order of0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 31bf/in 2 ), depending on the size of valve used.
The variation would be in the order of 0 .3 5 bar (5 lbf/ in 2 ) between full and
no-flow conditions.
Steam
This particular category covers by far the majority of reducing valve applications
and in general there are two broad sections.
Power
2 31
Process
\t\fith saturated steam, temperatures and pressures are strictly related and,
The inlet and outlet pipes should be sized to suit the maximum steam demands
of the system, e.g. see Table 1. Pipe sizes should always be determined in terms
of pressure drop and not by such rules as arbitrary steam velocities.
Correct sizing ofpipework and fittings associated with all valves is extremely
important in order to obtain the best possible operation. Specifically:
(i)
232
Pressure
lbf/in 2
]h
>;4
12 32
63
1 1 /4 1 1h
2 1 /2
10
bar
5
0.35
10
0.09
20
1.38
813
1560
2550
3820
6180
100.000
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.3
15 40
1055
1962
0. 5
3220
8000
12.950
0. 5
4810
0. 5
0.4
0.4
2680
0.7
4390
0.7
6550
0.7
11 .300
0.6
lS.nSO
0. s
14.700
0.8
22.300
33.400
79
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1400
0.7
30
2.07
50
3.45
75
5. I 7
90
6.21
-
100
6.90
2600
5900
8810
0.9
0.9
0.9
4880
1.3
2.0
2.4
2.0
2.4
1.9
2.2
1.8
2.1
-t--
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.3
0.7
1.1
7.7
54.500
1.9
fil. 500
2.2
-
120
73.000
8.27
68 204 431 75 5 1182 2320 3900 5710 10.920 17.910 26.000 46.900
2.9
2.3 2.8 3.2 3.4 3.5 3.5 3.5
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.1
ISO
10.34
83 252 539 945 1420 2900 4770 7100 13.600 22.300 32.500 59.100
93.000
3.6
180
12.41
200
13.79
4.4
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.2
--
4.2
4.2
4.0
3.8
2.7
--
96 296 642 11311748 3440 5890 8750 16.680 27.300 40.000 71.500 112.000
3.3 4.2 5.0 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.7
5..5
5.4
4.8
4. 5
5.4
5.2
107 324 708 123 8 1942 3880 6530 9750 18.880 31,000 44.300 80,000 126.000
3.7 4.6 5.6 5.9 6. I 6.3 6.4
6.4
6.3
6.3
5.8
5.5
5.2
-
220
l5. I 7
250
17.24
300
20.69
116 354 770 1350 2120 4200 7150 10.850 20.800 34.000 49.000 90.000 141.000
4.0 5.0 6.0 6.4 6.6 6.8 7.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.5
6.3
5.9
133408 871 1525 238 5 4760 8100 12.360 23.800 39,000 57.000 105.000 J 68.000
4,5 5.7 6.7 7.1 7.3 7.6 7.8
8.0
7.0
7.6
7.8
8.0
8.0
15749610251798 2800 5160 955014,760 28.400 46.500 68,900125.900 202.000
5.3 7.2 7.8 8.3 8.5 8.9 9.2
9.6
9.4
9.1
9.6
9.6
8.9
Note: Figures in italic show pressure drops (lbf/ in 2) for equivalent lengths equal to 360 pipe
diameters.
When u sing this table. allowance should be made for the effects of bends and fittings in the pipeline.
Reducing valve
at)() lb/in -'
SCI
Relief valve
set at 57 lh!in 2
Reducing Valve
set at 52 lb/in 1
Steam
trap
233
234
In order that the valves can deal effectively with minimum capacity variations
of less than 10%, two unequally sized reducing valves having a maximum
capacity equal to the required capacity should be connected in parallel with
the outlet pressure of the smaller valve set 0.14 to 0.21 bar (2 to 3 lbf/ in 2 ) higher
than that of the large valve. In this way the larger valve would shut at low
demands leaving the smaller valve to handle the low flows. As the demand
increases the larger valve will open automatically as the reduced pressure
falls. and share the load with the small valve. By this method capacity ratios of
up to 100:1 can be obtained.
Superheated steam
Superheated steam is less dense than saturated steam and, therefore, for the
same pressure drop the reducing valve will have slightly smaller capacity. The
reduction in capacity is dependent on the amount of superheat. Capacity
figures quoted in manufacturers' catalogues are normally for dry saturated
steam. vVhen steam is superheated above 2 8C ( 50F) before it enters the
reducing valve. dry steam capacities should be multiplied by the following
factors:
56 to 83C (100 to 150F) ofsuperheat-0 .8 9
83 to 111 oc (150 to 200F) ofsuperheat-0.86
111 to 16 7C (200 to 300F) ofsuperheat-0.82
Steam traps
23 5
pressure of the incoming condensate until it seats on the inner ring and closes
the inlet. The disc also seats on the outer ring and traps pressure in the chamber
(C). Pressure in the chamber is decreased by condensation of the flash steam
and the disc is raised by the incoming pressure. The cycle is then repeated (D).
Fitting of balance pipes
The pipeline was fully charged with air/ gas when empty.
(ii) Air is entrained at pump suction.
(iii) Air is drawn in through faulty joints or glands.
(iv) Air/gas is trapped in pockets during pipeline filling.
(v) Air/ gas in solution is released due to changes in pressure and temperature.
The problem of dealing with air/ gas entrainment is not usually a
demanding one. Entrained air/ gas will tend to collect at high points in the
system . It can then be removed by introducing air release valves at these
points. These may be simple, manually-operated valves (bleed valves), or fully
automatic. In the latter case the valve should perform the following functions :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Single orifice valves (Figure 1) are capable of performing functions (a) and
(b). They are normally used where only relatively small volumes of air/ gas are
to be released, or where it is desirable to provide additional ventilation at operating
pressures. Dual-orifice valves are capable of performing all four functions.
They can normally provide complete protection against air/gas entrainment
under all system-operating conditions.
The type of fluid product being handled also affects the design requirements or
the air release valve (especially automatic valves) . With sewage or industrial
23 7
Cowl
Orifice
bracket
Sealing
face
Fulc
pin
Float and I
effluent. for example. the solids content may block the release passage(s)
periodically. causing unreliable operation . This can be overcome by using
large-volume auxiliary float chambers to contain the fluid under all operating
conditions so that it can never come into contact with the air valve elements.
An example of a dual-orifice air valve suitable for water systems is shown in
Figure 2.
The valve combines small and large orifices. The small-orifice valve comprises
a composite float a nd lever assembly sealing off a small-orifice vent. When the
Components
Large Oriflce
Sedhng Rmg
Small Onhc e
Ele v ato r
Guide Sleeve
Mam Cov e r
Float Chamb er
Opcrahng Float
238
Air valve
with VNRV
Tank
I
~----'*','
~~~
Pump
house
/'--'~ ,,_-
,,"
---- -...
---- --------
_, , , "
,'
.-
Vent
regulating
valve
Vented
non-return
valve
239
float chamber is fiJling with water, the orifice is closed initially by the float
working through a lever ratio of 5:1.
When the chamber is filled with water under pressure. the orifice is held
closed by the combined upthrust of the float and the differential pressure over
the orifice area. On air accumulated in the system entering the chamber under
working pressure. the water level in the chamber is depressed until it reaches
a point \vhen the weight of the float is sufficient to uncover the orifice and
exhaust air. Air is expelled until the water level rises again and causes the
float to close the orifice.
The large-orifice valve consists of a float sealing off a large-orifice vent to the
atmosphere. The float is held at a predetermined height in its casing by a
ribbed cage which also guides the float onto the seat. During the pipeline
filling or emptying, the 'aerokinetic' feature holds the float off the seat and
keeps it completely stable under all air outflow or inflO\v conditions. The valve
cannot close prematurely during outflow. It closes only when water enters the
casing and raises the float onto the seat.
An example of the working of dual-orifice air relief valves designed for
handling sewage and similar effluent is shown in Figure 3. When the pipeline
>I Sealing
5 Pressurisation
6 Re lteving
240
is empty, the spherical operating float is suspended from the elevator within
the main chamber and the cylindrical float element of the air valve is
supported by the guide cage. The operating lever of the small-orifice valve is
held open by a tappet on the elevator. Air/gas having been inhaled or expelled
from the pipelines is able to flow freely through both orifices. the design of the
valve being such that the air flow creates a positive down force to hold the
cylindrical float element stable within the guide cage.
As the air/gas is exhausted from the pipeline, liquid enters the main
chamber and the operating float then rises with the liquid. The elevator.
raised by the float, releases the small-orifice valve and engages the base of the
cylindrical element, which rises until seated on the rubber face of the large
orifice.
At this point air/gas outflow ceases and further inflow of liquid to the main
chamber under pipeline pressure compresses the air/gas until maximum
working pressure is reached. The proportions of the main chamber are such
that the fluid level will not rise above the bottom face of the main chamber
cover.
When the pipeline is emptied and pressure falls. the valve main chamber
will drain into the pipeline and the operating float. following the liquid level.
releases the cylindrical float to allow the large orifice to open. As the pipeline
pressure falls to atmospheric, it opens the small-orifice valve. The pipeline is
then able to ventilate freely and sub-atmospheric pressure conditions are avoided.
241
During normal operating conditions. air/gas will be released from the liquid
and will collect under pressure in the main chamber, depressing the liquid
level. The operating float falls with the liquid but system pressure will hold
the cylindrical valve element on the large-orifice seat. As the operating
float approaches the limit of its travel, the tappet on the elevator opens the
small-orifice valve, releasing the accumulated air/gas under pressure. This in
turn allows the liquid level to rise again and the small-orifice valve to close.
thus completing a cycle.
Positioning of air relief valves
In systems handling water, air relief valves would normally be placed at all
high points, i.e. where a rising section changes to a falling section. In systems
handling sewage or industrial effluent, rather more extensive treatment is
necessary. as illustrated in Figure 4.
Where the fluid is pumped through the pipeline it is desirable that a dualorifice valve (valve A) be located just downstream of the pump-delivery valves.
Dual-orifice-type valves are also required at all peak points which are
defined relative to the hydraulic gradient and not necessarily to the horizontal.
In practice a peak may be considered as any pipe section which slopes up
towards the hydraulic gradient or runs parallel to it. In the latter case the
Rising section
-~
-----
--- ----
Hydraulic
---
gradie nt
Datum line
Falling section
D a tum line
242
minimum requirement is a dual air valve at each end of the section (valve B);
any additional valves may be of a single-orifice type.
Positions where an increase in down slope occurs will require ventilation
by a small orifice valve which should also be installed at points of decrease in
up slopes (valve D) .
Pipeline sections of uniform profile also require ventilation and dual-orifice
units should be installed at about 800 m (2500 ft) intervals on these sections
(valves E).
Foot Valves
A foot valve is basically a check valve fitted to the end of a suction pipe leading
to a pump. Its purpose is to keep fluid trapped in the suction pipe when the
pump stops. thus maintaining a suitable prime for the pump. When the pump
restarts. the suction created opens the valve, giving full flow to the pump inlet.
(Foot valves are unnecessary on self-priming pumps.)
Foot valves may be of a simple flap-type, or more usually lift-check or ballcheck valves. They are commonly combined with an integral strainer. Some
examples follow.
Poppet lift foot valve
In the example shown in Figure 1, the poppet assembly consists of a plastic tripod
which can be displaced along a bore above the seat valve. The travel of the
poppet is controlled by a stop on the end of the poppet legs acting as supports
for the return spring shouldered onto a washer. This spring ensures that the
valve will work in any position. The main characteristics of this design are low
head losses with good sealing provided by a nitrile rubber 0-ring.
244
Figure 2 shows a design with the tripod in cast iron and with a cast-iron
poppet head with streamlined tripod hub. Sealing is provided by a flat gasket
shouldered by the poppet head and placed on a collar-type seat. This is a simple
and robust design suitable for general applications.
Figure 2 . Foot valve with tripod and poppet head in mst iron.
FooL Valves
245
Figure 3 shows a further design where the all-metal poppet with profiled
head is guided by three legs and restrained by a downstream stop. Sealing is by
a flat seal on a flat bearing surface. Valve travel is limited by the stop. A spring
can be added to ensure that the valve will operate in any position.
Ball foot valve
An example of this type is shown in Figure 4. This is a simple ball valve guided
by an inclined cylindrical chamber and seating on an 0-ring. Note that the
ball is displaced laterally along its chamber with inward flow , but it runs down
SUCTION
FLOW STOPS
246
the chamber onto its seat when the flow rate decreases. [t is particularly
suitable for use with contaminated waters or more viscous fluids.
All examples illustrated are of the type with integral strainer.
Membrane foot valves
SECTION 4
Control and Automation
Valve Actuators
Control Valves
Float Control Valves
Temperature Control Valves
Regulators
Valve Actuators
Numerous types of devices exist for the remote operation of valves. These
range from simple gearboxes to highly sophisticated motorised valves with
automatic control. programmable logic controllers. microcomputers and field
communications networks.
In basic terms, an actuator can be described as ' A device supplying force
and motion to the closure member (ball. disc. plug, etc.) of a valve'.
There is a distinction between the actual requirements but, in general, the
vast majority of applications are concerned with the opening and closing of
Bushes inserted
t.r~m i'!S!C!~
cvJ.!'!.der
2 50
valves. Certain systems may call for continuous modulating control which
can set limits on the usefulness of both mechanical and energy systems.
In 1992, the world's first non-intrusive 'intelligent' enclosed actuator. that
could be commissioned and interrogated without removing electrical covers,
was launched.
All actuator settings and diagnostics are made through a sealed indication
window using an infra-red setting tool, avoiding the use of penetrating shafts.
Solid-state torque and limit measurement is used throughout, eliminating the
use of springs. switches or levers.
The separation of the setting tool from the actuator provides a most effective
method of security of the settings.
Multi-turn actuators-on-off duty
ValveActuators
251
manual operators
cylinder actuators (pneumatic or hydraulic)
vane actuators
electric solenoid
diaphragm actuators
(f) electric motor actuators
Apart from the obvious job of providing a means whereby a person can open
or close a valve. the requirements of a manual valve actuator may encompass
any or all of the following:
Convert motion from linear to rotar}'
Valves of the gate. globe, diaphragm and pinch type utilise linear motion of
the obturating members to achieve a seal. Handwheel operation implies
rotary motion, and conversion is generally by nut-and-screw, which may be
part of the valve or of a separate manual actuator.
Withstand thrust
When the threaded nut forms part of the manual actuator, it will have to
withstand the operating thrust developed and incorporate suitable thrust
bearings.
2 52
For valves operated by linear screw thread, position locking is achieved by use
of an irreversible, (i.e. low-efficiency) thread. Butterfly valves must also be
restrained against self-operation as a result of dynamic flow, and again this is
customarily ensured by using irreversible, low-efficiency, gearing such as
worm and wheel between valve stem and hand wheel.
In each case the efficiency must be Iow enough so that the valve does not
move from an intermediate position if pressure is applied to the stationary
valve, and it will also stay in position if manually-operated with flow present.
There have been many occasions when valve slamming has occurred under
high-flow conditions with a gear ratio which was thought to be irreversible,
but proved not to be when the handwheel was started under heavy-flow
conditions and the valve took over.
This dynamic effect is less of a problem with plug and ball valves which have
a higher ratio of static friction to dynamic torque and, in any case, are not
suited in standard form to flow regulation.
Whatever manual means is adopted for the operation of valves, the main
constraint is always the human muscle power available. It is difficult for a
person to exert more than about 75 vV (1 / 10 hp) continuously for any length
of time by hand.
Size and type of valve. line pressure and other factors will determine the
power required. For larger valves, this will nearly always mean the introduction
of an intermediate gearbox with a handwheel capable of operating the
valve comfortably with a human's strength-i.e. with a rim pull below 2 7 kg
(60 lb).
The average male can exert up to three times this force momentarily. by
pulling his weight on a handwheel, so that the extra force required to seat
or unseat a valve is not a problem if the gearing is adequate. However. the
Valve Actuators
2 53
HANDWHEEL EXTENSION
CHAIN SPROCKET
RIGHT-ANGLE DRIVE
Manual operators.
2 54
gearing for torque reduction is then usually provided by spur gears. although
a further change of direction via a bevel gear may sometimes be needed.
Hypocycloidal gear-train manual actuators have been especially developed
for the operation of centred-disc butterfly valves mainly used in the heating.
ventilation and air conditioning industry (HVAC).
Other manual actuators with worm wheel and screw kinematics are used
with 1 / 4 -turn valves including centred or double-eccentric disc butterfly
valves. ball valves, etc. They are designed to deliver a constant output torque.
Signalling
All the aforementioned points apply to auxiliary manual drives for power
actuators. However. the fact that the drive is auxiliary only and not the main
Visual pointer protected
by a tranparent cap
Interchangeable insert
Valve Actuators
2 55
This type has an actuator using a piston moving inside a cylinder by pneumatic
or hydraulic pressure. It can be single-acting, i.e. equipped with a return
spring, or double-acting, using air or oil pressure for movement in both
directions .
The piston and cylinder can be practically any length or diameter and readily
converts pneumatic or hydraulic pressure into linear force. This can be further
converted to part-turn operation by rack-and-pinion or linkage, i.e. scotch
yoke .
Pneumatic actuators for industrial valves are predominantly applied in
continuous processes. WhiJe one actuator may pass through hundreds of
cycles, 24 hours a day. another may open and close just once a month. Pneumatic
actuators can be applied to ball valves. plug valves and butterfly valves.
Vane actuators
2 56
Electric solenoid
The electric solenoid tends to be limited to very small powers, i.e. to pilot duty
rather than actuation duties for other than the smallest valves.
Diaphragm actuators
Spring-diaphragm actuator.
Valve Actuators
2 57
in microcomputers and with the desire to trace system hazards quickly. These
factors have caused an acute need for automatic controls for entire piping systems.
Generally. electric-motor actuators are designed for use on baH valves. gate
valves. butterfly valves, plug valves and any mechanical equipment calling
for 90 rotational control. including dampers and ventilation grids. etc.
The development of the smart valve accessible by a digital communications
link means that commands can initiate a stroke check of the valve. recording
pressure versus valve travel as the valve is stroked. With an additional sensor
for stem and shaft position, the data can then be used to evaluate the
condition of the actuator and accessories under various parameters based on
an investigation of the valve's stored history. Digital communications to the
valve can measure input signal, pneumatic pressure and valve travel. comparing
the data with stored expected value's and recommending corrective action.
The electric motor will become a serious challenge to pneumatic power when
its inertia matches that of a piston or a diaphragm and when gears have zero
backlash. It must also rid itself of thermal overloads. limit switches, cams,
heaters and thermostats, duty-cycle limitations and explosion-proofhousings.
The trend. though. is definitely towards electronics and micro-electronics
and for the future there is the possibility of an actuator that emulates a
biological muscle-a fast. powerful mechanism that uses stored chemical
energy and is controlled by weak electrical pulses. This device might consist of
polymer strands that contract on signal and take their energy from a chemical
bath that is recharged electrically, as needed by a continuously connected
power source.
The electric-motor actuator is particularly suited where the stroke is long,
because a motor with gearbox has unlimited stroke. However, there are different
mechanical virtues between the electric motor and the piston and cylinder. As
2 58
Actuator purge
ports also serve
as secondary
hydraulic power
ports.
By-pass valve
for initial
commissioning
and purging of
the umbilical.
~l::=:Pf--r-1r----'-'~
Relief valve
for spool cavity.
..........
----~l
- Upper mount1ng
spool.
Lower mounting
spool.
Valve Act11ntors
2 59
260
Valve Actuators
261
This actuator develops a variable torque and is well suited for the operation
of larger size quarter-turn valves (butterfly and ball valves) when a significant
torque is needed near the closed position or near the open position. A typical
standard type of double-acting and spring-return piston-type actuator is
shown in Figure 3.
This style of pneumatic actuator also employs a self-contained spring cartridge
to protect against failure in either the open or closed position. Actuators of
this type offer an extremely long cycle life and are well suited to operate almost
any rotary valve in both modulating control and on-off service. Most actuators
of this type are located in fully-closed housings, sealed against humidity and
dust, and should not need regular maintenance. Another versatile unit is the
positioner-actuator which consists of a double or single actuator, a pneumatic
or I/P positioner and conventional or inductive limit switches. This is mainly
used with small. segmented ball valves.
Normal operation of pneumatic actuators is generally accomplished by
pressurising the appropriate supply ports by means of an air-control valve.
Most solenoid and control valves perform better on lubricated air which may
be added with an air line lubricator. Clean, dry air extends the life of pneumatic
actuators and, if this is not available, an in-line filter should be used. Before
hook-up, air lines should be purged to remove scale and other particles which
could damage the control valve, positioner and actuator seals.
2 62
Vane systems
Pressure equalizing
passages in the upper
and lower heads.
Carbon Steel
Upper Head
Vane Seal
Bronze Rotor
Bearing
Shoe Seal
Bronze Wear
Pads
Cast Iron
Stationary Shoe
Adjustable
Travel Stop ...
Carbon Steel
Rotor/Vane
Module
Carbon Steel
Body
Carbon Steel
Lower Head
Valve Actuators
263
SEQUENCE 2
SEQUENCE 3
264
ControlandAuwmation
are generally not required in the power supply circuit. The operating
sequence of a typical rotary-valve actuator is described in Figure 5.
Hydraulic systems
6. 1 5.000 lv!in 2
down control panel.
Figure
Valve Actuators
265
and control of the hydraulic actuator are virtually unlimited, i.e. the only
method of operating a large valve in seconds is to pump up a hydraulic
accumulator first. Unless these particular virtues are needed. the system is
uneconomical and. for this reason, is not commonplace.
Furthermore. the hydraulic system is very expensive for operation over
long distances. A pneumatically-operated valve is vented to atmosphere but,
with the hydraulic system. the hydraulic fluid has to be returned through a
line of greater suction to avoid pressure drop. For some special situations.
such as tanker-cargo valves, however, hydraulics provide the only acceptable
means of centralised control. Hydraulic systems are still used for fail-safe and
standby duties.
Combined pneumatic/hydraulic systems (air-oil cylinder)
2 66
Electric systems
There are two main factors to be considered here: an electric motor as the
power source, and electricity for the control system. Undoubtedly , full electric
operation and control offers the greatest flexibility. and best suitability. to
centralised automatic control. Remote indication by electrical position feedback
and provision for stand-by manual operation are inherent if the system is
totally electric.
Electric control
Valve Actuators
267
268
Vnlve Actuators
269
Thermostat
ConiJguration
swuches
Monllor Motor
relay runn1ng
n emcte
inputs
Open
Stop
CtoSA
AAA-
Opto
ISolators
Reversing
relays
.,;
Swilch,ng
conftgurauon
0
0
l imit
SWIIChes
CMOS
logiC
c rcut
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I t
I I
Jnputs
AClose 6Open
Torque lflp
Local/ ~
Stop/ cr o Remote
Soli star~-~
Opllonal hm1t SVIIICh lflP
The infra-red programming and setting device is a handheld setting tool that
allows the valve actuator to be configured, interrogated and commissioned in
a completely non-intrusive way. This allows, for example. the possibility of
making adjustments to a 'live' actuator within hazardous and wet areas
(operational conditions permitting). A liquid crystal display on the actuator
shows its status digitally. LEDs also show, for example: green-fully closed,
yellow-any intermediate position and red-fully open. The handheld
infra-red setting tool can confirm torque settings and perform simple
diagnostic procedures to reveal why an actuator may not be functioning
correctly. Power-supply faults, interlocks and other interruptions can be
identified. Torque levels, limit settings and the configuration of the actuator
may also be changed. Each time the actuator is powered up, it automatically
tests its operational circuit's memory devices.
N
'l
0
(")
::s
cs
!::>
::
:;t.
3 phase
induction
motor
a
::s
Position
limits
Set position
limits
~ ....
I~
Flux
Torque
Current
Va/veAcLuators
271
Figure 12. Handheld computer gives acress to valve-actuator diag11ostics and configuration.
2 72
Valve Actuators
273
2 74
request from the master station. The host system may be a DCS, PLC or SCAD A
system. The information is typically passed using a universally accepted
fieldbus communicator standard, e.g. Mod bus, HART, INTER BUS, etc., protocol.
Information is continuously gathered by the master station from the field
units, so ensuring that information requests by the host system are serviced
with an intermediate reply from the internal data base.
Command instructions from the host have priority and are processed
immediately by passing the message to the field unit concerned.
Advances in this technology also provide for high levels of system safety
and security, including hot standby, cable fault protection and field unit
failure protection, as well as logic and sequencing capabilities of a PLC. and
Direct Operator Panels where operatives require push buttons and indicators
for valve positions and graphical interfaces to the valves and plant using
mimic diagrams to show the plant layout.
Any valve may be controlled and navigation through the application is by
mouse control. Systems ofthis type can operate with a single network covering
240 devices over a 20 km loop length, without restriction on inter-node distances.
Some examples of layouts showing the control of actuators by Bus system
are shown in Figures 14 and 15 .
Electronic controllers have reached a high stage of development and sources
within industry consider that the Field bus specification may be too complex in
attempting an all-embracing standard. Problems are possible in migration
between Fieldbus variants and integration with distributed control systems.
DJ
1/)
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....I
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=t::::~
(_
ch.
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DREHMO-Matc I
3 ph AC power supply.
e.g . 400 V/50 Hz
-------....~::.....;.;........;.;;.._~----.
DREHMO-Mat1C I
Fig 1.1re 14. Controlling the actcw tors IJy BUS system: In terlms-S.
Valve Actuators
2 75
Distributor box
3 ph AC power SUPply. e.g. 400 Vi50 Hz
OREHMO-Malic I
DREHMO-Mai1C!
There are two basic requirements in the opening and closing of valves: when
closing. to be sure that the valve is properly and tightly seated, yet without
excessive force being applied; when opening, to be certain that the valve is
fully opened without excessive overrun or strain on the backseating.
A positioner is a device for varying and maintaining an actuator position in
control valve applications. The positioner compares the actual actuator
position with respect to the given input signal and adjusts the pressure applied
on the actuator until the desired position is attained. Positioners can be
pneumatic or electropneumatic, single- or double-acting and capable of being
used on both rotary and linear actuators. Typically. a pneumatic positioner is
a single-stage, force-balance device that can regulate virtually any actuator
step less from 0 to 100%. In basic form it consists of a flapper and nozzle, spool
276
ControlandAutomation
Valvulctuntors
277
278
Limit switches
There are three main types of gear operators. These are of worm gear. bevel
gear and spur gear design. Gear operators are generally suitable for both
manual and motorised use (Figure 17).
Input reducer
Motorised input flange
IW4 I IR1
(70:1 I 4:1)
280:1
Baseplate
Worm quadrant
Thrust bearing
Worm
Va/veActuators
279
Worm-gear operators tend to be used with butterfly and ball valves and
dampers, as well as other applications where keyed shafts are used to operate
equipment.
Spur, bevel and multi-turn worm-gear operators are for use on gate. globe.
sluice and penstock valves, as well as other applications where screwed or
keyed shafts are used to operate equipment. Applications include low and
high temperatures. submersible duties, buried service, marinised duty, water
works specification and special indication.
Efficiency
It has been said already that some valve motor drives are mechanically
inefficient-giving only 10% useful energy when, for instance, they are
driving through a worm gear and the nut-and-screw of. say, a gate valve, and
not much higher when driving a butterfly valve through self-locking gears.
Wearing of inefficient gears or stem nuts is the primary limitation on
frequency and continuity of operation of such drives, and this also limits the
practical speed of operation of large screw-operated valves and penstocks.
Nevertheless, the many advantages of control, power source. interfacing with
supervisory control and instrumentation and so on compensate for the
mechanical inefficiency, provided the actuator duty is properly considered.
Portable valve actuators
Control Valves
In general terms, a control valve may be described as a power-actuated valve,
capable of throttling or modulating the flow, and used as a final control element
in a control loop. Control valves operate automatically, receiving signals from
an external controller. They may incorporate several different types of valve
including globe, butterfly. ball and diaphragm (Figure 1 ).
Their operation can be vacuum, pneumatic, electromagnetic and hydraulic.
Within the area of control valves, most developments have taken place with
the internal components such as the trim , which may well be or the cage type
(hollow cylindrical trim), with retained seat, instead of contoured plugs with
threaded seats.
Development in control valves has been driven by a demand for higher
temperatures and pressures within the chemical, oil and power industries.
Transcontinental pipelines, offshore oil and gas platforms and under-sea modules
have been important driving forces.
Developments for control valves point to electronic packages located on valves
which can be called up for remote interrogation. 'Smart valves' accessible by a
Butterfly
Ball
Cv
Segment ball
or rotary plug
Globe
Rating
Control Valves
Control valve.
281
2 82
_____ ..,.
DIRECTION OF FLOW
digital link receive and transmit commands that can indicate a stroke check of
the valve, recording pressure vs valve travel as the valve is stroked. With an
additional sensor for stem and shaft position, the data can be used to evaluate
the condition of the actuator and accessories under various parameters based
on an investigation of the valve's stored history. Digital communications to
the valve can measure input signal, pneumatic pressure and valve travel,
comparing the data with stored, expected values and recommending corrective
action.
Current difficulties arise over the fieldbus communications standard . While
the concept of valve intelligence does not depend on digital communications.
the reality is that some form of digita l field bus is essential.
Control valve sizing
Control Valves
28 3
The selection of a control valve of optimum size and type begins with the valve's
flow characteristic. This has been defined as the curve relating percentage of
flow to percentage of valve travel. i.e. rotation of the ball or the butterfly disc
or linear movement of the globe valve disc .
'Inherent flow characteristic' applies to situations when constant pressure
drop is maintained across the valve.
'Installed flow characteristic' takes into account the variations in the pressure
drop caused by conditions in the system where the valve is installed.
There are two common flow characteristics for control valves. In the equal
percentage characteristic, a given fraction of valve opening changes flow by a
certain percentage of previous flow. In the linear characteristic, a given
fraction of opening changes flow by the same fraction of maximum flow.
Figure 2 shows the most common valve inherent flow characteristics as a
function of the relative flow coefficient ()and the relative travel (h).
A typical installed flow characteristic curve for a butterfly valve in a process
application is illustrated in Figure 3.
Overshoot
Dead time (Td)-the time it takes to respond after the signal is initiated.
It is measured in fractions of a second .
T63-the time it takes the valve to reach 63% of its new position.
It is measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
284
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0.2
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0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
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Relative travel h
1 quick opening
linear(~=
h)
3 equal percentage
4 hyperbolic
(~= ~o
NELSIZE
100 %--.---
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -------.,
0
Trim: S1C
Size: 150
0
[m 3/h) 363.8
0
Specified Q
max. flow: 96 %
min. flow: 22 %
relative travel h
100 %
Contro/Valves
285
T98-the time it takes the valve to reach 98% of its new position.
It is measured in seconds or fractions of a second.
Band width-the frequency at which the plug position amplitude is
diminished by 6 dB (difficult to verify).
The control valve shown in Figure 4 has been designed for highly erosive
services and with simple maintenance procedures without special tools . The
valve can be used with sodium chlorate, wet chlorine, terepthalic and hot
acetic acid because it has a tiodyed titanium seat and plug, a ceramic-coated
titanium shaft and titanium bearings with Kalrez H* seals.
The plug and seat are self-aligning and bi-directional flow capability helps
to prolong valve life. The valve operates over a 90 range of motion and can
286
withstand high pressure drops. Typical products being handled include digester
gas off, Kaolin slurry, Ely-ash slurry, titanium dioxide slurry and steam.
Segment control valve
ControlVnlvc>s
287
288
When the valve is opened. the contact is released and the seat ring returns to
its original circular shape.
Double-seat valves
This type of valve (Figure 11) employs two seats with an optimally dimensioned
leakage chamber between them so that any seal leakage drains directly to
atmosphere.
Control Valves
289
2 90
upper seat
closed
leakage outlet
Control Valves
pipeline A
(cleaning solution)
upper seat open
leakage chamber
between the seats
pipeline B (product)
leakage outlet
Figure I 3.
2 91
2 92
---.
Inlet
Control valves of this type are generally available with a comprehensive range
of options.
They have a vertical pneumatic piston-type actuator with integral electronic
controller/positioner housed in the head. The control head consists of an
electronic processor that enables the valve to operate in either a 'positioner' or
'controller' mode (Figure 1 5).
Curve characteristics and signal scaling are set by means of dip switches.
The electronic controller's built-in software generates an adoptive response
to changing process conditions, reducing hunting and overrunning.
The pneumatic-diaphragm type provides conventional mechanical control.
Control valves are used for a multitude of applications, e.g.:
Control Valves
293
294
Control Valves
29 5
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
valve.
296
Pressure-operated and solenoid air poppet and spool valves are extensively
covered in the 'Pneumatic Handbook', also published by Elsevier Science
Limited, which should be referred to for information on this subject. The valves
covered include 2- and 3-port. direct and pilot-operated and pressureoperated valves as well as 4- and S-port solenoid air-operated valves.
Control Valves
297
Pressure- and solenoid-operated air control valves (Figure 19) are used in
general and specialist services including steam. combustion gases. cryogenics.
vacuum. dust collector systems, engineering. proportional. and explosive
atmospheres, etc.
Figure 20 shows how pneumatic-distribution spool-valve islands can be
connected with a PLC or PC control system through a multi wire cable or with
a fieldbus through a communications protocol. These systems meet the needs
for automated installations and allow the transmission of any control signal
to the spool valves and any information signal from the position detections. A
typical connection structure is shown in Figure 21.
See also the chapter on Actuators.
Electromagnetic control valves
2 98
( 1)
(2)
(5)
(6)
(8)
(9)
(13}
lnterbus-S input
lnterbus-S output
Pressure supply 1
Exhausts 3 and 5
Ports 2 and 4
Detector ports
24V DC supply
Control Valves
PLC -
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299
300
Two basic designs are on-off isolation valves and modulating control
valves. Operation of the valve occurs when the solenoid is energised to
develop a magnetic field. This lifts the plunger and pulls a pilot off its seat to
open an internal vent port. vVhen the differential pressure between the top
and bottom surfaces of the main disc changes sufficiently, the main disc follows
in servo motion to the pilot and allows the fluid at the inlet to flow.
In modulatory designs, an electronic positioner controls electrical power to
the solenoid to match disc position with desired flow.
An electromagnetic control valve is shown in Figure 22. Typical applications
include storage and handling of hydrocarbons.
The increasing use of rotary valves proceeds hand in hand with the widening
application range, improved reliability and cost-effectiveness of control
valves. It is also becoming standard practice to combine globe valves in small
sizes with rotary valves in larger sizes. In on-off applications, the rotary types
are used throughout the size range. The availability ofmanufacturers' software
programs for sizing control valves provides a valuable tool (or the engineer
who needs to evaluate the true performance of the control. valve. It can also
give information on how to program the controller to achieve the required
control characteristic and thus to improve control accuracy and overall
process-cost efficiency.
490
Pipelines/ Pipework
Modern pigging systems now operate with a 'captive pig' and the pipeline is
opened up only occasionally to check on the condition of the pig. At all other
times, the pig is shuttled up and down the pipeline at the end of each transfer,
for example.
Today's pigging systems can also be operated by a Programmable Logic
Controller (PLC) or other computer-based control system.
System types
Smart pigs are generally deemed to be any series of pigs used for internal
inspection of a pipeline. Smart pigs can detect bends, dents and other reductions.
inspect for corrosion and other damage and photograph the internal walls of a
pipeline. Sophisticated electronics and computers in sealed containers take
and record various internal measurements.
Enhanced cleaning pigs
These pigs are specially designed to be more aggressive than standard cleaning
pigs.
Typically. there are three types:
Magnetic cleaning pig for dealing with loose debris in both gas and
liquid lines.
Pin wheel-type pig for removing hard scale and wax deposits adhering
to the pipe wall , usually in liquid lines.
Pipeline Cleaning
491
Brush wheel pig which is run after a line has been enhanced and cleaned
using a magnetic cleaning pig, a pin-wheel pig, or a combination of
both.
Table 4.
Type of pig
Principal u ses
Example
Foam
Coated foam
Oily deposits.
Abrasive foam
Cleaning (brush)
Scraper
Gauging
Bi-directional
49 2
Pipelines/ Pipework
Pig choices
Chemical swabbing
Dewatering
Higher cost: maximum dewatering
Lowe(' cost: less dewatering
Product ('emoval
Intemally-coated lines
Product separation
Meter proving
Spheres.
Corrosion/material defect
Valves
Pipeline Cleaning
493
location and type ofbranches, valves, flow meters and other obstructions
location of access points
material of construction
pressure rating of pipelines
constraints on propellant type
physical properties of material to be removed
distribution and thickness of material to be removed
health hazards
Nominal pipe bore. actual bore and bend radii are of crucial significance in
selecting the sizes and types of pigs to be used. Very tight bends or changes in
direction can be negotiated only by foam pigs. vVhere there is a possibility of
the pig becoming stuck. it is necessary to use a bi-directional pig so that it can
be withdrawn from the blockage.
The physical properties and distributions of the material to be removed
influence the type of cleaning action required and hence the choice of pig. In
many cases, a range of different pigs will be used in succession to provide the
optimum cleaning action at each stage of the operation. Unfortunately, it is
often difficult to determine in advance which pigs will be needed, and it is
sometimes necessary to make the choice of pig types as the operation
proceeds.
It is essential to identify berorehand all intersections of pipe runs, change of
bore and obstructions in the bore from valves, pumps and monitoring equipment.
and to plan the pigging operations carefully.
ln complex process pipework it may be necessary to break the operation
into separation sections. On long pipelines there is no reason, however, why a
pig should not be sent many kilometres (miles). If desired it can be followed
electrically or magnetically by the use of tracking equipment.
Applications
Pigging as a technique is suitable for cleaning the walls of pipes and removing
sediment from the invert. It is particularly suitable for long runs of pipework
having many bends and few access points, which cannot easily be cleaned by
Table 6.
Pig type
Foam
12-1220
Steel
50-1420
Uni/bi-directional
/ r48
No limits
Bi-directional
2- 56
1 1h D-SD
Either
D (in)
1
494
Pipelines/Pipework
any other method. Pigging is not suitable for unblocking pipes which are
completely closed.
With the correct choice of pigs and equipment, pigging can be successful in
dealing with a wide variety of materials of which the following are examples:
Removal of:
weld and nodular scale
slag
rust and corrosion
lime scale
ochre
cement powder
wax waste liquid
sedimentation
contamination
Special applications:
gauging
hydrostatic testing
swabbing (disinfectants, etc.)
Process pipework:
refined hydrocarbons
petrochemicals
general chemical
cooling water
food and brewing
Pipeline Cleaning
49 5
Equipment
496
Pipelines/ Pipework
Table 7.
Pressure range
Example
Upto275bar
(4000 lbf/ in 2 )
275-550 bar
(4000-8000 lbf/in 2 )
550-1380 bar
(8000-20,000 lbf/in 2 )
498
Pipelines/Pipework
499
500
Pipe/ines/Pipework
Pipe bends
501
502
Pipelines/Pipework
Pipe bending by hand is only practicable in the smaller sizes of tubes. and then
is not always satisfactory. On larger sizes, or with tubing with thin walls. it is
503
difficult to prevent local collapse of the inner wall unless a pipe bender or filler
is used. Provided the tube material is reasonably ductile, all such bends are
made cold.
The general rule for a minimum radius of bend is that this should not be
smaller than three times the o.d. of the tube. A more generous figure is to be
preferred. particularly in the case of the smaller sizes which are usually hand
bent. Bent radii larger than the minimum values should always be used as far
as possible because these produce less frictional loss and are less liable to
result in deformation of the pipe section through wrinkling or stretching or
introducing ovality. The latter is a common fault, even with pipe benders,
unless extreme care is taken, and can materially reduce the working strength
of the tube at the bend.
The four basic methods of machine bending are:
(i)
504
Pipelines/ Pipework
Instead of pipe benders, filler may be used to support the inside of pipes and
tubes for manual manipulation, or even be used with pipe benders to prevent
distortion. The best type of filler for the pllrpose is a low melting point alloy
which can be removed by gently heating after the bend is completed. The use
of low melting point metallic fillers is not, however, generally recommended
for bending hydraulic tubes as it is difficult to remove completely all traces of
the metal. The only effective way of ensuring complete removal is usually to
blow through the pipes with steam. Sand is not generally used as a filler as it is
difficult to ensure its complete removal after forming, unless elaborate
pressure-cleaning methods are used.
The quality of the bend produced, whether manipulated by hand or
machine, is very much dependent on the operator. Jerky or irregular actions
may produce kinks or wrinkles. Wrinkling may also occur on the inside of the
bend due to the compression of the material in this region, unless the machine
compensates for this by applying tension to the inner radius.
Thickness of bends
The minimum thickness (tb) of a straight pipe from which a pipe bend to a
radius in accordance with Table 1 is to be made shall be determined from
Table 1. Minimum bending radii for pipes of thickness determined by BS formulae
o.d.
mm
26.9
33.7
42.4
48.3
60.3
76.1
88.9
101.6
114.3
139.7
168.3
193.7
219.1
244.5
27 3.0
323 .9
355.6
406.4
457.0
- --
tb = 1.12 5 tf
all thicknesses
tb = l.l tf
tb = 3 5 mm or above
mm
mm
65
75
100
115
150
190
230
265
305
380
460
630
710
810
1020
1220
1500
1730
2030
1140
1270
1520
1780
2030
2080
505
equation (i) or equation (ii), except where it can be demonstrated that the use
of a thickness less than tb would not reduce the thickness below tf at any point
after qending.
For pipes 219.1 mm o.d. and below. and for pipes above 219.1 mm o.d. bent
to the radii specified in the table. column 2:
tb = 1.125 tf
(i)
For pipes above 219 .1 rnm o.d. where tf is 3 2 mm or more. bent to the radii
specified in the table, column 3:
tb = 1.1 tf
(ii)
The value of tb is the minimum thickness and provision shall be made for
minus tolerances. Manufacturing considerations may make it necessary for
pipes thicker than this minimum to be used .
Radii of bends
Pipes complying with the requirements ofBS 1387 andES 3601 shall not be bent
to radii less than those given in Table l. Other pipes of a thickness determined by
BS formulae shall not be bent to radii less than those given in Table 1 unless:
(a) It can be demonstrated that the use of this thickness will not reduce the
thickness at any point after bending to below tf, and
(b) where the design tempe~ature of the piping is higher than 430C in the
case of alloy steels and the radius is less than three times the i.d. it can be
additionally demonstrated that the thickness at the internal radius of the
bend is not less than resulting from the following:
2R- r
2R- 2r
ti > tf - - -
where
ti is the thickness at internal radius (mm);
R is the radius of the bend (mm);
r is the mean radius of the pipe (mm).
In general it will be necessary to increase the thickness above that
determined by BS formulae in order to meet the aforementioned requirements.
There is a minimum thickness for each size of pipe, depending on bending
procedure, below which the allowance for thinning will be exceeded and , in
such cases, the radius given in Table 1 should be increased where necessary to
ensure that the thickness is not below tf at any point after bending.
506
Pipelines/Pipework
Rigid PVC and CPVC plastic pipe can be readily cut with an ordinary hacksmv
or power saw. A cutting speed of 6000 r/min using ordinary hand pressure is
recommended. With band saws, a cutting speed of 3600 ft/min using hand
pressure is recommended. Under some circumstances a lathe can be used. Best
results are obtained with fine-toothed saw blades (16-18 teeth per inch) and
little or no set (max 0.02 5 in).
Cuts should be square and smooth, particularly if the pipe is to be threaded .
A mitre box or similar guide should be used when cutting by hand . The cut
ends can be bevelled with a hand file and the interior deburred with a regular
tool or knife. Dust and chips should be removed to prevent fluid-stream
contamination. The pipe should be well supported during cutting and
protected from nicks and scratches by wrapping in canvas or similar material.
Use of wheel-type pipe cutters is not generally recommended since they
tend to generate heat and can produce a raised bead or ridge which increases
the bevelling effort required.
Bending may sometimes be advantageous in fabricating PVC and CPVC
pipelines. However, bending should be limited to non-critical applications at
room temperature or lower where maximum operating pressures are not
utilised. With the procedure normally used in bending, some stresses from
bending are retained in the material in addition to those caused by the
pressure of the medium.
If bending has to be done, the pipe should be heated from 120 to 135C (250
to 2 7 5 F) by use of a flame less hot-gas torch, hot-air oven, or by immersion in
hot oil. Uniform heat distribution is required and localised overheating must
be avoided. Care should be taken to avoid holding the pipe at bending
temperature for too long as the pipe may lose its form. The pipe should be bent
around a regular pipe bending form of the required radius. grooved to the
proper diameter and having a radius at bend not less than five times the pipe
outside diameter (to prevent flattening). Other proven methods include filling
the pipe with sand or the insertion of a coiled pipe spring before bending.
Because of the recovery characteristics of the pipe. it should be bent slightly
beyond the desired radius and allowed to spring back, then quickly cooled in
water or with air. It is recommended that the pipe manufacturer or supplier be
consulted regarding the bending suitability of plastic pipe. Thermoplastic
piping is a general term applied to a variety of different plastics.
Hot tapping and plugging
Hot tapping is the procedure for cutting an opening into cast-iron. ductileiron and steel pipe which is carrying a product under pressure. A fi tting is
welded or mechanically attached to the line and a valve is attached to the
fitting . A tapping machine is installed and the tap made through the valve.
507
After the tapping is made, the cutter is withdrawn and the valve closed. If a
completion plug is to be installed in the fitting, the valve can then be removed.
In the petrochemical industry, for example. it is often necessary to isolate a
section of piping without interrupting the service the line provides. Lines must
be kept in service to avoid the shutdown of an entire unit. Hot tapping and
plugging equipment is designed to meet these requirements.
Plugging occurs after the tap is made. Typically a STOPPLETM plugging
machine is installed on the valve and a plugging head inserted into the line.
The plugging head serves as a block valve and seals the line retaining the
pipeline pressure.
[f two plugging machines are used, or one plugging machine and an
existing in-line valve. a section of pipe can be isolated and drained, making
possible necessary repairs or modifications in the isolated section. A bypass
can be installed around the isolated section. keeping the line in service. If a
new section of line is being installed, it is possible to use the new section for a
bypass while the old section is being removed. When all repairs have been
made. the job is completed by installing a completion plug in the fitting.
The plugging head is removed, restoring service through the line. The
tapping machine is then fitted with the completion plug, inserted and locked
into the fitting to provide the seal. The tapping machine, bypass and tapping
valve are removed and a blind flange installed on the fitting. In most cases the
blind flange can be removed and the line re-entered at a future date after the
completion plug has been removed.
One of the most common hot tapping and plugging applications is used
when a valve in a piping system no longer works properly or is damaged.
WELD FITTINGS
MAKE TAPS
d /
2 THREAD-0-RING
~~ -::,....Purge & EqualizatJOn-:>1 !l ..- "'
Frtlrngs /
/.-- _,
~--:/
-~-<V
STOPPLE((~
L
Tapping Machine
? '
Fit1ing
B~ass
Fr rn
A
PLUG LINE
SANDWICH
Valve
\ '/----------------~~
RECOVER VALVES g-/
/
c
Hot tapping a11d plugging sequencr.
508
Pipelines/ Pipework
If it is not necessary to keep the line in service, the line can be tapped and
plugged upstream of the valve using only one plugging machine.
Where it is necessary to keep the line in service while repairs are made, two
plugging machines are set, isolating the faulty valve. The use of a three-way T
or an adapter with a side outlet eliminates the need for additional tops.
In plugging many types of product lines, slight seepage across the plugging
head can sometimes occur. In the case of hazardous products. a better seal
must be obtained with the plugging head before the work is commenced.
Folding plugging head
4
Once the new section is tied in, the
plugging hemls are retracted. returning full
flow to the main.
Typical example ofa t.apping and pluggiltg application using n temporary bypass to maintain flow.
509
510
Pipelines/ Pipework
Tile 96-in plugging head. in its folded position. is retracted into tlze 60-in housing. It is lowerrd tlrrougll
the tapped hole into the pipe. When the guide wheel. shown at the top. toudws the !Jottom of thr pipe. the
plugging head opens cmd the elastomer sealing element smls agai11st tile wall of tile pipe. assisted by
differential pressr1re.
Welded fitlings
escape.
2. Hydrogen cracking-as a result of high hardness levels from the
accelerated cooling rate associated with the ability of the flowing pipeline
contents to remove heat from the pipe wall.
A thorough understanding of factors related to welding and, in particular,
to welding on in-service pipelines is required to ensure safe operating
procedures and sound welded joints.
For some applications, the heat input required to avoid cracking may be
greater than the heat input allowed to avoid burn-through, making welding
prohibitive.
In addition to hot tapping and plugging cast-iron, ductile-iron and
internally-coated steel pipe, it is also possible for tapping and plugging to be
accomplished on most reinforced-concrete pipe, provided it is done within the
pressure limits required when the steel shell is exposed to mount the fitting.
512
Pipelines/ Pipework
Inspection logs can vary considerably in their content. A good log should be
identified to a corresponding video tape, with both tapes and logs indexed and
referenced as to exact location.
Some logs contain much more information than just defect data and
location. More sophisticated logs incorporate contract information, line
location, pipe size, pipe type, line gradient (or slope) and other conditions.
Logs are typically stored on a reproducible medium such as a floppy disc.
Software is available to classify and catalogue defects by type and severity of
defect. These programs allow the automatic sorting of defects in order of
severity and rehabilitation requirements. This information then serves for
scheduling repairs and budgeting projected costs.
For a classification program to be effective, continuity in defect
classification is mandatory. When a single operator performs defect
classification. there is less of a problem than when different crews, operators
or contractors perform inspections and defect classification. Photographs of
each defect or problem should be taken and, if possible, this should be carried
out using digital equipment to avoid the possibility of picture degradation due
to ageing. A digital picture will not fade or degrade with age, humidity or
temperature and can undergo enhancement and reproduction without much
limitation, using a standard computer and ink-jet or similar colour printer.
Stand-alone inspection vehicles are particularly useful with municipal
waste-water collection systems. They typically have a data system that will
measure the pipeline gradient (slope), label a defect, insert its distance location
(distance from entry) and label an operator-selected defect classification . This
alphanumeric data will display simultaneously on the video monitor and be
recorded on the video tape and stored on a magnetic disk.
The addition of a graphics computer and picture-capture software makes it
possible to store a still-frame digital picture of a defect or other significant item
simultaneously on a magnetic disk. It is possible to copy all the data including
the captured photograph to a removable disk for integration into a master
database or geographical information system (GIS). Inspection reports and hardcopy photographs of captured defects should be placed in a master defect log book.
Information and data from each collection vehicle or base should then be
ultimately stored in a central library to provide easy access to all available
historical data.
Geographical information systems
513
TV surveying
514
Pipelirzes/ Pipework
Built-in sondes transmit radio signals from within even cast-iron pipes to
provide accurate location of the camera in the pipeline.
Sewer camera systems generally comprise a choice of camera size, 60. 90 or
120 m of flexible rod wound onto a rotating frame, a high-resolution VCR
monitor and a locator. Power for the system is usually mains supply or
12 v d.c. for remote operation.
Various lighting attachments may be used for illumination of pipes of
different diameters, including the use of a rotating mirror in front of the lens at
515
90 to the line of the pipe so that ports and branch lines can be screened
circumferentially.
An umbilical cable of suitable length connects the camera to the control
console. This carries lighting power, rotating-mirror power and vision signal; it is
stored on a 12-\vay slipring drum or similar device that contains a trip-measuring
device plus an electronic pulsing unit which relays back to the monitor the
distance the camera has travelled down any one line. This distance can be
zeroed or preset to any measurement at any one time.
The control unit. which is basically the power unit for the camera, controls
lighting intensity, remote focusing capability, and rotating-mirror positioning.
Lighting heads are normally low-voltage lamps of different sizes and
wattages housed in intrinsically-safe. glass-fronted housings for attachment
to the front of the camera.
Various items and relevant information need to be shown on the monitor
screen during a survey. such as: site address, date, pipe diameter, run number,
location and description or faults. etc.
The equipment used to produce the characters shown on the screen can
come in various shapes and sizes with differing capabilities. but it is normally
known as a word processor or screen writer.
Ancillary equipment carried by the unit may include: generator, winches,
steel rods. drain stoppers, lifeline, harness, hydrant stand pipe. hoses and key,
extension leads, gas detector, road cones, cable rollers, field telephone set with
up to 365m (400 yd) of cable float lines. etc.
Survey methods
A tried and tested method used to carry out a TV survey is that shown in
Figure 1, whereby a line is passed through the run and a camera is towed by a
winch from chamber 'A' to chamber 'B' . \,Yinch 'A' is purely a safeguard, so
that if the run being surveyed is damaged to such a degree that camera
progress is impeded, the camera can be retrieved by winching back on a steel
WINCH METHOD
CABLE DRUM
SKID CAMERA
Figure 1.
516
Pipelines/Pipework
Figure 2.
517
Several techniques are used for inspection of long pipelines and tunnels.
Varieties of autonomous underwater vehicles (AUV), ranging from the dumb
pig swept through by water flow to smarter systems capable of recording their
progress and the state of the pipeline or tunnel as they pass, operate with
variable success rates. The problem has always been whether to have freeswimming vehicles in the pipeline or tunnel. Remotely operated vehicles
(ROV) are a viable proposition if cable drag can be kept within acceptable
limits. Good cable needs to be neutrally buoyant and carry sufficient copper
and fibre-optic links. It also should be under 15 mm in diameter with a
polyethylene outer jacket to provide a low coefficient of function. ROVs
operate on tethers of 10 km without problem. Remotely operated vehicles have
Figure 3 . Remotely-controlled duct tractor capable of tackling severe bends in small-diameter pipes.
518
Pipelines/Pipework
anumberofthrusters, (usually 12, eight forward and two each for vertical and
lateral movement).
Control software typically includes the standard diagnostic features and the
unit is capable of handling up to four video cameras. In addition to those used
for inspection work, one usually faces rearward to help vehicle retrieval.
Sonar fitted to the vehicle are used for collision avoidance and scanning
(e.g. short-range profiling).
As the vehicle progresses down the pipeline or tunnel, it rotates and scans a
helical path. The sonar screen displays the tunnel cross-section. Flattening at
the bottom indicates sediment build-up and features elsewhere show either
wall corrosion or a build-up of mineral deposits, usually around flanges. Two
forward-looking cameras look at abnormalities thrown up by the sonar.
The biggest problem usually encountered by ROVs is the amount of debris
in the water in spite of trash rakes and sieves. Plastic-material debris can snag
the propellers in the thrusters and plastic bags or similar objects can become
wrapped around the sonar head, for example. The chances of traversing a 10 km
tunnel or pipeline without encountering any obstruction are probably very small.
Position surveys
Metal detection can be used to trace the path or buried metal pipelines, and
also plastic pipelines where a metalised identification strip has been buried
with the pipe. Simple hand-held units of this type are efi'ective up to depths of
2 m (6ft) . More powerful units may be used for detection at greater depth, and
also for surveying wrapped or coated pipes. In the latter case the instrument
may also be capable of detecting flaws or breaks in the pipe wrap.
Such instruments may work in the inductive or conductive mode. In the
inductive mode, a linear or circular aerial is used as a 'direction finder' to
establish a small signal which identifies the exact location of the pipeline run
relative to the aerial. With conductive mode operation, no aerial is used and
direct contact is made with the pipe to be traced to feed the signal directly into it.
Cable-avoiding tools (CAT) and transmitters offer advantages in terms of
accuracy and speed for pipe and cable location equipment. This type of
equipment can be used in all weather conditions.
An innovative plastic water pipe tracing tool operates by connecting a
'transonde' transmitter to a running tap or stand pipe. The pressure-wave
signal produced in the pipe can be located on the surface using a hand-held
receiver. Battery-operated versions are used for tracing service pipes.
Leak detection
519
Line protection systems are pipeline monitoring and line-break detection devices
controlled by a dedicated microcomputer. The system is normally located at a
pipeline valve site to provide supervisory control of the valve and actuator.
Line protection systems continuously monitor the pipeline pressure at a
point near the valve site. Once armed, and when abnormal pressure
conditions are sensed, the protection system strokes the valve to a fail-safe
position. The system operates in various modes including:
Data collection mode-pressure is sampled at 32 second intervals and 30
minutes of pressure history is stored in a temporary rolling memory. Memory
capacities are usually quite large.
Valve control mode-pipeline pressure is sampled every 8 seconds. The
pressure magnitude and rate of drop are continuously compared to the userset values. When pre-set values are exceeded for the specified time duration,
the control will cause the valve to stroke the fail-safe position. Internal relay
contacts interfaced with telemetry or SCADA systems send a warning signal
back to pipeline operations personnel.
Communications mode-used when the system is connected to a portable
computer.
520
Pipelines/ Pipework
521
between the magnetometer sensor and the object (pipeline). For this reason it
is necessary to lower the magnetometer 'fish' as close as possible to the seabed.
With a seismic profiler, a piezoelectric transducer or 'pinger' emits pulses of
acoustic energy with single frequencies in the range 1.25 to 1.4 kHz at a high
pulse rate. The 'fish' is towed at a height of 5 to 10 m ( 15 to 30 ft) above the
seabed, concentrating the downward-directed energy beam over a small area
or seabed. A proportion of acoustic energy penetrating the seabed is reflected
back by the lined pipeline, producing a characteristic deflection on a graphic
recorder.
Process
Jacket-Size Flange
523
Swaged jacketing
Also referred to as capped or partial jacketing, this system is often used where
protection against cross-contamination is required and where temperature
discontinuities at flanges can be tolerated. Swaged jacketing can be less expensive
than standard jacketing because small in-line flanges can be used (Figure 2).
Hybrid jacketing
Figure 2. Swaged jacketPCI pipe spool with stainless core and carbon jacket. The jacket has an integral
staittless expansion joint to relieve cyclic heaL sl.ress.
LINE-SIZE
FLANGE
\c
SWAGED
JACKETIN G
REMOVABLE
JACKETING
524
Pipelines/ Pipework
52 5
52 6
Pipelines/ Pipework
full jacket ensuring that the interior tolerances remain the same as the original
unjacketed valve. Typically, there are four basic types of jacketed valve:
1. Partially jacketed valve for low-temperature non-critical processes.
2. Fully jacketed valve with oversize flanges. This jacket provides uniform
temperature control and is used mainly for high-temperature processes.
3. Fully jacketed valve with standard flanges. This is only used with
components or piping having swaged jackets or special bolting facilities.
4. Fully jacketed valve having oversize flanges and the face-to-race dimension
of an unjacketed valve. This construction should be used with caution. It is
not recommended for new installations.
Advantages and disadvantages
unit construction
high rates of heat transfer from the heating medium to the process
ability to maintain processing temperatures within close tolerances
52 7
528
Pipelines/Pipework
52 9
SECTION 7
Performance and Calculations
Flow velocity is defined as the mean or average velocity at a given crosssection. Due to frictional effects (and the fact that all real fluids possess
viscosity), a velocity gradient will exist across a pipe section, ranging from
zero at the point of contact with the pipe wall to a maximum at the centre line
(Figure 1). The actual velocity profile may be smooth or irregular, depending
on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, respectively (see the section
Laminar and turbulent flow below).
ZZZZZZZ(?.ZZZZZZZZZZ?Zt
--.
r-
Temporal
mean profile"
Figure 1.
5 34
d2
Q = kV
d2
Q
V = k X d2
Flow velocity Vis not necessarily a significant parameter except that it governs
frictional losses. For general design work. arbitrary flow-velocity limits are
normally assumed, e.g. for water supplies normal design flow velocities are:
General services
Water supplies
Boiler feed
Gallon=277in 3
One day= 86,400 sec
Barrel= 3 5 Imp gal / min
42 US gal/min
m 3 = 6.28 barrels
Flow velocity
Pipe bore
(d) unit
ft/ sec
m/ sec
Cubic in/sec
Q/10d 2
0 .03 Qj d 2
20.8 Q/ d 2
in
mm
0 .00177 Q/ d2
0.00054 ()/ d 2
0.348 Q/ d 2
in
mm
0.49 Q/ d2
O. l5Q/ d 2
9 7 Q/ d2
in
mm
2 Qjd 2
1 2 7 5 Q/ d 2
in
mm
0 .1250Q/ d 2
80 Q/d 2
in
mm
1 5 Q/d 2
14.7 5 Q/ d 2
mm
0 .0036 Q/d2
2.3 5 Q/d 1
in
mm
0 .408 Q/d 2
49 Q/ d 2
0.012 Q/ d2
in
53 5
Example:
7 in pipe: 0.267 ft 2 , 1000 gal/min.
16.7 gal /sec/ 6. 24 = 2.6 7 cusec/0.26 7 = 10ft/sec
49
Ve 1= 10 ft1sec= 4g x 1 ooo ga I/ min= 1 o ['t Isec
d 2 = 1 million
Area= 0.785 m 2
Coefficient= 0 .49
1 day= 86.400 sec
Pipe 1000 mm diameter
gal/min
10
\Nater
Light oils
Boiling liquids
Viscous liquids
mrn
in
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
25
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.300
0.330
0.375
1.0
1.5
1.6
0.300
0.300
0.300
1.0
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.5
50
75
100
150
200
250
0.50
0.50
0.50
0.55
l.8
0.60
2.0
0.55
0.60
1.8
2.0
0.300
0.350
0.75
0.70
2.3
10
0.90
2.5
3.0
0.90
12
over 12*
1.40
4.5
5.0
0.90
3.0
3.0
300
3
4
6
1.50
J -gal/min .
10
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.1
0.400
0.425
1.4
0.375
1.2
0.450
l.S
0.450
0.450
1.5
1.5
0.500
0.500
1.7
1. 7
53 6
Pipe bore
Water
Light oils
Boiling liquids
Viscous liquids
mm
in
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
25
1.00
3.5
1.00
3.5
1.00
1.00
3.5
50
1.10
3.6
1.10
3.6
1.10
3.5
3.6
1.10
3.6
75
1.15
3.8
1.15
3.8
3.8
1.10
100
1.25
1.25
4.0
4.0
1.15
3.7
3.8
150
1.50
4.7
1.50
4.7
1.20
3.9
200
250
1.50
1.75
4.0
4.7
1.15
1.25
5.5
2.00
2.65
3.00
1. 75
2.00
2.00
5.5
10
12
over 12*
1. 75
2.00
1.20
].30
4.0
4.5
1.40
4.5
300
5.5
6.5
8.5
10.0
2.00
6.5
6.5
6.5
6.5
gal/min
.
20
Flow velocity
ft/sec
1/ rrtin
gal / min
0.3
0.5
8.4.jQ
0.7 .jQ
0.6
0.9
6.5 .jQ
6.0.jQ
0.5.jQ
m/sec
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.75
3.0
0.4.jQ
4.4.jQ
4
4.2.jQ
0.35.jQ
5
6
3.8.jQ
3.4.jQ
0.3 .jQ
0.28.jQ
3.3.jQ
3.2 .jQ
3.0.jQ
0.265 .jQ
0.2 5 .jQ
2.0
2.1
2.4
2.5
4.9.jQ
4.6.jQ
2 .9 .jQ
9
2.8.jQ
10
2.6.jQ
0.23.jQ
0.22.jQ
53 7
since relatively larger pipe sizes are normally involved, recommendations are
commonly based on flow rates only, viz:
Suction lines: pressure drop 0.0115 to 0.23 bar per 100m (0.05 to 1lbf/in 2
per 100ft) depending on the available NPSH.
Delivery lines: 0.115 to 1.38 bar per 100m (0.5 to 6 lbf/in 2 per 100ft)
depending on the flow rate, viz:
(a) 0.46 to 1.4 per 100m for flow rates up to 450 lfmin
(2 to 6 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates up to 100 gal/min)
(b) 0.33 to 1.15 bar per 100m for flow rates from 450 to 900 l/min
(1.5 to 5 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates from 100 to 200 gal/min)
(c) 0.23 to 0.92 bar per 1200 m for flow rates from 900 to 2250 lfmin
(1 to 4lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates from 200 to 500 gal/min)
(d) 0.11 to 0.46 bar per 100 m for flow rates above 2250 lfmin
(0.5 to 2 lbf/in 2 per 100ft for flow rates above 500 gal/min).
Pipe
diameter
Power-driven pumps
SG = l.O
mm
in
m/sec
ft/s<:c
SG = 0.75
m/sec
Turbine-driven pumps
SG = 0.5
ft/sec
m/sec
ft/sec
SG
=1.0
SG=0.75
m/sec fl}sec
m/scc
ft/sec
SG == 0.5
m/sec
ft/sec
50
1.80
6.00
2.10
7.00
2.30
7.5
1.50
5.00
1.70
5.50
1.80
6.00
75
2.10
7.00
2.40
8.00
2.60
8.5
1.70
5.50
1.80
6.00
2.00
6.50
100
2.40
8.00
2.75
9.00
3.00
10.0
1.80
6.00
2.00
6.50
2.15
7.00
150
2.75
9.00
3.00
l 0.00
3.65
11.0
2.00
6.50
2.15
7.00
2.40
8.00
200
3.00
10.00
3.40
11.25
4.00
13.0
2. 10
6.75
2 ..30
7.50
2.60
8.50
250
10
3.25
l 1. 00
3.65
12.00
4.20
14.0
2.15
7.00
2.35
7.75
2.75
9.00
300
12
3.50
11 .50
3.80
12.50
4.40
14.5
2.15
7.00
2.40
8.00
2.80
9.25
350
14
3.60
11.75
4.00
13.00
4.50
15.0
2.15
7 .00
2.40
8.00
2.90
9.50
400
16
3.65
12.00
4.00
13.00
4.60 15.0
and over
2.15
7.00
2.40
8.00
2.90
9.50
53 8
Flow through pipes can be either laminar or turbulent, the flow condition
being significant in affecting both the velocity gradient and the frictional
losses. With laminar flow, frictional losses are due to viscous drag and are
independent of the condition of the pipe bore. With turbulent flow, viscous
shear forces predominate and the condition of the boundary surface can
materially affect the total friction.
The actual flow condition can be established by reference to a non-dimensional
parameter, the Reynolds number (Re), determined as:
dV
Re = V
Flow velocity
Type
m/ sec
Fines
Over 200
3- S
1.00-1.50
Sands
200- 20
5-7
l. 50-2.00
Coarse
20-4
7-11
11-14
2.00-3.25
Sludge
3.25-4.25
539
In engineering units:
Re
= 7740dV
where
Re = 930dV
v
or
dis in inches
Vis in ft/sec
vis in centistokes
where dis in em
Vis in m/sec
v is in cen tistokes
= 9 30 dV when d is in em, V in
mjsec.
25
40
100
1 50
200
(ll h_ )
50
(2)
75
( 1)
(3)
(4)
(f))
(8)
250
(10)
(12)
450
(18)
Per 11/mio*
835
550
420
280
210
140
105
85
70
46
3800
2500
1900
1270
950
630
475
380
120
210
Per l gal/min*
300
8 10
; ;-,
JC
f.O
80: 100
) Uv
.oOO
600
~"'"'
80V .._.
, ...
r!>"'
1.
###
'b
,~
lo
V1
i-1>0
'"'0
I
~
.07
~ -t-t-
t- m-tt 1t 1t t
r r 1 11!
I I I I I II I
""<::> '
3
:::,
1, 1 1111
~ 4
;:s
+-+-++H-1 , , H -
r,
""
.06
:::,
;:s
s::...
;:;-
OS
;::;-
-~~~-~ -
'""
c;
;::
.04
""
J
Friction
factor=
hL
~) ~
03
075
__ L
r
I
.OZ
-)'-..
=~~~~ ~
1(}'
a.k
3 4 5 6 8 10'
3 1 ) 6 8 10
'
'"N
3 4 ) 6 8 10'
Re - Reynolds number =
Dvp
Jle
Figure 2. Frictionfactorsfor pipes. Example:frictionfactor for pipe with relative roughness 0.001 at flow Reynolds number of 30.000 =0.026.
541
Q2L
r-
-5 X
KtD
542
~H = fK2Ds
It must be noted that before these formulae can be used the Reynolds
number must be determined to:
(i) Establish that the flow is laminar (Re
2000)
(r = 64Re ).
With laminar flow, friction loss (pressure drop or head loss) is not affected by
the roughness of the pipe bore (unless this appreciably modifies the effective
bore size). The formulae are thus directly applicable to laminar flow in all
types, construction and ages of circular pipes and non-circular pipes (the
latter with Rc computed on the basis of their hydraulic radius).
Turbulent flow
In a majority of practical cases of pumped fluids, flow is turbulent (i.e. Rc > 4000)
and simple calculation of flow losses no longer applies. Basically. the D' Arcy
formula can be used. but with a different friction factor (fturb). the value of
which is dependent both on the Reynolds number and the surface roughness
of the pipe bore.
Specifically, when the Reynolds number of flow exceeds 2000 there is a
critical zone into which laminar flow may extend (but flow conditions are
unpredictable and may change from laminar to turbulent, and vice versa),
followed by a region of developing turbulent flow where the friction factor
decreases with increasing Reynolds number but increases with increasing
bore-surface roughness. Finally. full turbulent flow is established. when the
friction factor is a constant regardless of increase in the Reynolds number and
is dependent only on surface roughness.
For smooth-bore pipes, the following formulae can be used to calculate the
friction factor directly:
0.3164
fturb = Re 0 _25 for Re values between 4000 and 10,000
'
lturb
0.0032
0.221
+ Re 0 .237
Working data for friction factors for turbulent flow are usually presented in
chart form (Figure 3) where these zones are clearly seen. Effectively. turbulent
flow friction factors are bonded by a lower curve, representing the friction factor
for smooth-bore pipes, surmounted by a series of curves for pipes with increasing
surface roughness. Roughness is defined in terms of relative roughness or E/0.
543
.l
.US
.04
.2
" r"-
"
"'
'
.008
......
' ''
.006 "\..
,"-.
005
...... ~
004 ~ '
.003
1--
.OlJ2
l1J
"""
.001
.0008
'
'
2 .0004
(I)
-~
"'
0::
t"\
"'I' ~~
0-1'\.1'\..
' "'>- ~ . . .
~G'-1~
'
"
I'
~0 (' -?0~'
1-
.s~
"""
.OOGU3
~~
~.,
',
"~
.....
['\
' :-....
'~
""~
'
::l
0
....
c
~
.D
....
:::s
OJ& ~
<I)
a.
.._,014
E
c
~
0
Ll-
"
012
'~ ~ ~
, ,, oo
~~
~(<'-....(I"
i\.: ~
....
1-- .
009
oo
['\,
5 6
1--
' !"-
~ ,,
1\..o
~,r
-....:. ,,
~ ["\
'
lJl8
x,,
!>I)
(_)
N0"'
["\ ~
..c
C).
'
~0
0.
1'-.t-.Oi'
'
1'1
""
Ro
.0000 1
.000008
.000006
.000005 1
'
',
['.
"'0.
C)
'r"\..
I'\.
~~
.00002
'r-..
G25
N'u>
"~<
V,-
'--,,
--..,.o/.
01- , r"'
S:'- >-
.000 1
.00008
' ''
" I'\.
'
r-
. 00006
00005
.00004
'
'
1'\.
- .03
,~,'1'.
['.
'
I'
"'
U4
035
"'
~-,..
........
. 0002
!"-
'
'
'
'
-~" ~
!'..
--
~~
'~
'\
a:;
'
r-~,-
TAVE
.0003
N RE E
'
' ' t\
"'
WOOD
~r-.
......
T CD
ST Eo.EL
''
-~
r'\
'
'
'
R~ V
f'-
0005
f- . 05
r.......
1'-1'.
['.
r"r-.
" ,.__
'
-.
(j6
"'
~,
'
' "K
"'
;g"' .0006
r'\.
[..-
~~
I o.
I
""
........
2U 25
["\..
.01 ~
4 5 6 1 ~ 110
!"..
"'
r-...
1'.
.e 1 1
1'-
.03 "\..
02
5 .6
.4
.3
8 10
20
30 4G 50 60 80 100
Pipe diameter, in inches- d
.008
i"\..
200 30u
Figure 3. Frictionfactors and relative roughness for commercial pipes wit.hfully turbulentj]ow (based on
ASTVIJ:: dat.a originated by L. F'. Moody). Example: for 10 in diamPter cast-iron pipe, relati ve roughrwss
( r=/ D) =0 .0008 5. Friction factor= 0.0196.
544
pV 2
2Dw
.6-HP
- - = fturb X - -
Re = 0.482 Q ~J.l-SG
Re=6.3ldJ.l,
for Q in ft 3 / hr
din inches
Jl in centipoise
Energy grad,enr
.
Hydraulic gradient
6 h
~-++---+-V 22
~-----.j.d---J-- 2 g
p2
Horizontal datum
Re=
dV
Re = 7740 dV
v
for din ft
V in ft/min
v in ft 2 /sec
Q
Re = 1,419,000 dv
Re = 3160 dv
for Q in ft 3 / hr
din inches
v in centistokes
for Q in ft 3 / sec
din inches
v in centistokes
wv
Re = 394 dv
Re=2274~
Re = 92 .9 dV
v
for Q in mm 3 / hr
dinmm
v in centistokes
v=
Q
183.3 d2
v=
for Q in ft 3 /sec
din inches
v=
0.00389
Q X SG
d2
p.
for Q in ft 3 / hr
pin lb/ ft 3
din inches
SG =specific gravity
Q
0.408 d2
for Q in US gal/min
din inches
v=
Q
0.340 d2
545
546
v=
Q
3350d2
for Q in m 3 /hr
dinmm
HL (ft)
LV~-t
= 0.09 62 d2 p
HL (ft) = 0.03 93
for Lin ft
V in ft/sec
Min ceo tipoise
din inches
pin lb/ ft 3
LW~-t
for Lin ft
Q in US gal/min
1-t in ceo ti poise
din inches
pinlb/ ft 3
LQJ.-L
HL (ft) = 0.0328 d4p
HL (ft) = 0.0049 d4 p2
for Lin ft
vV in lb/ hr
JJ- in centipoise
din inches
pinlb/ft 3
HL (m)
~?~
LVJJ,
for Lin ft
Q in Imperial gal/ min
1-t in centipoise
din inches
pin lb/ [t 3
LQJ.-L
Ht (m) = 2670 d4 p
= 107 d 2 p
LVM
for Lin ft
V in ft/ sec
J.1 in centipoise
din inches
~p (lbjin 2 )
LQJ.L
= 0.1225d4
l'or Lin ft
Q in ft 3 /sec
J.-L in centipoise
din inches
547
LQ/1-
~p (lbjin 2 ) = 0 .0002 73 d4
for Lin ft
Winlb/ hr
11- in centipoise
din inches
pin lb/ft 3
for Lin ft
Q in US gal/min
J.J- in centipoise
din inches
~P
(lb/in 2 ) = 0.00022 75
u;:
for Lin ft
Q in Imperial gal/min
din inches
~P (bar)
LVJ.1
= o.030 crz
~p (bar)
LQJ.J-
= 9.05 d4
for Lin inches
Q in 1/ min
din milli-inches
HL (ft) = 0.1863 f
LV 2
HL (ft)
= 0.0311 f
102
LQ2
HL (ft) = 62 60 [ (IS
LQ2
HL (ft)
= 0.02 6 f (IS
548
HL (ft)
= 0.000483 f
LW 2 V2
HL (rt)
HL (m) = 0.041 f
LB 2
= 0.01524 [ (f5
LV 2
Note: These formulae may be used for both laminar flow and turbulent flow.
with appropriate friction factors.
~P (lbf/in 2 )
= 0.001294 f Lp;
~p (lbf/in
) =
0.000216 f
L~~
~p (lbf/in
where
= 0.00000336 f d 5
r=friction factor
Lis in ft
) =
0.00018 f
L~~
~p (lbf/in
~p (lbf/in
= 0.0001058 f
L 82
~5
W is in lb/ hr
V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb
dis in inches
Ty2
L
549
pisinlb/hr
B is in barrels (42 US gal) ph
d is in inches
LpQ2
.6.P (bar)= 0.1613 f (f5
Note: These formulae may be used for both laminar flow and turbulent flow,
with appropriate friction factors .
Other formulae
Other charts or friction factor data may show substantially different values of
friction factor for similar values of relative roughness. This is because the
general formula is one of the form:
.6.H
Q2
L=fxkDS
which includes the Reynolds number as a factor. The value of the friction
factor (f) derived is thus adjusted accordingly.
Colebrook-White equation
JJ:
( --+
ks
-2.51)
3. 7D ReVJ:
2gDi
where A.= friction coefficient ~
5 50
V(2gDl. log10
ks
3.
?D +
2. 51 V )
~
Dy (2gDI
v=
0.4 s 7 x 1 o- 5 cD0 6 3 i 0
54
or
5 51
Pressure drop (or equivalent head loss) due to flow is the same in straight pipes
whether the pipe run is horizontal, vertical or inclined. With vertical or
inclined flow, however, pressure drop is modified by the difference in actual
head involved. Here, the Bernoulli theorem applies in defining the total energy
at any particular point above any arbitrary horizontal datum plane. Total
energy is equal to the sum of the elevation head, the pressure head and the
velocity bead, i.e.:
p vz
Total head = 2 + - + p
2g
The total head (H) will be a constant for any point. Thus. if the friction loss between
points 2 1 and 2 2 on an inclined run (Figure 5) is expressed as a head loss ~H :
H at point 2 1 = H at point 22.
Thus:
.,
21
P1
Vt 2
PI
2g
+ - + - =2z
Vz 2
+ - +-+~H
P2
2g
P2
'Water hammer ' is the name given to the distinctive 'knocking' noise which
can develop in a closed pipe system when the flow velocity is suddenly changed,
55 2
Pressure sensor
wutc r towers a nd
including a lateral.
la~e ral
101 145
P.ba r
v """
'-
"
10s
L- -
.........
_,
v- v
...........
, - ._....
Saturday 511
i :+-
...,s_,..._
4
I I I
--
L"'\.
'-../
l0H30
P .bar
8
v v "-
t..-.
1ft.
rv \I
..,...............
..,.,.,
-
J'
vM
f-
10s
.A.
'1'\
_2 _, I - -
t
Pressure a t e nd of lateral
Friday 4/1
12H
P .bar
8
-1
I/'\
/"'
\l
,...~
lM..
....,- / \
""'
"V
'v
\i \/ I'V
I'
.-.
I""
\)
\I
...
"'
'V
-- ~
1_(5
r4 '
rl
55 3
The cause of the 'hammer' is a sudden pressure rise in the liquid, caused by
the rapid acceleration or deceleration imparted to it, which travels as a pressure
wave along the length of pipe, and is reflected backwards and forwards . In
addition to generating knocking noises or 'hammer', if the pressure rise is
excessive it can cause damage to the piping or system components.
The pressure. velocity and time for the pressure wave to travel from one end
of the pipe to the other can be determined from first principles, viz:
'
4660
Velocity ol pressure wave (v) = (
I)
1 + 1(0 t
where 0 =pipe diameter
t =pipe-wall thickness in same units
elastic modulus for liquid
elastic modulus for pipe material
K = - - - - -- - - - -- - -
K
0 .010
0.0107
0 .025
0.088
(ii)
Lowering the flow velocity will be effective, i.e. reducing the How rate
for a given size of pipe or increasing the pipe size for a given flow rate,
because!:::. V must then be less.
Decreasing the rate of closure will have a similar effect if the flow
stopping time is increased to several times the value oft (times of travel
5 54
air-injection, and
introducing a flexible element into the system.
55 5
Laminar flow of
thi xotropic fluid
SHEAR RATE -
Figure 1.
55 7
(iii) Colloidal fluids which behave like thixotropic fluids but will not
recover their original viscosity when agitation is stopped. Fluids of this
type include colloidal solutions of soaps in water. and oils, lotions,
shampoos and gelatinous compounds.
(iv) Dilatent fluids where viscosity increases as agitation or shear rate is
increased. Fluids of this type include clays and some slurries.
(v) Rheopectic fluids where viscosity increases with increasing agitation
in shear rate up to a maximum value at any constant rate of agitation.
(vi) Plastic and pseudo-plastic fluids where viscosity increases with
increasing shear rate. but initial viscosity may be so high as to prevent
start of flow in a normal pumping system. These are also known as
Bingham fluids.
Strictly speaking, only plastic fluids are true Bingham fluids and include
such products as drilling muds. thick mineral slurries and sewage sludge.
Pseudo-plastic fluids exhibit a different shear rate-shear stress relationship.
Fluids in this category include paper stock, detergent slurries, some paints and
lacquers, some mineral slurries, mayonnaise, and cellulose acetate in acetone.
A further sub-category or such fluids is known as yield pseudo-plastic, typical
products orthis type being clay-water suspensions and polymer solutions.
Complex mixture flow
SINGLE-PHASE
I GAS OR LIQUID)
HOMOGENEOUS
MULTI-PHASE
fGAS-UQUID. GAS-GAS. LIQUID-LIQUJn.
SOLID-GAS. SOLID-LIQUID)
FINE
DISPERSIONS
COARSE
DISPERSIONS
PSEUDO-HOMOGENEOUS
HETEROGENEOUS
~COMPLEX
0-HETEROGENEOUS
'""
5 58
highly dispersed form with almost uniform dispension in the carrier phase.
The whole mixture then tends to behave as a single-phase fluid.
With increasing size and/or quantity of solids, dispersion is coarser.
yielding hetergeneous behaviour, i.e. with a pronounced solids concentration
gradient along the vertical axis of the pipe. The actual velocity of flo'"' then
becomes a critical parameter.
With complex flow, some of the solids content behaves heterogeneously in
pseudo-homogeneous flow, i.e. the flow can be described as homo-heterogeneous.
These are thus two separate sources of friction and pressure drop .
Figure 3 shows the likely regimes for heterogeneous and homogeneous flow
with typical slurries related to particle size and solids specific gravity for flow
velocities in the range 1.2 to 2.6 mjsec (4 to 8ft/sec).
Homogeneous flow
Common practice with slurries is to use the Fanning friction factor to estimate
frictional losses. This is a quarter the value of the D' Arcy-Weisbuck friction
factor . However. this straightforward approach does not take into account the
fact that solids present have the effect of suppressing turbulence which can
reduce the actual friction factor by up to 15%, depending on the type of slurry.
Empirical formulae can thus be more realistic.
Pseudo-homogeneous flow
559
PA RTICLE DIAMETE R
(Largest 5 %. )
TYLF.R
MESH
IN CH ES MICRONS
( Ve locit y - -l to 7 !t/s)
~====~===~====l====~
HOOO :::j
10000
;-------~--------+--------+------~
p 250
-l
0 1H5
-+-------lf-----+-----+------t
oOOO
41)()() +--------+
HETEROG ENEOUS
4~""'"---+-----f-----t------t
21Xl0
"""
' ....
HOO 1----..l'""'"'--+-----1-------t------1
600
+------~'":-------+------+-------1
1.
'
-+-.::..;::----+--......::~~
400
'
'
200 -+----"~'r..:-.-+----+----'""'1111..:::~-------j
C'OMPLEX~,...,.---..._...._-1
..
'
I 00
HO
Based o n th in slurrie"
o r s lurries with g raded
~====t==='~part icle. ~
size
- ==:::::!
n'nr':':':"~-:-----1
' u u n u...&.uJ
~~-------+------~~------+-------~
40 -+-----+-----+-----r------t
20 -+-------+- HOMOGEN EO US
I'
I 0 +-----1----+------T--------1
I .0
2.0
3.0
4 .0
5. 0
5 60
Friction losses for heterogeneous flow are commonly based on the Durand
formula. although empirical formulae are also used (see later). The Durand
formula for the friction factor (fh) for heterogeneous flow is:
~h = fl1
where f,
D
V
p1
pS
C0
Sv
Sv
(l + lSODg)
(pS-pl pl) (-1-)
V
Jet;
2
312
x Sv
=
=
=
=
=
=
Homo-heterogeneous flow
Normally. all slurry pipeline systems operate with turbulent flow. Operating
under laminar-flow conditions will allow some settlement which in time
can lead to unstable flow conditions, or even blockage. Flow velocities must
therefore be above the transition velocity, determined by the critical Reynolds
number.
Transition velocities for Bingham plastic fluids are conveniently related to a
dimensionless Hedstrom number (NHr). where:
NHI = Reynolds number x plastic number
561
. _ K 2gD(Ps - Pt)
Vcnt
112
Pl
~ 10'.-------~--------------~------------------------------,
v
a::
z
a::
lJ..I
co
~
:::)
LEGEND:
o Cement rock slurry
C> River mud slurries
o Clay slurry
ell Sewage sludge
Th02 slurries
Lime slurry
(/)
g 10~
0
>lJ..I
0::
..J
4:
f=
a::
u 10 1 +----.-~~.,.......................-.---.................,..........,.......,............~...,---------.......,......~...,....,.....,....,---.......,......---~~-.--J
10~
105
lcf
10'
HEDSTROM NUMBER (NHe)
562
Slurries
0.9 m/ sec
l. 5 m/ sec
2.1 m/sec
(3ft/ sec)
( 5ft/sec)
(7ft/sec)
I
(,/')
(,/')
I.I.J
c::t:::
f-
(,/')
c::t:::
I.I.J
:::r:
(,/')
563
Alumina
Crushed chalk
Clay
Coke fines
Gravel
Lime
Magnetite
Sand
Soda ash
up to 50%
up to 68%
up to 60%
up to 55%
up to 25 %
up to 65 %
up to 60%
up to 60%
up to 60'Yo
Vl
Table 2.
0'1
Percentage
by weight
of solids
Ratio
water
tosolids
..;,
0
~
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.5
4.0
4 .5
5.0
::3
:::.
:::!
C")
<'>
:::.
9.1
1.05
1.05
1.06
1.06
1.06 1.06
1.06 1.07
1.0 7 1.0 7
1.0 7
:::!
!:l..
1.07
1.07
1.07 1.08
1.08
1.09
1.09
(';"
.s::
15
5.66:1
1.08
1.08 1.09
1.09
1.09
1.11
1.11
1.11
1.11
20
4:1
1.11
1.11
1.12
1.12
1.13
1.14
25
3:1
1.14
1.15
1.15
1.16
30
2.33:1
1.17
1.18
1.19
35
1.87:1
1.21
1.22
40
1.5:1
1.25
45
1.22:1
50
1.12
1.12
1.13
1.13
1.14
1.14 1.14
1.15
1. 15
1.15
1.1 6
1.16 1.1 6
1. 1 7 1.18
1.19
1.19
1.17 1.18
1.18
1.19
1.19
1.19
1.20
1.20
1.21
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.2 5
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24 1.24
1.25
1.25
1.26
1.26
1.2 7
1.29
1.31
1.31
1.23
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.28
1.29 1.30
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.32
1.33
1.35
1.37
1.39
1.26
1.28
1.29
1.30 1.32
1.33
1.34
1.35
1.36
1.36
1.3 7
1.38
1. 39
1.40
1. 43
1.45
1.47
1.29
1.30
1. 32
1. 34 1.36
1.37
1.38
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.4 6
1.47
1.51
1.54
1.56
1:1
1.33
1.35
1.37 1.39
1.41
1.43
1.44
1.46
1.47 1.49
1.50
1.51
1.52
1.53
1. 55
1. 60
1.63
1.67
55
0.91:1
1.3 7
1.38
1.41
1.43
1.44
1.49
1.51
1.53
1.5 5
1.56 1.58
1.59
1.61
1.62
1.65
1. 70
1. 75
1.79
60
0.67:1
1.43
1.46
1.48
1.51
1.54 1.56
1.5 8
1.61
1.63
1. 65
1.6 7 1.68
1.70 1.72
1. 75
1.82
1.87 1.92
65
0.54:1
1.48
1.51
1.55
1.58
1.61
1.64
1.6 7
1.69
1.72
1. 74
1. 76
1. 79
1.81
1.83
1.8 7 1.95
70
0.43:1
1.54 1.57
1.62
1.65
1.69
1. 72
1.75
1.79
1.82
1.85
1.88
1.90
1.93
1.95
2.00
75
0.33:1
1.60
1.69
1.73
1. 78
1.82
1.86 1.90
1.93
1.97
2.00
2.03
2.06
2.09
2.1 5 2.29
1.65
2.03
2.08
2.10 2.20
2.27
2.40
2.50
o
:::!
""
565
difficult to estimate for centrifugal pumps the total head to be supplied by the
pump and thus to determine the most efficient working point.
A general formula which can be used is:
.6-Ps
---1
~Pw
= KCv
D(sg- 1) x Vs
jd(sg - 1) x y2
Typically, the output from a slurry pump will follow the characteristics shown
in Figure 6. with the output curve consisting of three zones:
(i) delivery distance,
(ii) delivery distance within the normal working range of the pump,
(iii) loss of output over any further delivery distance.
~
l
.....
~
0~
C<~>
11):::::
.....
Output (solids)
6..
'--'
::l
;(
':1
600
::l
0..
II)
.:::.
....
.......
<!)
<!)
::l
400
..... 0
g_..o::
~
0
1:
c:
c:
.2
(;
.....
c:
II)
u
c:
0
<.>
',~I
200
;:;
0..
::l
900
1200
600
Delivery pipeline length in m
>
I. Delivery distance.
2 . Delivery distance within the normal
working range of the pump.
Figure 6.
5 66
40
0
~
E
c::
30
20
_1----.....
_:----r- --'
r--
PJ
Pump speed~._
n2 < n 1
/ P2
~p,
Pipeline length
L2 <
c:
"'E
Pipeline lengt
10
Vacuum
8
0
~
<'l
>
__-_
Decisive vacuuml
6
at speed n,:
/
E
c::
:::l
:::l
Decisive vacuum
at speed n~ : \.
. .v
~"-
p2
PI
-f-
500
I0000 1500
Flowrate (lis)
Figure 7.
2000
L,
56 7
Critical velocity
Frictional factor
5 68
R - AQ
e-
cxdY
fs
= (Rez)
Mixture nowrate
1200
L.
I' .................
~:? 1000
.........
~v
800
----
'-....... ~ ......
600
c:
.2
~
...
20
c:
Cl)
u
c:
10
0
u
Vol.<on<enlraUonJ
>
....
;:l
600
............
..c:
.-, 6..
E E 400
c:
-
'5
P--i
-------1--~
;:l
0..
Cl)
i
I
!.Delivery distance.
2. Delivery distance within the normal
working range of the pump.
o...:!
; t>
0~
200
--
Cl)
.....
Cl)
0..
800
1600 2400
320
4000
4800
Figure 8.
569
Stock consistency
(%)
Head factor
(Hp)
Capacity factor
Head-capacity factor
(Qfl
(H p/Qp)
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.95
0.93
0.90
0.87
0.83
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.97
0 .96
0.92
0.87
0.80
0.72
0.62
0.52
0.42
0.99
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.76
0 .67
0.56
0.45
0.35
l.O
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
100
........;;
ex:
ol){)
0
<
~
!"... ..........
80
(a)
--
1---
...........
..........
0
< 70
0..
..........
..........
<(
60
<(
UJ
r--r--
Vl
3 ~
4 >-
"'
u
~
u
.......... ~ ......
61;;
UJ
::r: .)-o
0
40
120
80
100
20
60
% WATE R CAPACITY AT MAXIMUM EFFICIENCY
100
i"""r-...
ex:
t;90
t--........
<(
!J...
~ 80
(b)
-r---
t--
r-..r-..
0
<
0.. 70
<
u
-r---..
>-
u
5 ~
rVl
1---.t---.....
zVl
0
u
~
u
0
oo
!;;
<(>
UJ
::r:
50
t)
20
40
60
80
100
120
figurP 9. Deterrninat.ion of head-capacity correction factors: (a) chemical stock; (b) mechanical and
reclaimed stock.
5 70
.,.,
2
~
_......,
I--'
1..--
1.5
,...
.......
l.,...--' ~
_,.,.,.
l.--- ......
ll"'v
L..
~
0. 1
1--"j..-
~
l,..oo
lo--""
......
--~
~
~
,...
L..oo
_..,
...
-"""'~
---~
~ .....
,..
,..i--
.....
...
~
~
ioo""'
... ....
,.....
3.75
~"""' 3. 5
1.---'
.J'
..,.I'""
3.25
L,..o
......
~"""
....... p
::l
.;'
'"j" 0. 05
....
...,.,.
(/}
(/}
.....l
0 0.04 .........
,..... .......
,... '-"""
,.
,......
,.
lo-""
<(
.........
!..""
U)
,....
::r::
I--'~
0.03
~
ioo"
1,.
>u
z
c;.,;.;;;
.....
~""""
l.,...--' ~
,...
UJ
1-(/')
"""
(/")
u
::,t
L..
,.....__ '--
0
f(/")
l,..oo
~
~
0.0 15
0 .0 1
200
300
400
lo-""
- ~"'
;..."'
0.02
I"""'
l.,...--'
"""""
........
.....
2.5
, ... ~
,.... ,....
.,
~~
~
...... ~
4.25
L..oo
~~
~
_.., ~
........
,....
..,.,.....
....
_..!--"'
[....; ~
lo-"""
4.5
.... ~
L...... ~
~~
.... ~
........ v
..,.,.,.,
,
,~
,..,..
,.
,..
~
~
~""'
,.,.,
......
....
I"'
_..,
,
~
~
L
c
..,.,.,.,
,.,., p ....... ,... ;;;;;
P"
I"' ......
v
~ 0.06
,......
7
......
.......
,.,.,
......
L,...-o
""',...., ... /
,. ....~
,....
~
,...... ......
..,.,.
~
.......
0 OR
,....
[/
........ ~
, ..,.
I--"
5 .}
~~
~.,.,
P'
0.09 l.,...--'
,..,.
1--"
l.,...--' ~
....... 7
""
~~
....
1.---'
"""""
....... ~ I"'
,.
v
,..
--
,
,,
500
600
Gal/ min
15000
2000
5 71
Paper stock is basically in the form of sludge with a specific type of solids
(paper pulp). With low consistencies (i.e. less than 1% pulp by weight), flow
and friction losses can be calculated as for water. With higher consistencies
there is an increasing derating or pump performance (see Table 3 ).
Frictional losses increase rapidly with stock consistencies above about 2%
by \veight. A rriction [actor can be determined based on a pseudo-Reynolds
number. viz:
K1 = 17.2
For Q in I/ min and Din em
K1 = 8.18
(see also Figures 9 and 10).
5 73
fJ is a factor of the order of unity and normally taken as 1.0 (i.e. can be
eliminated from the equation).
Actual flow conditions may range from adiabatic to isothermal. Adiabatic
conditions are only likely to apply in short, well-insulated pipes where no
appreciable heat is transferred to or from the pipe. Isothermal flow, or flow at
constant temperature, is commonly assumed as more consistent with normal
practice, especially for long pipes. In fact, most practical pipelines will generate
polytropic flow conditions, which are virtually impossible to analyse. The
assumption of isothermal flow is thus a practical compromise.
Isothermal flow
Re = - 1-L
VD
v
where p = the mass density
f.L = viscosity
v = kinematic viscosity
=
=
1 o- 4 ft 2 /sec.
531.5 VD
530 VD (with sufficient practical accuracy).
57 4
laminar flow being defined by the Reynolds number not exceeding 2000. For
turbulent flow and smooth-bore pipes, the Reynolds number can be calculated
from the following empirical formula:
f = 0.3164
Re0.25
144gA 2
pl)
D P2
- it
( Vt-+ 2\og-
where A =
g =
V1 =
L =
f =
D =
P1 =
P2 =
For long gas pipelines (where velocity gradient can be ignored) this reduces to:
2
Qm 2 = (144gDA
VrfxL
(Pi-P~)
P1
Ov = 114.2
P~ - P~ x o
( fLT
sg
5)
57 5
Weymouth formula :
Ov
28.0D2.on7
( Pf - P~)
Lsg
520
T
Panhandle formula :
Qv = 36.8ED2.6182
p 21 _L p-_)7 ) o. s3 94
(
Hence
P* = Vt = M1 = M Jk
1
P1 V* M
where the suffix 1 refers to initial concentration .
Hence (and because the velocity of sound is constant under isothermal
conditions) :
57 6
i- 1)
fLO* = (kMl
1
-loge kM2
l
or
fL
Adiabatic flow
Similar treatment applies for adiabatic flow, although the corresponding formulae
are more complicated and may require working as a series of approximations
in order to reach real values in particular cases. In general, the pressure,
temperature and velocity will always be slightly less than those for isothermal
flow, but the limiting length will be similar. The di1rerences are usually small
enough to be negligible, except at higher Mach numbers, and thus, for
simplification of calculations, isothermal formulae can be used for subsonic
adiabatic flow.
Limiting velocity:
V*
2(1+ k; 1Mi)
k+ l
57 7
Limiting temperature:
2(1 +~Mf)
k+l
Limiting length:
L* = D (l - Mi)
F
kM 2
1
k+ 11
2k
(k+ l)Mi
oge
Limiting pressure:
2( l
k- l
+-Mf )
2
k+l
Stagnation state
Flow is possible between two extremes. At one extreme, velocity is zero and
temperature is a maximum because all the kinetic energy is converted to
enthalpy. The speed of sound is also a maximum (stagnation point or stagnation
state). At the other extreme, the velocity is a maximum and the temperature
falls to absolute zero, all the enthalpy being converted into kinetic energy. The
speed of sound ls then zero (zero temperature state). Between these extremes
the practical flow may be subsonic, transonic or supersonic (Figure l) although
the zero temperature state can never be reached (i.e. it is a hypothetical
condition).
At the stagnation state:
02
vz
- + ho=-+h
or
ho=
vz
2 +h
57 8
I
w
""0
.2
::J
..0
"'
....v I
'Jl
'-
O..J
>,
52
v
;>
M =-I OR V::: c
---...M> I
I
~
.c
81
..:=, q
ro
~
Supcrson ic
I
I
..J
Hypersonic
vu
Velocity V-+
Figure 1.
From the general gas relationship it follows that the stagnation temperature
(T 0 ) is given by:
v2
To= T + 2 sp
where sp =specific heat at constant pressure.
Alternatively,
To= 1 + k- 1 x M2
T
2
~o = (i't
_L
(l+k 1M')''
2
pV {
Po=P+2
M
2- k 4
+-+--M
4
24
+ ... }
5 79
V=
2spT0
p)
.\
(
1 - Po
Alternatively. for adiabatic flow, the velocity at any section can be determined
from the temperature at that section:
Flow rate
Flow rate can be determined as the mass flow, i.e. mass flow = VAp. or
directly as the product ofV and A in numerically consistent units:
Dimensions are
T x L2 =
llow rate
L3
=T
5 80
2)--r
( l+TxM
k-1
To
l+k-lxM2
2
At any (constant) section where the flow is sonic, the flow conditions are
described as critical, yielding a critical temperature (T*) and a critical pressure
(P*). where:
T*
To
k+1
Po* -_ (k +2 1) n
P
(_2__)
b: =
2.4
0.52 8.
Critical area:
The relationship between the critical area (A*) or throat area where
and the area of any other section (A) is given by:
f.1.. =
A
A*
2
=
-1 (1
+ 0.2M
1.2
2
)
for a1r.
.
Nozzle flow
= 49 Jr ftjsec
Reservoir
Reservoir
p > Po
Po
To
Po
To
V 0 =0
Y 0 =0
5 81
*Po < Po
Figure 2.
(The velocity of sound in air - c = 49T ft/ sec where T is the absolute
temperature in degrees Rankine.)
If the critical pressure is less than the receiver pressure, then the flow cannot
be critical (Figure 2b ). In this case the flow will be subsonic and the exit
pressure will equal the receiver pressure. The temperature can be calculated
from the general formula, or from:
p
=
T,
To(r~)
ox d 2 Jh yiP;7T
where m =
A2
A1
c - nozzle coeffi.cien t
o = expansibility factor allowing for the change in air density which
occurs during acceleration through the nozzle
Reservo ir
Po
To
Yo = 0
Figure 3.
58 2
d =
h =
P2 =
T =
1 - 0.07h f
l
or va ues of circa 0.16
1 3 . 6 p2
(and h in inches wg and P 2 in inches of mercury)
diameter of nozzle
pressure drop across nozzle
absolute pressure on downstream side of nozzle
absolute temperature on downstream side of nozzle.
where K =
T1 =
T2 =
P1 =
P2 =
h =
nozzle constant
absolute temperature at specified inlet point
absolute temperature at nozzle or specified point downstream
absolute pressure at specified inlet point
absolute pressure at nozzle or specified point downstream
pressure drop across nozzle.
An orifice is a simple form of nozzle. formed by a circular hole cut in a thin flat
plate. Flow can again be determined with reference to an empirical discharge
coefficient or orifice coefficient. This will be much lower than for nozzles
because of the less streamlined flow but, owing to the simpler form of the nozzle.
will be Jess subject to variation. Thus nozzle coefficients may vary between
0.90 (or less) and 0.995, depending on size and geometry, whereas an orifice
coefficient can be expected to be of the order of 0. 61, regardless of size, and
differing only if the orifice has a well-rounded, as opposed to a sharp, entry.
Very much simplified formulae can therefore be applied to assess the
discharge of air through orifices, and the following are generally satisfactory
for straightforward engineering calculations:
(1) For upstream pressures above 14. 7lbf/in 2 g
218xAxPu
v'460+T
or
172
d2
Pu
J460 + T
(a)
orifice~
417
A X Pu
J460 +T
58 3
(b)
or
Pu
(c)
J460+T
166xd2 xPu
or
J460+T
3
Pu
d2
Pu
,. . ., -J-;=4===6O:::=+====:::c:T-
where A =
Pu =
d =
T =
(b)
J460 + T
255
or
l. (a)
324
orifice~---;::::::::.~=~
Q (ft 3 / min)
or
Q (ft 3 / min)
or
= 11.9 Ax Pu
= 9.4d 2 Pu
~ 18.3 A x P u
~ 14.4 d 2 Pu
2. (c)
(d)
(d)
Resistance coefficients
0.00673 KV 2
when v is in rtjsec
6P (bar)
= 0.000044
where V is in mjsec
KV 2
585
...,
u c
c ...,
ro u
....,
V)
...,
Q.)
.~ !:::
a::
0.05
0.1
0.2
0. 3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
l.l
1.2
1.3
L.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1. 9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.1)
3.0
3.1
3.2
.U
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.l
5.2
').3
5.4
5.5
l
(0.3)
2
(0.6)
3
(0.9)
4
( 1.2)
(I. 5)
6
(1.8)
7
(2.1)
8
(2 .4)
(2.75)
10
(3.0)
0.00080
0.00200
0.00300
0.00500
0.00600
0.00800
0.00900
0.01100
0.01200
O.tH400
0.01600
0.01710
0.01860
0.02020
0.021 70
0.02330
0.02480
0.02640
0.02800
0.02950
0.03106
0.03261
0.03416
0.03571
0.0.3726
0.03881
0.04036
().04191
0.04346
0.04501
0.04659
0.04814
0.04969
0.05124
0.05279
0.05434
0.05589
0.05744
0.05899
0.06054
0.06212
0 .06367
().()6 522
0.06677
0 .06832
0.06987
0.07142
0.07297
0.07452
().07607
0.07765
0.07920
0 .080 75
0.08230
0.08 38S
0.08543
0.003
0.006
0.012
0.019
0.()25
0.031
0.037
0.044
0.050
0.056
0.06 2
0.068
0.074
0.081
0.087
0.093
0.099
0.106
0.112
0.1.18
0.124
0.007
0.014
0.028
0.042
0.056
0.070
0.084
0.098
0.112
0 .125
0.140
0.154
0.168
0.182
0.196
0.210
0.224
0.238
0.252
o.26o
0.280
0.294
0.308
0.322
0.336
0.350
0.364
0.378
0.392
0.406
0.419
0.433
0.447
0.461
0.475
0.489
0.503
0.517
0.531
0.545
0.559
0.573
0.587
0.601
0.6] 5
0.629
0.643
0.657
0.671
0.685
0.69R
0.71 2
0.726
0.740
0.755
0.769
0.013
0.025
0.050
0.075
0.100
0.12 5
0.149
0.174
0.199
0.214
0.249
0.274
0.299
0.324
0.349
0.374
0.398
0.423
0.448
0.473
0.497
0.522
0.547
0.572
0.597
0.621
0.646
0.671
0.696
0.721
0.746
0.771
0 .796
0.821
0.845
0.870
0 .895
0.920
0.945
0.9 70
0.994
1.019
1.044
1.069
1.093
1.118
1.143
1.168
1.19 3
1.2 J H
1.243
1.268
1.293
1.3 J 8
1.342
l.367
0.019
0.039
0.078
0.117
0.155
0.194
0.233
0.271
0.311
0.349
0.388
0.427
0.466
0.505
0.544
0. 583
0.621
0.660
0.699
0.738
0.776
0.815
0.854
0.893
0.932
0.971
1.009
1.048
1.08 7
1.126
1.165
1.204
1.243
1.282
1.321
1.360
1.398
1.437
1.476
1.514
1.553
1.592
1.631
1.670
1.709
1.748
1.786
1.825
1.864
1.903
1.942
1.981
2.020
2.058
2.097
2.136
0.030
0.060
0.112
0.168
0.224
0.280
0.335
0.391
0.447
0.503
0.559
0.615
0.671
0.727
0.783
0.839
0.895
0.951
1.007
1.063
1.118
1.174
1.230
1.286
1.341
1.397
1.45 3
1.509
1.565
1.621
1.677
l. 733
1.789
1.845
1.901
1.957
2.013
2.069
2.125
2.181
2.236
2.292
2.348
2.404
2.460
2.5 16
2.572
2.628
2.684
2.740
2.795
2.85 1
2.907
2.%3
3.019
3.075
0.039
0.071)
0.1 52
0.228
0.304
0.381
0.457
0.533
0.609
0.685
0.761
0.837
0.913
0.989
1.065
1.141
1.217
!.293
1.369
1.445
1.522
1.598
1.674
1.750
1.826
1.902
1.978
2.054
2.130
2.206
2.283
2 .359
2.435
2.511
2.587
2.663
2.739
2.8 15
2.891
2.967
3.044
3.120
3.196
3.272
3.348
3.424
3 .500
3.576
3.652
3.728
3.806
3.882
3.958
4 .034
4.110
4.186
0.050
0.100
0.199
0.299
0.398
0.497
0.597
0.696
0.796
0.895
0.995
1.090
1.190
1.290
1.390
1.490
1.590
1.690
1.790
1.890
1.990
2.090
2.190
2.290
2.390
2.490
2.590
2.690
2.790
2.890
2.990
3.090
3.190
3.290
3.390
3.490
3 .590
3.680
3.780
3.880
3.980
4.080
4.180
4.280
4.380
4.480
4.580
4.680
4.770
4.870
4.97
5.07
5.1 7
5.27
5.37
5.47
0.063
0.126
0.252
0.377
0.503
0.629
0.755
0.880
1.006
1.132
1.25 8
1.380
1.510
1.630
1.760
1.890
2.020
2.140
2.270
2.390
2.520
2.650
2.780
2.900
3.030
3.150
3.280
3.400
3.530
3.650
3.770
3.900
4.030
4.150
4.280
4.400
4.530
4.650
4.780
4.900
5.030
5.160
5.290
5.410
5.540
5.660
5.790
5.9 10
6.040
6.160
6.29
6.41
6.54
6.(i6
6.79
6.9l
0.077
0.155
0.310
0.470
0.620
0.780
0.930
1.090
L.240
1.400
1.550
1.710
1.860
2.020
2.170
2.330
2.480
2.640
2.800
2.950
3.110
3.260
3.420
3.570
3.730
3.880
4.040
4.190
4.350
4.500
4.f:>60
4.810
4.970
5.120
5.280
5.430
5.590
5.740
5.900
6.050
6.210
6.370
f:>.520
6.680
6.830
6.990
7.140
7.300
7.4SO
7.600
7.77
7.92
8.08
8.23
8.39
8.54
0.130
0.1 36
0.143
0.141)
0.155
0.161
0.168
0. L74
0.180
0.186
0.192
0.198
0.205
0.211
0.217
0.223
\ 0.230
0.2 36
0.242
0.248
0.254
0.260
0.26 7
0.273
0.279
0.285
0 .2 92
0.298
0. 304
0.311
0 .3 17
0.323
0. 3 30
0.3.36
0.342
586
Table 1 (continued)
~
- -- - - -
u t:
t:: ~
.~
"'
~
;::;
(0.3)
2
(O.n)
3
(0.9)
4
(1.2)
5
(1.5)
0.08698
0.08853
0.09008
0.09163
0.09318
0.09473
0.09628
0.09783
0.09938
0.10093
0.10248
0.10403
0.10558
0.10713
0.10871
0.11026
O.ll181
0.11336
0.11491
0.11646
0.11801
0.11956
0.12111
0.1226fi
0.12424
0.12579
0.12734
0.12889
0.13044
0.13199
0.13354
0.13509
0.1361)4
0.1381':)
0.13977
0.14132
0.14287
0.14442
0.14597
0.14752
0.14907
0.150()2
0.15217
0.15372
0.15530
0.17083
0.18636
0.20189
0.21742
0.23295
0.24848
0.26401
0.27954
0.29507
0. 3 I OoO
0.348
0.355
0.361
0.367
0.373
0.379
0.385
0.392
0.398
0.404
0.410
0.417
0.423
0.429
0.435
0.441
0.447
0.454
0.460
0.466
0.472
0.479
0.485
0.491
0.497
0.503
0.509
0.516
0.522
0.528
0.534
0.541
0.547
0.553
0.559
0.565
0.571
0.578
0.584
0 .5 90
0.590
0.603
0 .609
0.615
0.621
0.68
0.74
0.81
0.87
0.93
0.99
1.06
1.12
1.18
1.24
0.783
0.797
0.811
0.825
0.839
0.853
0.867
0.881
0.895
0.909
0.923
0.937
0.951
0.965
0.979
0.993
1.007
1.021
1.035
1.049
1.063
1.077
1.091
1.105
1.118
1.132
1.146
1.1 fiO
1.174
1.188
1.202
1.216
1.230
1.244
1.258
1.272
l.28h
1.300
1.314
1. 328
1.342
1.356
1.370
1.384
1.398
1.54
1.68
1.82
1.96
2.10
2.24
2.38
2.52
2.66
2.80
1.392
1.417
1.442
1.467
1.491
1.516
1.541
1.566
1.590
1.615
1.640
1.665
1.690
l. 71 5
1.740
1.765
1.790
1.814
1.839
] .864
1.888
1.913
1.938
1.963
1.988
2.013
2.038
2.063
2.087
2.112
2.13 7
2.162
2.1.87
2.212
2.237
2.262
2.287
2.312
2.336
2.361
2.386
2.411
2.43 5
2.4fi0
2.485
2.74
2.99
3.24
3.49
3.74
3.98
4.23
4.48
4. 73
4.97
2.175
2.213
2.252
2.290
2.329
~
0
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
n.6
6.7
6.8
o.9
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10.0
ll
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
]9
20
2.3(~8
2.407
2.446
2.485
2. 524
2.562
2.601
2.fi40
2.679
2.717
2.756
2.795
2.834
2.87~
2.912
2. 9 50
2.989
3.028
3.066
3.105
3.144
3.183
3.221
3.260
3.299
3.338
3.377
3.416
3.455
3.493
3.532
3.571
3.609
3.648
3.687
3.726
3.765
3.804
3.843
3.882
4.2 7
4 ,()()
5.05
5.44
5.83
6.21
6.60
6.99
7.38
7.76
(1.8)
7
(2.1)
8
(2.4)
9
(2.75)
10
(3.0)
3.131
3.187
3.243
3.299
3.354
3.4] 0
3.461)
3.522
3. 572
3.634
3.690
3.746
3.802
3.85H
3.913
3.969
4.025
4.081
4.137
4.19 3
4.249
4.305
4.361
4.417
4.472
4.528
4.584
4.040
4.6%
4.752
4.808
4.864
4.920
4.97o
5.031
5.087
5.143
5.199
5.2 55
5. 31.1
5. 367
5.423
5.479
5. 534
5. 589
6.15
6.71
7.27
7.83
8.39
8.95
9. 51
l().()7
10.63
11.1 8
4.2 1)2
4.338
4.414
4.490
4.5n7
4.643
4.719
4.795
4 .871
4.947
5.023
5.099
5.175
5.251
5.328
5.404
5.480
5.5 56
5.632
5.708
5.784
5.860
5.9 36
6.012
6.089
6.165
6.241
6.317
6.393
6.4fi9
6.545
().621
6.697
n.773
6.850
6.926
7.002
7.078
7.154
7.230
7.306
7.382
7.458
7.534
7.612
8.37
Y.l 3
9.89
10.h5
I 1 .41
12.17
12.9 3
1 3 .n9
14.45
15 .22
5.57
5.67
5.77
5.87
5.97
().07
6.17
6.27
6.37
6.47
6.57
6.67'
6.76
6.8n
6.96
7.0o
7.16
7 .26
7.36
7.46
7.S6
7.66
7.7o
7.86
7.96
7.04
7.17
7.30
7.42
7. 55
7.68
7.81
7.93
8.06
8.18
8.31
8.4 3
8.56
s.os
8.80
8.93
9.06
9.18
9. 3 I
9.43
9.56
9.fi8
9.81
9.93
I 0.06
LO. 19
10.32
10.44
I 0.57
10.69
10.81
10.94
1 1.07
11.19
11.32
11.45
11.58
11. 7()
I 1.8 3
11.9 5
12.08
12.20
12.3.3
1 2.4 5
12.58
H.8
J 5.1
8.70
8.85
9.01
9.1 f)
9. 32
9.47
9.63
9.78
9.94
10.09
10.25
10.40
10.56
10.71
10.87
11.03
11.18
11.34
J 1.49
1 1.65
11.80
11.%
12.11
12.27
12.42
12.58
12.73
12.89
13.04
13.20
I 3. .3 5
13.51
13.66
13.82
1 3. 98
14 . .1 j
14.29
14.44
8.06
8. 16
8.26
8.36
8.4 6
8. 55
8.65
8.75
8.85
8.95
9.05
9.15
9.25
9.35
9.45
9.55
Y.65
9.75
9.85
9.94
10.9
1 l. 9
12.9
13.l)
14.9
15.9
16.9
17.9
lil .9
19.9
16.3
17.6
18.9
20.2
21.4
22.7
2 3.9
2 5.2
14.60
14. 7 5
14.91
15.06
15.22
J 5. 3 7
1 'i. 53
17.08
J 8.64
20. I 9
21.74
2 3. 30
24.8S
2 6.40
27.9')
29.5 1
31.0()
58 7
Equating velocity head loss derived from the D'Arcy formula with that derived
from the resistance coefficient formula:
(f
v2
L/d) - = K
2g
v2
X -
2g
It follows that:
K= f
L/D
Cv
= 1.16
Kv
588
IR
1
/2
j / 4.
(25)
l 1/4
(35)
1 1/2
(40)
(50)
3
(7"i)
4
5
(100) ( 125)
1.25
1.15
1..00
0.80
0.70
0.55
0.40
0.38
0.34
0. 32
0.30
0.60
0. so
0.30
0.34
0.40
0 ..30
0.25
0.21
0.20
0.18
0.34
0. 32
0.32
0.30
0.29
0.27
0.31
0.29
0.28
0.28
0.2 7
0.19
0.18
0. L8
0.17
(laminarflow)bend lOxD
Standard 90 elbow (screwed)
2.40
2.10
1.70
1.50
1.0
0.90
0.36
0.35
0.34
0.33
0.45
0.75
0.40
0 . .39
0.37
0.37
0.35
0.25
0.24
0.23
0.22
0.21
0.22
0.21
0.20
0.20
().] 8
0.26
1..50
1.38
0.21
1.25
0.96
0.78
0.68
0.58
0.43
0.40
0.37
0 .34
0.32
().3()
0.28
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0 ..35
0 . .30
0.42
0.39
0.36
0.30
0.25
0 .22
0.20
0.26
0.24
0.22
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.1.3
1.80
1.60
1.50
1.40
1.20
l.l ()
0. 90
0.80
0.72
0.64
l.OO
0.62
2.40
2.10
l.70
180 (screwed)
Large-radius return bend
L80 (flanged)
T-line flow (screwed)
2.50
2.40
2.00
L.OO
12.00
10.00
s.oo
7.00
6.00
5.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3. 50
3.00
2.50
0.17
0.15
0.13
0.11
0.30
0.23
0.15
0.13
0.2.3
1/
Gate valve:
2 -closed
I 4 -c!osed
0.20
12.50
12.50
8.50
8.50
7.50
7.50
6 . 50
6 . 50
6.00
6.00
5.0
3.00
2.00
2.00
2 .00
2.00
Foot valve
Basket strainer
589
c v-
29.9d 2
Jr x L/D
29.9d 2
JK
The flow through a valve handling liquids with a reasonably similar viscosity
to that of water can then be determined as:
Q = Cv
~
). P
---;;-
7. 9Cv
v(M
--;i
or
Gl\lhC
v~ lve
o pen
Gate valve
J;, closed
1
12 closed
'I dosed
Fully o pen
500
Standard elbow
o r run o f
tce reduced 1!1
~rru
~ tOt
Lo ng sweep elbow o r
run of standard tee
nso
1 sao
150
7000
I SOO
I 000
sao
1000
750
sao
250
500
375
250
12S
100
50
30
200
LP
"'"j
~(OJ-
3000
r300
Borda e ntran ce
tee
'
I
I
rr3-
:;;
100 ...
a.
c..
so .<:~
~
I LP'_,J '
'
e ntrance
!)
c:
-;;;
-~
"0"
Ul
'''
I~
c:
ISO
100
75
50
37.5
25
12.5
30
22.5
15
7.5
20
IS
10
tO
7.5
2.5
r-so
a. 14
c..
~
00
3',
Sudden contraction t
d!D- 'IJ
d/D-'12
0.5
d!D-Jf,
c:...
.r:::.
200
20
.,
20
il-
.,.,
.s::
"'
"'
0...
.,
v;
30
1 Sudden enlargement
d D-lf
10
__;.., d D- 112
d D-Y
'
..,Ordinary
100 000
CP
2 000
\0
10000
CP
3 000
Sq uare elbow
bend
?0 000
IV
CP
CP
I 000
2 000
50
[?'
Close return
'"'""" "d'
oo
CP
Standard tec
@
S t~ ndard
20
([]
?00
o
' 000
lO
\0
10
'0
c:
:;;
.,
"'
'0
(,j
c:
.E
0
z
''
.,
0
..<::
u
'0
25
s
4' '
r-
f.4
3''
2''
,.,
t-
1.5
.s
.75
.s
f- .25
.375
.25
.125
.075
t--05
.025
o.s
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
.,
O. t
0.1
05
590
Fitting
8
7
28
17
12
10
9
44
20
14
12
16
16
20
12
19
8
6
4
4
25
11
8
6
6
12
12
11
50
23
16
14
13
56
26
18
16
15
24
28
32
36
40
48
72
15
18
21
24
27
30
36
55
10
12
18
3.3
62
4. 5
5.5
h.S
12
73
70
350
36
23
80
400
42
27
90
440
46
30
100
480
52
34
120
570
63
40
.1 80
850
94
60
32
14
10
2.5
47
19
26
30
40
150 200
Hi
20
14
ll
50
250
26
17
39
60
300
32
20
156
75
3.5
19
100
400
160
208
100
4.5
26
130
540
214
260
125
5.7
33
160
700
267
310
150
6.7
39
190
800
320
363
175
8.0
415
200
9.0
467
225
10.2
519
250
12 .0
622
300
14.0
934
450
20.0
373
427
480
534
640
960
40
12
11
53
16
14
67
20
16
80
24
18
93
28
21
107
120
240
36
30
134
40
35
HiO
32
48
72
16
11
3
20
15
4
26
18
6
3.1
22
7
36
25
H
42
29
10
6
9
8
12
10
l5
12
18
14
21
H1
18
24
3 (1
24
27
20
30
Jh
33
24
Sudden enlargement
d/D=
d/D
/4
= l/2
d/D = 3 /4
Sudden contraction
d/ D =- 1h
Entrance (typical)
d, smaller pipe diameter.
D. larger pipe diameter.
fitting diameter-mm
1 <;
1000
800
600
500
400
300
200
150
100
80
fiS
50
40
32
25
2.7
2.2
1.5
0.7
0.5
0.43
0.35
0.27
0.2
0.18
-G-
110200
90170
70130
60110
5090
3570
2550
2035
1325
1020
8-15
6-12
5-9
4.7
3.6
2.4
Screw-down valve
300
250
200
1110
130
100
70
50
35
28
22
17
13
10
-eool}
150
130
90
80
60
50
32
25
16
13
10
2.5
18
15
12
10
1.7
1.4
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.3
25
20
15
13
10
2.8
1.8
1.5
0.8
0.7
0.4
12
10
2.5
1.5
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
30
25
18
15
13
10
6.5
3.2
2.5
1.8
1.4
0.8
0.5
fitting
Gate valve
a
~
0.1
t-<
0
"'"'
"'"'
5
OJ
"';:s
"';:ss:::.
75
60
50
40
33
25
17
13
6.5
5.5
3.2
2.6
1.4
~
,...
.....
s
"'
<:!::>
Vl
1.0
f-.'
T fittings
100
70
80
58
60
45
50
35
40
30
30
24
20
15
15
12
10
3.2
2.5
2.7
1.7
l.2
U1
\.0
N
'\:l
"'
~
0:::.
....
~
:.:::,
18
15
12
10
1.7
1.4
0.8
0.6
0.5
:s
0.3
"'::.':s"'
0.4
::.
(")
Taper connectors
5.5
2.5
~-Y4
25
~OjO=
30
25
20
16
13
10
3.5
2.8
2.2
1.7
1.4
0.8
0.5
60
50
40
35
28
20
14
10
5.5
4.4
1.8
~d/!J"
3.5
1.5
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.37
0.3
0.24
0.18
0.11
~%~
13
10
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.2
10
3.2
2.2
1.6
l.J
0.9
0.7
0.55
0.45
0.35
0.27
0.17
ct;.z
L-~b-
30
25
20
16
13
10
3.5
2.8
2.2
1.7
1.4
0.8
0.5
_r-~~
..,_..,::
'[) '2
15
13
10
5.5
3.5
1.5
1.3
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
-----...
15
13
10
3.5
2.5
1.8
1.5
1.2
0.9
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.25
20
16
14
11
1.5
1.3
0.9
0.7
c:;
s:::
~
.._
c;
Abrupt 90 bend
1f2
t&J
~-3
~sh
~'[)
__r-
L_
:s
"'
59 3
The pressure drop across a valve can be determined from the same formulae
rearranged:
w
LlP = 62.4
(Q)
2 sg (Q)2
Cv
Cv
=
Working formulae
These formulae are expressed in terms of the resistance coefficient (K) where
K = fL
K0 2
HL (ft) = 522 d~
where Q is in ft 3 / sec
d is in inches
KB 2
HL (ft) = 0.0012 7 d4
Hr.. ( m)
KQ2
1, 8 7 7, 19 7 d4
where Q is in m 3 / sec
dis in mm
KQ2
Hr.. (ft)
where Q is in I/ min
d isinmm
HL (ft)
= 0 .00216
= 0 .00259d4
where Q is in US gal/min
d is in inches
K0 2
d~
LlP (lbfjin 2 )
= 0.0001078kpV 2
LlP (lbfjin 2 )
= 3.62
Kp0 2
d4-
594
~p (lbfjin 2 )
= 0.00000882
K~~
~p
KpQ2
(bar)= 0.1729d4
~P (lbf/in
= 0.000018
= 0.000000112 KpV 2
~p (bar)
K~~
~p (lbf/in
) =
0.000015
Pressure drop through valves and fittings (using flow coefficient Cv)
2)
pQ
62 .4Cv2
where Q is in lb/ ft 3
p is in 1bI ft 3
Q is in US gal/ min
~p
(lbfj'
2)
pQl
90Cv 2
d<
where W is in lb/bar
V(specific volume) is in ft 3 / lb
~p (lbf/'
Kp0 2
pQ2
~p (bar) = 223Cv
where pis in tonnes/m 3
Q is in l/ min
59 5
Q (US galjmin) = 19 6 5 d 2
ft5:P
VI<P
Q (Imperial galjmin) -
Q (lb/h) -
{EP
VKP
16.375d 2 ~
= 19 7 d 2
where
236d 2
(fh
VI<
ft5:P
VI<P
dis in inches
HL is in ft
~p is in lbf/ in 2
pis in lb/ ft 3
197.6pd2 ~
= 6.06 d 2
d2 ~
fM5
VT<P
where dis in mm
HLis in m
~pis in bar
pis in tonnes/ m 3
None or these formulae is strictly valid for predicting valve performance with
viscous fluids or compressible fluids (i.e. air or gases).
Losses in bends
Losses in bends are difficult to evaluate other than on purely empirical lines.
Attempts to rationalise resistance coefficients in terms of relative radius (ratio
of bend radius to internal pipe diameter) are generally unsuccessful, but
values are fairly well established for standard bends, including mitre bends.
59 6
Alternative data are presented in terms of equivalent length or L/0 (see Tables
3 and 4 and Figure 1).
Contractions and enlargements
2Pg
+ - p- = a
constant
PI -
p2
p ( 2
2g v2 -
v 2)
1
This form of equation also shows that a steadily contracting section followed
by a widening section can be used as a principle for flow velocity measurement
by measuring the difference in pressure at two extreme sections, as in the
venturi (Figure 2). If X expresses the ratio A 2 /A 1 it follows that the volume of
flow is the same at both sections that V1 = X x V2 . Hence, rearranging the
equation above and rewriting (P 1 -P 2 ) as ~P:
Vl= -
2g~P
x2
X --~
(1- x 2 )
Figure 2.
59 7
This is the basic formula for the theoretical design of a venturi velocity
meter. In practice. the formula is modified by the introduction of a calibration
coefficient to take into account frictional losses, etc., neglected in the Bernoulli
equation.
Sudden enlargements (Figure 3)
Again , flow conditions can be analysed from first principles, although for
engineering calculations it is only necessary to determine the velocity head
loss from the corresponding resistance coefficient K 1 . This can be determined
as:
In this case, resistance coefficient is one half that for a sudden enlargement,
viz:
or
Figure].
59 8
Figure 4.
Enlargement/contraction coefficients
e ~ 4 5o
Ce
= 2. 6 sin ~
e < 4 5o
. e
Cc = 1. 6 s m 2
(1 - {32)2
KJ =
f34
2.6 sin~ (l - {3 2 ) 2
K3
f34
Contraction
J~ (1 -
fJ 2 )
K3 = ------'----,---0.5 sin
[34
0.8sin~(l- {3 2 )
K 3 = - ---=
{3-4 - - -
599
25
so
10
12
14
16
18
20
24
6
4
1
8
6
2
11
7
2
14
9
16
12
20
15
36
25
8
42
29
10
l2
55
46
15
65
31
22
7
48
34
26
18
6
tl
10
12
14
16
18
20
26
75 100 125
2
5
52
20
2.0
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.35
0.15
0.25
0.12
0.20
0.10
0.45
0.45
0.4
Inlet:
Abrupt
Gradual
Projecting tube
Outlet: Abrupt
Gradual
0.8
0.3
0.2
0.9
0.15
0.45
0.45
0.7
Typical value
0.5
Not less than 0.5
1.0
l.O
Not less than 0.12
600
FigureS .
used in sequence to reduce pressure in gradual steps, thus minimising the risk
of cavitation occurring.
Simple analysis is restricted to streamlined flow, the flow p~ttern being of
the form shown in Figure 5. The streamlines converge on approaching the
orifice and continue to converge after passing through the orifice, reaching a
minimum cross-sectional area, known as the vena contracta, downstream of
the orifice before diverging again. For small circular orifices. the downstream
position of the vena contracta is of the order of half the diameter of the orifice.
At the vena contracta, all the streamlines are perpendicular to the plane of the
orifice.
602
Table 1. Maximum permissible stress for tube calculations (Minimum UTS divided by 3)
Pmax
Material
Condition
As drawn
Drawn and polished*
As drawn
Annealed
Half-hard
Hard
As drawn
Annealed
Half-hard
Hard
Annealed
Precipitation hardened
20-ton steel
Stainless (304) steel
Tungum
bar
lbf/in 2
1280
2000
1000
2350
2800
3500
1000
480
630
800
1550
1550
18.300
28.000
15.000
3 3.300
40.000
50.000
15.000
68001
9ooot
uoo
Titanium llS/125
Titanium 150/160
2100
u.Joot
22.000
22.000
18.500
30.000
*Cylinder tubes.
tup to 65.5C (150P) only.
formula which can be applied in the case ofthick-waUed tubes and homogeneous
metal pipes is:
Smax = P
RT
R~ _ RT X
(R~
RT + 1
D
(JsS-P+ P- 1)
2
=D
2
(J
3S + P _ 1 )
3S- 4P
603
the ultimate tensile strength of the material. This is not necessarily the
invariable rule, as welded tubes can have the same working strength
as drawn tubes. Corrections may be applied to tubes with welded
connections on a similar basis, however.
(ii) In the case of cast tubes, a nominal (and substantially lower) value
may be adopted for Pmax Cast tubes are associated with older hydraulic
systems and Large pipe sizes, where pressure rating is established on
empirical lines. permitting fairly large tolerances in wall thicknesses.
(iii) In the case of copper pipes and tubes intended for brazed or soldered
connections, the standard thin-walled formula is de-rated:
Pw
2Smaxt
D- 0.8t
Pw
(v)
2Smax(t- C)
D - 0. 8 (t - C)
where Cis taken as equal to the depth of thread cut, with a minimum
value of 1.2 5 mm (0.05 in).
In the case of plastic tubes, an allowance is made for the higher elastic
moduli of such materials, when a suitable formula is:
Pw
2Smax t
D- t
Two British Standards are applicable for the calculation of pipe-wall thickness:
BS 806: 1975
BS 3 3 51: 19 71
Design to BS 806
Minimum pipe-wall thickness where the outside diameter (D) is used as a basis
for calculation .
604
Notes -200
to
+50
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
425
450
(N/ rrun 1 )
BS3601HFS.
CDS. steel22
125.5
114.5
103.9
99.3
94.5
89.7
8'i.O
75 .0
fiS.7
56.9
BS3fi01HFS.
CDS. steel 2 7
154.5
141.3
127.5
121.7
114.2
110.0
104.0
87.7
75 .8
fi2 .0
APlSLGradeA.
seamless: steels
open hearth,
electric furnace
and basic
oxygen
122.5
111.9
101.3
95.8
91.3
86.5
82.0
7L1
64.8
55.8
APJSLGrndeB.
seamless: submerged arc.
spiral weld:
steels open
hearth. electric
furnace and
basic oxygen
153.0
139.8
126.5
119.0
113.8
108.5
102.5
89.3
7'i .5
62.0
BS 3602 CDS.
HFSandEHW.
steel 25
130.0
125.5
120.6
11 7.3
111.5
96.5
88.9
78.2
6 7. 9
5 7.7
BS 1602 CDS.
HfSand ERW.
steel 27
154.5
143.0
132.0
12 7.0
11':1.0
1J 0.0
104.2
89. 7
75 .9
62 .3
BS 3fi02 EfW
Grade 28 13
2. 3
123.5
116.5
109.6
104.0
95 .2
90.4
8 7.0
n.s
62 .0
50 .3
BS 3603 HFS.
CDS. steel
27 LT-30
4.5
1 54. 5
143.3
132.0
126.5
119.0
BS 3fi03 HFS.
CDS. steel
27 LT-50
4. 5
154.5
143.3
132.0
126.5
119.0
BS 3603 HfS.
CDS.stcel
503 LT-1 00
4. 5
1 59.0
14 7. 8
13 5.3
1 29.3
12 1.9
166.5
144.2
144.0
139.0
l24.5
114.0
109.5
104.()
101.5
':n\.5
BS 3604 620
HFS. CDS.
steel2 7
100.0
HFS. CDS.
steel 2 7
'Inte rmediate values may be obtained by linea r interpolfltion.
(1) Limited application (see Section 3 of BS 3351).
(2) The design stress values for pipe with a longit udinal or spiral weld seam inrorporflk weld-joint factors as follows:
API 5L submerged arc welded: 1.0: API SLS Grade B: 1.0: BS 3602 ERW with Appendix A: 1.0: BS 3602 EFW: 0.8.
(3) The values for BS 3602 EFWare based on material to BS 1501.151 or 161. Grade 2813 (certified or hot-tested).
Por temperatures over 400C. 161 material should be used.
(4) The BS 3603 pipes listed are impact-tested <Jnd intended for use in low-temperature service.
(5) Up to 250cc to cover 'steaming out' find flexibility Cfllculations.
(6) The llgures in parentheses illongside the grades are equivalent AlSI types. There is no AlSI equivalent of 845T
605
475
500
525
550
575
600
47.5
35.8
48.6
35.8
39.3
24.8
92.3
Sl.O
62.8
43.8
28.9
17.2
92 .8
81.2
64.3
49.3
34.2
14.4
650
675
700
725
750
775
800
825
606
Table 2. Continued
Values ofS for metal temperatures in C not. exceeding
Material
Notes
-200
to
50
100
150
200
2 50
(N/ mm 2 )
300
3 50
400
425
450
144.5
134.2
129.6
125.0
120.5
115.5
111.0
106.0
103.8
101.0
BS3604622
HFS.CDS.
steel 31
164.0
164.0
164.0
164.0
156.S
150.5
144.0
1 37.2
134.0
130.2
BS 3604 660
172.0
172 .0
167.0
164.0
156.5
150. 5
144.0
137.2
134.0
130.2
137.0
131.0
125.5
ll9.5
114.0
108.5
103.0
97.0
92.8
86.5
126.0
113.5
103.5
95.0
R7.5
81.9
76.3
7 l. 7
(>13.'J
66.8
106.8
102 .8
90.3
76.5
68.2
h3.3
60.0
5 7 .2
55 .8
129.3
127.5
117.0
lOlLS
105.5
102.8
102.0
101 .3
100. 5
99.0
129.3
128.2
123.5
120.6
118. 7
118.0
11 7. 5
1 16.5
11 5.5
1 14.0
107.5
106.2
100.0
83.4
79.3
74.3
66.9
62 3
60.7
58.6
+50
BS 3604 622
HFS. CDS.
steel 2 7
CDS. HFS
BS 3604 625
HFS
BS 3605
Grade 801
(304 )
BS 3605
Grade 811
(304H)
BS 3605
Grade 80 l L
(304 L)
BS 3605
Grade 822T
(321)
BS 3605
Grade 832T
(321H)
BS 3605
Grade845
(316)and
Grade 845T
and
Grade 846
(3J 7)
BS 3605
Grade 8451
(316L)
607
475
500
525
550
575
600
92.5
ll2 .8
63.8
47.5
36.2
26.8
107.5
82 .8
63.8
47.5
36.2
26.8
127.5
115.6
79.9
53.7
36.9
81.0
72.4
59.0
43.8
31.3
21.1
64.8
63.3
61.3
59.7
55 .8
48.0
625
(N / mm 2 )
()50
675
700
725
750
775
800
825
37.6
30.7
22.4
17.6
13.4
10.3
7.9
6.2
4.5
-- - ---------------------------------------------------------------97 .5
111.5
96.0
106.0
94.0
<J9.3
91.7
88.5
75.8
51.3
34.5
25.5
19.6
15.2
11.8
9.3
7.6
6.5
90.3
79.3
67.6
56.2
46.6
36.8
28 .3
22.0
17.6
14.4
11.8
9.6
608
Pd
mm- 2fe- P
t.
~ --
where tmin
P
D
d
f
e
e
e
=
=
=
=
-
The value of tmin is the minimum thickness for straight pipes and provision
shall be made for any minus tolerance. Manufacturing considerations may
make it necessary for pipes thicker than this minimum to be used .
PD
t=---
20S
where t
--
--
--
--
+P
Although smooth bends are more common, mitred bends are widely used in
industry. Typical applica tions include large-diameter pipelines or ducting in
chemical complexes, de-salination plants and nuclear power stations, where
the manufacture of smooth bends may be either impra ctica l or uneconomical.
To sa tisfy requirements within the high-pressure pipeline industry in the
UK, the BSI has produced recommendations on the design and application of
gusseted or mitred bends. This is published in Amendment No . AMD 3 545 to
609
BS 5500: 1982
ANSI/ASME
Power piping
8.31.1:1980
ASME 111: 19 8 3 Boiler and pressure vessel code: nuclear power plant
components.
Finite element analysis methods have been used to compare the results
obtained from the different codes with experimental results, and these have
been published by the Institution ofMechanical Engineers in the United Kingdom.
See also standards EN 545, EN598 and ISO 25321 as well as British Standard
Code of Practice for Pipelines 8010 Section 2 .1.
Buried Pipes
In designing rigid buried pipelines. the determination of the external load due
to backfill and surface loadings is conventionally based on the methods and
formulae established by Marston and Spangler. These involve lengthy and
tedious calculations but are readily adapted to CAD (computer-aided design).
For general calculation, simplified tables are available, notably those by
Young and Smith (Building Research Station Report. 1970), corresponding to
normal practice with concrete pipes and incorporating corrections for differences
in external diameter. The latter can be a significant feature in the case of
cement pipes because of the smaller external diameter reducing the load
which it has to carry. Further simplified tables have been computed on this
basis.
Rigid metal pipes (e.g. cast iron) and pipes in flexible materials (e.g.
reinforced glass fibre) need somewhat different treatment. The former can be
laid at any depth with 7 5 to 600 mm ( 3 to 24 in) of cover under buildings; and
with not less than 300 mm ( 12 in) under roads and yards subject to normal
usage. Elsewhere in good ground. such pipes will only need extra protection
where subject to special loadings or abuse. In the latter case, design is
usually based on traditional empirical data; recommendations based on
experience or derived from experimental data evaluating specific structural
protection requirements. \tVith flexible pipe materials, due allowance must be
given to the diametrical deflection produced by soil load. e.g. using Spangler's
formula.
Cement-buried pipelines
The following covers the use of simplified tables for the design of cement-buried
pipelines. Metric units are employed throughout, consistent with current
British and European practice. General assumptions are:
(i) Backfill density of2000 kg/m 3 (125lbf/ft 3 )
(ii) Frictional values KJJ. between 0.13 and 0.19
(iii) rsctP values of 0.5 and 0. 7 as indicated.
Buried Pipes
611
1 mm - 0.0394 in
1m 2 - 10.76ft2
1 kg - 2.20461b
1m - 3.2008 ft
1 kg/ m 3
1N
1 N/mm 2
1 kN/m
= 0.0624lbf/ ft 3
= 0.2248lbf
= 1 MPa = 145 lbf/in 2
- 68.52lb/ft
Notation
Be
Be~
Fm
Fs
H
Y
KJ.L
rsdp
\!1/e
WT
Tables 1-3 are based on assumptions that will be safe for a wide range of site
conditions. The equivalent water loads are included in these tables. By
separating the concentrated surcharge loads, Table 4 enables the designer to
vary the calculation of the backfill load to suit individual circumstances, but
here the water load must be added from Table 5 for pipes of 600 mm and over.
Pipes laid under verges should be designed for the full-vehicle loads. Buried
pipes must not be exposed to excessive loads from heavy equipment during
construction. Choice of the appropriate loading category for a given location
is a matter for the engineer's judgement, with due regard to possible future
changes. The tables are not appropriate for flexible pipes (pitch fibre, plastics,
steel. etc.), nor for rigid pipes supported on piles.
Design method
For safe design, the minimum ultimate crush load (Wr) which the pipe is designed
to withstand must be greater than or equal to the computed external load (We
multiplied by a factor of safety of 1 .2 5 and divided by the bedding factor Fm.
1.2 SWe
WT > - - -
Fm
612
'"'i/IJIS<
""".....,.,..,IWI/;~ -
Bd
::::::_------:::__ -=::::....-
---------------------------
Od
Od
1-0WM~~~=======~~-
. '10"'-'
II
2
1-
l_'4
JOOmm
mm
--
\050Bc\
mon
Class C Bedding Factor = 1.5
Bedding class
A (RCl
A (Plain)
B
[l
c
[)
F,,
3.4
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
l.l
Buried Pipes
613
100
150
175
200
225
250
300
375
450
525
600
675
750
825
900
975
1050
125
182
208
232
260
288
339
423
504
587
671
756
837
921
1007
1075
1157
0.60
O.oO
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.75
1.00
1.05
1.15
1.20
1.35
1.45
1.50
1.60
1.85
1.90
H=
0.9
1432
2047
2328
2587
2888
3190
3738
4585
5443
6320
7415
8372
9282
10.230
11.220
12.000
12.950
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.4
1352
1326 1332
1408
1946 1913
1926
2040
2216
2181
2197
2328
2465
2428
2446 2593
2756
2715
2737
2903
3046
3003
3028
3212
3574
3526
3556
3754
4368 4292
4547
4312
5190
5101
5127
5591
6031
5930
5901
6291
7089
6977
7012
7273
8009
7882
7924
8352
8883
8745
8793
9082
9796
9646
9650
9826
10.747 10.526 10.424 10.586
11.498 11.324 11.387 12.000
12.405 12.220 12 .290 12.750
3.0
4.6
6.1
7.6
1535
2228
2543
2834
3174
3288
3841
4951
5894
6672
7546
8743
9479
10.223
11.013
12.613
13.380
2003
2743
2784
3342
3385
3429
4058
5930
6666
7416
8367
9819
10.676
11.507
12.371
14.574
15.365
2202
2829
2856
3500
3528
3556
4257
6451
7272
8126
9190
10.935
11.876
12.831
13.907
16.545
17.520
2212
2881
2899
3565
3585
3604
4369
6797
7733
8680
9848
11.797
12.913
14.041
15.190
18.307
19.450
3.0
4.6
(mm)
100
150
175
200
225
250
300
375
450
525
f>OO
675
750
825
900
975
1050
125
182
208
232
260
288
339
423
504
587
671
756
837
921
1007
1075
1157
Assumed
trench
width
(m)
0~60
0.60
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.75
1.00
1.05
1.15
1.20
1.35
1.45
1.50
1.60
1.85
1.90
H=
0.9
1.2
1.5
1335
1850
2085
2302
2554
2806
3265
3966
4681
5412
6360
7166
7934
8737
9576
10.236
11.037
1122
1585
1796
1991
2217
2444
2816
3458
4095
4745
5612
6837
7026
7746
8502
9097
9818
1053
1503
1708
1897
2117
2337
2737
3301
3915
4544
5388
6088
6756
7455
8128
8762
9460
1.8
2.4
6.1
7.6
1052 1152
1316
1863
2105
2144
1512 1667
1909
2540
2690
2782
1721 1901
2180
2552
2697
2785
1914 2117
2429
3083
3324
3440
2139 2369
2719
3096
3331
3445
2364 2621
2784
3109
3338
3449
2772 3056
3248
3683
4002
4188
3330 3677
4213
5462
6134
6572
3955 4552
5014
6110
6895
7465
4593 5082
5647
6768
7687
8370
5447 5890
6375
7628
8689
9493
6158 6793
7424
8987 10.370 11.400
6836 7357
8019
9755 11.250 12.470
7495 7927
8617 10.494 12.150 13.550
8067 8510
9257 11.264 13.160 14.660
8870 9782 10.738 13,36f> 15.750 17.740
9579 10.352 11,364 14.094 16.660 18.84 0
614
Select the table appropriate to the type of surface loading. From the pipe
diameter and the cover depth, the external load is read off directly. Use the given
bedding factor to calculate the minimum value ofWr, and find the class of pipe
required from Table 4. If a pipe of sufficient strength is not available a better
class of bedding may be specified.
In general. the cover depth will vary along the main, andl:he pipe strength
and bedding class must be selected to meet the maximum cover-depth condition.
With pipelines having considerable variation in cover depths, it may be worth
specifying different classes of pipe and/or bedding for different sections of the
main. Alternatively, the tables may be used to find the limits of permissible
cover depths for the different pipe and bedding classes available.
Method of use for Table 4
Where the trench conditions and backfill density deviate from the norm.
Table 4 may be used to obtain the most economical design.
(mm)
Assumed
treoch
width
(m)
100
150
175
200
225
250
300
375
450
525
600
67.5
750
825
900
975
1050
125
182
208
232
260
288
339
423
504
587
671
756
837
921
1007
1075
1157
0.60
0.60
0.70
0.70
0.70
0.75
1.00
1.05
1.1.5
1.20
1.35
1.45
1.50
1.60
1.85
1.90
Outside
diameter
\11,1c
H=
0.9
1.2
792
1150
1313
1463
1638
1813
2131
2578
306(1
3564
4276
4843
.5384
5950
6547
7211 701()
7795 7586
809
1174
1341
1494
1673
1852
2176
2655
3157
3670
4397
4979
5535
6117
6729
1.5
1.8
825
1198
1368
1525
1707
1889
2221
2671
3177
3693
4423
5009
5567
6152
6709
7252
7839
886
l288
1470
1639
1835
2031
2388
2859
3401
3954
4722
5345
5940
6513
6998
7731
8.355
2.4
3.0
1054 12 53
1532 1821
1750 2080
1951 2319
2185 2598
2418 2650
2820 3090
3389 4021
4212 4786
4689 5384
5442 6076
6292 7089
h803 7649
7320 8210
7848 8814
9077 10.266
9605 10.856
4.6
6.1
7.6
183 7
2502
2509
3035
3043
3051
3nl5
5.3/R
nOll
6654
7497
8841
9593
10.316
11.070
13.159
13.872
2091
2670
2674
3297
3302
3306
3964
n087
6840
7623
8616
10.290
11.163
12.046
13.049
15.630
16.53 3
2769
2771
3424
3427
3429
4164
6543
7431
8329
9448
1l.34n
12.414
13.492
14.591
17.668
18.766
2133
f3uried Pipes
615
Knowing the pipe diameter and cover depth, obtain the vehicle
load and the wide-trench load.
Knowing the trench width, read off also the narrow-trench load.
Adopt the lesser of the two backfill loads.
If the soil density y differs from 2000 kg/m 3 (125lb/ ft 3 ), correct
the backfill load by y/ 2000 ( yj 12 5).
Add the backfill. vehicle loads and equivalent water load for pipes
over 600 mm to obtain We
With We determined, the class of pipe and bedding required may be worked
out as in Method of use for Tables 1-3 above.
Example
Determine the strength classes and bedding required through a length of 600
mm nominal diameter asbestos-cement pipeline laid under fields at cover
depth ranging from 1.2 to 6.4 m (narrow-trench conditions).
Consider the use of Class B (F m = 1. 9) bedding or, if ground conditions permit,
a Class D (Fm = 1.1) bedding. The maximum permissible external load can
now be found by using the equation shown under Design method:
.
I.e.
We~
or We~
1.1 x Wr
1.
25
1.9 x Wr
1.
25
= 0 .88Wr
= l.52Wr
The values ofWr for the different classes of pipe can be found in Table 4 .
Wr for 600 mm diameter Class L pipes= 4300 kgf/ m.
Wr for 600 mm diameter Class M pipes= 5800 kgf/m .
The permissible depths of cover can now be found from Table 4.
Table 4A.
W,. (kgf/m)
Class
L
---
Fm=l.l
Fm = 1.9
Fm=l.l
Frn =l.9
3784
5104
6536
8816
0.6- 2.1
0.6-3.7
0.6- 7.0
A 600 mm Class L pipe, on a Class B bed, can be laid from 0.6 to 3.4 m; from
3.4 to 6.4 m, a Class M pipe laid on a Class B bed would be needed.
If ground conditions permit, a 600 mm Class M pipe can be flat bedded from
0.6 to 2.1 m, and laid on a Class B bed from 2.1 to 6.4 m.
616
150
175
200
225
250
300
37'5
450
525
600
675
750
Outside Trench
diameter width
Bd
Be
(m}
(mm)
125
182
208
232
260
288
339
423
504
587
671
756
837
Type
of
load
Narrow
Wide(0.7)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
0.60 Narrow
Wide(0.7l
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
0.60 Narrow
Wide(0.7)
Main road
Light road
fields. etc.
0.70 Narrow
Wlde{0.7)
Maio rod
Light road
Fields. etc.
0.70 Narrow
Wide(0.7)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
0.70 Narrow
Wide(0.7)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
0.75 Narrow
Wide{0.7)
Main road
Llgbt road
Fields. etc.
1.00 Narrow
Wide(0.5)
Maio road
Light road
l'ields. etc.
1.05 Narrow
Wide(0.5)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
1.15 Narrow
Widc(0.5)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
1.20 Narrow
Wide(0. 5)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
1.35 Narrow
\>Vide !0. 5)
Main road
Light road
Fields. etc.
1.4 5 Narrow
Wide(0.5)
Main road
Light road
fields. etc.
Tow I design load We in kilograms pe( metre of pipe length for covt'r depth 1-1 in met(CS
H=
0.6
0.9
1.2
15
1.8
2.1
2.4
2.7
3 .0
3.4
233
350
1083
985
459
468
887
656
324
585
743
468
239
703
631
350
183
1173
364
144
79
680
1268
907
470
1370
851
1065
653
347
1550
1022
906
491
265
938
471
215
116
1840
1364
677
303
11iH
1056
413
174
95
508
154l
1343
666
821
543
271
144
1710
1193
780
381
209
1960
1536
59 3
246
1..17
2080
1707
523
203
114
1330
311
ll4
63
2J 70
1935
446
lli 1
91
580
1750
1506
761
776
1442
1021
537
1370
971
1211
737
397
1550
1167
1031
555
303
1710
1363
888
431
238
1840 1960
1559 ' 1754
771
675
343
279
19 1
157
2080
1950
595
231
130
2170
2211
508
646
1942
1656
848
864
1603
1127
599
1590
!083
134 7
815
442
1810
1301
1147
614
338
2010
1519
987
478
265
2190
1737
858
381
213
2340
1956
751
309
174
2470
2174
662
256
]45
2600
2465
564
203
116
723
2167
1832
950
968
1790
1251
671
1590
1212
1505
906
495
1810
1457
1282
683
378
2010
1701
1104
2190
1946
959
424
239
2340
1191
840
345
195
2470
2435
740
285
162
2600
2761
632
226
130
799
2392
2008
1052
1070
1977
1374
743
1590
1341
161>3
997
548
1810
1612
1417
752
419
2010
1883
1220
586
329
2190
2154
2340
2425
n8
380
216
2600
3058
699
249
14 3
938
2801
2328
1238
1257
2319
1559
873
2060
1895
1663
878
492
l4S9
2881
1969
1089
2300
2214
1432
6R4
387
3230
2624
1781
847
482
2510
2533
1244
546
310
l570
3002
1547
676
387
3030
3596
820
292
168
1111
3476
2855
1544
1810
1576
1952
1162
645
2480
1867
2426
1434
804
2470
2690
8 18
3 14
180
2880
3171
961
368
21 I
4150
3758
1195
456
263
4420
4262
1020
362
210
1318
4126
3363
1839
.l769
3423
2327
1297
27 JO
2220
2884
1697
957
3540
3120
2118
1003
574
3911)
3751
1840
801
461
3870
3380
13 55
551
316
4260
4022
1611
653
377
4580
4473
1421
541
313
48RO
5073
1213
429
249
1529
4792
3883
2 J 41
2054
3979
2692
1510
2940
2579
3353
1966
llJ4
3420
3104
2859
1490
851
3860
3628
2463
668
4260
4153
2140
930
536
4650
4678
1874
758
438
5020
5203
1652
627
364
5350
5902
1410
498
290
1740
'5467
4410
2447
2340
4540
3063
1726
3170
2940
3827
223H
1273
4180
4 140
2812
1326
763
4620
4740
2443
1060
612
2629
5110
3438
1944
3630
3304
4308
2514
1434
4800
4956
3165
1490
859
5332
2750
I 191
690
5050
5340
2139
864
501
S850
6008
2408
971
5450
5940
J88h
71':>
416
1953
6149
4943
2757
3690
3540
3264
1698
972
4240
3980
3674
1908
1095
5830
6740
1610
568
332
6800
7585
1812
639
2901
5652
3795
2152
3850
3650
4765
2776
1587
4500
4398
4065
2108
1212
5120
5146
3501
1647
9'il
689
337
1002
384
1145
428
1276
478
1430
529
1584
619
1863
733
2324
868
2769
1004
3224
1141
3685
1277
4151
1405
4596
2153
6799
5451
3052
2870
2246
201i8
1086
6 14
H40
2(,7()
2459
1286
731
532
297
1164
1060
467
264
~350
5710
5895
W42
1317
7nl
2700
28 52
1089
445
254
(,~50
5b4
6hS4
2123
804
4(,9
&270
6642
2664
1073
624
6800
739 1
2.349
889
519
183
104
3 74
7280
8389
2005
706
413
Buried Pipes
617
Total design load W c in kilogn1ms per metre or pipe length for cover depth H in metres
H=
3. 7
4.0
4.3
4.6
4.9
5.2
5.5
5.8
6.1
6.4
6.7
7.0
7.3
7.6
1448
278
97
54
1566
250
83
47
I 1)83
226
72
41
1801
205
63
3h
1918
2154
156
44
25
2271
143
39
23
2389
1 32
35
21
2506
122
32
2624
113
29
32
2036
170
49
28
19
17
2742
105
27
16
2977
92
22
13
2260
2 107
399
137
78
2340
2278
359
118
67
2390
2449
324
102
59
2450
2620
293
90
52
2500
279 1
267
79
46
2540
2963
244
70
41
2580
2620
3305
206
56
33
2640
3476
189
50
30
2660
3648
I 75
46
27
2690
3819
162
41
24
2710
3':190
151
38
22
2859
98
24
14
2730
4 161
140
35
20
2450
2994
334
102
59
2970
3338
372
I I3
65
2500
3189
104
52
2540
1385
278
80
46
2580
3581
254
71
41
2620
3776
234
64
37
2640
3972
216
57
34
2660
4168
199
52
3l
2690
4364
185
47
28
2710
4559
I 71
43
25
2730
4755
160
39
23
2750
4951
149
36
21
3040
355(,
338
100
58
3100
3775
309
88
52
3160
3993
283
79
46
3210
4211
260
71
41
3260
4430
240
64
37
noo
3330
4866
205
52
31
3360
5084
191
48
28
3390
4648
221
58
34
5303
177
44
26
3400
5521
165
40
24
2970
3740
415
126
73
2l)70
4141
459
139
81
3040
3985
378
111
65
3100
4229
345
99
58
3100
4583
381
JOY
3160
4474
316
88
52
3210
4718
290
79
46
32 [()
5225
321
87
51
3260
4963
268
71
42
3300
5208
247
6':1
.38
3330
5452
229
58
35
3360
'i697
213
53
32
3390
5942
196
49
29
3400
6186
185
45
27
3260
5496
296
78
46
3300
5767
273
71
42
3330
6038
253
64
311
3360
6309
235
59
35
3390
6580
219
54
32
3400
6851
204
49
29
3950
6786
321
S3
49
4010
7105
297
75
45
4050
7424
276
69
41.
4090
7743
257
63
38
6140
8044
398
103
61
6250
8422
369
94
56
6340
8801
343
85
51
6440
9179
319
78
47
4130
8061
239
58
34
6500
9575
297
2260
2407
4 54
156
89
2340
2602
408
134
77
2390
279/l
369
116
67
27 10
2683
505
173
99
2810
2902
454
14 9
86
2900
3120
410
129
75
2710
3006
565
193
1I 1
2810
32 51
508
166
96
2900
2710
l328
624
21.3
123
2810
3'i99
'i61
18.3
!Of>
3180
3915
7.l3
249
144
3300
4234
658
4fi50
4641
34'))
4 ~~~
144
83
2900
3879
506
159
U!6
sn
'JO
3040
4412
418
123
3134
224
62
36
72
64
3160
4954
349
97
57
3700
5510
447
127
7'i
3780
5829
410
114
67
3830
6148
376
102
60
3910
6467
347
95
3610
5191
490
144
84
5080
5397
739
231
135
5260
5775
fi70
202
Ill:!
5440
61H
b09
178
105
'i600
fi532
5750
6910
509
6020
7666
5650
(>42 5
871l
274
160
5870
6876
796
240
141
6080
7326
724
211
124
6270
7777
661
188
1I 1
83
644()
8228
605
167
99
5900
7288
468
126
75
366
214
62.30
74'77
1021
318
187
6490
8002
926
278
164
6720
8256
842
246
145
f>950
9051
768
218
129
7150
9576
704
194
115
6190
7340
Hl9
485
284
6500
7940
1292
417
245
6820
RS 39
l16f>
363
213
7100
9139
1()<; 7
118
11!7
7230
826 1
J(i20
545
319
7630
8937
14 ~s
4hY
276
7750
9137
1792
603
35.3
8190
9885
lli09
519
305
92
3520
4872
'>38
163
124
3420
4553
594
186
108
30S
179
4870
5019
819
26(,
155
5160
5524
1084
5410
5'J75
974
3(,(,
315
213
S660
6427
1260
425
248
184
912
214
59'i0
6952
I 132
556
158
93
7390
7630
97l9 I 0.33l)
961
877
280
248
147
165
8720
9040
8010 8360
9613 10.289 10.965 I 1. 540
9S7
I 313
II S9
1082
408
357
3I 5
279
2I1
240
186
165
8620
9030
9400
9760
10.634 I J. 38 2 12.130 12.R79
1452
11 97
l316
1092
415
395
348
309
20f>
266
233
183
141
92
54
431
114
67
2750
4333
131
32
19
72
43
6610
8678
6760
6900
7040
7150
7260
7380
9579 10.030 10.480 10.931 11.382
9129
556
407
379
353
473
512
438
135
122
101
85
111
150
93
73
66
60
51
89
80
55
7340
7530
7700
7850
IWOO
8140
8270
10,101 10.626 11.150 U.675 12.200 12.725 13.250
647
596
550
4 73
440
410
510
I 74
15 7
142
129
99
118
108
103
85
64
93
77
59
70
7X60 8090
9020
9170
1>300
8500
8680
8870
10.939 11.539 12. I 39 12.739 13.339 1 3.938 14.538 15.138
738
628
582
540
502
468
803
680
222
179
162
147
134
123
113
199
13)
1I8
106
96
88
80
73
68
9340
9640
9900 10.200 10.400 10.600 10.800 11.000
12.316 12.992 13.668 14.344 15.020 15.696 16.3 72 17.048
904
707
654
565
527
765
831
607
202
249
224
182
166
151
138
127
148
13 3
120
109
99
90
83
76
10.100 10.400 10.700 11.000 11.300 11.500 11.800 12.000
l3.f>27 14.375 1 'i.J 24 15.872 16.620 17.369 18.1 17 18.865
919
782
1000
846
724
672
625
583
276
247
223
202
141
183
167
153
16 3
14 7
120
91
133
109
100
84
618
Table
s.
Nominal diameter
(mm)
Equivalent load
(kgf/m)
210
600
270
675
750
825
330
400
490
560
650
900
975
1050
when a pipe is running full. its contents are equivalent to an external load of 75 1Yo of the weight of
water in the pipe.
'
The following are guidelines for calculations involving buried flexible pipes.
Notation
Symbol
Definition
Deflection lag factor
Mean diameter of pipe
Reduction in vertical diameter
Elastic modulus for soil as determined at
overburden pressure in tri-axial test
Stiffness factor for pipe
Sub grade modulus
Bending strain
Tensile strain
Height of cover above pipe spring line
Deflection coefiicient dependent upon
bedding angle
Meyerhof's constant for granular
materials (taken as 1.63 N/mm 2 j m depth)
Total external pressure on pipe
External pressure on pipe used in buckling
strength calculations
External pressure on pipe used in
deflection calculations
Critical buckling pressure
External pressure on pipe due to backfill
Internal pressure
External pressure on pipe due to
surcharge loading
Unit
mm
mm
2
N/mm
N/m 2
2
N/ mm /mm
N/mm2
N/ mm
N/mm 2
N/mm 2
N/mm
619
Buried Pipes
Loads
Traffic loads (P1)
Traffic loading may be taken rrom the appropriate charts, e.g. as given in NBS
Special Report No. 3 7.
Nominal
diameter
Class L
ClassM
Class H
Minimum ultimate
crushing load
Minimum ultimate
crushing load
(W.r)
Minimum ultimate
crushing load
(WT)
kN/m
mm
kfg/ m
kN/ m
(WT)
kfg/ m
kN/m
kfg/ m
3570
3940
4460
4840
5800
6550
7000
7600
8930
9670
10.120
37.95
3 7.95
37.95
37.95
37.95
37.95
46.68
52.56
58.35
65.70
77.47
86.10
91.88
100.71
107.87
116. 70
124.05
3870
3870
3870
3870
3870
3870
4760
5360
5950
6700
7900
8780
9370
10.270
11.000
11.900
12.650
~--
100
150
175
200
225
250
300
375
450
525
600
6 75
750
825
900
975
1050
37.95
42.16
48.05
51.00
55.40
58.35
62.76
' 6 5. 70
35.00
38.63
43.73
47.46
56.87
64.23
68.64
74.53
85.57
94.82
99.24
3870
4300
4900
5200
5650
59.50
6400
6700
200
225
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
7'i0
(rnm )
Bedding
angle
lr 1 (mm)
a.
t100
90
25
50
120
f--- - -- - 100
- --
---7 f - -- - -
50 - - - - - - - +
100
200
~
~
7 5 -----+
150 -----+
~ 250 - - - - - - t
620
Normally use the full weight of the soil above the crown of the pipe. For
buckling resistance, where ground-water level is above the pipe, ma1<e allowance
for buoyancy and add water pressure at crown (at invert if pipe can be empty).
Vacuum (P)
Include this if there is a possibility of full or partial vacuum inside the pipe.
Internal pressure (p)
Spangler's formula for the deflection of flexible pipes can be written thus:
~_ D
d-
K x
8 El
106 x d 3
Pod
+ 90.031 e.d.
Buried Pipes
El
d3 -
621
d
= ksH x 1.7
. if backfill is saturate granular material
2 7
d-
Es
62 2
Buckling strength
Based on Meyerhof and Baikie. the critical buckling pressure on a buried pipe
(P c) is given by the following equation:
El
1
Es x d3 x 10n
Pc = 4.6
p ob
FS
4. 6 Es
El
d3
1
X
Cf
1 on
'
El
d3
Bursting strength
Bending strain 6
If the pipe deformed a s a n eclipse, the strain in the pipe w a ll due to bendin g
would be :
38 t
Eb = - X d d
where t = thickness of pipe wall.
Buried Pipes
62 3
Tests by Molin showed that bedding irregularities caused deviations from this
theoretical value which were dependent upon pipe stiffness, i.e.:
where 3 ~ d ~ 6: d tends towards 3 for stiffer pipes which are less affected
by bedding irregularities and hence, for a particular deflection, are subject to
correspondingly lower levels of bending strain .
In non-pressure pipes, bending strain should be limited to 0.3 5%. For
pressure pipes, bending strain is generally limited to 0 .2%.
Circumferential tensile strain E1
The preparation of the trench bottom to give an even bedding for the barrel of
the pipe, and proper alignment of pipes, is of primary importance. In rocky
ground the trench should be extended to at least 100 mm deeper than
required and then made up to the required level by introduction of well rammed
compactible material of a type which will not be washed away; alternatively,
the pipe may be embedded in a layer of freshly mixed concrete. The trench
should not normally be opened up more than a few pipe lengths ahead of the
point where laying is taking place.
Width of trench
The trench width will depend to some extent on the ground conditions and
depth of laying but should be kept to the practical minimum. Minimum widths
for normal conditions. as used in the preparation of external loading charts,
are based on standard bucket sizes wherever possible and give at least 150 and
624
200 mm clearances on each side of the pipe for diameters in the ranges
200-3 SO and 400-7 SO mm, respectively.
In narrow-trench conditions, the backfill load is a function of the depth of
cover and width of trench (B) as measured at the level of the crown of the pipe.
Thus the backfill loads will be the same for any of the trench sections shown in
Figure 2.
Where a particular width has been specified, it should not be significantly
exceeded without reference to the pipeline designer.
Depth of trench
Class C bedding
The effecrive rrench widrh (B) in lhe lhree exa mples shown is as
measured all he level correspo nding 10 rhe u own o f I he pipe.
... ..
. :-::
. ..:. . .
-8-+--~
...
:- -::
;~(:.::;:::
.. ::-:::-::
Figure 2.
.....
:-:.:
Buried Pipes
625
pipes. One end of the straight edge should be notched. Allowance can be made
for slight initial settlement due to the weight of the pipe.
Class B bedding
626
Large stones should be kept well away from the sides or the trench to avoid
the possibility of their being accidentally dropped on the pipes which have
been laid.
Thermoplastic pipes
CPVC piping is usually selected for its higher temperature characteristics, i.e.
48-94C (120-200F). Expansion and contraction could become excessive at
the higher ranges with intermittent flow in buried lines.
Expansion joints are recommended for use in suitable pits for the upper
temperature limits. In this case, the line should not be 'snaked'. Snaking the
pipe with as many loops as possible per 30m (100ft) should prove satisfactory
for normal conditions for PVC and for temperature ranges up to 60C (l40F)
for CPVC. Sun heat or hot water flow to bring the pipe to 38-44C (10011 0F) surface temperature is recommended prior to preliminary backfill of
the snaked line.
Care should be used to make the best possible solvent-cement joint.
Threading should be avoided.
\,Yhere the thermoplastic pipe is joined to metal. use or a metal flange with a
flexible gasket is suggested.
Cement cure times in excess of those normally recommended are suggested
prior to running at the elevated temperature. vVhen thermoplastic pipe is installed
underground in trenches, the trench bottom should be smooth and rree or
rocks and debris.
Trenches should never be used as repositories for rubbish. H the trench is
dug in ledge rock, hard pan or where boulders and rocks are not removed, the
trench bottom must be padded out with sand or compacted with fine-grain
soils.
The trench should be wide enough to provide adequate room for : (1) joining
the pipe in the trench, (2) snaking the pipe from side to side in the trench to
provide slack for future contraction or expansion, and (3) placing and
compacting side fills.
Trench width may be minimised by joining the pipe outside of the trench
and lowering it into the trench with levelling supports.
Trench depth is determined by intended service. national standards and
recommendations as well as local conditions.
Thermoplastic pipe should be installed at least below frost level. Pipe for
conveying liquids susceptible to freezing should be buried no less than 300
mm (12 in) below the maximum frost level. Permanent lines subjected to
heavy traffk'should have a minimum cover of 600 mm (24 in). For light traffic
300-450 mm (12-18 in) is normally sufficient for small diameter and small
diameter-to-thickness ratio pipe. \,Yith larger sizes or larger diameter-tothickness ratio pipe, bearing stresses should be calculated to determine cover
required.
BuriedPipes
627
As well as local and national codes, reliability and safety should always be
paramount.
Bedding and backfilling thermoplastic pipe
vVith a smooth uniform trench bottom. the pipe will be supported over its
entire length on firm, stable material. Blocking should never be used to
change pipe grade or to provide intermittent support over low sections in the
trench . Because subsoil conditions vary greatly throughout the world, different
pipe-bedding problems will be encountered in various localities. In general,
subsoil should be stable and should provide physical protection for the pipe.
The pipe should be surrounded with backfill materials having a particle size
of 13 mm I 2 in} or less. Backfilling should be carried out in layers with each
layer compacted sufficiently so that lateral pressure soil forces are developed
uniformly. Under certain conditions, it may be advisable to have the pipe
under pressure during the backfilling operation.
When compacting sand or gravels. vibratory methods are recommended. If
water flooding is used, the initial backfill should be sufficient to ensure complete
coverage of the pipe. Additional backfill should not be added until the waterflooded backfill is firm enough to walk on. Precautions should be taken to stop
the pipe flo a ting. In all instances, the trench should be filled completely, and
rolling equipment or heavy tampers should be used only to consolidate the
final backfill.
With regard to thermoplastic pipe, rererence should also be made to ASTM
D2 774 'Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pressure Piping' and
ASTM D2321 'Underground Installation of Flexible Thermoplastic Sewer
Pipe'. See also the Chapter on Thermoplastic Pipe.
2E
1- a 2
where P
--
--
(_!_)
external pressure
modulus of elasticity of pipe material
a -- Poisson's ratio for pipe material
t = pipe-wall thickness
D = outside diameter
The upper limit for the collapsing pressure is given when the compressive
stress produced is equal to the compressive yield strength of the pipe material.
Buried pipes
Buried pipes are subject to both internal and external loading. the general
theory stating that the magnitude of internal pressure which a rigid pipe can
withstand varies inversely with the magnitude of simultaneously applied
external loading. The net effect on the combined load-bearing strength of the
pipe can be determined mathematically from the Schlick formula, as follows:
pi p+ -(~Tr]
=
where P 1
P2
F1
WT
629
Figure 1 shows a 'combined loading' curve for a pipe which would burst at
some internal pressure, P 2 , or crush under some external load, WT, if either
were acting alone. If, however, some lesser internal pressure, P 1 is acting on
the pipe in combination with an external loading, F 1 the magnitude ofF 1 at
which fracture will occur can be determined by means of ordinates drawn to
intersect at a point X on the curve.
Combined loading
Q)
L.
~
Q)
p.
'-
a.
C'J
c
....
Q)
c P2
X
WT
y
F,
External load
Figure I.
630
Basically, such loading charts are modified Schlick curves, taking into
account suitable safety factors, e.g.:
Pw =
[1 - (
~J]
..
!.
140
Q_
"
t---------
120
:::.,
r----
a.
~ 100
0;
0
"0
8 0
"'
"'E"
"
E
..
60
;;
.,E
!:
o;
40
0.
20
0
0
10
20
"'
40
30
=( wke) kN/m
50
60
70
80
140
~
8.
~
Q_
Q)
:;
"'"'
!'!
120
0.
g' .100
.,~u
0
.,
u
c:
80
"'::>
"'E
"
.,E"'
60
.~
)(
!:
'ii
u
0.
4 0
20
0
0
10
20
30
= (
40
~e
) kN/m
50
60
70
80
631
632
16-0r------------------------------------------------------------------,
140
'"
8.
"'"'"
P!
0.
"'
=
~
..
..
a.
0
"0
5...
"'"
E
"
6.
..E
.
-~
.E
~a.
10
Wor1<~ng
20
30
40
= ( ~e
60
50
) kN/m
70
80
16-or--------------------------------------------------------------------------.
140~------------------------------------------------
60
"
E
;c
..
..
E
c
40
~
o.
20
10
20
30
50
60
70
80
90
'
6 33
16-o r--------------------------------------------------------------------------,
:.
140
sustaned pressure
"'"'c.
~"' .1
~
OO c;;; 20mawrmum
su~taned pressure
.,
0
80
'"
..
..
6o
;;
40
"a.
20
O L-----------------------------~----------------~--------------------~
40
70
10
20
50
60
80
90
0
30
16-o r--------------------------------------------------------------------------,
14-0 r---------------------------------------------class
.,.,
c
class I 5 maxrmum
80 sus!<lined pressure
..
..E
:I
6-<>
:I
;;
20
10
20
30
80
90
110
120
634
250-500
600-750
in
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
Positive projection
Ordinary
backfill
compacted
between
XX and YY
Ordinary
backfill
non-compacted
between
XX and YY
Ordinary
compaction
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.7
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.7
1.9
1.9
90
120
Positive projection
High
compaction
Ordinary
compaction
Ordinary
compaction
2.6
1.9
2.2
2.3
2.5
3.0
At least 90% of maximum possible at the optimum moisture content (90% standard Proctor).
Notes:
1. The above factors of safety include allowance for surge provided that the maximum sustained
operating, or static. pressure plus surge (i.e. pipeline design pressure) does not exceed the maximum
allowable sustained pressure for the class of pipe by more than 10%.
2. For pipe sizes up to 150 mm (6 in) diameter. combined loading may not need to be considered a3'.
in this range. pressure pipes are designed on the basis of beam strength and consequently have
bursting and crushing strengths in excess of practical needs.
63 5
kF =We
or
F = We
k
DN
K (2cx:)
-
--
{3=0. 75 E' =0
E' = 1000
=2000
E' = 5000
{3= 1.50 E' =0
E' =1000
E' =2000
E' = 5000
E'
80- 300
350- 450
500- 1000
() .11 () (20)
0.105(45)
0.103 (60)
0 .3-10.5
0.3-11.0
0.3-12.0
0.3-14.0
0.3- 10.5
0.3- 11.0
(>.3- 11. 5
0.3- 14.0
0.3-7.5
0.3-8.5
0.3-9.0
0.3-12.0
0.4- 7.0
0.4-8.0
0 .3- 9.0
0.3-1 2. 0
0.5-2.0
0.3-3.5
0.3-4.5
0.3-8.5
See note 1
0.6-3.0
0.5- 4. 5
0.3-8.0
Note 1: Only a specific calculation for each case can provide an adequate a nswer.
Note 2: The values given for the heights of cover have been established for the class K9: they are also
valid for classes K ~ 10.
DN
100-300
350-450
500- 1000
0.110 (20)
0.105 (45)
0.103 (60)
0.3-5.0
0.3-6.0
0.3- 6.5
0.3- 8.5
0.6-5.0
0.5-5. 5
0.5-6.5
0.4-8.5
0.5-3.0
0.4-4.0
0.3- 5.0
0.3- 8.05
0.5- 2.0
0.4-3 . .5
0.3- 4.5
0.3-8.0
See note
See note
0.7-3.51
0.6- 5.0
0.4-8.0
0.8-3.0
0.6-4.5
0.4-7. 5
K (2cx:)
/3=0. 75 E' = 0
E' =1000
E' =2000
E' = 5000
/3= 1. 5 E' =0
E' = 1000
E' = 2000
E' = 5000
---
Note: Only a specific calculation for each case can provide a n adequate answer.
63 6
Trench beddings
Wherever soil and other related conditions permit. it has been widely adopted
practice over many years to lay concrete pressure pipes on the well-levelled
and prepared natural bottom of the trench. Selected backfill is introduced in
layers not exceeding 300 mm (12 in), and properly compacted up to a level of
300 mm (12 in), approximately above the crown of the pipe. In the International
Standard. beddings of this type are designated Class 'C'. This bedding
embraces the Class 'C' and Class 'D' beddings described in National Building
Studies Special Report No. 35. Consult EN545: 1994 and EN598 : 1995 . See
also the chapter on Buried Pipes.
Boiler-Feed Calculations
Boiler-feed pumps have to deliver hot water at temperatures exceeding 1 oooc
from closed feed tanks, with a steam cushion of a minimum saturated vapour
pressure at a given temperature of the feed water. A typical layout is shown in
Figure 1, when the geodetic positive suction lift is given by:
Hgs = 6.Hc + h;:s
where 6.Hc = cavitation margin
hzs = pressure losses in suction pipe
The positive suction lift (h) must be equal to or greater than Hgs
In smaller-size boiler feed pumps, the calculated Hgs value will usually be
increased by the difference of saturated vapour pressure at trnax and tkmax from
the balancing device. When planning larger boiler feed pumps, check calculations
of the intake piping are recommended, particularly with regard to the positive
suction lift. This is mainly to be done in the operation of the so-called stepping
deaeration powers.
K
N
VTOI
2
3
4
5
Pp
Ps
Pv
Hgv Hgs -
steam boiler
feed water tank .
high pressure heater .
inlet piping
discharge p iping.
let~ k -o ff.
63 8
Pp
(h- Hzs)Y
lO
(bar)
Ps- Pp
+ (h-148
Hzs)Y
(Jbr; 2)
Air vent
Condensate
Boiler blowdown
heat recovery ~
Temperature
control
Drain
Injector
Level probe protection tube
Boiler-Feed Calculations
639
h zv X Y
(bar)
10
hzv X Y
148
(lbf/in )
wh ere h zv is in feet
y is in lb/ ft 3
Boiler-feed pump head
_ (m wg )
H = Pv - Ps x lO
y
H = Pv - Ps x 1 7 s5 (.In wg )
y
where pressures are in lbf/ in 2
yin lb/ ft 3
However , the project engineer s hould take into account that the pump head
in (m wg) will change its characteristics consistently, regardless of the feed-water
temperature.
The specific weight of the water will change with its temperature. If a
booster pump is to be ins talled before the boiler-feed pump, the same relation
should be applied for calculating the pump head as that used for the calculation
of the pump head when no booster is involved. so that:
H = Pv - Ps x 1 O ( m wg )
y
H = Pv - Ps
y
17 55 (in wg)
640
PUMP
STUFFING
BOX BUSH
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
PUMP
SHAFT
BALANCE
DRUM
RESTRICTION
BUSH
RING SECTION
ASSEMBLY
Ps = Pvn -
hzp X y
10
(bar)
hzp X Y
)
(lbf/in-)
148
Boiler-Feed Calculations
BARREL CASING
IMPELLERS
I
DISCHARGE COVER
::J
(f)
BALANCE DRUM
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
STUFFING BOX
BUSH
PUMP SHAFT
y X 60
1000
Q(l/min) X
60
N = Q X (Pv - Ps)
y X l}
641
642
In English units:
N=
(Pv- Ps)
y x ry
0.00932 5 (kW)
(Pv- Ps)
yxry
0.0125 (hp)
(Pv- Ps)
y x ry
0 .00777 (kW)
Ql X
Ql X
= Q2
yxry
where Q1 is in UK gal/min
Q2 is in US gal/ min
Pv and Ps are in lbf/ in 2
yisinlb/ft 3 .
The pump shaft input of a boiler-feed pump should be given by the manufacturer
in the consistent units given later and calculated by the following equation:
N=
QX H
102
where Q
H
60
= Nu
Y
X
fJ
(kW)
fJ
= Ql
H X y
(kW)
51,500xry
X
Q] X
38,420
Q x Hx
fJ
2
= ----.42,920
Q2 X
3200
(hp)
X 1]
X YJ
(kW)
(hp)
Boiler-Feed Calculatio11s
643
Por the slection of the driving machine. a planning margin in its output
should be considered owing to the inaccuracies in calculations of the whole
system and unpredictable conditions. This is why the driving machine output
(NM) will be obtained by the following relation:
NM
= ( 1.08 - 1.2)N
N = -- - -- - - - 1 02
60
11 X 7']p X l7sp
If the pump was tested with a cold-water supply then the followin g recalculations
of the pump efficiency should be carried out if pumping hot water.
l7p = '7ip
17m
yp
where17ip = l -( l - 7'Ji) x - x 0.1
y
7'J i
The whole of the pump sh a ft input. N, is not utilised in the pump for increasing
the energy o f the liquid , as part of the input that corresponds to all losses
within the pump will be converted into heat. This means that the water
temperature in the boiler-feed pump increases proportionally to the losses
within the pump.
The temperature will then be:
where
0 = delivery (1 / hr)
Qk = amount o f water flow throught the balancing device (l/ hr)
N = pump sh a ft input (kW)
644
If the amount of the feed-water flow through the balancing device is introduced
before the boiler-feed pump, the temperature of water entering the boiler-feed
pump increases to the value:
t _ (Qto
I -
+ Ok)tk
Q + Qk
where t 0 = water temperature in the inlet branch less the effect of water
from the balancing device (C)
tk = water temperature after the balancing device (C).
A temperature rise of approximately 1 ooc is permissible in small- and
medium-sized boiler-feed pumps. At this point, a device discharging this leakoff delivery (from the piping placed after the boiler-feed pump) should come
into operation automatically. In high-pressure boiler-feed pumps, more
detailed analysis should be made of the leak-off amount (i.y. minimum
delivery) at which the leak-off device must start to open automatically.
= h+L
A
tl
I
I
I
I
I
I
0
oc (32
F)
I
h
.'.
Figure I .
I
Cp(t2
~I
- t 1)
646
H = 349 .3
+ 2259.7
H = 2609 kJ/kg
or
H = 150.17 + 970.3
= 1150.5 Btu/lb
At any intermediate point (C) between A and B. the stage of vaporisation can
be expressed as the dryness fraction (q), or ratio of latent heat at that point to
that necessary to produce a state of dry saturation (point B):
Thus at any point C: H = h
+ qL
If, after point B, more heat is added to the dry saturated steam, the steam is
said to be superheated. Provided the steam is subject to unrestricted expansion,
the pressure remains the same, but the temperature rises to t 2 . The degree of
superheat is then CP (t 2 - t 1 ).
The approximate value of Cp is 0.48 . Specific values are obtained from
steam tables.
Steam can thus exist in three forms: dry saturated steam free of any water
particles in suspension. wet saturated steam containing water particles in
suspension , and superheated steam. The higher the degree of superheat the
steam possesses, the more closely its characteristics resemble those of a perfect
gas.
Steam flow through pipes
The original (Babcock) formula for determining the quantity of steam able to
pass through a particular pipe with a specified pressure drop is:
w = 87.5
where W =
D =
P1 =
P2 =
d L =
D(P1 - P2)d 5
L(l + 3.6/d)
259
266
307
)23
20
40
60
60
336
350
361
371
380
368 OF
140
160
180
200
64 7
PSIG
100
2600
2600
1 20
J
1100
2400
2200
...._
2000
1800
kJ/kg
1200
r--
1000
900
600
1600
700
1400
600
1200
500
Btu lib
1000
400
BOO
.--
..~
600
400
300
200
200
100
0
0
10
11
12
13
14
bar gauge
oc
Changes irr amounts of heat required for the two stages ofsteam production.
d =usJv~D
where V = steam velocity (ft/sec)
Typical values ofV are:
20 to 30 m/s (70-100 ft/sec) for exhaust steam
30 to 45 m/s (100-150 ft/sec) for saturated steam
40 to 60 m/s ( 130-200 ft/sec) for superheated steam.
64 8
(PI-P,)= ,;p =
_
- W
w' (o.oo~s336f) x V
(3 3, 6oor)
dS
v-
l0
_9
c1 = W2 x Io- 9
c -
33 ,600f
d5
2 -
= c1c2v
c1c2
p
where pis the mass density of the steam (lb/ft 3 ) and isdependenton temperature
and pressure.
W
= Jc1
X IQ-9
35,600f
c2
w
Q = 4 .8
where Q ::: flow rate (ft 3 /min at STP)
Sizing of condensate-return lines
Basic considerations
The diameter of the pipeline between the heat exchanger and steam trap is
normally chosen to fit the nominal size of the trap .
649
vVhen choosing the diameter of the condensate line downstream of the trap ,
flashing has to be considered. Even at very low pressures the volume of flash
steam is many times that of the liquid if the condensate is at saturation
temperature upstream of the trap (e.g. during flashing from 1.2 to 1 bar (17 to
14.4 lbf/ in 2 ) the volume increases approximately 17 times).
In these cases it is possible to dimension the condensate line in accordance
with the amount of flash steam formed. The flow velocity of the flash steam
should not be too high otherwise water hammer (by the formation of waves),
flow noises and erosion may occur.
A flow velocity of 15 m/s (50ft/sec) at the end of the pipeline before the inlet
into the collecting tank or flash vessel is a useful empirical value. The inside
diameter of the pipeline required can be taken from Table 1.
20
10
i
8
7
~
"
"'
'\
"'
"'....
~~
"""'
"""
""' "
~ >-
A)" I
~~
~
"\
"'"- valve
Standard g~r--
""' ""'~~g-~~~~K
"
~'-r---~~~
~'1;.
"'~?v'~
"~
,...-
"' --
"
,.:>
"".....,
_.,.. X
,...,. I--'
""r-..
./
"
!'\..,
"
a tea. tube
-r-::-?om06
'\,
r--= ~~bellows)\
""'
Q)
......
0
c
Q)
.-....u
"""
'V
0
"'
go elbow
0.5
--
""'
""'
"' ~ "" )r<
""' ""'"""'~ _...~~
"".....,
I\I\ ""~
"'~
I\.
"' ""' "'~
"".....,
Tee
~~
""'
""' ""
""'""' "'"'"
Q)
""
--
"'
I~
~
"""
~
"".....,
.
0,3
""'~
v v ~
.......
f.-'
0.2
0,1
10
,..,....-v
15
--
.....- _.,..
25 32
40
--
so
\0 ~a:~~
,..,.... ~
_.,..~
&&
eo
100
150
200
300
"'
400
soo
lrt
"\:j
"'0
.;,
c.J)~
....,
s:: o
- v
:=L.....
::s
.,..,
-ol::
..., o..>
::::;
~ ~
.,
.....
c..
3l::l
:::l
~~
.....
"'
.0
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3. 5
4.0
4.5
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
18
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
"':::,
'-'::::>.
::s
<':)-c:
v..,
c:::_
0.2
0.5
0.8
99
104
111
120
127
133
138
143
147
151
155
158
170
175
l79
187
197
206
211
223
233
241
249
256
263
3 5. 7
3 7.9
40.1
44.2
46.8
48.8
50.4
52.0
5 3.3
54.3
55.7
56.5
59.9
61.3
62 . .3
64.4
66.9
69.0
70.2
72.9
7 5.1
76.8
78.5
80.0
81.4
16.0
18.0
20.6
23.5
25.5
27.1
28.4
29.6
30.5
31.5
32.3
33.0
3 5.5
36.4
37.2
38.7
40.5
42.0
42.9
44.8
46.3
47.5
48.7
49.7
50.7
7.4
10.0
12.9
15.8
17.7
19.2
20.4
21.5
22.3
23.1
23.9
24.5
26.7
27.5
28.2
29.5
31.0
32.3
33.0
34.7
36.0
37.0
38.0
38.8
39.6
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0
-'
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
6.1
9.5
12.6
14.5
16.0
17.1
18 .2
19.0
19.8
20.5
21.1
2 3.1
23.9
24.6
25.7
2 7.2
28 .4
29.0
30.6
31.8
32.7
3 3.6
34.4
3 5.2
6.8
10.3
12.3
13.9
15.0
18.0
16.9
17.7
18.4
18 .9
20.9
21.7
22.3
23.5
24.8
26.0
26.6
28.1
29.2
30.1
31.0
31.7
32.5
-7.6
9.2
10.7
11.9
12.9
13.7
14.4
15.2
15.7
17.6
18.3
18.9
19.9
21.5
22.3
22.9
24.2
25.3
26.1
26.9
27.5
28 .2
5.3
7.3
8.5
9.7
10.5
11.2
11.9
12.4
14.2
14.9
15.5
16.5
17.7
18.7
19.2
20.4
21.4
22.1
22.9
23.5
24.1
4.5
6.0
3.8
7.3
5.3
8.1
6.3
8.9
7.1
9.h
7.9
10.1 8.4
11.9 10.2
12.6 10.9
13.1 11.4
14.1 12.3
15.2 1 3.4
16.2 14.3
16.7 14.8
17.9 15.9
18.8 16.8
19.5 I 7. 5
20.1 18.1
20.7 18.6
21.2 19.1
7
-
3.5
4.7
3.0
4.2
2.8
5.6
6.5
5.1
2.7
4.0
7.0
5.7
4.6
3.5
8.9
7.7
6.7
5.8
9.5
8.4
6.6
7.4
10.0 8.9
7.9
7.1
11.0 9.8
8.9
8.0
12.0 10.8 9.9
9.1
12.9 11.7 10.8 9.9
13.4 12 .2 11.2 10.4
14.5 13.2 12.2 11.4
15.3 14.0 13.0 12.1
15.9 14.6 13.6 12.7
16.5 15.2 14.1 13.2
l7.0 15.7 14.6 13.7
1 7.5 16.2 15.1 14.2
2.1
4.8
5.5
6.0
7.0
8.0
8.8
9.2
10.2
10.9
11.4
12.0
12.4
12.8
4.0
4 .8
5.3
6.2
7.2
8.0
8.4
9.3
10.0
10.5
11.0
11.4
11 .8
2.4
3.3
4.5
5.6
6.5
7.0
7.9
8.6
9.2
9. 7
10.]
10.5
10
12
15
18
20
1.7
3.1
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.4
5.7
2.5
3.4
4.0
4.5
4.9
5.2
2.1
3.6
4.8
5.7
6.2
7.1
7.8
8.4
8.6
9 .3
9.9
2.8
4.2
5.1
5.6
6.5
7.2
7.8
8.2
8.6
9.0
2.9
3.9
4.4
5.4
6.1
6.7
7.1
7.5
7.9
2.5
3.1
4.2
4.9
5.5
6.0
6.3
6.7
To determine the actual diameter. the above values must be multiplied with the following factors:
kg, h
Factor
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
lOUO
1500
2000
3000
5000
8000
10.000
15.000
20.000
1.0
1.4
1.7
2.0
2.2
2.-1-
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.9
4. 5
5.5
7.1
8.9
10.0
12.2
14.1
(")
~
.,..,
s::
S'
.....
::s
"'
Stearn FlowCalwlntions
651
For long pipelines (over 100m or 300ft) and large condensate flowrates.
the pressure drop should be calculated to avoid the back pressure becoming
too high. The velocity of the flash steam may be used in the calculations (see
Table 1 and Figure 2).
When the condensate is mainly in the liquid state (e.g. high degree of
undercooling, extremely low pressure) its flow velocity should, if possible, be
rated at 0 .5 m/ s (1.64 ft/ sec) or higher. The pipeline diameter can be chosen
from the chart (Figure 3).
If the condensate is pumped, the condensate in the pump discharge line can
only be in the liquid phase. For choosing the pipeline diameter, the mean
velocity can be rated at 1. 5 m/ s ( 5 ft/sec). Again, Figure 3 may be used.
100
()
80
70
50
50
t.O
30
()
Steam
'
10 ,_
t r~
10
8
7
:-.
--
_i
'
111
Compressed air
,/
(')
1(1
'
~~
t-
3 '
1-
u
0
<u
>
Water
'
CL:
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.1.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
02
O;L
0.3 05
0.7
10
20
'0
JO
70
SO
100
500
210
J00
Flowrate V in mJh
2000
1000
DXl
6 52
Basic formula
M = 1.2 kcaljhr (1 /h )
500
(g r
The quotient 500 is the latent heat of steam (kcal/ kg) for m~dium pressures.
The factor 1.2 is added to compensate for the heat losses.
In SI units, the condensate flowrate is calculated as foHows:
2 W
1. 2000
1.2
3600
1000
Hence:
M
w
560
(kgjhr)
W is the amount of heat required in Watts or Joule per second (J/ sec) and the
quotient 2000 the latent heat of steam (kJ/ kg) for medium pressures.
U the amount of heat Q per hour is not known, it can be calculated [rom
the weight M of the product to be heated in 1 hour, the specific heat
(c
= ~~~ or, in SI units, c = k~K) and the difference between initial temperature
t2
t 1 ):
Q = M x c x b.t (kcaljhr)
or in SI:
Q= M X
c
3600
b.t (W)
Example:
kcaljhr
or, in SI:
Q = 50
4187
1600
M = 1.2 x
4000
= 9.6 kgjhr
500
or. in SI:
M = 1.2
4652
560
1---t;''-!rlr-tr':Y..- r- / -'I
/
300
aoo
100
I~
/
/
" ~ <:-
~~
'/1SO ./10
9.97 kg/h
1.1.
5040 30
eo
20 1&
10
t6 5 4
1\..
1,5
"
0.5
653
654
Example
Pipeline components ON 50 rnm
Pipeline length 20m
C =
I angle valve . . . . . . .
C =
l standard globe valve . . C =
I tee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C ==
3 e I bows . . . . . . . . . . . . C =
LC
8.1
3.1
'i
3. 1
1.5
= 21.0
Operating data
Temperature
Steam pressure
Velocity
Joooc
=
16 bar a
40 m/s
6p= 1. 1 bar
Result
Temperature in oc
0,05 ~
.0
1:::
0,1
0,2
0..
<J
0..
0
"0
...
...::l
0
0,3
</J
1/)
o,s 0......
<U
1,0
655
When sizing steam lines, care must be taken that the pressure drop between
the boiler and steam users is not too high. The pressure drop depends mainly
on the flow velocity of the steam.
The following empirical values for the now velocity have proven to be
satisfactory:
Saturated steam lines 20-40 m/s ( 6 5-130 ft/ sec)
Superheated steam lines 3 5-65 m/s (115-215 ft/ sec)
The lower figures should be used for smaller flowrates.
For a given flow velocity. the required pipe diameter can be chosen from the
chart (Figure 4).
The pressure drop can be calculated from the charts in Figures 2 and 5.
Calculation of condensate flowrates
50
1
2000 = 100 000 kH/h = lOO ,OOO X 000 = 27 778 W
3600
'
t
The total amount of heat required, and consequently the total amount of
condensate formed. can be calculated as follows:
M=12
.
4000 + 2 5,000 = 6 9 6 k /h
500
. g
'
or, in SI:
M = l. 2 x 4652+27,778 x 3600= 7 Ok h
2000
1000
gj
Each produc~has its own specific heat.
Calculation of condensate flowrates
If the size of the heating surface and the temperature rise (between initial and
final temperatures) of the product are known, the condensate flowrate M can
be calculated with sufficient accuracy as follows:
A
M
(tsr
tl
+ tz)
2
(kg/hr)
0\
Vl
Table
Temperature
difference:
steam to air
0'
'\l
"'0
s,
Pipe size
15mm
20mm
25mm
32mm
40mm
oc
SOmm
....
65 rnrn
80mm
100mm
150mm
!:l
;:;l
"''!:l"'
W/m
::s
!:l...
56
67
78
89
100
111
125
139
153
167
180
54
68
83
99
116
134
159
184
210
241
274
65
82
100
120
140
164
191
224;
255
292
329
79
100
122
146
169
198
233
272
312
357
408
103
122
149
179
208
241
285
333
382
437
494
10 8
132
136
168
203
246
285
334
394
458
528
602
676
166
205
234
271
321
373
429
489
556
155
198
241
289
337
392
464
540
623
713
808
188
236
298
346
400
469
555
622
747
838
959
233
296
360
434
501
598
698
815
939
1093
1190
324
410
500
601
696
816
969
1133
1305
1492
1660
3in
4in
6 in
194
246
300
360
417
488
578
674
778
888
1010
243
308
375
451
522
622
726
849
9 78
1140
1240
337
427
521
626
725
850
1009
1180
1360
1557
1730
Heat emission from bare horizontal pipes with ambient temperatures between 50 and 70F and still air conditions.
Temperature
difference:
steam to air
Pipe size
1
/2
in
/4
in
1 in
1 1/ 4 in
OF
100
120
140
160
180
200
225
250
275
300
325
1 1h in
2in
2 1/.z in
Btu/linear ft/ hr
56
71
86
103
121
139
166
192
220
251
285
68
85
104
125
146
171
199
233
266
304
343
82
104
127
152
176
206
243
284
326
372
425
107
127
155
186
217
251
297
347
398
455
520
113
142
173
213
243
282
334
389
447
510
580
138
175
212
256
297
346
410
478
550
628
705
163
206
251
301
351
408
483
563
' 649
742
843
(J
:::.
,._
<'>
l::
::;.....
>-
0
::s
"'
6 57
or, in SI:
M= A X
t1 + t2)
(
k ts 2
r
3 600 (k h)
1000 gf
or, in Sl in mlK
ts = temperature of steam
t 1 = initial temperature of product
t 2 = final temperature of product (quite often it is sufficient t if the
average temperature is known, e.g. room temperature)
r = latent heat in kcal/kg or kJ/ kg (approximation for medium
pressures 500 kcal/ kg or, in SI, 2000 kJ/ kg)
A few empirical values for the coefficient of overall heat transfer k are given
as follows:
kcal
m 2 hr K
Insulated steam line
Non-insulated steam line
Unit heater with natural circulation
Unit heater with forced circulation
Jacketed boiling pan with agitator
As above, with boiling liquid
Boiling pan with agitator and heating coil
As above, with boiling liquid
Tubular heat exchanger
Evaporator
As above, with forced circulation
0.5-2
7-10
4-10
10-40
400-1300
600-1500
600-2100
1000-3000
250-1000
500-1500
800-2600
0.6-2.4
8- 12
5-12
12-46
460-1500
700-1750
700-2400
1200-3500
300-1200
580-1700
900-3000
Cavitation
The phenomenon of cavitation is associated with a reduction of pressure
occurring in a liquid system, reducing the liquid pressure at a localised area
down to the vapour pressure of the liquid concerned. As a consequence,
vapour and small gas-filled bubbles form in the liquid at this point and are
entrained by the flow . As soon as they reach a region of higher pressure, they
suddenly collapse at extremely high velocities, with vapour condensing into
liquid again. Very high implosion pressures are generated , depending on the
bubble size, and may even each 10,000 bar (140,000-150.000 lb[/in 2 ). Such
high-velocity impacting pressures can show up as:
noise
(ii) vibration (critical oscillations)
(iii) mechanical damage to construction materials.
(i)
Critical regions for the development of cavitation in a piping system are sudden
cross-section enlargements or contractions, changes in flow direction and
sudden changes in flow (such as at throttling gaps). The sudden contraction.
illustrated in Figure 1, is a typical example. This shows the pressure
distribution at the throttling point, where p 1 is the upstream fluid pressure, p 2
the downstream fluid pressure (lower because of the head loss after
throttling), PA is the atmospheric pressure and p0 the vapour pressure of the
fluid . At point p 3 , the pressure is reduced to the vapour pressure, generating
cavitation, with subsequent pressure recovery to p 2 . Somewhere bet\.veen p 3
and p 2 the cavitation bubbles will collapse suddenly.
Cavitation does not necessarily lead to damage. even if it does generate
noise and vibration. It depends on the intensity of cavitation or. specifically.
the lifespan of the bubbles from formation to implosion. Cavitation intensity
decreases with an increase in the life of the bubbles.
The pressure travel gradient (p 1 , p 3 , p0 ) is thus significant and related to the
shape of the flow passage. As a general rule, the pressure drop can be
influenced by streamlining the flow, although this can be optimised for one
predetermined flow condition only. Thus it is rather more important to try to
extend the pressure-travel gradient. Geometric shapes can be found which,
despite cavitation, do not lead to damage. i.e. the bubble implosion occurs
Cavitation
6 59
r1
I
I
I
I
PA
,__. P2
//
I
Po
Pl
-Fl
VI
:/1
F1
Y .1
F2
Y2
Figure I.
away from the possibility of contact with the material surfaces. From this it
can be seen that only bubble implosions near the wall are destructive. If the
bubbles contact material surfaces, the destruction mechanism conforms with
that of liquid droplet erosion.
From the point of view of metal physics, what happens is a high-velocity
deformation of the metal as a result of the bubble implosion. In many cases the
mechanical erosive influence is coupled with an electrochemical corrosive
influence. cavitation and corrosion occurring together. It has been shown
that. in the case of industrial water, damage to carbon steel and ingot iron can
be reduced by cathodic protection, i.e. the corrosive influence can be removed .
Among construction materials which have proved to be less prone to cavitation,
austenitic steel. single-phase copper alloys (bronzes). stainless steels and stellite
armouring have been most successful. These materials are largely resistant to
corrosion so they are not subject to this additional attack.
Typical potential points of cavitation damage are:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
6 60
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure4.
Cavitation
661
Fig11re 6.
662
Figure 7.
lL
Figure 8.
\ ...
Cavitation
663
Such valves are suitable for short-period throttling duties such as during
shut-off in the case of a burst pipe. However, when dimensioning these valves.
the limits which result from the energy head must be considered:
Butterfly valves:
PN25
7.5m/s
(25ft/sec)
PN16
Sm/s
(16.5ft/sec)
PNl 0
4 m/s
(13 ft/sec)
PN4
2. 5 m/s
(8ft/sec)
PN2AS
2 m/s
( 6. 5 ft/sec)
(Flow velocities referred to valve nominal diameter.)
If butterfly valves are used as safety devices in the case of a burst pipe. the
responsible manufacturer considers the stresses in these circumstances and
dimensions valve and operator designs in a correspondingly strong manner.
Buttertly valves can be used for on-off operation. in conjunction with
special parallel-gate valves with perforated fixed plates, for the continuous
control of the downstream flow of water from dams.
The perforated plate divides the flow into a large number of small jets to
create the required throttling effect. The jets are evenly distributed over the
cross-section of the pipe and the uniform small-jet configuration achieved is
erfective in suppressing vibration. cavitation damage. pressure fluctuations
and noise.
Components of the control, shown in Figure 9, are simply two circular
perforated plates and an annular body (1) mounted between pipe flanges.
Plate (2) is fixed. and plate (3), on the upstream side, is free to slide up and
down. In the fully open position, the orifices in the plates coincide. The fully
closed position is obtained by displacing the moving plate ( 3) through a
distance equal to one orifice diameter. Under normal conditions of flow
control. the position is intermediate with the orifices in the fixed plate only
partially blocked off by those of the moving plate. The latter may be positioned
by hand or by valve actuator.
In water works and water power plants, needle valves, also known as ring
piston slide valves (Figure 10). have proved in more than 40 years of practice
to be excellent as flow-control valves. because individual adaptation to the
given operating conditions and duties is, with this type of valve. possible. With
reference to cavitation, this means that. by specific configuration of the outlet
shape. formation of the throttling point. design of the downstream piping. and
by the selection of the point of installation, the hydraulic conditions can be
influenced directly and damages due to cavitation be avoided. With these
control valves, all intermediate positions. i.e. partial openings, must be
possible for continuous duty to achieve variable flows or an effective change in
energy. e.g. reduction of pressure. No ill effect due to cavitation or vibration
664
must occur. The design of the needle valves offers all the advantages. The flow
is guided through a ring-shaped passage around a ball-shaped inside body.
The outside body is so designed that the free-flow cross-section continuously
diminishes from the inlet to the sealing and throttling point so that flow
velocity increases. Shortly before the narrowest cross-section, a vaned ring is
provided, which swirls the outer flow filaments in such a way that the fluid is
Figure 9. Schematic showing comporrrnts ofcontrol for parallel-gate valve with perforatedjixPd plates.
Cavitation
665
forced against the wall of the downstream flow section so that detachments
are avoided and cavitation bubble implosions are kept away from the wall.
The shut-off piston in the spherical inside body moves in the opening and
closing passage, i.e. in or against the direction of flow, and produces.therefore,
a linear change in cross-section without causing the flow direction to change.
The downstream shape of the piston is sharp-edged. In contrast to former
designs with pointed piston ends. the hydraulic exit flow angle can develop,
A globPvalve fitt ed with the Smart Vnlve Interface ( SV l 0~- ) positioner/ controller.
66 6
depending on piston position and velocity in the water area, without touching
the metallic valve parts.
To enable a control valve to fulfil its duty, i.e. continuous throttling of the
rate of flow. the valve must be properly dimensioned. By dimensioning. not
only the sizing of the valve is meant but also the adaptation to the duty
prescribed, taking into account the specific operational conditions including
assessment of the cavitational behaviour. The cavitational. behaviour of a
valve can be observed in a model test from which the behaviour in the actual
installation can be deduced .
As a means of comparison, the cavitation coefficient sigma. also known as
the Thomas cavitation number, has been introduced. This value indicates the
start of cavitation. The cavitation number 8 is calculated from:
= P2 + PA- Po
8
v2
P1- P2-2g
where PA =
p2 =
Po=
p1 =
V g =
atmospheric pressure
pressure downstream of disturbance
vapour pressure of water
pressure in undisturbed upstream side
velocity in undisturbed upstream side
acceleration due to gravity
Responsible valve makers determine the behaviour of their valves in allembracing tests and therefore possess comparison values for all common
operating conditions. From these data, the required design shapes can be
deduced. In extreme cases for which test data are not yet available, the particular
case is reconstructed in model tests and the required design determined . The
main precondition is precise knowledge of the operating and instaJlation
conditions at the project stage.
Only with these data is it possible to determine the optimum design of the
valves and piping run with the aim of avoiding damaging cavitation effects.
Among the necessary details are knowledge of:
(i)
Noise Control
Noise produced in pipelines may be pump-generated (changes in power and
pressure. or varying amplitudes of pressure pulsations) or fluid-generated
(flow instability, turbulence or simple fluid friction).
Fluid-generated noise in small-bore pipes with low to moderate flow rates is
generally negligible, unless pressure pulsations are present (e.g. owing to
valve cavitation). Thus pipe vibration, and consequent radiation of airborne
noise, is usually caused by a higher level of noise generated by fittings; pipe
resonance is caused by a mechanical vibration or resonant noise generated in
supporting systems.
Relative noise levels are shown in Table l.
Specifically, noise control (noise abatement) falls in to two distinct categories:
Source treatment: i.e. design of components to ensure operation at minimum
noise levels.
Path treatment: to reduce source-generated noise to acceptable levels.
Noise caused by the operation of valves, regulators and control elements is
transient and related to the degree of turbulence or cavitation produced
although. in specific designs and certain circumstances. individual elements
may be subject to vibration and generate a continuous noise. So much
depends on the design and finish of the flow passages involved that no general
analysis can be attempted. The noise level of such devices is dependent on the
design and the localised flow velocities produced, and also on the response
130 decibels
120 decibels
110 decibels
l 00 decibels
90 decibels
80 decibels
70 decibels
60 decibels
50 decibels
668
time, where applicable. The latter effect can be minimised by making sure that
the response time is not shorter than that required by the system. This will
result in minimum 'hammer'. 'Water hammer', in fact. depends on the
switching velocity of the valve, e.g. on the spool-switching velocity in the case
of spool vaJves. Valves operated by dry solenoids have uncontrolled response
and so often produce 'hammer'. \Net solenoids are cushioned by the fluid so
move more smoothly and open the valve passages more gradually (at the
expense of some loss of solenoid power).
As a general recommendation, simple undamped ball-and-spring non-return
and relief valves should not be used. On the design side. every effort should be
made to ensure that the flow passages of valves are swept and free from sharp
edges and corners as far as possible. Directional control valves must also be
carefully designed to prevent flow instability occurring.
About 80% of the noise problems in process industry control valves are
caused by flowing gas and 20% by flowing liquid. The noise caused by liquid is
more often associated with cavitation, corrosion erosion and vibration.
Noise prediction has been made a lot easier by virtue of a number of
manufacturers' software programs that have become available for general use.
Source treatment
Noise Control
669
The mean flow velocity and its profile downstream of the valve have a
particularly marked effect on the valve noise level. Splitting the flow into
smaller parallel jets reduces noise.
A typical frequency distribution of aerodynamic noise is shown in Figure 1.
Two examples of aerodynamic noise treatment are shown in Figures 2 and 3,
applicable to globe- and angle-valve bodies. Both are cage-style valves, one
using a cage with multiple slotted orifices of special shape, size and spacing,
and the other a cage with multiple hole orifices. Claimed performance is an 18
dB reduction for the former compared with a conventional valve of similar
type, and a 30 dB reduction for the multi-hole orifice cage. The latter is also
particularly effective for applications involving high differential pressures
(pressure drop across the valve). A common feature of both these valves is an
expanded outlet design to minimise regeneration of valve noise.
Hydrodynamic noise
When turbulent liquid flow is stable, it does not usually cause any significant
noise. Cavitation is the most common cause of noise in liquid flow .
Hydrodynamic noise can be reduced by affecting the intensity of cavitation.
The best way to prevent cavitation is to intensify flow losses, which reduces
the intensity of pressure recovery and increases the acoustically determined
differential pressure ratio of incipient cavitation. Valves can be designed so as
not to direct any cavitation jets at the valve trim; this helps to lower the effect
of cavitation corrosion.
6 70
dB
100~--------------------------------------~
Standard valve
90
Special valve
70
250
500
1 000
2 000
Whi~per
trim I with
slo tted ori !ices.
4 odo
Noise Control
6 71
Whi~per
Figure .3.
6 72
of the liquid to undergo a greater pressure drop in the initial stages without
cavitating. This results in a much lower inlet pressure to the final stage.
This design also separates the shut-off and throttling locations to prevent
clearance-flow erosion.
A further design is shown in Figure 7 where the trim consists of a carefully
designed bundle of tubes which minimises cavitation noise and damage by
controlling the formation of cavitation-bubbles. The tubes serve three functions:
they prevent the flow stream from reaching its potential minimum area, they
maintain maximum pressure head to reduce cavitation bubble formation. and
they limit the size and number of cavitation bubbles that do form .
Ca vitro I I cage.
Cavi tr oll cage in f is her ED
valve-body assembly.
Figure 4.
Figure S.
Noise Control
6 73
Ball valves
Rotary-control ball valves were previously noisy due to the high recovery
character of the ball valve and cavitation at high differential pressures.
The first low-noise anti-cavitation ball valve was introduced in 1979. It
was based on a multi-stage, multi-flo'"' principle, with a trim of variable
resistance depending on the valve opening.
Cavitrol IV trim.
Cavitro! IV trim with fisher
valve-body assembly.
Figure 6.
Cavit.rol V trim.
Figure 7.
6 74
Noise Control
675
hydrocarbon processing
power generation, chemical, and pulp and paper industries
flow and pressure control. especially in critical flow conditions
blow-down
pressure equalisation
high-temperature service and tight shut-off requirements
Butterfly valves
Figure 10.
s' disc but ierfly control valve witltj low-ba/ancing and noise-control trim.
6 76
The disc has been designed to remove fluid forces from the disc to the body
and the 'flow-balancing trim' has been incorporated to optimise the inherent
flow characteristics of the valve. As a result, noise and vibration are reduced .
The valve is used in many process applications within the temperature
range -200 to +700C (-333 to+ 1300F).
Pressure-relief valves
The following formulae are used for calculating noise levels of gases, vapours
and stream as a result of the discharge of a pressure-relief valve.
The expressed formulae are derived from API Recommended Practice 5 21.
Ltoo = L + 10LOG10(0.29354 W k T/M)
Where 1 100 = sound level at 100ft from the point of discharge (decibels)
L
= noise intensity measured as the sound pressure level at 100ft
from the discharge
vv = maximum relieving capacity (lb/ hr)
k
= ratio of specific heats of the fluid (for steam, k = 1. 3 if
unknown)
T
= absolute temperature of the fluid at the valve inlet (0 Rankine
(F + 460))
M
= molecular weight of the gas or vapour obtained from standard
tables
When the noise level is required at a distance of other than 100 ft, the
following equation should be used:
Lp
Noise Control
6 77
La
8200 .
f
tor steel pipes
where La
Bellows
6 78
Where this is not possible (e.g. the pump is flexibly mounted), or other
factors (such as high pressure) mitigate against the use of plain bellows. tied
or axially-restrained be.llows must be used. Such bellows are pressurebalanced units. The flanges and tie-bars, however. now form a transmission
path for vibration unless isolation treatment is incorporated. The simplest
form of treatment is by the use of resilient bushes and/ or rubber washers to
prevent metal-to-metal contact between the tie-bars and the backs of the
restraining flanges. Even single rubber washers can be effective. if correctly
selected in terms of hardness.
Some noise-reduction data obtained with representative designs are shown
in Figure 11.
Metal bellows
Metal bellows can give inconsistent results in terms of noise and vibration
isolation. Generally their performance is much below that of rubber bellows.
Again some test data are shown in Figure 12.
Isolating flanges
STATISTICAL
AVERAGE
I
-;;
WATER COLUMN
50
80
80
125
200
-;;
u..
-I>
125
200
rr
315
"'::l
"'::l 315
a
~
STATISTICAL
AVERAGE
UNTIED
50
:;
c
NOISE REDUCTION
PIPE MATERIAL
"'
u.
UNTIED
-~
500
500
800
800
1250
2000
1250
2000
3150
3150
5000
5000
0
-10
-20
-30
- 10
dB
6-----.1'1.6-~~
-20
-30
dB
== 3 bar
~---o---o
= 5 bar
c .. ..... o .....a
.=
8 bn r
Noise Control
6 79
.-I
WATER COLUMN
PIPE MATERIAL
STATISTICAL
AVERAGE
STATISTICAL
AVERAGE
50
80
12o
..,
T
,._
'"
"
,;
~~
200
315
-~
50
80
125
200
1:
315
>-
500
500
c:
0>
:?.
800
800
~
lL
~250
1250
2000
2000
3150
3150
5000
5000
-- 10
- 20
-30
- 10
- 20
-30
dB
dB
.---NOISE ABSORPTION---,
PIPE MATERIAL
WATER COLUMN
STATI STICAL
AVERAGE
STATISTICAL
AVERAGE
50
50
80
80
125
125
....
I
200
>
c
3 15
ll>
:J
cr
:I:
~ 315
c:
Q)
500
:::>
500
u:
800
2"
QJ
lL
2oo
800
1250
1250
2000
2000
3 150
3150
5000
5000
0
-10
- 20
dB
- 30
- 10
-20
- 30
dB
Figure 13. Solid metal/solid rubber isolating unit and typical noise-reduction data .
680
have the advantage of providing a 'solid' coupling and so can be used with
flexibly-mounted pumps.
Acoustic filters
Acoustic filters can be fitted to systems where pressure ripple is high. These
are essentially tuned silencers which are critical in design and are usually
effective over only very narrow frequency bands, although the attenuation
achieved can be quite high. Untuned silencers simply comprise an expansion
chamber with broader coverage but reduced attenuation . An accumulator is,
in effect. an untuned hydraulic acoustic silencer and is most effective at lower
frequencies. Dissipative-type silencers provide for dissipation of energy
through viscous flow losses and. as a consequence, consume some fluid
energy. They may be combined with an untuned silencer. although the
attenuation will still be appreciably lower than that of the tuned type.
In general, wave-cancelling filters are to be preferred because the frequencies
involved are low. If the pressure transients are narrow band, a Quinke tube
and expansion chamber can be effective (Figure 14). A major disadvantage of
this and other types of simple wave-cancelling filters, however, is the
relatively high pressure drop produced. The more usual form of hydraulic
silencer is the pressure-release type shown in Figure 15. This gives minimum
c
Equal flows in
each section
"'
'i1
....
Ill
" '0
::J
U)
Frequency-
Figure 14.
Rubber separator
Gas space
Orifice tube
Noise Control
681
18 19 20 2 1 27.
23 24 25 26 77 ?fl
oc
68 3
It is often forgotten that pump energy also costs money. In many cases, the
%
heat
20
10
18
16
14
12
10
"
2
' .....
.........
....... __
-.
0
0
10
- 15
+30
+ 35
+40
1- 45
- 20
- 25
C heat
C cool
Fi,qure 3. Solid line: Ener(J!J cost saving in %for each degree higl1er indoor temperature at various
mnximu111 outdoor l'etnperatr1res in 11 cooling system. Brokrnline: Energy cost snviny in a heating system
in %for each degree lower indoor temperature at various minimum outdoor temperat11res.
684
685
Construction
To skip the piping calculations entirely and simply specify that the system
shall be balanced without detailing the means or the way to do the work
implies a significant amount of extra work for the person who is to perform the
balancing. Furthermore, balancing is not a universal solution which will
make a poorly designed system function adequately.
When designing the system, care must be taken to arrange clearly demarcated
sections.
Calculations
For newly-built facilities in Sweden, for example the SBN 80 3 9:3 2 specifies
that the method of balancing and the presetting values and water-flow values
for the balancing valves must be detailed on the building permission
documents. This necessitates complete piping calculations and the
determination of pressure losses in the heating system.
The Kv values can, in the case of radiator valves, generally be adjusted
directly by means of the presetting unit which is marked off in Kv , although
this only applies in a limited number of manufacturers' valves.
Balancing valves must be incorporated in all branches to avoid having to
balance the radiator valves in one branch against the balancing valves in
other branches (Figure 4).
Reverse-return mains, according to the Tischelmann system, can simplify
many balancing problems. The exclusion from such a system of balancing
valves will, however, lead to imbalance, because different radiators and heaters
or cooling units do not have the same output or pressure drop. However, the
pressure differences in the system between branches will be lower, which
means that balancing will be easier. The Tischelmann reverse-return system
a lso has benefits to offer when balancing the sub-circuits (Figure 5).
68 6
Balancing
Before commencing to balance a system, all valves must be opened fully. This
applies particularly to thermostatic radiator valves and two-way control
valves. This type of valve operates with varying flows and. unless it is ensured
that the valve is fully opened, it may just have closed automatically as balancing
was commenced.
A thorough knowledge of the system is also important before the commencement
of balancing. The information required includes the following:
(a) drawings with hydronic sketches
(b) data concerning flows and pressure drops across heat generator, batteries,
radiator heaters, balancing and control valves
(c) pumps data and pump diagram.
The desk method
A well-defined system of not too great complexity generally requires only one
single adjustment of all valves used. including radiator valves and balancing
valves, in accordance with the values specified by the drawings. Control
measurements should, however, be made on one or more extremity branches
Figure 4 . Balancing valves incorporated in all brand1es to avoid having to balance the radiator valves in
one branch against the balancing valves in other branches.
--l
Figure 5. The Tischelmann reverse-return system can simplify many balancing problems. Tire exclusion
f rom such a system of balancing valves will. howPver. lead to imbalance, since different radiators and
heaters or cooling units do not have the same output or pressure drop. but the pressure d(fferrnce in the
systnn between the branches will be lowe r. This means that balancing will be easier. The Ti schelmrmn
reverse-ret urn system also has benefits to off er whm balanciny the sub-circuits.
68 7
(farthest away from the pump) as well as on a few central branches. The flow
deviations found in these control measurements should not exceed 10% of the
volume or 20% of the pressure. If. after an adjustment as described earlier.
there are still temperature deviations of more than 1 oc (2F) in individual
rooms. and if these cannot be related to temporary fluctuations in the heating
or cooling load. the explanation will be found in one of the following: incorrect
calculation of the heating/cooling facility; incorrect design/ installation of
heating/ cooling facility; bad building (insufficient sealing, draughts).
Temperature measurement method
This method. which is only applicable to heating systems, is based on the fact
that each radiator/ heater is dimensioned according to the same temperature
drop with an equal outdoor temperature. As a consequence, the system can be
balanced by measuring the temperature drop at the pump and then adjusting
the balancing valves so that the temperature drop is the same at the pump as it
is over each branch.
To achieve acceptable accuracy with this method. the outdoor temperature
must be almost constant throughout the entire balancing process and. in
addition, below 1 oc (34F). It is often small temperature drops that are being
measured and therefore the temperature differences become even smaller. For
this reason, the system is at times less than exact (see also Figure 6 ).
The temperature method can also save time if it is used as a preliminary
stage prior to the proportionate balancing method described below.
Proportionate balancing method
This method is one of the most frequently used and it is suitable for old
facilities as well as for new ones.
The procedure is to measure the pressure drop and to move proportionally
from branch line to branch line. This is done as follows:
{1)
6 88
10
100
20
200
30 40 50
100 400 500
200
2000
100
1000
ir"
140
120
I~
100
80
1/
60
1./
)A
40
20
v
)
ll'
- -I --
'{_., ~"
0
20
0( 1.3)
~~
0 %
6 t %
Fig11re 6. The heat em iss ion variations in % as a function of temperature changes flt in% and flow changes
ill %(an 80-60 radiator system). The diagram shows that n I %deviation in temperat11re wi/lgivea significant
deviation ill heat emission. A deviation inflow will influence heat emissio11 ton muc!J lesser extent.
689
Figure 7.
Boiler or
heat exchanger
t>.P2
cv
Boiler or
heat exchanger
flowcontrol BV
6P2
6Pl=t>.P2
690
Boiler or
hea t exchanger
BV2
SECTION 8
Duties and Services
Water Services
Hygienic Services
Steam Services
Fire-Safe Valves
Fire Hydrant Valves
Marine Services
Vacuum Services
Cryogenic Valves
Nuclear Services
High Pressure Services
Water Services
On a global basis, the valves produced to handle water are generally made
from cast or ductile iron or cast steel. They are, in the main, larger in size than
valves for other industries. The water industry can be divided into two main
areas:
Clean water is normally handled with butterfly and gate valves. Butterfly
valves typically have steel bodies and gate valves have ductile- or cast-iron
bodies. Sewage tends to be handled with gate valves as, although butterfly
valves have good sealing characteristics, when the valve is opened, the disk is
still flat within the channel and thus presents an obstruction to solids.
Specialist applications use knife-gate valves or wafer-butterfly valves. Plastic
valves are not used in hot-water supply generally.
Other common valve types for water and waste-water include sewage
combination air valves, cushioned swing check valves, hydraulically
controlled air and vacuum valves, cone valves and air release valves.
Some water companies appear to have moved to gate valves with a resilient
seat with mainly rubber materials rather than metal-seat valves. These valves
are also replacing rising spindle-gate valves on grounds of cost. Rubber or
plastic 0-rings, including PTFE, are standard packing materials.
Metal-seated AWWA-type ball valves remain a popular choice for water-works
and industrial specialities. Automation with actuated valves is preferable. In
the water-distribution industry, for example, the water used, whether its
purpose is urban. agricultural or industrial. is distributed by an increasingly
complex pattern of pipeline networks. Every new installation, development or
addition to the network (building development, industrial zone, etc.) creates
an imbalance. Control valves in a water-distribution system help to restore
the balance by directing water distribution according to pre-determined
priorities.
It is important to understand that, although automation is now a major
factor in the water sector, it is still limited as many valves within this industry
are isolation valves that require to be operated manually.
694
Wat.erServices
695
Compared with the general class of shut-off valves, the ball valve offers the
following potential advantages:
In the open position. it provides free passage of water in the supply
system with a diameter equal to the supply connections.
(ii) It gives an unimpeded flow profile without any distortion.
(iii) It offers the smallest resistance to flow, that is, a very small loss in
pressure over the comparable supply-line distances.
(iv) It is completely adaptable.
(v) The change in the cut-off from open position to closed position
requires a minimal change in place.
{vi) The precise shape of the cut-off guarantees a seal of great integrity.
(vii) It offers a favourable ratio of weight to stability resulting from the
design of the ball or hollow sphere which withstands the pressure.
(viii) It has low installation costs.
(i)
It was not until there were ball-valve designs which took into account the
specific requirements of a drinking-water supply (such as resistance to the
formation of deposits and acceptable hydraulic performance in intermediate
positions), and the cost requirements (namely, amortisation of the high use of
energy even at low flow rates and short periods of useful operation) , that the
use or ball valves for all aspects of drinking-water supply systems became a
Table 1. Some common impurities in raw water
Nanll'
Calcium carbona te
Calcium bicarbonate
Symbol
Common name
Effect
CaCO~
Chalk. limestone
Soft sca le
Ca(HC0 3h
Soft seale + C0
Calcium s ulphate
caso .
Calcium chloride
CaCI2
Corrosion
Magnesium carbona te
M~C03
Soft scale
1vlagnesium sulph<Jte
MgS04
Magnl'site
Corrosion
Mg(I-IC0 1h
Epsom salts
Scale. corrosion
NaCI
Common salt
Electrolysis
Sodium ca rbonate
Na 2 CO j
Alkalinity
Sodium bicarbonate
Na HC01
Baking soda
Priming. foaming
NaOH
Caustic soda
Na 2 S0 4
Glaube r salts
Alkalinity
Si02
Silica
Hard scale
Magnesium bicarbonate
Sodium chloride
Sodium bydroxide
Sodium sulphate
Silicon dioxide
Hard scale
69 6
'it/
WatcrServices
697
This type of design requires the fixed placement of the seal elements, so that
a rubber or an elastic preformed seal. of a conventional variety would be first
and foremost. To this end, there are already well-tested seals from the area of shutoff valves which have been around for decades and can be easily adapted. The
counter seat in the housing can use a metallic seal made of corrosion-resistant
steel with inlet and outlet edges having especially large radial sections which
then provide a useful fixing in place of the rubber/ elastic preformed seal.
698
In addition, the bearing for the turning point of the ball is placed on an
eccentric. This reduces the frictional load of these seal elements to the smallest
levels, which is, of course, a necessary requirement. Mineralogical deposits
and foreign particles can in this fashion block the ball in its entire periphery.
so that the operating forces of the drive unit are not sufficient to move the ball.
For this reason. these types of ball valves are given a relatively large gap
between the outer surfaces of the ball and the inner surfaces of the housing, to
try to avoid gap corrosion-the formation of hard layers of deposits and
corrosion. Additionally, the ball is provided with a scraper rim extending
beyond the turning radius, which provides only a line contact and otherwise
gives the ball surface free room in which to turn.
As a consequence, even with a large amount of deposits, the operating
forces are sufficient to actuate the valve. In intermediate positions of the ball
valve, this overall ring gap results in a washing action, and the medium
moving through the valve produces a kind of sel [-cleaning effect. This
provides the necessary flow characteristics.
One design of this type of valve is the ball valve with an alternative opening
which, in a state of no pressure, permits the exchange of the elastic ring seat of
the ball without removing the valve itself from the supply line (Figure 3 ). This
device is particularly useful with large nominal diameters. It is a further
requirement that the components for transmitting the motion and the drive
unit must be solidly built and require no maintenance. For this reason,
massive shaft bearings in the horizontal direction are needed. These are not
exposed to the deposits of solid matter. and thus are not located at the deepest
point. The resulting possible lateral arrangement of the driving mechanism
Water Services
69 9
. --._
700
lining is not an issue. \1\lhen installed with the shaft in a horizontal position.
the valve is self-cleaning. This type of valve is suitable for both sealing and
control functions. A typical example is shown in Figure 6.
Other types of butterfly valves used in water service include those with an
inclined-cone sealing system for metal-to-metal sealing, where the sealing
system is completely integrated within the body.
Gate valves (Figure 7) are still the primary valves for water and waste-water
service. Manufactured in a wide range of materials. they are ideally suited for
on-off duties. The valves have knife gates, wedge gates, and parallel face
gates. Generally, these valves have a very low resistance to flow which, in the
case of parallel-gate valves, approaches that of a straight pipe.
They are also used for duties with high-pressure fluids due to the fact that
upstream pressure assists the sealing between the gate and seat.
Gate valves tend to be hand wheel operated for water service.
Shaft
:.ou~ 1u
Topflongc ISO 52 1 I
Bnauno
Cen~ 'IC
vtva
Vul vo body
d iSC
Water Services
701
Reflux valves
Basically, this type of valve is designed for water-works duties such as normal
distribution on gravity mains. Certain types include non-slam recoil reflux
valves which are designed to prevent flutter at high velocities, and rocking
disc reflux valves, used where pipeline dimensions are in excess of 600 mm
(24 in). Some reflux valves have outside weighted levers and heavy
proportioned doors to provide non-slam characteristics and assist closing. A
particular type of water-works reflux valve is the multiple-door reflux valve
suitable for large-diameter pump or suction mains , where flow velocity is
small.
Multiple doors combined with the large-area diaphragm provide a lower
head loss against the valve than is possible with the valves of single door
STAINLESS STEEL
KNIFE GATE
VALVES
rower. OF.M
OEM
e
e
e
e
hydraul ic
pncum;tti.:. hyuritulic
WEDGE GATE
VALVES
inu u,,,,
e
e
r.ttin:; PN 16
UNIVAL PORTED
GATE VALVES
M ajor markets: Paper. chemical. power.
rang~
e
e
Bi-direct ional
One piece rei nforced elastomer 5lt:eve
for
~cali ng.
s'-n in:s
702
design. Also, the reduction of inertia reduces the risk of slamming as pump
shut-down occurs. The design of the diaphragm inlet ports and body-contour
shape largely avoids the action of cavitation. Valves of this type are typically
suitable for velocities up to 3 m/s (10ft/sec).
Non-return valves in water systems
1. Body inlet
2. Body outlet
3. Cover
4. Stop
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
End caps
Door
Rocker arms
Faces to body
Faces to door
Bushes to rocker arms
Bushes to end caps
Spindles to rocker arms
Pins to rocker arms
.16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25 .
Split pins
Stud bolts to body
Studs to cover
Setscrews to end caps
Eyebolts
Body joint
Cover joint
End plate joinl
Bu~ers
11\later Services
703
Protection systems
704
Handwheel nut
Handwheel
Gland
Gland Packing
Stuff1ng Box
Stuffing Box Gasket
Stem
Bonnet
Bonnet Bolts
Bonnet Gasket
Wedge Nut
Body
Water Services
Table
705
2. Protection systems
Method
Barometric loop
1. Total overUow
Geometry
lO mm (33ft) loop
without branch
Remarks
Phys ically very safe. but costly
and not always re<.~ lisable.
lnopernble in case ofleakage.
- r-----....
~--~------------f.x
- - --..:--==---..:::::==-.----;
2. A partial or
overflow limit
3. Diverted overflow
Disconnectors:
l. Without moving
parts
sub~tantial
(b)Tec
Non-return valves
Simple an d effective.
Performance and reliability
primarily depend on design a nd
qual ity of components and
manufacture.
706
Country
Regulations
with tests.
agreements and/or
standards
Germany
Great Britain
Belgium
Denmark
Spain
France
Holland
Italy
Sweden
Switzerland
Control
at the
manufacturer's
site
Control
with the
consumer or in
the trade
X
X
X
X
X
X
Water Services
Family 1:
Angular displacement.
Lift valve.
Butterfly valve.
Family 3:
Back-flow preventer.
707
708
Water Services
709
(ii)
(i)
(ii)
We know that the head loss is a loss of pressure induced by any plumbing
appliance mounted on a pipe. The design of the appliance can reduce the head
loss to a minimum. In the case of an NRV, the survey of the hydraulic profile of
the internal parts determines the head loss.
It is usually expressed in feet or metres water column at a given flow . (It can
also be expressed by a coefficient of LlP, k, square function of the average speed
of flow on twice the acceleration of the weight.) The specifications usually
prescribe. for a given nominal diameter. the achievement of a minimum flow
at different values of LlP ranging from 0.5 to 10 m {1.6 to 32 ft) water
column.
710
Endurance tests are very important for an NRV which, insofar as being a
mechanical system, is often tainted with unfavourable prejudice in
comparison with purely hydraulic systems. Without modification of its
principal characteristics (tightness, t..P), the appliance can undergo up to
100,000 cycles of operation at a pressure varying from 6 to 16 bar (90 to 230
lbf/in 2 ) (according to the country), one half in cold water and the other
half in hot water (temperatures varying from 65 to 9 soc (l SO to 200F)
according to the country). This corresponds on average to a minimum
longevity of 10 years.
Opening pressure
Re gulations ca n only exist if they are defined and imposed by the public
authorities and if the application is controlled by the proper bodies.
Wnter Services
711
(ii)
Conformity to criteria
In all the countries where regulations exist, these criteria have been the object
of tests. where the operating mode is defined and where the positive result is
confirmed by the issue of an Approval No. and the right to affix a distinctive
sign on the body of the valve.
The control of the appliance is either carried out by the body which has
prescribed the regulations or by an authorised independent laboratory. whose
results are confirmed by the recommended body.
It is desirable that the definition of the specification is the result of
co-operation between the legislators, the manufacturers and the installers but
it must not be forgotten that the opinion of the legislator is predominant.
Control of appliances when being designed and manufactured is insufficient
if the complete installation itself is not also submitted to the control of the
authorities. In the case of the whole installation having to be joined with an
exterior source, it is the authorisation of the branch which is the ultimate
sanction and constitutes its certificate of conformity.
Finally, it is necessary to watch that the quality of the installation does not
deteriorate with time. This is the purpose of the necessary periodic controls.
carried out by the responsible authorities and which particularly apply to the
appliances subjected to greater approval requests. This is the reason why
NRVs are equipped with bosses in order that controls can be carried out easily.
In some cases the regulations even state quite simply that the appliances are
to be exchanged every 5 years, hence the importance of the valves being of
standard dimensions and also being easily dismountable.
Equally. it is ultimately necessary that regulations and specifications
should extend beyond the national standards, so that the rules applicable to
different countries are rendered identical for aJl. In the NRV field, the specialist
commissions of the European Standards Committee are studying this problem,
with the participation of the different national plumbing syndicates. It is
712
desired that their studies result in rationalisation, reduction of costs and the
elimination of protectionism. of which some national regulatory bodies could
presently be accused.
Pipes and tubes
The most common material used in domestic heating and plumbing systems is
copper tube. This has proven to be a versatile and reliable tubing product,
easily joined by compression fittings or more efficiently by soldering and
brazing. Other methods for joining larger-diameter copper tubing include the
grooved-end upper connection system that eliminates leaks more commonly
associated with soldering and brazing and speeds up installation. The system
is more suited to industrial applications and uses a pressure-responsive
synthetic rubber gasket to seal on the outside of the tubing. Tube sizes range
from 50 to 200 mm (2 to 8 in).
Increasing use is being made of stainless-steel tubing . Particular
advantages offered by stainless steel tubes are:
(a) The appearance of finished pipework is aesthetically pleasing. Both the
satin and the polished finishes are attractive, and the thin walls of capillary
fittings give pipeline and fittings a neat, continuous appearance.
(b) No maintenance is required after installation: the satin finish stays
satin-looking and the polished finish stays polished.
(c) The price is comparatively stable, not fluctuating like copper.
(d) The corrosion-resistance of stainless steel is better than copper in areas of
cupro-solvency and it is not prone to pitting corrosion by water.
(e) The mechanical properties are good. The strength is high which means
that it is less prone to damage in service. Elongation is also high which
gives it good bending properties-as a. comparison, it takes the same
amount of effort to bend 15 mm (0.6 in) stainless tube as a 22 mm (0.9 in)
copper tube. It can be sawn easily with a hacksaw or roller cutter.
(f) Copper or other non-ferrous pipe and fittings are subject to pilfering on
site as they have a high scrap value. Stainless steel does not have a high
second-hand value.
The inherent disadvantage of stainless-steel tubing employed as pressure pipes
has been the difficulty of making leak-free joints (e.g. stainless-steel tubing
used on high-pressure aircraft hydraulic systems is invariably welded). However,
this has now largely been overcome by the availability of suitable fittings ,
solders and fluxes making plumbed joints quite practicable and several jointing
techniques are now well established. These fall into two major categories:
(i)
(ii)
Water Services
713
Techniques using heat to join are welding, soft soldering and silver soldering.
Welding is not used in the majority of plumbing installations although it is an
established technique for the chemical, food and cryogenic industries.
Soldering implies the use of capillary fittings where the i.d. of the fitting socket
is just a few thous greater than the o.d. of the tubing. Capillary attraction pulls
the solder into this gap. To make successful joints in stainless steel it is
essential to recognise two important properties of the metal:
(a) The low thermal conductivity of stainless steel-about 1/ 30 th that of
copper.
(b) The property which gives the metal its stainlessness-this is because a
hard oxide coating is formed within seconds of a nascent surface being
presented to an oxygen-bearing atmosphere. The coating steadily
increases in thickness until a stable protection is achieved.
For successful soft soldering, the outside end of the tube and the inside of
the fitting socket must be abraded with emery cloth to remove the oxide skin.
The prepared surface should then be painted with solder paste and the joint
assembled.
The secret of soldering stainless steel well is not to hurry, to use a small flame
and to make sure that the back of the joint (away from the plumber) gets enough
heat. Using a metal reflector behind the joint can often be a help or. alternatively,
the use of a cyclone burner produces a flame which will curl around the back of
the fitting . vVhen the solder begins to flow a frying sound comes from the joint. The
joint should be completed by end-feeding with solder wire.
Many solder paints have been made and marketed over the years. One with
a 5-year shelf life contains phosphoric acid base flux and also powder of the
tin-lead alloy which has the lowest melting point possible. Phosphoric acid
fluxes are recommended as they only become aggressive and eat up the
tenacious chromium oxide when heated ; they will not continue to attack the
stainless steel when cold.
For silver soldering. it is necessary to use an aggressive chloride-based flux
to eat the oxide and make a good joint. It is important to remember that this
flux must be removed from the joint area (inside and outside) within 24 hours
of making the joint. Usually swilling with water for an hour or so will remove
all trace .
There are many suppliers who market silver solder and brazing rod, together
with flux, especially for joining stainless steel. The majority of these are entirely
satisfactory providing the suppliers' instructions are carefully followed. and
there must be the same care in heating the joint as with soft soldering.
Capillary fittings are at their most efficient when the gap between tube and
socket is uniform. Such uniformity is achieved with a design in which the tube
is held centrally by a specific deformation of the socket at three points.
714
DutiesandService.s
Water Services
715
The cause of leaks in stainless-steel plumbed joints in the past can be mainly
attributed to lack of knowledge of the differences between stainless steel and
copper. It is worth repeating that the low thermal conductivity of the metal
must be recognised. A big flame from a blow-lamp is not enough; time must be
allowed for the heat to soak all round a joint.
The other important difference is seen in the choice of flux . Chloride-based
fluxes are a hazard as they are corrosive on stainless steel. Often hygroscopic
traces of hydrochloric acid can form and cause pitting.
The availability of stainless plumbing as a complete system acts as a
stabilising influence on the cost of plumbing. The growth of the stainless-steel
domestic plumbing market will be affected by three main factors:
(a) the price of copper tubing and fittings, which may well rise again in the
not too distant future;
(b) the price of stainless-steel compression fittings, which is expected to fall:
(c) the availability of an adhesive which will withstand boiling water for long
periods without losing its strength. When this is available. the use of
stainless-steel tubing in central-heating systems will be even more widely
accepted.
Domestic water-supply valves
716
used to isolate individual fittings for servicing without having to drain down
the whole plumbing system. Alternatively, they are used for permanent
plumbing-in of washing machines and other appliances.
The valve has been designed to shut against a test pressure of 20 bar
(300 lbf/in 2 ) and has been accepted by the UK National Water Council
providing that it does not replace the mandatory screw down stop valve.
Handwheel
Tube
cutter
and seal
Saddle
Backplate
Water Services
717
A valve with a self-cutting plumbing-in kit has been developed so that it can
be fitted quickly without having to turn off the water supply. The valve shown
in Figure 9 is suitable for connection to 15 mm copper pipe supplying
domestic cold and low-pressure hot water, and is ideal for plumbing-in
washing machines, drinks dispensers and garden taps, etc.
Thermostatically-controlled flow regulators and stopcocks have been
developed for use with electric instantaneous showers, wall kettles, etc., to
enable a selected temperature to be maintained. The regulator senses
fluctuations in supply pressure causing variations in water flows and
automatically adjusts to provide constant flow across the heater elements,
and thus provide constant temperature.
Hygienic Services
Valves have been developed for use in hygienic pipelines for dairy, brewery,
food, beverage. biological and other process plants, where automatic valves
manufactured to a high standard of hygienic design are demanded. These are
usually stainless-steel valves free from pockets or crevices designed for the
control of both product and 'cleaning-in-place' fluids .
Food and beverages
The food and beverage industry is a large user of gas. steam and water on a
continuous basis, indicating a requirement for general process-control valves
in addition to sterile valves for handling food products. Plastic/ polymer valves
are also a popular choice although use of these may be limited by the need ror
aggressive or caustic cleaning. Manual shut-off valves are used in areas of
planned maintenance shut-down or in problem areas which may need to be
clea red. Products can then be left in the pipeline leaving only a small section
to be cleared and cleaned.
Double-seat valves are ideally suited for 'contained-flow systems'.
eliminating the need for manual swing bends for product and cleaning lines.
Filling, emptying and CIP can take place simultaneously in a totally 'closed-in'
flow system with all functions automatically controlled.
The butterfly valve shown in Figure 1 has a disc/ stem (A) in a 316
stainless-steel one-piece design and produces bubble-tight shut-off. The valve
has acetal stem bushes (B) and a double '0' cup self-adjusting seal (C). The
extended neck (D) allows ror 5 mm of piping insulation. The seat is of a tongue
and groove design (E) and the primary seal (F) is achieved by an interference
fit. The body (G) is a two-piece wafer or lug style. The main feature ol' this
particular type of hygienic valve is its international compatibility.
The rotor valve (Figure 2) is particularly suitable for rood, beverage and
pharmaceutical applications. The main benefits of this type of valve are:
multi-port capability, cavity-free, high- now, top-entry and quick-couple
connection.
Figure 3 shows an air-operated remote-control changeover valve. The
movement of the valve is transmitted by a piston in the actuating cylinder.
Hygienic Services
719
The piston is operated by compressed air arranged to open or close the valve as
required, the return movement being spring-assisted to provide a fail-safe
feature. The diaphragm shaft seal shown is particularly suitable for aseptic
duties involving the use of steam-sterilisation procedures. The seals are
manufactured from PTFE and can be used at temperatures up to 150C
( 302F).
Pharmaceuticals
720
Duties arrdServiccs
011
Hygie11ic Sl'rvices
7 21
4-Way
5-Way
Fig11re 2. Multi-port rotor valves for food, beverage and plwrmaceuUcnl npplicntiorrs.
722
Hygienic Services
72 3
724
The most common material used for hygienic valves and pipes is 316
stainless steel or 18/ 10/ 3 stainless steel, also known as BS 316S16. with
equivalent specifications as follows:
United States: AISI type 316
France: Z.8CND
Sweden: 832 SK and RRNJ44
Germany: V4A Supra
Corrosion of stainless-steel pipelines can readily occur, however, if
sterilising agents based on halogens are allowed to remain in contact with the
metal for extended periods. See also the chapter on Corrosion of Stainless
Steel.
Glass pipelines
While plastic pipe and tube meets much of the demand for non-toxic pipelines,
glass piping may be preferred, or even become essential. for sterile services.
Glass is attacked by only a few reagents, which include hydrofluoric and hot
concentrated phosphoric acids (both of which produce serious corrosion).
superheated water and alkaline solutions.
Figure 6.
BS 3581 fittings with expanded pipe fixing , also available with butt weld fixing.
Figure 7.
Hygienic Services
72 5
Cold alkaline solutions attack glasses very slowly but, as the temperature
increases. the rate of attack rises rapidly. Attack also increases with
increasing alkalinity. Attack by superheated water is seldom serious enough
to prevent satisfactory service life from glass tubes, although the rate of attack
increases with the temperature and alkalinity of the water.
Borosilicate glass pipeline systems are corrosion-resistant and neither rust
nor age. They are used extensively for effluent and venting lines in accordance
with DIN 1986 in scientilic institutes, hospitals, and the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries (Figure 8 ).
However. they have many other applications, e.g. for conveying numerous
other liquids and gases in all branches of industry, laboratories, hospitals and
in the [oodstuffindustry.
A typical borosilicate pipeline system has a 'slip-on' coupling which allows
simple assembly without specialist knowledge and this, together with traps ,
laboratory drip cups and supports, constitutes a range of fittings with which
virtually any installation problem can be solved.
Typical normal bores can be 40, 50, 80, 100 and 150 mm and pipe lengths
between 100 and 2000 rom.
72 6
Hygienic Services
72 7
Steam Services
Steam is water in the vapour phase and is one of the oldest industrial tools.
The first requirement in steam production is to add heat to water until it
reaches its boiling point. It is then necessary to add a much greater quantity of
heat to convert the water to steam.
Steam allows the energy of fuel burned in the heat source or boiler to be
carried to some other point where it can either provide mechanical energy
through an engine or provide heating.
In all types and sizes of oil and chemical plants, energy is used for process
heating, power generation and driving pumps and compressors.
In many refineries, primary steam is obtained by burning waste prpducts in
the boilers. Although steam is the traditional means of conveying heat, there
are a number of alternatives including:
It is not the remit of this handbook to discuss the merits of steam or alternatives,
neither is it appropriate to discuss the subject of steam in its full capacity.
This subject is well documented in another more technical publication and
in some specific manufacturers' literature and publications.
Steam distribution
The most important link between a central steam source and the steam user is
the steam-distribution system. A typical steam circuit is shown in Figure 1.
The steam flow in a circuit is caused by condensation of steam which
produces a pressure drop. This induces the flow of steam through the pipes to
where the heat energy is required.
In operation when the steam outlet (crown) valve is opened, steam passes
immediately from the boiler into and along the main pipes. The pipework is
cold initially so heat is transferred to it by the steam . The air surrounding the
Stemn Services
729
Space
rr=n========ri="~~~==n===--rr=~===, heating
system
Feedtank
Condensate
Boiler
pipes is cooler than the steam, so the pipework will begin to lose heat to the
air. This causes the steam immediately to condense and fall to the bottom of
the pipe.. It is then carried along with the steam flow and by gravity owing to
the gradient in the steam main which normally falls in the direction of steam
flow. The condensate is drained from the lowest points in the pipeline.
By continuously feeding more fuel and water into the boiler, a continuous
flow of steam is maintained to make up for the water which has already
evaporated into steam.
The condensate is usually returned to the boiler feed tank.
The pressure at which the steam is to be distributed is to some degree
determined by the point of usage on the plant needing the highest pressure.
Steam at a higher pressure occupies less volume per kilogram than steam at a
lower pressure.
Steam boilers
Boilers are the most important part of the steam circuit. A boiler is a vessel in
which the heat energy from a fuel is transferred to a liquid. In the case of
saturated steam. a boiler also provides heat energy to produce a phase change
from liquid to vapour. Steam boilers come in all sizes to suit both large and
small applications and operate using different fuels , including commercial
waste, oil, gas and coal.
The choice of fuel is largely dependent on the tariff given to each type of fuel.
Boilers can operate on just one or on two types of fuel (e.g. oil and gas). A
typical package boiler is shown in Figure 2 .
7 30
Superheated steam
Steam produced from the outlet of a shell-type boiler or from the steam drum
of a water-tube boiler can only be saturated steam. \1\later-tube boilers are
often required to produce superheated steam by passing saturated steam from
the steam drum through another set of tubes inside the main furnace area,
where it is heated up beyond its saturation temperature to a gas (superheated
steam). Where superheated steam is required , a boiler incorporating
superheating tubes is essential.
Safety valves
An important boiler fitting is the safety valve. Its function is to protect the
boiler shell from over-pressure and subsequent explosion.
There are many types of safety valves fitted to steam boiler pla nt but they
must all meet the following criteria:
Steam Services
7 31
The full rated discharge capacity of the safety valve(s) must be achieved
within 110% of the boiler design pressure.
The maximum set pressure of the safety valve(s) shall be the design (or
maximum permissible working pressure) of the boiler.
There must be an adequate margin between the normal operating
pressure of the boiler and the set pressure of the safety valve.
A stop valve (crown valve) must be fitted to a boiler in order to isolate the
steam boiler and its pressure from the process or plant.
Typically. stop valves used are generally angle-pattern globe valves of the
screw-down type. Cast-iron valves should not be used for this application.
The stop valve is not designed as a throttling valve and should be fully open
or closed. It should always be opened slowly to prevent any sudden rise in
downstream pressure and associated water hammer. The valve should be of
the 'rising hand wheel' type in order that the valve position can be easily seen.
An inductor fitted to the valve also assists this procedure.
Isolating valves. usually screw-down globe valves with disc-check valves
sandwiched between the flanges of the two stop valves. are used on multi-boiler
applications.
7 32
Feed-check valves
These are installed in the boiler feed-water line between the feed pump and
boiler. A boiler feed stop valve is fitted at the boiler shell.
Bottom blow-down valves
Steam boilers should be fitted with at least one bottom blow-down valve at a
point as close as possible to where sludge or sediment is likely to accumulate.
Blow-down valves should be key operated or automatically controlled by
timers and electronic interlocks.
Air vents and vacuum breakers
Simple cocks and pressure-balanced air vents are designed to purge air from
the steam space (Dalton's Law). Vacuum breakers are fitted on the boiler shell.
They are used when a boiler is taken off-line and the steam space condenses
and leaves a vacuum that can result in damage to boiler flat plates and leaks
from inspection doors.
System valves
In addition to both safety and control valves. butterfly valves are used in
steam-pipeline systems when tight shut-off is required.
Check valves are used for the protection of reverse flow in pipelines. They
are typically of the wafer pattern up to 40 bar.
Ball valves to over 60 bar are commonly installed throughout the system .
Bellows-sealed stop valves are ideal for high-pressure and high-temperature
applications.
Pressure reduction
(i)
Steam Services
High-prrfomwnce open-IJonnet safrty valve for saturated and superheated steam sPrvice.
733
734
RANGE
SPRING ~,,
PILOT
INLET
VALVE
PISTON
PILOT
EXHAUST
VALVE
PILOT
PILOT
- - - EXHAUST
LINE
Steam Services
73 5
Safety valve
Steam-
Trap set
t Condensate
Steam-conditioning valves
'-1
0'
1::::1
s::
;;
"'
Nozzle injectors
:;:,
:::!
:::...
Circuit
Circuit
Cl:l
Circuit
"'....-<::
To lurbinc
.. ----------"\
~~
+1 ~
Application:
For special temperature-control tasks in
industrial power plants.
Application:
For special temperature-control tasks in
industrial power plants.
Application:
For high-pressure (HP) bypass stations during
start-up a nd bypass operation. primarily in
public utility power plants.
Typical design:
Withdrawn pipes. welded flanged
(to DIN, ANSL etc.).
Typical design:
Nozzle arrangement as required .
Division of the spray water among several
immersion pipes possible depending
upon purpose.
Typical design:
Forged, welded connection (to DN, ANSI. etc.).
Type 500: inlet at side.
Type 600: inlet from below.
Remarks:
Low pressure loss. no additional
atomising steam.
Low noise level.
No moving parts: simple ma intenance.
Fitted in all positions.
Sizes: DN 12 5 to DN 1600 (mm).
Remarks:
High-duty nozzles for easy installation in
every pipeline.
No moving parts. simple maintenance.
DN > 50(mm).
Remarks:
In conjunction with the auxiliary control system. it
functions as a safety valve. No external control
media are used . only the existing live steam.
With an electric pressure-control system. the valve
functions as a normal control valve.
;:::;
"'"'
Table 1. Continued
Circuit
--~
p)
r - - - --,
$~
Application:
For controlling all or part of the feed water. also
available in a special version as a boiler filling
valve.
Application:
In plants for pressure control of oil,
water, steam, etc. As auxiliary control
valve. drain valve of start-up flash tank.
Application:
On high- and low-pressure (HP and LP) feed-water
tanks, condensers. etc.
Typical design:
Cast, forged, straight-through valves, angle
valves. welded connections, flanges (to DIN,
ANSI. etc.).
Typical design:
Cast, forged. welded pipe construction, straightthrough valves, welded connections. flanges (to
DIN. ANSI, etc.).
Typical design:
Cast. forged. straight-through valves, angle valves,
welded connections, flanges (to DIN, ANSI, etc.)
Valve parameters (ON, PN) as required.
Remarks:
Versions available for all capacities
encountered in practice.
ON 50 to DN 500 (mm).
Remarks:
Typical sizes and pressure ranges.
From ON 15 to ON 1500 (mm).
From PN 10 to PN640 (bar)
(145 to 9300 lbf/in 2 ).
Remarks:
For plant-specific problems with
evaporating media (cavitation. etc.).
V)
.....
"':;:,3
~
....
<::
;::;
C">
"'
'-1
'-1
73 8
Application:
In all thermal systems where steam
pressures and temperatures are to be
simultaneously reduced, e.g. in steamdistribution systems in industrial plants
and. in particular, as a turbine bypass in
power plants.
Application:
For steam converting plants. combined steam
converting and safety stations and temperaturecontrol equipment.
Typical design:
Cast. forged , straight-through valves. angle
valves, welded connections, flanges (to DIN.
ANSI. etc.).
Typical design:
Cast. forged. straight-through valves. angle
valves. welded connections. flanges (to DJN.
ANSI. etc.). with single- or muJti-stage
perforated cage trim depending upon the
pressure drop to be handled.
Remarks:
Saving of space and improved control quality
as a result of simultaneous pressure
reduction and desuperheating in one
single valve.
Maximum design data for valves supplied
to date: 700 t/ h. 2 76 bar (4000 lbf/ in 2 )
56 5C (l050 F).
Remarks:
DN 15 to ON 150 (mm) and higher.
Steam Services
7 39
Thermodynamic type
Thermostatic type
7 40
Steam-trap monitors
This type of unit enables steam traps to be checked while they are working.
Typically, it consists of a sensor chamber capable of distinguishing bet\t\reen
steam and condensate and is fitted upstream of the steam trap. It is suitable for
continuous monitoring and can operate on saturated steam systems up to
32 bar. The unit can be used with any type of steam trap.
Air vents
The three primary barriers to heat transfer are films of water, air and scale. By
far the most resistant to heat transfer is air. In fact, air is more than 1500
times more resistant to heat transfer than iron or steel and no less than
13,000 times more resistant than copper.
Thermostatic air vents automatically open to air and gases, but shut
against steam. They discharge air full bore on start-up and open during
running whenever air collects, irrespective of steam pressure. Air vents
should be located furthest away from the steam inlet because this is where air
tends to collect. Where possible they should be fitted at all high points in the
system. Manually-operated air cocks are not suitable when dealing with air
and uncondensable gases that are mixed in with steam.
Steam Services
741
Balanced-pressure air vents are the most widely accepted type of air vent.
because they operate close to the steam-saturation temperature and can
therefore differentiate between pure steam and air/ steam mixtures. They have
a high resistance to superheat and water hammer.
Pipeline sizing
fluid velocity
pressure drop
742
DutiesandServices
regular intervals, at all low points where the condensate can collect. Drain
points at intervals of 30-50 m (100-1 SO ft) are usual and they are most
effective where pipework changes direction.
Pipework should be arranged so that pockets where water can collect are
avoided. Globe valves of under-and-over construction can also form a weir
and prevent condensate from flowing to the next drain point. If the valve is
fitted on its side, this can usually be avoided. It is important also to note that
branch lines are normally much shorter in length than the steam mains.
Sizing branch lines on the basis of a given pressure drop is Jess convenient on
short lengths of pipe.
Branch-line pipe sizes are normally selected from a table based on pipeline
capacities at specific velocities.
Branch connections should always be taken from the top of the main so that
the driest steam is taken.
Steam tracing
Fire-Safe Valves
Defining industrial fires is a difficult task.
They can range from smoking. oxygen-poor, low-temperature fires with
their resultant low heat flux to the extreme of a hydrogen-jet fire with flame
temperatures exceeding 2800C (5000F).
No valve is an entity by itself in a fire. The entire system has to be considered
and includes effects on pipe supports. pressure-retaining bolting tanks, and
concrete structures.
The API (American Petroleum Institute) fire tests were designed specifically
for valves in oil and gas production plants. Over many years the tests have
been refined and adapted for many different industrial plants. API 607 (Rev
4). API 6FA and BS 6755, BS 5146 are the accepted standards for fire tests
today and adopt the same procedures. Other test standards and procedures
include OCMA FSV-1, Exxon BP3-14-l , FM 6033 and API RP6F. Many users
have also established their own corporate standards for fire-safe valves.
A strategy of fire fighting that appears to be universal as far as fire duration
is concerned is that if the fire is not beaten in one half hour, a withdrawal and
containment policy is instituted. This comes from structural component
failures such as pipe-rack collapse, flange-bolt failures and concrete eruptions
due to water of hydration changing to steam.
Based on the limiting factors of ancillary equipment, a test duration of one
half hour was established.
The basis of all fire tests is that a pressurised valve must operate after being
burned at a specified high temperature for a specified period and leakage after
burning {which will destroy soft seals) must remain within specified limits .
Valve-open or valve-closed test
Soft-seated valves which employ seats on both the upstream and downstream
side of the obturator will trap fluid in the cavity formed by these seats and the
pressure shell. If this fluid is an incompressible liquid, increases in
temperature will cause the pressure of the trapped fluid to rise dramatically.
Calculation and rather simple experiments both show that a trapped
hydrocarbon liquid will increase in pressure by 12 bar for every oc of
temperature rise.
7 44
This is a known problem that has been so overlooked that paragraph 2.3.3
of the American National Standards B16.4, 'Valves-Flanged, Threaded and
Welding end', warns about the effects of thermal expansion of fluids trapped in
double-seated valves.
While some ball-valve designs are capable of automatically relieving this
cavity pressure when in the closed position to the upstream side. others may
not.
In OCMA FSV-1, the test did not evaluate the valve's resistance to
cavity-pressure rise as conditions with the valve open and a vent hole in the
ball stem slot did not represent those of a closed valve. API insists on a cavityfilled closed test.
Specific API test requirements are:
(a) The valve shall be tested in the closed position with water, with the stem
and bore in the horizontal position. Check valves will be tested in their
normal operating position.
(b) The valve will be uniformly enveloped in flame having a temperature of
761-871 oc (1400-1600F) average of two thermocouples, one located 25
mm (1 in) below the valve and the other 25 mm (1 in) from the upper stem
packing box on the horizontal centreline. No reading shall be belo-w
704 oc (1300F). Piping upstream of the test valve larger than 25 mm (1 in)
nominal pipe size or one half of valve nominal pipe size (whichever is
smaller) must be enveloped in flame for a distance of at least 152 mm
(6 in).
(c) The end connection piping-to-valve joint leakage (flanged, threaded or
welded) is not considered a part of this test and is not included in the
allowable external leakage. For the test, it may be necessary to modify this
joint to eliminate leakage.
Suggested systems for fire testing to API specifications are shown in Figures
1 and 2. Figure 2 is a schematic outline for systems using compressed gas as
the pressure source. Test procedure is as follows:
Open valve(s) (items 5 and 6) at water source, and any necessary vent
valves (item 17) to flood the system and purge the air. The test valve
may have to be placed in the partially-open position in order to
completely flood the valve body.
(ii) Close fill valve (item 5) and vent valves (item 17). and close the test
valve (item 11 ). The system upstream of the test valve should be
completely water-filled and the system downstream shall be drained.
(iii) Pressurise the system to the appropriate pressure from Table 1.
Maintain this pressure during all testing. Record the reading on the
calibrated sight gauge (item 4). Empty the graduated downstream
container (item 19).
(i)
Fire-Safe Valves
745
I. Pressure source.
2.Pressure regulator and relief.
3. Vessel for water.
4.Calibratcd sight gauge
S.Water supply.
o.Shutoff valve .
7. Pressure gauge.
~.Piping arranged to proviue v(:Jpour trap.
9. Enclosure for test - horizontal clearance
between any part of the valve and the
enclosure shall be a minimum of 152 mm
(6 in).
IO.Minimum height of enclosure shall he
152 mm (fi in) above the top of the valve.
I!. Test valve mounted horizontally with
stem in horizontal position.
746
(iv) Open fuel supply, establish a fire, monitor the flame temperature, and
when the average of the two thermocouples (items 13 and 14) reaches
761 oc (1400F) start the test. Maintain the average temperature
between 761 and 871 oc (1400 and 1600F) for the test duration. No
reading shall be less than 704C (1300F).
(v) Record instrument readings (items 7. 13, 14 and 15) every 2 min for
the test duration.
(vi) At the end of the test duration ( 15 or 30 min), shut off the fuel.
(vii) Immediately determine the amount of water collected in calibrated
container (item 19) to establish total through-valve seat leakage.
Continue recording the amount of water collected for use in
establishing the external leakage rate. If the test valve is of the
upstream sealing type, the volume or water that is trapped between
the upstream seat seal and the downstream seat seal (when the valve
is closed) shaH be determined before the test is started and identified in
the test report. It is assumed that during the test this volume of water
would move through the valve, past the downstream seat seal and be
collected in the calibrated container. This volume has not actually
leaked past the upstream seat seal, so it may be deducted from the total
volume measured in the downstream calibrated container when
determining the through-valve leakage.
(viii) Allow the test valve to cool to 93F (200F) or less. Use temperaturesensitive crayons or other suitable means to indicate valve-body
temperature near the thermocouples (items 13 and 14). Record the
level in the sight gauge (item 4) . Use the initial and final readings to
determine total leakage during the test.
(ix) Close the shut-o ff valve (item 16) and operate the test valve against
test-pressure differential (Table 2) to the full-open position.
(x) Measure and record external leakage for a minimum of 5 min after
valve is in the full-open position at test pressure. Divide the total external
leakage by the duration of the test in minutes to obtain the external
Through
leakage rate
Maximum
allowed
Burn period
Zero
5600
External
leakage rate
Maximum
allowed
Zero
1400
Zero
280
Zero
2800
Cool down
Low hydrostatic
pressure test
High hydrostatic
pressure test
Zero
560
Fire-Safe Valves
747
leakage rate. The test system, excluding the test valve, may be adjusted
during the test period to keep the test within the limits specified herein.
Fire-safe ball valves
Fire-safe ball valves are manufactured for applications in explosive and fire-risk
environments, and are specifically designed to prevent the spread of fire. The
fire-safe ball valve shown in Figure 3 is of the floating ball type fire-tested to
API 607, API 6FA and BS6755 Part 2. This type of valve is suitable for use in
the oil. chemical. petrochemical and pharmaceutical process industries.
The floating ball design relies on the downstream movement of the ball due
to pressure differential to effect a seal against a resilient seat ring. The valve
employs a double-stage sealing arrangement and independently loaded
graphite fire-safe packing that remains unaffected by any deterioration of the
main PTFE chevron packing set under fire conditions.
Butterfly valves
Type of
valve
Spec 6D
valves
Spec 6/\
valves
Test pressure
Valve rating
{PN)'
Jbf/ in 1
bar
150 {20)
300 (10)
400 (64)
600 (100)
900(150)
1 500 (250)
2500(420)
210 10%
54010%
720 10(}(,
1080 10%
1620 10%
2700 10%
4500 10!.,
(14.510%)
(3 7.2 10%)
(49.610%)
(74.5 10%)
(111. 710%)
(186.2 10%)
(310.310%,)
(bar)
2000 (130)
3000 (207)
5000 (345)
10,000 (690)
15,000 (1034)
20 .000(1 379)
150010%
2250 10%
375010%
75 00 10%
11.2 50 10%
15.00010%
(103.4 10%)
(15 5.1 10%)
(2 58 .6 10%)
(51 7.] 10%)
(775. 7 10%)
(1034.2 10t){,)
' (PN) is the pressu re class designation utilised in ISO (Internationa l Standards Organisation)
documents.
74 8
performance, fire-tested to API 6FA and BS6755 Part 2. The block and bleed
seal configuration consists of two metal-laminate seals with an intermediate
bleed channel. which connects to the bleed purge port in the valve body when
the disc/ segment is in the closed position. The valve is designed as a
replacement for gate, globe. ball or plug valves.
Some advantages claimed of a triple-offset segment valve over ball, gate and
plug valves are given in Table 3.
Flame arresters
ITEM COMPONENT
BODY
~---- --10
92--1~
9 \,. -~~
93
~~
- sea
2"-1
?2
BALL H ALF
2b
BALL LOCKING
2c
BALL KEY
STEM
STEM 81\LL
'>
BALL SI'IHNG
GLAND
G LAND SCREW
9
10
11
20
21
I~ING
COVER
CO VER SCRW
SLEEVE
SLEEV E SeA L
SEAT RING
22
C HF.VRON RING
2.1
SPREADER RI NG
24
H EADER RING
25
STOP PLATE
89
LEVER OR "fliAil/ADAPTOR
li- ~
90
LEVER SCREW
!:11
LEVER WASHER
92
9J
COVER GASKET
PlRE SEAL
Figure 3. Fire tes t certified.floatingfull-bore ANSi class 1 SO and 300 ball valve.
Firi'-Safe Valves
749
0#1;1111:1
A
:a:;;::
, . c;;:
M7654/C
In
APPROVAL CERTIFICATE
I:III;IUII
..
L ' :=-i+f
'*I'. . .
j _ lo
' ~-
---u:
Cl1ent:OM8Sr~A~------------------------------L~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~t~~0~4~
. 1~1~.9~6~----------
Tho undr&igncd ALFIO N ICOUNI, Surveyor Of BUREAU VERITAS, acting wnhin the 5COPU ol the genent
ti''IT'H1i1i()ns which l tgullltC rhe lnterv&mione of our company, did fl ttfllnd. Dt roquc:t of Mes.srs OMB SPA
Ct.NA'I 1.: SOT rO BERGAMO to thttlf wo;k~ f ot tho purpo"e of wi1ne~sing the F~re Sofo Tas.t according to
API fi07 198E ond 85 6756 PART 21987 on the following '"'
I
Ball Side fn1'Y BSE frunn1on Valvo 900 lbs. Fl11nged Stock Finish
size 6 x 4 Reduced Sou~
Moterlol BodyCiovre : ASTM A I 05N + ENP
M aterilol Soot: A STM At82 F8e Clou Z ... NVIon 12
Mo!uriol S<m: ASTM A 106N + ENP
Motoril Bali : ASTM A 182 f6o Cia$$ 2
M on..-facrvrcd and
a::;~emblccl
in
neeord~l'\ce
uxpo~t.>d to fire lor 30- minute.!!, end dunng lht te st olt pt~ramettrs, u
feQulrad by API
607 ond BS6J56 P1n 2 . w ert c hecked. rGCordcd end fo~om~ according to STD ~qultements.
For turthLtf de:rolls of tnt 1rnngcments ond test rttaults, aLtO OMS Cerrtflc1ne no 1689 herewith nec tmd
af"'d duly undonu~d.
ON THE SASIS OF THE RESULTS,THE AllOVE !JALL VALVE SATISFACTORLY PASSED THE FIRE SAFE
TEST
'==:r
we -
[~ I
J
Typical/ire-safe certification.
'-1
U1
Table 3. Advantages of triple-offset segment valve over gate and plug valves
Gate
Plug
Triple-offset segment
Ball
t::l
s::
Sealing
Actuation
Consistent torque.
1 / turn rotation.
4
Stops must be set.
Low torque.
1/ turn rotation.
4
No stops required.
Seat provides mechanical stop.
;;
"":::::::.
Throttling
Not used
Impractical
Yes
Yes
Relative size
Bulky.
Automation very large.
Light-weight.
Most compact..
\-Iaintenance
costs
Medium.
Very low.
Labour
intensity
HIGH
Installation (heavy weight).
Manual actuation (high torque).
Preventive maintenance.
Overall maintenance.
HIGH
Installation (heavy weight).
Manual actuation (high torque).
Preventive maintenance.
MEDIUM
VERY LOW
Light-weight.
i\{aintenance is simple.
High
High
Highest
Highest
Long
Highest
High
High
High
High
Long
High
Medium
Lower
Low
Low
Long
Low
Cos t of ownership
Purchase
Installation
Operation
Maintenance
Life
Cost of actuation
Medium to heavyweight.
Body needs to be split for
maintenance.
Lowest
Lowest
Lowest
Lowest
Long
Lowest
V':l
'....<::""
;:;
""""
Fire-Safe Valves
751
Graph
No.
I
3
4
63
21f2
76
100
3
4
127
152
5
6
6
7
200
!0
200
II
250
300 to 500
10
12 to 20
12
Graph No.
1 2
Vl
:::l
.s:::
~ J
~
'-
II
I
v
_j
v
I
II/ lj
I
f1/; I v vv v v vv
v
v
v
/
/
/
1/ /;
v
v
v v
/
I
II
v
/ v vv
v
~. l ~ v v v v
/ v
[,/
_,./
()
10
15 20
40
50
60 70
___..--- /
25 30
12
1/ v
10
~/
/ "
80 90 100 120
For other gases the equivalent air flow is given by multiplying the gas flow by the
square root of its specific grav1ty .
240 280
7 52
also used for purging gas mains, on the air intakes of internal combustion
engines, and in many processes using solvents and gases.
Flame arresters are made in two basic forms : for fitting into pipelines, and
onto the end of a pipe. The elements are made up of two strips of thin foil. one
corrugated and the other plain. The strips are placed together and coiled into
circular elements to give a spiral matrix of triangular cells and the whole
assembly is fitted into an outer case.
Elements are made with various cell sizes and widths depending on the
applications and the gas or vapour concerned. Elements are constructed
either from cupro-nickel with a brass outer case, or stainless steel for both
matrix and casing.
Flame arresters should be inspected frequently as part of routine plant
maintenance and cleaned as necessary, and certainly if excessive pressure
drop is experienced due to fouling of element cells. In the event of a flash-back,
0.018 ir;, cell height
Graph
No.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
24
13 14 IS
16
17
18
I 1/1/
/i;1/
I
127
152
2
3
8
8
10
12 to20
v/ /v
v v v v / vv
v
/
20
19
/v v
v
IV I / vv v
1
76
100
I Iv
I
1/
2 1/2
200
200
250
300to 500
22
23
Graph No.
50
63
v y l--"'v
~/
./
,/
v v/
/
__.. /
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 I 2 14 16 18 20
Air flow cu ft/hr (OOO's) 20
23
24
V,/ /
/
~/
22
21
25
10
35
40
50
For other gases the e quivalent air flow is given by multiplying the gas flow by the
square root of its specific gravity .
60
70
80
Fire-Safe F alves
7 53
7 55
7 56
KEY
3.5
f -1- ~ --
3.21
Extract from
3.0
1 IS
2.SO
2000
t:Jt:.
2.25
VI
7.0
t:Jt:.
<
co
....
=>
VI
1.7 BAR
-r-
t:Jt:.
a...
l.IS
Zl
1.25
Cv~
!I
l0
~I
0.71
6Pi...n.!J
Q .. flow role in Litres/Sec
V
!5
~ J 6P =Pressure drop across valve in metres
0.50
0.21
0
800
910
1100
1210
1400
lSSO
1100
1850
2000
2150
1300
'
1450
1600
1710
2900
JOSO
3200
3310
JSOO
If the valve seat and 0-seal to the body cover need to be replaced. it is
important to ensure that the main has been depressurised before the valve is
dismantled.
Depending on local conditions. fire-hydrant valves should be inspected at
least every 3 months for:
1. physical damage to the surface box
2. rubble or silt in the chamber preventing access to the hydrant
3. loss of parts.
Every 12 months, the valve should be tested unless the visual inspection
reveals any damage. The valve should be checked to see that it is free from
leaks and operates correctly when fully open.
Fire landing valves
75 7
Pressure-regulating valves
Combined hydrant-stop and pressure-regulating valves are used for a wide range
of fire-protection equipment suitable for refinery, chemical, petrochemical pian ts
and offshore applications.
The Class 'F' valve shown in Figure 2 is a high-pressure regulator.
It is suitable for:
7 58
The reducing-valve element is opened by the load applied to the pressureadjusting spring and closed by the reduced pressure acting upon the
underside of the low-pressure seal.
Under working conditions, the balance of these two forces determines the
degree of valve opening required to maintain a a steady outlet pressure.
Pressure control is achieved by a venturi section in the outlet flow area.
Valves of this type may also be fitted with a set-pressure override device
which , when actuated, allows full opening of the valve without regulating the
downstream pressure, thereby bringing it close to the available inlet pressure.
Marine Services
The main requirement in marine valves is full material compatibility with the
fluid being handled. e.g. gunmetal or nickel- aluminium bronze being a
normal choice for sea-water systems. Corrosion problems are often
aggravated by the fact that many such valves, e.g. sea cocks. can remain open
or closed for long periods. The type of valve used is largely immaterial
provided it performs the required function, but ball valves are genera lly
preferred. Table 1 lists some applications typical of naval vessels where the
highest standards are normally specified.
Environmental pollution caused by a series of oil tanker accidents has
resulted in a number of attempts to improve standards and legislation in the
marine sector. Until legislation is formally established, there will be
uncertainty about requirements for valves and users should always look to
the highest standards ror guidance.
7 60
Application and
working pressure
Material
Valve
type
Systems
LP fluid services
Generall5.86 bar
(230lbf/in.!)
Gunmetal
flanged
Sea-water
Chilled water
Fresh water
Air
Furnace fuel oil
Diesel fuel oil
Lubricating oil
LP fluid services
General!5.86 bar
(230 lbf/in 1 )
MP fluid services
34.4 7 bar
(500 lbf/in 2 )
Ni. Al,
bronze
Screwed
Sea-water
Female 13SP Chi lieu water
Air
Furnace fuel oil
Diesel fuel oil
Lubricating oil
LP fluid ~ervices
General 15.86 bar
(230 lbf/in 2 )
Aluminium
Screwed
Some cooling systems
Fem<~le BSP Air systems
Fuel systems
Lubricating oil
Where weight is at a premium
LP fuel systems
15.86bar
(230 lbf/in 2 )
Fire-sa fp
Carbon steel
Flanged
LP fuel systems
15.86 bar
(230 lbf/in 2 )
Fire-safe
Stainless steel
Flanged
HP fuel systems
62.05 bar
(900 Jbf/io 2 )
Fire-safe
Carbon steel
Flanged
Fire-safe valves.
MP fuel systems
27.58 bar
(400 lbf/in 1 )
Fire-safe
Carbon steel
Flanged
ANSI 300
l-IP hydreaulic
fluids
62.05 bar
(900 lbf/in 1 )
Carbon steel
Screwed
Female
BSPor
unified
Missile handling
hydraulics
HP air
Gun turret. general
service hydraulics
Propellor pitch control
Actuators
5.25 bar
(RO lbf/ in 1 )
8.27 bar
(120 lbf/in 2 J
Steel and
aluminium
Remarks
Fire-safe valves.
MarineService~
Globl' valvPs with 11011-turning stems for certain marine service applications.
761
762
Duties andServices
When loading and discharging liquids and gases through port installations,
environmental requirements insist that valves must be leak-tight to avoid
leakage into harbours and docks. There is also a requirement for ancillary
services such as water, fire-fighting. boiler, bilge and tank cleaning , with the
latter having leak-tight requirements. Gas movements in offshore areas a re by
pipeline and tanker and both safety and environmental requirements call for
leak-tight operations.
Vacuum Services
The main types of valves used for vacuum services are butterfly, diaphragm,
globe, gate and ball valves. Typical forms of diaphragm vacuum valves are
shown in Figure 1.
The factor which limits the pressure at which a diaphragm valve can be
used is that a large area of elastomer (usually nitrile rubber) is exposed to the
process. At low pressures, the molecules trapped on the surface of the
elastomer are given off, limiting the ultimate pressure which can be obtained.
Although materials such as Viton and PTFE, which have lower outgassing
rates, can be used, it is more usual to employ different types of valve for
low-pressure applications.
In medium to high applications where automatic or remote control is
required, magnetically-operated valves can be used. These valves have nitrile
rubber \"lasher seals which are kept open under spring load. Air admittance
valves, which automatically open when switched off, are also available. As a
general rule, reinforced diaphragms are used in valves for vacuum services.
The ba II valve shown in Figure 2 is a soft-seated bi-directional sealing valve
suitable for vacuum down to 2 x 10 - l torr. The standard seat-ring material is
virgin PTFE or UHMW Polyethylene.
High-performance butterfly valves using the wafer-type sealing principle
are capable of vacuum tight sealing up to 2.264 x 10- 5 bar (2 x 10- 2 torr)
(Figure 3 ).
Figure I.
764
zo-2 torr.
Vawum Services
765
-----
/
/
/
Double eccentnc disc
prevents p1vormg
on seat. reduces torque
and seat wear .
actio~
/
,.-/
/
Spherteal profile
of disc edge.
766
Figure 4. Vawtcm seal-off valve (left) and valve operator ( rigil t).
Table 1. Valves for vacuum services
Vacuum
Valve type
Rough to
medium
Diaphragm
Globe
Ball
Ball
Plate
Quarter-turn
swing valve
Gate
Baffle valves
Very high
Right-angle
plate valve
Quarter-swing
valve
Ball valve
Gate valve
Baffle valve
Ultra-high
High
conductivity
type
Medium to
high
Remarks
Vacuum Services
767
Cryogenic Valves
Cryogenics is the branch of physics dealing with processes and materials at
very low temperatures, normally below -lOPC (-239F). The need to
handle very low-temperature liquids and gases is a commonplace
requirement with fluids such as oxygen , liquid hydrogen and nitrogen.
Valves that can provide tight shut-offfor isolation or modulation for control
requirements at temperatures down to -196C ( -410F) are an essential
part of process plant.
Valves that are lightweight in construction are better suited to cryogenic
use since the valve mass which must be cooled down from ambient to
cryogenic temperatures on start-up is much reduced . Also, the lower
conductivity of lighter weight valves can assist in reducing heat influx which
can occur in heavier design styles of valve.
The use of valves in low-temperature and cryogenic conditions presents an
array of problems.
Cryogenic Valves
769
CONE GIL
~
t:c
:z:
Ill
SEAL OFFSET
Triple-offset geometry.
7 70
Valves designed for low-temperature but not cryogenic services may follow a
similar form, but not necessarily, the same extended bonnet. Valve bodies may
also be in carbon steel instead of stainless steel. Suitable carbon steels are
available for services down to -73C ( -100F).
Triple offset
Cryogenic Valves
7 71
The shall offsets are created by designing the valve with the shaft located
behind the centre-line of the sealing surface and slightly to one side of the pipe
centre-line. The function of these offsets is to reduce the rubbing and thus the
wear between the seat and seal to approximately 20 of travel as well as to
eliminate all seat to seal rubbing throughout the valve's entire 90 of rotation
(Figure 2).
Typically, triple-offset valves (TOSV) of this type used for cryogenic duties
have a resilient stainless-steel ring installed in the disk assembly and it is this
that provides a true 'zero-leakage' seal.
The seal and seat-contact surface is 'cone-in-cone' where both cones are
inclined and the angle of contact between the seal and seat generates a slight
'".redging effect that flexes and radially compresses the disc-seal ring. The valve
is able to shut-off completely, regardless of the direction of flow or line pressure.
Ball valves
Double-seal, reduced- and full-bore ball valves are used for LPG , LNG , thermal
fluids and other cold applica tions including oxygen and nitrogen (Figure 3 ).
Figure 2.
Trip/1'-o}]:~et
772
DutiesandServices
Fig uri' 3. Double-sealed reduced- and full-bore ball vn]vC' for cold applications.
Cryogenic Valves
Stainl~s
steel
Optional VCR
bonne t purge port
CLOSED
Non-contacting guide
to reduce conwdive
nput
KEL-P~
seat seal
D ---
773
774
DuUesandServices
Nuclear Services
Nuclear valve glands
Adjustable stem
sea ling. Double
Belleville washers:_-----::~~
compensate for
wear and temperature
fluctuations.
Resilient seats
to give bubbletight staling.
Quarter-turn.
Handle indicates direction of flow.
77 6
NuclearServices
777
778
Duties nndServices
~rcfully mttctl~.
hJrd SUrllK:n (JfOJhiO).
2 or 3 bolt~
Ttorcad
SpMg washcs
(8 0 iiOVIII9 typo)
lor mo3Sunng arod conttOihng
d=Jge
Play
0 5 n>m radodl
or Ra t 6 ,, or bolf(lf.
metal nng
W atct'l conosion.
Or speciiCitlly
mouldeo Mel
Fluid to be sealed.
Bush 10 reducv htlrghl
Water 300-320 c
170- 180 bar
of overlong gland
NuclearServices
779
The gland material now generally considered the most suitable in application
is nuclear-purity expanded graphite (plus corrosion inhibition, if specifically
called for). This is readily formed in mechanically sound rings from tape to
provide the necessary resilience and deformability to behave as an efficient seal.
To accommodate extrusion of the packing, expanded-graphite rings are
normally combined with plaited rings at the top and bottom of the gland-a
logical choice here for high-temperature working being pure graphite/ asbestos
braided packing which can also incorporate a corrosion inhibitor and a
suitable proportion of anodes material to act as a sacrificial anode. An
alternating arrangement of graphite fibre and expanded-graphite rings does
not produce as satisfactory a seal.
The braided packing rings serve to eliminate the risk of extrusion of the
expanded graphite where radial play at the bottom of the box exceeds 0. 5 and
0 . 3 3 mm ( 0 .02 and 0.01 in) around the gland follower.
This packing arrangement, after extensive laboratory testing by EDF. has
been used successfully in French nuclear power plants for many years and is
rapidly being extended through all primary circuits.
Should it be necessary to avoid asbestos products, rendering even wet-spun,
dust-free product unacceptable, a graphite fibre packing can be employed for antiextrusion purposes. This would, however, introduce problems of fragility and of
potential corrosion risks (the stem alloys having to be chosen with extreme care).
Gland dimensions
The dimensional relationship between stem, box and packing rings is of prime
importance. Interference between ring and stem with play between ring and
box is to be avoided as leading to high stem torque and poor sealing. lt is
preferable to begin with a tight fit to the box and a small clearance to the stem,
O.lmm (0.0004 in).
Surface finish is important, particularly on the valve stem, to realise
minimum packing wear and low operating torque. Recommended values are
Ra = 0.4 m for the stem and Ra = 1 . 6 m for the gland surface.
Spring discs
relaxation of the packing, very slight for expanded graphite, of the order
of 4% at 3 50 bar ( 5000 lbf/in 2 )
vvear
differentia I expansions
temperature variations
The introduction of spring discs also assist the precision with which gland
loadings can be determined (i.e. by height reduction of disc). The cost of
suitable spring discs is small in relation to the advantages they bring.
Gland geometry
The use of braided packings that lose volume too readily and harden in
use.
(ii) Damage to packing rings during fitting.
(iii) Bad meeting of ring ends where cut rings are used .
(iv) Incorrect disposition of ring joints, forming leak path.
(v) Insufficient gland loading.
(vi) Poor support to stem.
(vii) Poor ability of packing to withstand thermal shock.
(viii) Reduction in gland loading owing to packing relaxation, packing
wear/ volume loss.
(ix) Incorrect dimensional tolerances bet\Veen stem / packing box.
(x) Gland too deep.
(xi) Stem-surface finish of low order.
10
20
30
40
50
60
8-10
10
12
Nuclear Savices
781
Special safety standards are required for the design of piping in nuclear plants.
For a proposed British PWR plant, the design is based on the American
Standardised Unit Nuclear Power Plant System (SNUPPS).
The safety-related piping are those pipelines associated with the safe
operation and shut-down of the reactor. These can vary from the main
coolant loop pipelines to the coolant high-pressure injection systems, and the
coolant pipelines necessary for heat removal from the reactor.
In a typical SNUPPS design. the length of safety-related piping can be
approximately 17,100 m (56.090 ft) out of a total length of piping of about
90,000 m (2 9 5.200 ft) . The design code used is the ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code Section III and the safety-related piping are class 1, 2 and 3
pipelines. The ANSI B31 .1 Power Piping Code is also used for other piping
within the safety-related buildings, which consist of the reactor. auxiliary.
control, fuel and diesel buildings.
Piping systems are designed to withstand the dead-weight of the pipe and
contents and, where applicable, to withstand temperature changes and
pressures up to 197 bar (2856lbf/in 2 ). Design for earthquake and pipe-break
conditions has also to be taken into consideration.
A PWR plant is to be designed to withstand an earthquake at a level of0.2 5 g
free field. The Safe Shutdown Earthquake (SSE) is the level of earthquake at
782
DutiesnndService.s
Seamless pipe bend of the material x 10 CrNiNb 18 9 ( 1.4 5 50) within a piping system in n 1wclenr
power station. Pipe dimensions: 348 mm inside diameter. 40 111m wall thickness: bendillfJ radius
R=I.5 X OD.
which the station is designed to be shut dmvn safely, with continued capacity
for heat removal from the reactor core, but not necessarily to have the ability
to be started up again. The Operational Shutdown Earthquake (OSE) is a level
set which, if exceeded, will result in the initiation of a controlled shut-down of
the station. This level of earthquake has been set as one fifth of the SSE. As at
the set level of OSE, the piping design is still covered by the analysis carried out
under SSE loading, the only additional piping analysis required is in the
detailed fatigue analysis required for class 1 piping. Sample analyses on
selected class 1 pipes will be carried out to determine the effect of the
additional cycles of OSE events on fatigue usage factor.
Pipe-break conditions are considered in high-energy pipelines containing
fluid at a temperature above 95C (203F), and/ or at a pressure exceeding 19
bar (2 7 5 lbf/ in 2 ). Although piping is designed not to break, in order to ensure
the safety of a PWR station under all foreseen circumstances, there is a
requirement that breaks in high-energy pipelines arising from unanticipated
events are considered. Piping \Vhich falls into this category includes the main
reactor coolant piping as \Veil as subsidiary piping systems.
Nuclear Services
78 3
{i)
Other inputs will include water or steam hammer where these are likely to
occur, detailed system transients for class 1 analysis, and general vibration
caused by pumps where this can be identified as a likely occurrence.
Unit
lbf/ in 2
N/in 2
Pa
kgf/ cm 2
bar
Atm. G.
1 kgf/cm 2 = 14.2 2 3 lbf/ in 2 (AT)
1 N/ in 2 = 1.45038 x 10-4 lbf/in 2
785
wall thickness
selection of materials
greater care in heat treatment and condition of materials
an extremely high standard of non-destructive testing and quality control
finer limits and fits. and surface finishes
(f) closing members are more precisely formed
(g) high manufacturing precision
(h) each valve should have stress checks against application.
High-pressure valves
High-pressure valves fall into specific categories. All valves used on hydraulic
circuits, for example, are high-pressure types, typically designed and
constructed to accommodate working pressures of 140 bar (2000 lbf/in 2 ), or
higher in other specialised systems (e.g. aircraft hydraulics).
Table 1. Typical high-pressure applications
Pressure
Medium
Application
Oil
Hydrogen
Steam
Light gases
Natural gas
Hydraulic systems
Propulsion systems
Boiler plant
Liquefaction
Wellhead
Drilling
Urea production
Hydrogenation
Ammonia
Oil field: reinjection
Oil field: reinjection
Cement
Water
Methane
Natural gas
Oil/water/gas (mixed)
Oil/gas
Wellhead completion
Wellhead choke and kill
Ethylene
Low-density polyethylene
production
MetaJ
Hydrostatic extrusion
Minerals
78 6
78 7
Lens ring
2000 to JOOO bar
I inch and above
Figurl' 1.
fiyurc3.
Cone ring
2000 to 3000 bar
Smaller sizes, ie instrument lines
Figure 2.
Ring joint
Up to 400 bar
All sizes
Figurf 4.
78 8
suitable for larger sizes provided torque is then transmitted through a suitable
gearbox. Pneumatic actuators are suitable for smaller valves provided the
mechanical advantage is increased via a suitable gearbox.
No matter what the application , it will be found that, in addition to high
pressures, other conditions invariably prevail, whether it be temperature,
Union joint
2000 to 3000 bar
S ma ll sizes
Figure 5 .
High-pressure check valve rated to 6000 lb/ in2 withflexible seal sent.
789
SECTION 9
Engineering Data
Glossary
Standards and Designations
Glossary
ABOVE GROUND: specifically referring to installations associated with a
buried pipeline that are physically above the ground level (e.g. valves, etc.).
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE: pressure above absolute vacuum; or, in practice,
gauge pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
ACME THREAD: square-cut thread form.
ACTUATOR: a device supplying force and motion to the closure member
(ball, disc. plug, etc.) of a valve.
ADAPTOR: coupling or fitting used to connect pipes of different diameter
sizes, join pipes of similar diameter but in different metals, join pipes with ends
fabricated for different types of joints.
AERIAL MARKER: pipeline marker post visible from the air.
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE: temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
ANCHOR BLOCK: concrete (or similar) block to which a pipe is attached, or
in which it is embedded. to prevent movement.
ANGLE VALVE: type or globe valve with inlet and outlet passages at right
angles. or some other angle {oblique valve).
ANNULAR FILL: material filling the annular space between a pipe and a
sleeve surrounding it.
ANNULUS: annular space between a pipe and surrounding sleeve, or
between two concentric pipes, etc.
ANODE: positive electrode in an electrolytic system (e.g. as in cathodic
protection).
AQUEDUCT: man-made channel or pipe for carrying water.
BACKFILL: soil or other material used to fill in a trench.
BACK-PRESSURE: pressure acting against the outlet side of the valve.
BAG HOLE: hole cut in a pipe for insertion of a gas bag.
BAG PIPE: a hook or device for insertion or removal of an inflated gas bag
from a gas main.
BALL COCK: valvewhosemovementisoperated by afloat attached to the end.
BALL VALVE: type of valve where the valve element is a spherical plug.
BAR: international standard unit of pressure.
BAR HOLE: small-diameter hole made by drilling or driving in a bar to
search for source of leakage from an underground pipeline.
794
Engineering Data
Glossary
79 5
COCK: general description of a small on-off valve, of which there are several
basic types.
CODES OF PRACTICE: recommendations rather than obligatory requirements
issued by national and international authorities.
COMPACTION: measure of the density of the soil at any given location.
CONDENSATE: liquid formed by wet air or gases, or vapours, when subject
to cooling and/or pressure reduction.
CONTOUR LAYING: laying of underground pipelines at substantially constant
buried depth, i.e. following the contours of the bend.
CONTROL VALVE: general description for a type of valve used for controlling
flow or pressure and usually referred to by function, e.g. throttling valve,
flow-control valve, pressure-control valve, etc.
COUPLING: fitting used to connect pipes.
COVER: the buried depth (i.e. depth below ground level) of a buried pipe or
pipelines.
CRITICAL APPLICATIONS: applications or systems where failure of a pipe
or valve could have serious consequences.
CRUDE LINE: pipeline for conveying crude oil.
CRYOGENIC SYSTEMS: systems whose components are designed to operate
at and withstand extremely low temperatures. Generally descriptive of systems
handling liquefied gases.
DEAD BAND: the range through which an input signal to a valve can be
varied without initiating a response.
DEAD MAIN: a main pipeline not in use, e.g. not yet connected or temporarily
or previously disconnected.
DIAPHRAGM VALVE: valve type in which the moving element is a flexible
diaphragm.
DISC: refers to any disc-shaped element in a valve, as distinct from a plug
shape, ball, poppet, etc.
DOG LEG: abrupt change in the direction of a pipeline.
DOWNSTREAM: any position in the direction of flow distant from the
reference point involved.
EQUIVALENT LENGTH: friction or head loss generated by pipes, fittings, etc.
expressed in termsoflengthofsamediameterpipe having the same frictional losses.
ELBOW: a sharp-bend fitting with less radius than a normal pipe bend for
the same degree of bend.
EXTENSION STEM: extended stem fitted to valves to facilitate operation
under particular circumstances (e.g. on cryogenic valves to remove operating
point from a low temperature region).
FALL: the gradient at which a pipeline is laid.
FEEDER: a main pipeline carrying fluid at a higher pressure than in the
secondary distribution pipes.
FITTING: general description for couplings, etc., used on pipes and tubes. In
some industries this may also include bends, valves, etc.
796
Engineering Data
Glossary
797
79 8
Engineering Data
Glossary
799
B-61
B-62
B-198 grade l2A
B-198 grade 13B
B-371 alloy A
B-98 aUoy D
B-1 ':13 class 1A
B-148 alloy 9C
B-148 alloy 9B
3-16
B-21 alloy A
B-135alloyG
B-134 alloy B-2
B-134 <llloy B
Irons
Cast iron
Cast iron
High tensile cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Ni-resist grey cast iron
A-126 class A
A-126clnssB
A-126 class C
A-47 grade 35018
A-47 grade 32510
A-346typell
Cast steels
Carbon steel. cast
0.1 5% Moly steel. cast
Cr Moly steel. cast
Cr Moly steel. cast
4. 6% Cr Moly steel
8-10% Cr Moly steel
Carbon steel. cast
Cnrbon Moly steel. cast
3. 5% Nickel steel. cast
Stainless steels
18.8Scast
Wrought
Wrought
18-8S Mo. cast
Wrought
18-8S Cb. cast
Wrought
11.5- 13.5 Cr steel
11.5-13.5 Cr steel
Heat-resisting 25-12. cast
Heat-resisting 25-20. cast
Heat-resisting 25-20.
wrought
Heat-resisting 15-35
A-351 gradeCF8
(type 304)
A-276 type 304
A-2 76 type 303
A-351 gradeCF-8M
(type 316)
A-276type316
A-351 grade Cf-8C
(type 347)
A-2 76 type 34 7
;\-182 grade P-6
A-276type416
A-297 grade MI-l
A-297 grade MK
A-182 typeP310
A-297 grade Ht
Nickel alloys
Nickel. cast
Nickel, wrought
Monel. cast
Monel. wrought
Hastelloy '8', cast
Hastelloy 'C', wrought
A-296 CZlOO
B-160
A-2% M-35W
B-164 class A
A-296N-l2M
A-296m CW-l2M
Aluminium
No 356T. cast
B-26 gradeSG70AT6
802
Engineering Data
BS 21:1973 (1986): Pipe threads for tubes and fittings where pressure-tight
joints are made on the threads (metric dimensions).
BS 6 5:1981: Vitrified clay pipes, fittings and joints.
BS 78: Cast-iron spigot and socket pipes (vertically cast) and spigot and socket
fittings.
BS 78:Part 2:1965 (1981): Fittings.
BS 416:19 73: Cast-iron spigot and socket soil. waste and ventilating pipes
(sand-cast and spun) and fittings.
BS43 7:1978: Specification forcastironspigotand socketdrain pipes and fittings .
BS 486: 1981: Asbestos- cement pressure pipes and joints.
BS 4 9 7: Part 1: 19 7 6: Cast iron and cast steel.
BS 534:1981: Steel pipes and specials for water and sewage.
BS 556:Part 1: 1966: Concrete cylindrical pipes and fittings,.including manholes ,
inspection chambers and street gullies. Part 1: Imperial units.
BS 556:Part 2:1972: Concrete cylindrical pipes and fittings, including
manholes, inspection chambers and street gullies. Part 2: Metric units.
BS 1194:19 69: Concrete porous pipes for under-drainage.
BS 1196:19 71 ( 19 77): Clayware field-drain pipes.
BS 1211 :1958 (1981): Centrifugally-cast (spun) iron pressure pipes for
water, gas and sewage.
BS 1387:1967: Steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to BS 21 pipe
threads.
BS 1737:1951: Jointing materials and compounds for water, town gas and
low-pressure steam installations.
BS 1965: Butt-welding pipe fittings for pressure purposes.
BS 1965:Part 1:1963 (1983): Carbon steel.
BS 19 7 2:196 7: Polythene pipe (type 3 2) for cold-water services.
BS 2494:19 76: Materials for elastomeric joint rings for pipework and
pipelines.
BS 2 760:19 73: Pitch-impregnated fibre pipes and fittings for below and above
ground drainage.
BS 2 815:19 7 3: Compressed asbestos fibre jointing.
BS 28 71 :Part 1:19 71: Copper tubes for water, gas and sanitation.
BS 306 3:196 5: Dimensions of gaskets for pipe flanges. (Note: This BS is used
only in connection with obsolescent BS 10 flanges) .
BS 3284:1 967: Polythenepipe(type 50) for cold-water services.
BS 3 505:1968 (19 82 ): Unplasticised PVC pipe ror cold-water services.
BS 3 506:1969: Unplasticised PVC pipe for industrial purposes.
BS 3656:1981: Specification for asbestos- cement pipes, joints and fittings for
se\.vage and drainage.
803
BS 143 and 1256:1968: Malleable cast iron and cast copper alloy screwed
pipe fittings for steam. air, water, gas and oil.
BS 1010: Draw-offtaps and stop valves for water service (screwdown pattern).
BS 1010:Part 2:1973: Draw-offtaps and above-ground stop valves
BS 112 3:19 76: Specification for safety valves, gauges and other safety fittings
for air receivers and compressed-air installations.
BS 1414:1975 (1983): Steel wedge-gate valve (flanged and butt-welding
ends) for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
804
Engineering Data
BS 515 5:19 7 4: Cast-iron and carbon steel butterfly valves for general
purposes.
BS 515 6:19 7 4 ( 19 8 6 ): Screwdown diaphragm valves for general purposes.
BS 515 7:19 74 : Steel gate (parallel slide) valves for general purposes.
BS 515 8:19 7 4: Cast- iron and carbon steel plug valves for general purposes.
BS 5159:1974: Cast-iron and carbon steel ball valves for general purposes.
BS 5160:19 7 4: Flanged steel globe valves, globe stop and check valves.
BS 5 163:1974:Double-flanged cast-iron wedge-gate valves for water-works
purposes.
BS 5351:1986: Steel ball valves for the petroleum. petrochemical and allied
industries.
BS 5352:1981 (1983): Steel wedge-gate, globe and check valves SO mm and
smaller for the petroleum, petrochemical and allied industries.
BS 5353:1980: Plug valves.
BS 5417:19 76: Testing of general purpose industrial valves.
BS 5418:1979 =ISO 5209: Marking of general purpose industrial valves.
BS 5 882:1980 :;i:ISO/DIS 6215: A total quality-assurance programme for
nuclear power plants.
BS 668 3:19 8 6: Guide to the installation and use of valves.
MA 6 5 :Parts 1-11 :19 7 5-19 7 7: General purpose and petroleum industry
valves for use in marine pipeline systems.
Sl units
SI units are the seven basic units and the units derived from them coherently.
i.e. with numerical factor 1.
SI basic units
Basic quantity
Name
SI basic unit
Symbol
Name
Symbol
Metre
Kilogram
kg
Time
Second
Electric curren t
Ampere
Length
Mass
Thermodynamic
temperature
Kelvin
Amount of substance
Mole
mol
Candela
cd
806
Engineering Data
Name Symbol
Trillion
Thousand billion
Billion
Thousand million
Million
Thousand
Hundred
Ten
Tenth
Hundredth
Thousandth
Millionth
Thousand millionth
Billionth
Thousand billionth
Trillionth
ex a
pet a
tera
gig a
mega
kilo
hecto
dec a
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
E
p
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
)l
n
p
f
Powerof10
Factor as decimal
1018
1015
10 12
10 9
10 6
=1000 000
w>
= 1 000
10 2
= 100
10 1
= 10
w- '
w-2
w-3
w-6
w-9
10 -
= 0.1
=0.01
=0 .0()1
= 0.000 001
= 0 .000 000 001
= 0.000 000 000 001
=0.000 000 000 000 001
= 0 .000 000 000 000 000 001
12
10-15
lo - 18
Units
Size
Symbol Sl units
Length
Surface
Permissible units
other than SI
Conversion into
associated
SI unit and ra tios
m
(metre )
t\
I)
mi
(cubic
metre)
ml
2)
(square
metre)
Volume
2)
I (litre)
11 =10
) Ill J
l b (barn
10 - 2~m 2
1 a (arc)
= 10 2 m2
= ]04 m2
l ha (hectare)
sq .m .
} Nmeollowod.
sq .dm .
symbol nol allowed
sq.cm .. etc .
Symbol
Value
Slunils
Conversion into
relevant
Slunit and ratio~
Permissible
units other
than Sl
80 7
sr
l~r = lm 2 /m 2
J o tsquaredegreel = 3.U_46J0 4 sr
(steradian)
I O g(sqnaregrade) = 2.46710--4 sr
------------------------------~----min (minute)
1 min = 60s
h (hour)
(second)
l h = 3600 s
rl (day)
I <l
86.400s
Solid angle
Time
Hz (ilerlz)
Frequency
Rotation spcld
Velo<:ity
Acceleration
(II
!"
1 Hz = l/s
-----------------------------rpm = ( /r,o)srpm
1
rpm
1 rpm == 1 (! / min )
km/h
kg
1 (tonocl
lt = 10 1 kg
t/ m 1
kg/1
lt/mJ = 1000kg/m 1
lkg/1 = 1000kg/m 1
ro l m/s 1
l q (metric hondredweighl)
=100 kg
(kllo~-:ram)
JJen ~ lty
kg m1
Moment ofincrlia
f
--~----------~-
1 N = l kgm/s
N
(Newton)
Torque
XI
Nm
Pressure
Pa
(Pascali
Mechu nica l
lkpms 2
2
=9.81 kgm .!
= LO ' N
1 dyn (dyn)
lp(pond)
= 9.8066510-JN
1 kp (kilopond ) :: 9 .iW665 N
J kpm=9.80665 Nm
1 atm
1.0132 5 bar
1 at
= 0.980665 bar
1 Torr -1.33322410- 1 b<Jr
I mCE = 98.066510 -J bar
1 mm Hg 1.333224 1 o- 1 bllr
1 Pa
l N/nt.!
l bar = 10 5 Pa
I N/ m 2
=l Pa
sl re s~
Dynamic vi sc.:o~ity
Pus
-------------------
Kinematic viscosity
1 Pas = 1 N s/mz
2
I rn / s = l Pnsm /kg
eV lelectronvolt) 1 I = 1 Nm 1 H 2 0
Wh
l Wh = 3.6KJ
1St (stokes) = 10
----------------------------
m 2/ s
------------------
l cal = 4.18681
l kpm = 9.80665 j
l erg = JO - ~ j
Work
Enc(gy
(Joule)
Eltctric ch arg<'
()
C (Coulomb)
1 C = 1 As
Ell'l:lrk potential
lj
V (Volt)
1V = 1W/ A
Elect(ic resistance
Q(Ohm)
1Q = 1V/ A
1 Qabs= l Q
Power
W(WHII)
l W = 1J/s = 1 Nm/s
=I VA
I PS
= 7 35.49!!W
lkcal/ h = l.I63W
1 kprn/ s = I 0 W
Ekctric capacitance
F (Farad)
1 P - 1 C/ V
-----------------------------------------------------------------------A (Ampere)
Magnetic flux
<l>
13
'f (Tesla)
1ncluctancc
II (Henry)
S (Siemens)
A/111
----------------
Electric conductanrc
'I'
Temperature ("CI
t/"6
!G(gauss) = 10
1'
1H = I Wb/ A
l
s= l/Q
Qjm
K (Kelvin)
AJ C' = JK
o c = 273.15K
c
(clegree Celsius)
Tbennal capacity
IT = 1 Wb/ m1
------------
j /K
A 1" (' = 1 K
OK ::: - 273.15 "C
808
Engineering Data
Ball valves
Typical standards of compliance
Specification
Design
Test
Description
8S 5351
BS 1560
BS 4504
ANSI 816.5
ANSI 816.24
ISO 5211
API6D
BS 6755 Part 1
BS6755Part2
API 6PA
API 6D
API 598
API607
Fire test
ISO 5208
NES 729
ASME V SE 165
809
c 177-85
0149-81
Test method for steady-state heat flux measurements and thermal transmisssion
properties by means of the guarded-hot-plate apparatus: 04.06.08.01.14.01.
Te::;t methods for dielectric breakdown voltage and dielectric strength of solid
electrical insulating materials at commercial power frequen cies: 08.01,09.02. 10.02.
0150-8 1
Test methods for A-C loss characteristics and permittivity (dielectric constant) of solid
electrical insulating materials: 08.01.09.02.10.02,10.03.
D 256-84
Test methods for impact resistance of plastics and electrical insulating materials:
08.01.09.02.
D 570-81
D635-81
Test method for rate of burning and/or extent and time of burning or self-supporting
plastics in a horizontal position: 08.0 l.
D 638-84
0 648-82
Test method for deflection temperature of plastics under flexural load: 08.01.
0695-8 5
0696-79
0 790-84a Test methods for flexural properties ofunreinforced and reinforced plastics and
electrical insulating materials: 08.01.
0791
D 792-66
(1979)
Test methods for specific gravity and density of plastics by displacement: 08.0 1.
D 1784-81 Specification for rigid poly( vinyl chloride) {PVC) compounds and chlorinated
poly( vinyl chloride) (CPVC) compounds: 08 .02,08.04.
D 2 766-83 Test method for specific heat of liquids and solids: 05.02 .
D 39 J. 5-80 Specification for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) and related plastics pipe and fitting
compounds: 08.03.08.04.
E 84-84
E 162 -83
Test method for surface flammability of materials using a radiant heat energy source:
04.07.
E 308-85
Method for computing the colours of objects by using the CIE system: 14.02.
810
Engineering Data
ISO 1183
ISO 3607
ISO 3663
ISO 443 7
ISO 4440
ISO 6447
Rubber seals: joint rings used for gas supply pipes and fittings.
DIN 353 5
DIN 3543
DIN 3544
DIN 8074
DIN 8075
DIN 16963
DIN 19533
Pipes in PE-HD and PE-MD for drinking water supply: pipes. pipe joints, piping
components.
DS 2131.2
Pipes. fittings and joints ofPE-type PEM and PEH for buried gas pipelines.
DVS 2207
Part 1
DVGWG477
Manufacture, quality assurance and testing of pipes in rigid PVC and PE-HD
for gas pipelines.
DVGWVP304
DVGWVP607
DVGWVP608
Polyethylene pipes (PESO and PE100) for gas and drinking water lines:
requirements and tests.
ONorm B 5192
Pipes, pipe joints and piping components in PE for buried gas pipelines.
prEN 1555
prEN 12201
UNI 8849
UNI8850
ISO 3460
ISO 3603
ISO/DIN 4422
811
DIN 42 79 Part 7
DIN 8062
DIN 8063 Part 4
Pipe joints and components for PVC pressure pipelines: general quality
requirements and test methods.
DlN 16450
DfN 16929
DIN 19532
KRV A 1.1.2
Pipe joints and components for PVC pressure pipelines: adaptors. flanges,
gaskets, dimensions.
Quality
specification No.
53
Criteria No. 23
BRL2013
WJS 4-31-07
Specification for emplasticised PVC pressure fittings and assemblies for cold
potable water (underground use).
812
Engineering Data
304 SST
316 SST
Bronze
lnconel
Monel
HastelloyB
F
p
p
s s s s s s s s
s p p p F p F F
s p p p F F F F
s p p p F F s F
s F F F F F F F
s p F F F p F F
p
p
p
Hastelloy C
Titanium 7 SA
Nickel
Alloy 20
Type 416 hard
Type 440 hard
F
p
p
p
F
p
s
s
F
F
F
F
F
F
17-4 PH
F
F
F
F
F
F
F'
F
F
F
F
Alloy 6 (Co-Cr)
ENC.
Crplate
AI bronze
p
p
F
F
F
p
p
p
p
p
p
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
s s s
F
F
F
p
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
p
p
F
F
F
F F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
F
F
F
F
S
S
F
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
p
p
F
F
F
F
F
F
S
S
F
F
s s s
s s s s
p
p
F
F
F
F
s s s s
p
s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s s s
s s s s
s s s
s s p s s
s s s p s
s s s s p
S
Upper
oc
op
oc
op
-268
- 268
-273
-240
- 240
-240
-450
- 450
-460
-400
- 400
-400
316
316
232
649
482
482
600
600
450
1200
900
900
700
1000
600
600
600
800
Hastelloy B2
Hastelloy C2
Titanium
Nickel
Alloy 20
Type 416 stainless stee l 40RC
-198
-46
-29
-325
-50
-20
371
538
316
316
316
427
CA-6NM
Nitronic 50 3
-29
-198
-20
- 325
427
538
800
1000
-29
-40
-273
-268
-2 68
-2 73
-20
-40
-460
-450
-450
-460
427
427
816
427
593
316
800
800
1500
800
1100
600
Nitrile
Fluoroelastomer (Viton 4 and Fluore1 5 )
TFE
Nylon
Polyethylene
Neoprene
-40
-23
- 268
-73
-73
-40
-40
-10
-450
-100
.-100
- 40
93
204
232
93
93
82
200
400
450
200
200
180
813
814
Engineering Data
Specification
Aluminium bnr
properlic~
Modulus of
at 70 F
(lb/in 2 x 10")
da~licity
Hardness
(Brine)!)
Tensile
(lb/ in 2 )
Yield
(lb/in 1 I
ASTM 8211
alloy2011 -'1'3
44.000
36.000
15
ASTM 816
1
h h ard
45.000
15.000
50
AS'fM 821
alloy464
60.000
27.000
22
'i'i
AIS112T.l4
79.000
71.000
16
52
163
ASTM A lOR
grade 1018
69.000
48.000
38
62
143
I 35.000 115.000
22
63
2') .9
25~
t\S'fl\l A2 76
type l02
85.000
35.000
60
70
28
150
t\STJ\l A276
type 304
85.000
35.000
60
70
Type 316
stain less steel
ASTM A276
type 316
80.000
Hl.OOO
60
70
Type H6L
stninless steel
ASTi'vl A2 76
type 3161.
81.000
34.000
55
Type41 0
stainless steel
AS'J'M A276
typc41 0
75.000
40.000
35
70
29
I 55
Type 1 7-4Pl-l
stainless steel
ASTM A416
grade 6 30
lJ 'i.OOO 105.000
16
'j()
2 ')
275-345
Nickel-copper
alloy bar
Alloy KSOO
(KMonell
100.000
70.000
~5
26
17 5-260
ASTM 13335
'13 ' )
100 .000
46.000
ASTM 8336
100.000
46.000
Chrome-moly steel
Type 302
stainless steel
Type 304
stainless steel
---
Nickel-moly
alloy' l3'bar
(J-la~te ll oy
Nickel-moly- chrome
alloy 'C' bnr
(Hastelloy 'C')
Elongation in Reduction
of;tn;t(%)
2in (%)
10.2
1) 5
14
149
2S
149
146
Yield
(lb/i n 2 )
Elongation in
lin(%)
Reduction
ofarea(%)
Modulus of
elasticity at 70F
(lb/i n 2 x 10c, I
Hardness
(Brine !I)
-20 to 1000
70.000
36.000
22
35
27.9
137-187
ASTM A352
grade LCB
-50 to 650
65.000
3 5.000
24
35
27.9
1 37-18 7
Chrome moly
steel
ASTM A217
grade C5
-20 to 1100
90.000
60.000
18
35
27.4
241 max
Carbon moly
steel
ASTMA217
grade VVC1
-20 to 850
65.000
35,000
24
35
29.9
215 max
Chrome moly
steel
ASTM 217
gradeWC6
-20 to 1000
70.000
40.000
20
35
29.9
215 max
Chrome moly
steel
ASTMA217
gradeWC9
-20 to 1050
70,000
40.000
20
35
29.9
241 max
3 1 / 2 % nickel
steel
ASTM A352
grade LC3
-150 to 650
65.000
40,000
24
35
27.9
137
Material
Specification
Temperature
range (F)
Carbon steel
ASTMA216
grade WCB
Carbon steel
V)
.....
l::l
::::;
.....
::::..
Chrome moly
steel
ASTM A2 17
grade C12
-20 to 1100
Type 304
stainless steel
ASTM A351
grade CF-8
-425 to 1500
Type 316
stainless steel
ASTM A351
grade CF-8M
- 425 to 1500
90.000
60.000
18
35
27.4
180-240
"':::,:::
::::..
t:j
65,000
28.000
35
28.0
140
"'"'
~-
::::;
:::,
.....
c:;
::::;
70,000
30 .000
30
28.3
15 6- 170
"'
00
,.....
V1
Cast iron
31,000
ASTMA126
class B
-150 to 450
ASTM A126
class C
-150to450
41.000
ASTMA395
type 60-45-15
-20 to 650
60.000
Ductile
Ni-resist iron
ASTM A439
type 60-45-15
-20 to 750
58 ,000
30,000
Standard valve
bronze
ASTMB62
-325 to 450
30.000
14.000
20
17
13.5
55-65'
Tin bronze
ASTMB143
alloy 1A
-32 5 to 400
40.000
18,000
20
20
15
75-85"
Manganese
bronze
ASTMB147
alloy BA
-325 to 3 50
65,000
25.000
20
20
15.4
98'
Aluminium
bronze
ASTMB148
alloy 9C
-325to500
75 ,000
30.000
12 min
12
17
150
(Weldable grade)
-325 to 900
65 .000
32.500
25
23
120-170
Nickel-moly
a lloy 'B'
ASTM A494
(Hastelloy 'B')
-32 5 to 700
72.000
46,000
Nickel-molychrome alloy c
ASTMA494
(Hastelloy c)
-325 to 1000
72,000
46,000
121,000
64.000
1 to 2
30.4
160-220
00
,.....
0"1
I:Tj
Cast iron
Ductile iron
Cobalt-base
alloy No.6
--
500 kg load:
1for Brinell and material.
Stellite no. 6
45,000
15
23-26
160-220
143-20 7
s
"':::!.
""
::;
tj
!::)
148- 211
Conversion tables
Viscosities
Kinematic
viscosity
centistokes
density l.O
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
400
600
800
1000
5000
10.000
50.000
Absolute
viscosity
Engler
Saybolt
unlversal
Redwood 1
Say bolt
sec
fur a\
centipoise
sec
sec
(standard)
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
10
20
40
60
80
100
200
400
600
800
1000
5000
10.000
50,000
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
1. 39
1.48
1. 57
1.65
1.74
1.84
2.9
5.3
7.9
10.5
13.2
26.4
52.8
79.2
106
132
660
1320
6600
31
34
35
37
42
45.5
48 .5
53
55
59
97
185
280
370
472
944
1888
2832
3776
7080
23.600
47.200
236.000
29
30
33
35
38
40.5
43
46
48.5
52
85
163
245
322
408
816
1632
2448
3264
4080
20.400
40,800
204.000
Ford
cup no. 4
furol
15
21
30
38
47
92
184
276
368
460
2300
4600
23.000
18.7
25.9
32
60
111
162
217
415
1356
2713
13.560
Barbey
3640
2426
1820
1300
1085
930
814
723
650
320
159
106
79
65
32.5
15.9
10.6
8.1
6.6
1.23
-
Cup no. 15
sec
-
5.6
6.7
7.4
11.2
18.4
26.9
35
68
240
481
2403
Absolute
viscosity
poise
density 1.0
Kinematic
viscosity
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0 .2
0.4
0.6
0.8
l.O
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10
50
100
500
l.Ox1o- 6
2.0x 10- 6
3.0x w - 6
4.0x 10- 6
5.0 x 10- 6
6.0 x 10- 6
7.0 x 10- 6
8.0 x 10-6
9.0 x 10- 6
l.O x 10- 5
2.0x1o- >
4.0x lo- s
6.0xlo-s
8.0x lo-s
l.O x 10- 4
2.0 x 10- 4
4.0 x 10- 4
6.0 x lo-4
8.0 x 10-4
l.O x 10- 3
5.0 x 10- 3
1.0 X 10- l
s.ox 10- 2
m2 / s
Cl':l
s
::::!
Q..
~
""!
Q..
"'::::!s::.
Q..
c::1
<'>
"'
::s
....s::.
(3'
::::!
"'
00
.....
-......)
818
Er1gineering Data
Delivery volumes
m 3/ h
l.O
0.060
0.10
0.2727
0.2273
0.0283
101.94
3600.0
L/rnin
hl/h
Imperii! I
gallon/ min
US gallon/min
cu ft/ hr
cu ft/sec
m 1/ sec
lfi.667
1.0
1.6667
4.546
3.785
0.4719
Hi99
10.0
0.60
1.0
2.7270
2.27 32
0.2R32
1019.4
36.000
3.6667
0.22
0.3667
4.3999
0.2642
0.4399
1.201
1.0
0.1 247
448.83
15.838
35.315
2.1189
3.5 3 15
9.6326
8.0208
1.0
3600
127.208
9.81 x l0- 1
5.88 x 10- 4
9.81 x w - -~
1.67 x L0 - 1
2.2J x 10- 1
2. 78x Jo-4
1.0
35 . 315
2.7S x 10 -~
1.6 7x JO- >
2. 78x 1W 5
7.57 x i0- 5
6.31 x 1o->
7. 86 x l0->
0 .0282
mH20
mmHg
6 x 1o -<~.
l.O
0.832(1
0.1038
373.73
1320
l.O
kg/ cm 1
1.0
0.9807
0.0689
1.013 3
0.0299
0.0981
13.3 x 1o- 4
0.0339
l.Ox 10- >
1.0197
1.0
0.0 703
l.0332
0.0305
0.10
0.0014
0.0345
10.2 x 1o - ~>
lbf/in 2
ftH 1 0
atm
14.504
0.98fi9
33.445
10.19 7
14.223
32.808
10
0.9878
1.0
0.0609
2.3067
0.7031
l4.69fi
33.889
10.3 32
1..0
0.4335
0.0295
0.3048
1.0
1.422
0.0%8
3.2808
1.0
0.0193
l3.2 x 1o- 4
0.0446
0.0136
0.0334
1.1329
0.3453
0.4912
14.5x w- s 9.87x10 - 1' 3.34 x l0- 4 l0. 2x 10
in Hg
kPil
750.oo
29.530
100
ns.5fi
28.959
98 .0
51.715
2.036
6.89
760.0
29.921
101.3
22.420
2.99
0.882 7
73.356
2.896
9.81
L.O
0.0394 0. 13 3
].()
25 .40
U9
75.0 x 10- 4 29.5 x w-s l.O
Velocity
metre per second
m/s
1
0.3048
18.288
0 .2778
0.4470
3.2808
1
0 .0547
0.0167
60
0.9113
1.4667
0.0152
0.0245
3.6
1.097 3
65.8368
l
1.6093
2.2369
0.6818
40.9091
0.6214
819
Volume
cubic metre
m3
cubic centimetre
cm 3
litre
I
cubic inch
inJ
cubic foot
ft 3
1.000.000
1
1000.028
16.3871
28316.8
4546.09
3 785.41
999.972
0.0009997
1
0.0164
28.3161
4.546
3.7853
61.023.7
0.0610
61.0255
1
1728
277.419
231
35.3147
0.0000353
0.0353
0.00058
l
0.1605
0.133 7
.l
0.000001
0.001
0.000016
0.0283
0.0045
0.0038
UK gallon US gallon
UK gal
US gal
219.969
0.00022
0.22
0.0036
6.2288
1
0.8327
264.172
0.00026
0.2642
0.0043
7.4805
1.201
1
Mass
kilogram
kg
pound
lb
hundredweight
cwt
tonne
UK ton
US short ton
sh ton
1
0.4536
50.802 3
1000
1016.05
907.185
2.2046
1
112
2204.62
2240
2000
0.0197
0.0089
1
19.6841
20
17.8571
0.001
0.000454
0.0508
1
1.0161
0.9072
0.00098
0.000446
0.05
0.9842
1
0.8929
0.0011
0.0005
0.056
1.1023
1.12
1
Density
gram per millilitre
g/ml
1000
1
16.02
27679.9
62.428
0.062
1
1728
0.0361
0.000036
0.00058
1
1
0.001
0.016
2 7.6807
w
4.1868
1.163
0.2931
0.2388
0.8598
3.6
1
0.252
3.4121
14.286
3.9683
1
0.2778
0.07
820
Engineering Data
Force
kilonewton
kN
kilogram force
kgf
pound force
lbf
pound a I
pdl
1
0.00981
0.0044
0.000138
101.972
1
0.4536
0.0141
224.809
2.2046
7233.01
70.9316
32.1740
1
0.83]]
Torque
newton metre
Nm
0.102
1
0.1383
O.Oll5
0.7376
7.23 30
1
8.8508
86.7962
12
0.0833
1
9.8067
1.3558
0.113
Power
watt
w
1
9.8067
735.499
1.3558
745.70
horse power
hp
0.102
1
75
0.1383
76.0402
0.00136
0.0133 3
0.7376
7.2330
542.476
1
550.0
0.00134
0.01315
0.98632
0.00182
1.
0.00184
0.0139
m3 /h
SG 1 = water= 1 at 60F
SG 2
O.O~~gjh
= water= 1 at 4Celcius
821
linear conversions
Fractions to decimals to millimetres
Inch
I /64
1/32
3/64
1/16
5/64
3/32
7/64
1/8
9/64
5/32
I 1/64
3/16
13/64
7/32
15/64
1/4
17/64
9/32
19/64
5/16 21/64
11 /32
23/64
3/8
25/64
13/32
27/64
7/ 16
29/64
Decimal-inch
Millimetre
rnch
0.003937
0.007874
0.011811
0.015625
0.015748
0.01968 5
0.023622
0.027559
0.03125
0.031490
0.035433
0.03937
o.o4o87S
0.0625
O.On125
0.078740
0.09375
0.109375
0.118110
0.] 25
0.140625
0.15625
0.157480
0.171875
0.1875
0.196850
0.203125
0.21875
0.234375
0.236220
0.250
0.265625
0 .275591
0.28125
0.296875
0.3125
0 .314%1
0.328125
0.34375
0.354331
0.359375
0 ..375
0 ..390625
0.393701
0.40625
0.421875
0.433071
0.4375
0.45312'>
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3%9
0.4
0.5
O.fl
0.7
0.7938
0.8
0.9
1
1.1906
1.5875
1.9844
2
2.3813
2.7781
3
3.175
3.5719
3.%88
4
4.3856
4. 7625
5
5.1594
5.5563
5.9531
6
6.350
6.7469
7
7.1438
7.5406
7.9375
8
8.3344
8.7313
9
9.1281
9.525
9.9219
10
10.3188
10.7156
11
11.1.125
11.5094
15/32
31/64
1/2
33j64
17/32
35/64
9/ 16
37/64
19/32
39/64
5/8
41 /64
21 /32
43/64
11/16
45/ 64
23/ 32
47/64
3/4
49/64
25/32
51 /64
I 3/ 16
53/64
27/32
55/64
7/8
57/64
29/32
59/64
15/16
61 /64
31 /32
63/64
I in
Decimal-inch
Nlillimetre
0.4o875
11.9063
0.472441
12
0.484375
12.3031
0.500
12 .700
0 .511811
13
0.515625
13.0969
0.53125 - - 13.4938
0.546875
13.8906
0.551181
14
o.5o25
14.2875
0.578125
14.6844
0.590551
15
0.59375
15.0813
0.609375
15.4781
0.625
15.875
0.629921
16
16.2719
0.640625
0.65625
16.6688
o.o69291
17
o.o71875
17.0656
0.6875
17.4625
0.703125
17.8594
0.708661
18
0.71875
18.2563
0 .734375
18.6531
0.748031
19
0.750
19.050
o.765o25
19.4469
19 .8438
0. 78125
0.787402
20
0.796875
20.2406
0.8125
20.6375
0.826772
21
0.828125
21.0344
0.84375
21.4313
0.859375
21.8281
0.86()142
22
- - -22.225
0 .875
0 .890625
22.6219
0.905512
23
0.90625
23.0188
0.921875
23.4156
0.9375
23.8125
0.944882
24
0.953125
24.2094
0.96875
24.6063
0.984252 - -- - 25
0 .984375
25 .0031
25.400
1
822
Engineering Data
Millimetres to inches
Milli-
Inches
metres
()
0 . 039 ~7
()
10
20
30
40
50
nO
70
80
90
roo
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
170
281)
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
4 70
480
490
500
5[()
'>20
530
540
550
560
570
580
S90
600
610
620
630
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
0.39370
078740
1.18110
1.5 7480
l. 968 so
2.36220
2.7559 1
3.1496 1
3.54331
3.93701
4.33071
4 72441
5. 11811
5.5 1181
5.905 51
6.29921
6.69291
7.08661
7.480 31
7 87402
s 26772
8 ri6142
9.05512
9.44S82
9.84252
lll.2362
10.6299
11.0236
J 1.417 3
11.8110
12.2047
12.5984
12 .9921
13 .38 58
13.7795
14.1732
14. 56fiY
14 .9606
15.3543
15 .7480
16. 1417
16.53'54
16.929 1
17.322X
17.7 165
18. 1102
18.5039
18.89 76
19.2913
19.6850
20.0787
20.4 724
208661
21.2 598
21.6535
22.0472
22.4409
22.8346
23.2283
23.6220
24.0157
24.4094
24.8031
25.1969
25 .5906
25.9843
26.3780
26.77 17
27. 1fi54
27.5591
27.9528
28.3465
28.740 2
29.1 339
0.4 3307
0.82677
1.22047
1.614 1 7
2.00787
2.40157
2.79528
3.18898
3.58268
3.97638
4.37008
4. 76378
5.15 741!
5.55llS
'i.':/4488
6.33858
6.73228
7. 12598
7.51969
7.9 133':1
8. 30709
8 .70079
9.09449
9.488 I 9
9 S8189
10. 2 756
10.6693
I 1.0630
1l.45fi7
11.8 504
12.2441
12.6378
J 3.031 5
13.4251
13.8189
14.2 126
14.6063
15.0000
15. 3937
15 .7874
16.1 8 11
16. 5748
16.9685
17.3622
17.7559
.18.1496
18.5433
18.9370
19.3307
19 7244
20.1 181
20.5118
20.9055
2 1.2 992
21.6929
22.0866
2 2.4803
22.8740
23.2677
23 .6614
24.05 51
24.4488
24.842 5
25.2362
2 5.6299
26.0236
2 f>.41 37
26.!! 11 0
27.2047
2 7. 5984
27.9921
28.3858
28 7795
29. 1732
0.07M74
0.47244
0.86614
1.2 5984
1.65354
2.04724
2. 440')4
2.8 3465
3. 22835
3.62205
4.01575
4.4094 5
4.80315
'i. 19685
5.59055
5.98425
6.37795
6.77165
7.16535
7 55906
7.95276
8.34646
8.74016
9.1 338(,
9. 52 756
9.921 26
10.3150
10.7087
1 1.1024
11.4961
0.11811
0.51181
0.90551
1.29921
1.69291
2.086() I
2.4803 1
2.87402
3.26772
3.66142
4.0551 2
4.448 S2
4.84 252
5.23()22
5.62992
6.02 362
6.41732
6.81102
7.20472
7.59843
7.99213
8.38583
8.77953
9.17323
9.56693
9.96063
10.3543
l0.74XO
11.1417
1 I .53 54
11.9291
12.3228
1.2 .7165
I 3 ll02
13.5039
13 .8976
14.29 13
14.6850
I 'i.0787
15.4724
15 .86 61
16.259S
16.6535
17.0472
17.4409
I 7.8346
18.2283
18 .6220
19.0157
19.4094
191W3J
20.1969
20.5906
20.9843
21.3 780
21.7717
22.1654
22.5591
22.9528
23.3465
23.7402
24 . 1339
24. 5276
24.9213
25.3150
2 5. 7087
26.1024
26.4961
26 8898
27.2835
27.6772
28.0709
2fL4646
28.8583
29. 2 520
0.15748
0.55118
0.94488
1.33858
).73 228
2.12598
2.5 1969
2.91339
3.30709
3.70079
4.09449
4.488 19
4.88 l R9
5.27559
S.!i6929
6.0h299
6.4 5669
6.85039
7.24409
7.6 3 780
8.03 1 50
8.425 20
8.81890
9.21260
9.60630
I 0.0000
10.39 37
10.7874
1 1.~89 8
12.2835
12 .6772
13.0709
J 3.4 64fi
13.858 3
14.2 .520
14.64 57
15.0394
15.433 1
15.8268
I 6.2205
16.6142
17.00 7')
17.401 6
17.7953
18.1 891J
18.5827
18.9764
1':1.3701
19.7638
20.1575
20.55 12
20.9449
2 1.3386
21.7323
22.1260
22.5197
22.9134
23.3071
2 3. 7008
24.0945
24.4882
24.8819
2 5.2756
2 5.6693
26.06 30
26.4567
26.8504
27.2441
27.6378
28.0315
28.4252
28.8189
29.2 126
ll.liJlJ
11.5 748
I 1.9685
1.2.3622
12. 7559
1 3.14%
13.5433
13.9370
14.3307
14.7244
15.1181
15.51 18
15.9051
I 6.2992
lfi.6929
]70866
174803
I 7 8740
18.2677
18.fih14
J 9.055 1
19.4488
19.8425
20.2362
20.6299
21.0236
21. 41 7 ~
21.8110
22.204 7
22.5984
22.9':121
23.3858
23 7795
24.1732
24.5669
24.9606
25.3543
2 5. 7480
26.1417
26.5354
26.9291
27.3228
27.7165
28.1102
28.5039
28.8976
29.2913
6
0 . 1968 5
0 .59055
0 .98425
1.3779 5
1.77165
2.16535
2.55906
1 95276
3.34646
3.7401 6
4 .13386
4.5275h
4 .92l26
5. 314%
5.70866
6.10236
6.4%0 6
(i 88976
7.28346
7.677 17
8 0708 7
1l46457
8.8 5827
9.25197
9.64567
10.03 94
10.43 31
IO.X268
11.220 5
11.6142
12.(10 79
12.4016
12.7953
J 3.1890
13 582 7
13.97(>4
14.3701
14.7638
1 5. 157'5
1 s 5512
15.9449
16.HH6
I 6.7 323
17 1260
17.5197
17.91 34
11U071
1 S. 700X
I 9 0945
I 9.481l2
19 8819
20.275h
20.669 3
21.06W
2 1.4567
2 1.85 04
22.24 41
22.6378
23.03 1 5
23.42 52
23.8189
24.2126
24.6063
25.0000
25.3937
25.7874
26.18 11
26.574 8
26.9685
27 ..3622
27.7559
28.1496
28 54 33
28.'!370
29.3307
0.23622
0.6299 2
1.02 362
1.417 32
1.8 ll 02
2.204 72
2.59H43
2.99213
3.3!!583
3.779'i3
4.17323
4. 5nn9 3
4. 9606 3
5.354.\3
5. 74803
6.14173
6.53543
6.9291 3
7.322X3
7.716~4
8.1 I ll 24
IU0\94
IL89764
'J.29 134
9.68504
10.0787
I 0.4 724
10.8661
11.2598
I I .f15 3S
12.04 72
I 2.4409
12.8346
13.2283
13.6220
14.0157
14.4094
14.803t
15 I %9
15. 5906
I 3.9R43
16.3 780
16.77 17
17.1654
I. 7. 559 I
17.9528
18.3465
18.7402
19. I 339
19.5 276
19.921 3
20.~150
20. 7087
21.1024
21.4%1
2l.llll98
22 2835
22.6772
23.0 709
23.4646
.U8583
24.2520
24.64'>7
2 5.0394
25.433 I
2 '>.ll268
2h.220~
26.6142
27.0079
2 7.4016
27.7953
28. I 890
28.5827
28.97()4
29.3701
<)
0.27~S':I
0.314.90
o. 7086n
1. 10 236
1.49606
1.88976
2.21) 346
2.(>7717
3.07087
3.4645 7
3.85827
4.25 19 7
4 .645n 7
5.03937
5.4 3 307
5.82677
6.2204 7
6.6141 7
7.0078 7
0.3 5433
0.74803
1.14173
1.53543
1.92913
2. 3228 3
2.71654
3.11024
3.503')4
3.89764
4.2'1 I ~4
4.68'i1H
5.07R7-I
'5.47 2-11
~.X66 14
6.2 ~984
6.h5 ~'i4
7.0'17 24
7.44094
7.83465
8.228 j 'i
IL6221l5
9.01575
9.4094 5
9.8031 5
JO.I969
10.5906
111.984 3
I 1.3 780
11. 7717
I 2.16'>4
12.:; '>9 1
12 9521>
I 3.l465
13.7402
14.1 )19
14.'>276
14 .':1213
I 5. 3 1 '50
15.7087
I h. 1024
I 6.4%1
I 6.8.~')8
17.28 ~5
I 7.6772
18 0709
18.4646
I ll.858 3
19 2 5 20
19.6457
20.0394
20.4 33 I
.W.fi26X
21.220'>
21.61 42
22.0079
22.4016
2 2 79 53
2 3. I 890
2 ~.'>827
23.97h4
24.3701
24.7638
25. 1575
25.5512
2 5.9449
26.3386
26. 7 323
27. 12r>0
27.5 197
27.9 134
28.3071
28.7008
29 .0 94 5
294882
0.66929
I .06299
I .41669
1.8 SO JY
2.24409
2.63780
3.031 50
3.42 520
3.81890
4.21260
4.60630
'i.OOOIJO
~.39370
'i.78740
h.! X110
6.57480
h.%850
7.36220
7.75591
8.14961
tl. 54l31
8.93 70 I
9.33071
9.72441
I l l.l 18 I
10.51 I 8
I 0.9055
I 1.29':12
11 .6929
12.086h
l2.4S03
12.8740
I 3.2677
13.6614
14.0 5'5 I
14.44 8!1
14.!!425
15.2362
I 5.6299
1<>.0236
16.4 I 7 3
16 .8 110
17.2047
l7.'i984
17 9921
I 1). 385!!
18. 7795
19 .17 32
1 ':!.5669
19.9606
20.3543
20 .7480
21.1417
21.5 3 54
21.929 1
22. 3 228
22.7 165
23.1102
23.5039
23.8976
24.291.3
24.6850
25.0787
25.4724
25.8h61
26.2 598
26.6535
27.0472
27.4409
27.83 46
21U283
28.6220
290157
29.4094
7.4 01~ 7
7.7952H
1<. I 88'J8
IL 51<268
8.97h31.i
9. 37008
9.76378
I 0.1 'i 7'i
10.5 5 I 2
Ill. 944 y
1 I. 3 }IJ()
I 1.7323
12.1260
12 . 'i I 97
12.9134
I 3.3071
I 3. 7008
14.09 45
14.48 82
14.8X19
! S.275f>
I 'i.6693
16.0610
1h.l5b7
16.8 '5 1'14
17.2441
17.6 378
18.0 .1 15
18.42'i2
I 8./l 189
I 'J.2 12 6
19.6063
20.0000
20.3937
20.7874
2 1. I X 1 I
21.S74S
21.961l5
22.3622
22.75 59
23.14%
23.5433
23.9370
24.3307
24.7244
2 5.1 18 I
2 'i.51 18
2'i.'J055
26.6992
26.6929
27.0866
27.41HH
27.8 740
28.2677
28.6614
29.0551
29.4488
823
Celsius
-7 3. 3
-67.S
-62.2
-59.4
-56.7
-53.9
-'il.J
-48.3
-45.6
-42.8
-40.0
-3 7.2
-.34.4
-3 .1.7
-28.9
- 26.1
-23.3
-20.6
-17.8
-17.2
-16.7
-16.1
-100
-90
-80
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
I
2
3
-I 'i.6
-15.0
4
5
-14.4
- 13.9
-13.3
-12.8
-) 2.2
-11.7
-1 J. 1
-10.6
-10.0
-9.4
-8.9
-8.3
- 7.8
- 7.2
-6.7
-6.1
-5.6
-5.0
-4.4
-3.9
-1.3
-2.8
-2.2
-.1.7
-l.l
-0.6
0.0
0.6
6
7
8
9
10
1.1
1.7
2.2
I I
12
13
14
)5
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
-.14H.O
-130.0
-112 .0
-103.0
-94.0
-85.0
-76.0
-67.0
-58.0
-49.0
-40.0
- 31.0
-22.0
- 1 3.0
-4.0
5.0
14.0
2 3.0
32.0
33.8
35.6
37.4
39.2
4 .I .0
42.8
44.6
46.4
4R.2
50.0
51.8
5 3.h
55.4
57.2
59.0
oo.8
62.6
64.4
n6.2
fi8.0
h9.8
71.6
7 3.4
75.2
77.0
78.8
80.6
82.4
84.2
86.0
R7.S
89.6
91.4
93.2
95.0
96.8
2.8
3.3
3.9
4.4
5.0
5.6
6.1
6.7
7.2
7.8
8.3
8.9
9.4
10.0
10.6
1 I. J
ll.7
12.2
12.8
13.3
13.9
14.4
l 5.0
1 5.6
16.1
16.7
17.2
17.8
18.3
18.9
19.4
20.0
20.h
21.1
21.7
22.2
22.8
23.3
23.9
24.4
25.0
25.6
26.1
26.7
27.2
27.8
28.3
28.9
29.4
30.0
30.6
31.1
31.7
32.2
32.8
Fahrenheit Celsius
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
98.6
100.4
102.2
104.0
105 .8
107.6
109 .4
111.2
113.0
114.8
116.6
Il8.4
120.2
122.0
J 23.8
125.6
127.4
J 29.2
l3 1.0
132.8
134.h
13hA
138.2
140.0
141.8
143.6
145.4
147.2
149 .0
150.8
152.6
154.4
156.2
158.0
159.8
161.6
163.4
165.2
1n7.o
168.8
170.()
172.4
174.2
176.0
177.8
179.6
181.4
183.2
1S5.0
186.8
188.6
190.4
192.2
194.0
195.8
33.3
33.9
34.4
35.0
3 5.6
36.1
36.7
37.2
37.8
43.0
49 .0
54.0
60.0
66.0
71.0
77.0
82.0
88.0
93.0
99 .0
100.0
104.0
110.0
116.0
l 2 ].()
12 7.0
132.0
138.0
143.0
149.0
154.0
1f>O.O
16n.o
171.0
177.0
182.0
188.0
193.0
199.0
204.0
210.0
216.0
221.0
227.0
232.0
238.0
243.0
249.0
254.0
2 f>O.O
266.0
271.0
277.0
282.0
288.0
Degrees Cets. oc
=~
Fahrenheit Celsius
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
J I0
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
212
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
450
460
470
480
490
500
510
520
530
540
550
Fahrenheit
197.6
199.4
201.2
203.0
204.8
206.6
208.4
210.2
293
299
304
310
316
321
327
332
560
570
580
590
600
610
620
630
212 .0
230.0
248.0
266.0
284.0
302.0
320.0
338.0
3 56.0
374.0
392.0
410.0
414.0
428.0
446.0
4n4.o
338
343
349
354
3()()
366
3 71
377
382
388
393
399
404
410
416
421
427
432
438
443
449
454
460
466
640
650
660
670
680
690
700
710
720
730
740
750
760
770
780
790
800
810
820
830
840
850
860
870
471
477
482
488
493
880
890
900
910
920
930
940
950
960
970
980
990
1000
1050
1100
IISO
1200
1250
1300
1350
1400
1450
1500
482.0
500.0
518.0
536.0
5 54.0
572.0
590.0
()08.0
626.0
644.0
662.0
680.0
h98.0
716.0
734.0
752.0
770.0
788.0
80n.o
824.0
842.0
860.0
878.0
896.0
914.0
932.0
950.0
968.0
986.0
1004.0
1022.0
(F + 40) - 40
499
504
510
'il6
521
527
532
538
566
593
n21
649
677
704
732
760
788
816
1040.0
1058.0
1076.0
] 094.0
1112.0
] 1 30.0
1148.0
1166.0
1 184.0
1202.0
1220.0
1238.0
1256.0
1274.0
1292.0
1.310.0
1328.0
1346.0
1364.0
1382.0
1400.0
1418.0
1436.0
1454.0
1472.0
1490.0
1508.0
1526.0
1544.0
1562.0
I 580.0
1598.0
1616.0
1634.0
1652 .0
1670.0
168H.O
1706.0
1724.0
1742.0
1760.0
1778.0
1 796.0
1814.0
1832.0
1922.0
2012.0
2102.0
2192.0
2282.0
2372.0
2462.0
2552.0
2642.0
2732.0
824
Engineering Data
OF = 9/5
Temperature
0
(
-213
-419
-410
+32
300
oc + 32
0
5/9 ( f - 32)
f"
f"
900
16SO
1100
+100
610
-710
310
610
1100
910
!ISO
100
1110
1800
+700
400
-200
1000
100
1300
1810
-300
800
1310
1900
-1SO
-ISO
ISO
300
ISO
410
1010
810
1400
1910
-200
3SO
900
1410
2000
-100
-ISO
+200
1100
SOD
400
9SO
1100
2010
410
1000
1110
810
.ISO
2SO
liSO
2100
100
lOSO
1600
7110
SIO
1100
+11
+300
600
900
1610
1100
1190
82 5
Pressure conversions
Pounds per square inch (lbf/in 2 ) to bar
1- 40
41- 80
81-200
205-500
510-900
910-1500
bar
lbf/in 2
bar
lbf/ in 2
bar
lbf/in 2
bar
lbf/in 2
bar
lbf/ in 2
bar
0.07
0.14
0.21
0.28
0.34
4I
42
43
44
45
2.83
2.90
2. 96
3.03
1.10
81
82
83
84
85
5. 58
5.65
5.72
5.79
5.86
205
210
215
220
225
14.13
14.48
14.82
15.17
15. 51
510
520
530
540
550
35.16
35.85
36.54
37.23
37.92
910
930
940
950
62.74
63.43
64.12
64.81
65.50
10
0.41
0.4H
0.55
0.62
0.69
46
47
48
49
50
3.17
3.24
3.31
3.38
3.45
86
87
88
89
90
5.93
6.00
6.07
6.14
6.21
230
235
240
245
250
15.86
16.20
16.5 5
16.89
17.24
SfiO
570
580
590
600
38.61
39.30
39.99
40.68
41.37
960
970
980
990
1000
66.19
66.88
67.57
68.26
68.95
ll
12
13
14
15
0. 76
0 .8 3
0.90
0.97
l.03
51
52
53
54
55
3.52
3.59
3.65
3.72
3.79
91
93
94
95
6.27
6.34
6.41
6.48
6.55
255
260
265
270
275
17.58
17.93
18.27
18.62
18.96
610
620
630
640
650
42.06
42.75
43.44
44.13
44.82
1010
1020
1030
69.64
70.33
71.02
71.7 J
72.39
16
17
18
19
20
1.10
1.1 7
].24
1.31
1.38
56
57
58
59
60
3.86
3.93
4.00
4.07
4.14
96
97
98
99
100
6.62
6.69
6.76
6.83
6.89
280
285
290
295
300
19.31
19.65
19.99
20.34
20.68
660
670
680
690
45 . 51
46.19
46.88
47.57
48.26
21
1.4 5
1.52
1.59
1.65
1.72
61
62
63
64
65
4 .2 1
4.27
4.34
4.41
4.48
lOS
110
liS
120
125
7.24
7.58
7.93
8.27
8.62
310
320
.330
340
350
21.3 7
22.06
22.75
23.44
24.13
710
66
28
29
30
1. 79
1.86
1.93
2.00
2.07
68
(,9
70
4.55
4.62
4.69
4.76
4.83
130
135
140
14 5
1 50
8.96
9.31
9.65
10.00
10.34
360
370
380
390
400
31
32
33
2.21
2.28
2.34
35
2.41
4.90
4.90
5.03
5.10
5.17
155
160
165
170
175
10.69
11.03
11.38
11.72
12.07
410
420
34
71
72
73
74
75
36
37
38
39
40
2.48
2.55
2.62
2.69
2.7n
76
77
78
79
80
5.24
5.31
5.38
5.45
5.52
180
185
190
195
200
12.41
lbf/in 2
1
2
3
4
5
()
7
8
9
22
23
24
25
26
27
2.14
fi7
92
12.76
13.10
13.44
13.79
920
1040
1050
1080
1090
llOO
73.08
73.77
74.46
75.15
75.84
730
740
750
48.95
49.64
50.33
51.02
51.71
1120
1140
1160
1180
1200
77.22
78.60
79.98
81.36
82.74
24.82
25 .51
26.20
26.89
27.58
760
770
780
790
800
52.40
53.09
53.78
54.47
55.16
1220
1240
1260
84.12
440
450
28.27
28.96
29.65
30.34
31.03
810
820
830
840
850
460
470
480
490
500
31.72
32.41
33.09
33.78
34.47
RoO
870
880
890
900
4.30
700
720
1060
10 70
1300
85.49
86.87
88.25
89.63
55.85
56.54
57.23
57.92
58.61
1320
1340
13 60
1380
1400
91.01
92.39
93.77
95.15
96.53
59.29
59.98
60.67
61.36
1420
1440
1460
1480
1500
97.91
99 .28
100.66
102.04
103.42
62.05
1280
827
Steam tables
Metric SI units
Pressure
Specillc enthalpy
W<tter (hr)
Evaporation (hrg)
Steam (bg)
Specific
volume
steam (v8 )
kJ/kg
k) / kg
k)/kg
m 3 /kg
Temperature
bar
0 .30
0 . 50
0 .75
kPa
absolute
0.95
0
0.10
0 .20
30.0
50.0
75.0
95.0
()
gauge
10.0
20.0
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.()()
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
0.70
0.80
0.90
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
110.0
120.0
1.00
1.10
1.20
1.30
1.40
l. so
1.60
1.70
1.80
130.0
140.0
150.0
160.0
170.0
180.0
1.90
2.00
2.20
2.40
2.60
2 .80
3.00
3.20
3.40
3.60
190.0
200.0
220.0
240.0
260.0
280.0
300.0
320.0
340.0
360.0
3.80
4 .00
4.50
5.00
5.50
6.00
6.50
7.00
7.50
8.00
8.50
380.0
400.0
450.0
500.0
550.0
600.0
650.0
700.0
750.0
800.0
850.0
oc
69.10
81.33
91.78
98.20
289.23
340.49
384.39
411.43
2336.1
2305.4
2278.6
2261.8
2625 .3
2645.9
2663.0
2673.2
5.229
3.240
2.217
100.00
102.66
l05.10
107.39
109.55
111.61
113.56
115.40
117.14
118.80
120.42
419.04
430.2
440.8
450.4
459.7
468.3
476.4
484 .1
491.6
498.9
225 7.0
2250.2
2243.4
22 3 7.2
2231.3
2225.6
2220.4
2215.4
2210.5
2205.6
2676.0
2680.4
2684.2
2687.6
2691.0
2693.9
2696.8
2699.5
2702.1
2704.5
505.6
512.2
518.7
524.6
530.5
536.1
541.6
547.1
552.3
2201.1
2197.0
2192.8
2188.7
2184.8
2706.7
2709.2
2711.5
2713.3
2715.3
2181.0
2177.3
2173.7
2170.1
2l(i6.7
2066.0
2056.8
2047.7
2717.1
2718.9
2720.8
2722.4
2724.0
2725.5
2728.6
2731.4
2733.9
2736.4
2738.7
2741.0
2742.9
2744.9
2746.9
2748.8
2753.0
2756.9
2760.3
2763.5
2766.5
2769.1
1.673
1.533
1.414
1.312
1.225
1.149
1.083
1.024
0.971
0.923
0.881
0.841
0.806
0.773
0.743
0.714
0 .689
0 .6()5
2039.2
2030.9
2022.9
2771.7
2774.0
2776.2
121.96
123.46
124.90
126.28
127.62
128.89
130.13
131.37
132.54
133.69
135.88
138.01
140.00
141.92
143.75
145.46
147.20
148.84
150.44
151.96
155.55
158.92
162.08
165.04
167.83
170.50
173 .02
175.43
177.75
557.3
562.2
571.7
580.7
589.2
597.4
605.3
612 .9
620.0
627.1
634.0
640.7
655.3
670.9
684.6
697.5
709.7
721.4
732.5
743.1
753.3
2Hi3.3
2156.9
2 150.7
2144.7
2139.0
2133.4
2128.1
2122.9
2117.8
2112.9
2108.1
2096.7
2086.0
2075.7
1.777
0.643
0.622
O.f>03
0.%8
0.531)
0.509
0.483
0.461
0.440
0.422
0.405
0.389
0.374
0.342
0.315
0.292
0.272
0.255
0.240
0 .227
0.215
0.204
828
Engineering Data
Steam tables
Metric SI units
Pressure
Specific enthalpy
Specific
volume
Temperature
bar
9.00
9.50
10.00
10.50
11.00
11.50
12.00
12.50
13.00
13.50
14.00
14.50
15.00
1h.OO
17.00
18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
22.00
23.00
24.00
25.00
26.00
27.00
28.00
29.00
30.00
31.00
32.00
33.00
34.00
35.00
36.00
37.00
38.00
39.00
40.00
42.00
44.00
46.00
48.00
50.00
kPa
oc
Water (hr)
k)/kg
900.0
950.0
1000.0
1050.0
1100.0
1150.0
1200.0
1250.0
1300.0
1350.0
1400.0
1450.0
1500.0
1600.0
1 700.0
1800.0
1900.0
2000.0
2100.0
2200.0
2300.0
2400.0
2500.0
2f>OO.O
2700.0
2800.0
2900.0
3000.0
3100.0
3200.0
3 300.0
3400.0
3 500.0
3600.0
3700.0
3800.0
3900.0
4000.0
4200.0
4400.0
4600.0
4800.0
5000.0
179.97
182.10
184.13
186.05
188.02
189.82
191.68
193.43
195.10
196.62
198.35
199.92
201.45
204.38
207.17
209.90
212.47
214.96
217.35
219.65
221.85
224.02
226.12
228.15
230.14
2 32.05
2 33.93
235.78
237.55
239.28
240.97
242.63
244.26
245.86
247.42
248.95
250.42
251.94
2'>4.74
257.50
260.13
262.73
265.2()
763.0
772.5
781.6
790.1
798.8
807.1
815.1
822.9
830.4
837.9
845. 1
852.1
859.0
872.3
885.0
897.2
909.0
920.3
931.3
941.9
952.2
962.2
972.1
981.6
990.7
999.7
1008.6
1017.0
102 5.6
1033.9
1041.9
1049.7
1057.7
10115.7
1072.9
1080.3
1087.4
1094.6
1108.6
LJ22.1
1 13 5.3
1148.1
1160.8
Evaporation
(hr~tl
Steam (hg)
kJ/kg
kJ!kg
2015.1
2007.5
2000.1
1993.0
1986.0
J 979.1
1972.5
1%5.4
1959.6
1953.2
1947.1
1941.0
1935.0
1923.4
1912.1
1901.3
1890.5
1880.2
1870.1
1860.1
1850.4
1804 .9
1 831.4
1822.2
1813.3
1804.4
J 795.6
1787.0
1778.5
1770.0
J 761.8
1753.8
1745.5
1737.2
1729.5
1721.6
1714.1
1706.3
1691.2
1676.2
1661.6
1647.1
1()32. 8
277R.l
27HO.O
2781.7
2783.3
2784.8
2786.3
2787.6
2788.8
2790.0
2791.1
2792.2
2793.1
2794.0
2 79 5. 7
2797.1
2798.5
2799.5
2800.5
2801.4
2802.0
2802.6
2803.1
2803.5
2803.8
2804.0
2R04.1
2804.2
2804.1
2R04. I
2803.9
2803 .7
2803.5
2803.2
2802.9
2802.4
2801.9
2 80 l. ')
2 800.9
2799.8
2798.2
27%.9
2 795.2
2793.6
steam (v~)
m.\/kg
0.194
0.185
0.177
0.171
0.163
0.157
0.151
0.148
0.141
0.136
0.132
0.128
0.124
0.117
0.110
0.105
0.100
0.0949
0 .0906
0.0868
0.0832
0.0797
0.0?68
0.0740
0.0714
0.0689
0.0()66
0.0645
0.0625
0.0605
0.058 7
0.0571
0.0554
0.0539
0.0524
0.0510
o.o4n
0.0485
0.0461
0.0441
0.0421
0.0403
0 0386
OF
Sensible heat
Btu/Lb
Latent heat
Btu/lb
Total heat
Btu/lb
Volume
dry saturation
cu ft/lb
15
10
5
179.0
192.0
203.0
147.0
160.0
171.0
991.0
983.0
976.0
1138.0
1143.0
1147.0
51.41
39.40
31.80
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
48
50
52
54
56
58
212.0
218.5
224.5
230.0
234.8
239.4
243.7
247.9
251.7
255.4
258.8
262.3
265.3
268.3
271.4
274.0
276.7
279.4
281.9
284.4
286.7
289.0
291.3
293.5
295.6
297.7
299.7
301.7
303.6
305.5
307.4
309.2
310.9
312.7
314.3
316.0
317.7
319.3
320.9
322.4
323.9
325.5
326.9
180.2
186.8
192.7
198.1
203.1
207.9
212.3
216.4
220.3
224.0
227.5
230.9
234.2
273.3
240.2
243.0
245.9
248.5
251.1
253.7
256.1
258.5
260.8
263.0
265.2
267.4
269.4
271.5
273.5
275.3
277.1
279.0
280.9
282.8
284.5
286.2
288.0
289.4
291.2
292.9
294.5
296.1
297.6
970.6
966.4
962.6
959.2
956.0
952.9
950.1
947.3
944.8
942.4
940.1
937.8
935.8
933.5
931.6
929.7
927.6
925.8
924.0
922.1
920.4
918.6
917.0
915.4
913.8
912.2
910.7
909.2
907.8
906.5
905.3
904.0
902.6
901.2
900.0
898.8
897.5
896.5
895.1
893.9
892.7
891.5
890.3
1150.8
1153.2
1155.3
1157.3
1159.1
1160.8
1162.3
1163.7
1165.1
1166.4
1167.6
1168.7
1170.0
1170.8
1171.8
1172.7
1173.5
1174.3
1175.1
1175.8
1176.5
1177.1
1177.8
1178.4
1179.0
1179.6
1180.1
1180.7
1UH.3
1181.8
1182.4
1183.0
1183.5
1184.0
1184.5
1185.0
1185.5
1185.9
1186.3
1186.8
1187.2
1187.6
1187.9
26.80
23.80
21.40
19.40
17.90
16.50
15.30
14.30
13.40
12.70
12.00
11.40
10.80
10.30
9.87
9.46
9.08
8.73
8.40
8.11
7.83
7.57
7.33
7.10
6.89
6.68
6.50
6.32
6.16
6.00
5.84
5.70
5.56
5.43
5.31
5.19
5.08
4.97
4.87
4.77
4.67
4.58
4.49
Temperature
Pressure
Inches of
vacuum
psig
()()
62
64
66
fi8
70
72
74
76
78
80
82
84
829
830
Engineering Data
Imperial units
Pressure
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
lOS
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
Temperature
op
Sensible heat
Btu/lb
Latent heat
Btu/lb
Total heat
Btu/lb
328.4
329.9
331.2
332.6
333.9
335.3
336.6
337.9
341.1
344.2
347.1
350.1
3 52.8
355.6
358.3
360.9
363.5
365.9
370.7
375.2
379.6
383.7
387.7
391.7
395.5
399.1
402.7
406.1
409.3
412.5
415.8
418.8
421.7
424.7
427.5
430.3
433.0
435.7
438.3
440.8
443.3
445.7
448.1
299.1
300.6
302.1
303.5
304.9
306.3
307.7
309.0
312.3
315.5
318.7
321.8
324.7
327.6
330.6
333.2
335.9
338.6
343.6
348.5
353.2
357.6
362.0
366.2
370.3
374.2
378.0
381.7
385.3
388.8
392.3
395.7
398.9
402 .1
405.2
408.3
411.3
414.3
417.2
420.0
422.8
425.6
428.2
889.2
888.1
887.0
885.8
884.8
883.7
882.6
881.6
879.0
876.5
874.0
871.5
869.3
866.9
864.5
862.5
860.3
858.0
853.9
849.8
845.9
842.2
838.4
834.8
831.2
827.8
824.5
821.2
817.9
814.8
811.6
808.5
805.5
802.6
799.7
796.7
793.8
791.0
788.2
785.4
782.7
779.9
777.4
1188.3
1188.7
1189.1
1189.3
1189.7
1190.0
1190.3
1190.6
1191.4
1192.0
1192.7
1193.3
1194.0
1194.5
1195.1
1195.7
1196.2
1196.6
1197.5
1198.3
1199.1
1199.8
1200.4
1201.0
1201.5
1202.0
1202.5
1202.9
1203.2
1203.6
1203 .9
1204.2
1204.4
1204.7
1204.9
1205.0
1205.1
1205.3
1205.4
1205.4
1205.5
1205.5
1205.6
Volume
dry saturation
cu l't/lb
4.41
4.33
4.25
4.17
4.10
4.03
3.96
3.90
3.74
3.60
3.46
3.34
3.23
3.12
3.02
2.93
2.84
2.76
2.61
2.48
2.35
2.24
2.14
2.04
1.96
1.88
1.81
1.74
1.68
1.62
1.5 7
1. 52
1.47
1.43
1.39
1.35
1.31
1.2 7
1.24
1.21
1.18
1.15
1.12
2
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Reynolds number Re ~ ud
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8 32
Engineering Data
Q
1/s
400
= flow rate
d.
'
I/ s
300
= velocity m/ s
200
100
90
80
70
60
40
10
9
8
7
mm
mm/m
m/s
300
'
''
- 2
''
''
4
6
8
10
100
'90
50
60'
40
30
2
20
1
0,4
0,6
0,8
1
200
~~
0,04
0,06
0,08
0.1
0,2
''
0,1
0,02
400
0.01
500
30
20'
~Ppi
1000
900
800
700
600
50
''
dl
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0 ,8
0,9
1
20
'
''
'
40
60
80
100
,200
40~
600
800'
1000
2
3
4
5
6
- 7
8
9
10
8 33
O=A
where,
100.0
r-
1-t- t- (:)'
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50.0
40.0
30.0
./
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vv
20.0
1.--'~
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v~--'
10.0
I-I-'
1..
kVl
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00
4.0
00
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2.0
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3.0
<U
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1'';
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vv
v
v
1,\''
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0.5
0.4
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:,.....
/
0.3
v ......
0.2
~
......
~
!.,.;"""
L.
r-
b..''
1--
1--
0. l
8
0
0
,.....
0
0
.o
6
Notes:
l. Unless otherwise known, a value of 0.013 is recommended for n for pipes of all materials.
2.The velocity of flow (averaged over the wetted cross-section) should be kept between 2ft/sec and
J 0 ft/sec.
834
Engineering Data
Q=A
n
where,
0
N
100.0
r- - t-
.,.,.,
/
~
,..-*':JI(:)'
50.0
40.0
r--
30.0
v/
~..--~~
v/
...............
20.0
~,
......
r-_....,r--
r--
/
/
~I--'
1.'1'',.
1---
.,.,
r--
~v
1-~
-=:>
....
0.
"'
Oil
t:
5.0
4.0
~ 3.0
e
.5
v
Oil
....
co
.c.
.,.,
.........
- r-1.0
v\:,''
/
""'/
\"i'""'
~(S' _
.......
I/
""'
.......
....-""'
__.,.
PL
?)'
v'
'
.,.,
0.3
r;'
- r--
r'"l
8
0
"""
v .......
0.2
6'/v
v~--"
.........
0.1
;.....- ~ I
0.5
.......
- ]-
v
0.4
I-?)'
I--' \
..,......r--
2.0
.c.
/r--
6"'
t:
(;j
..Q
- - ' --:
1,\''.:
>.
co 10.0
$
0
V)
~
0
0
0
N
0
r'"l
0
..,.
0
V"\
0
Slope of hydraulic gradient
n = 0.013
Notes:
1. Unless otherwise known, a value of 0.013 is recommended for n for pipes of all materials .
2. The velocity of flow (averaged overthe wetted cross-section) should be kept between 2ft/sec and
I 0 ft/sec.
;.,_
:. . , <"'
;.,
..... Ol..,:, 0
0'1
1,11
;;:
"'
0
..
'"'
0
.,
0
0
0
"'
0
ln11de diameter of
Ppe n 1nches
V:l
.....
!::.
~
!::....
"'0
..
(.,I
o e
tv
tV
<71
rv
N------
0\D<D....,Q\\1'~
THE VA LUES OF THIS GRAPH ARE BASED ON THE WILLIAMS & HAZEN FORMULA
nches.
Nomograph courtesy of Plastics Pipe Institute. a division of The Society of the Plast ics lndustry.
"'0 "'0
"'0
..;,., ..
"'
"'
omc-c.Nom"'~ o
..
V. ia ;_, N
;....
;.,
The nomograph is used by lining up values on the scale by means of a ruler or straight edge. Two
independent variables must be set to obtain the other va lues. For example. line ( 1) indicates that 500
gallons per minute may be obtained with a 6-io inside diameter pipe at a head loss of about 0.65
pounds pa squ<trc inch at a velocity of 6.0 feet per second. Line (2) indicates that a pipe with a 2.1-in
inside diameter will give a now of about 60 gallons per minute at a Joss in bead of 2 pounds per square
inch per 100 feet of pipe. Line (3) and dotted line (3) show that in going from a pipe 2.1-in inside
diameter to one of 2-in inside diameter the head loss goes from 3 to 4 pounds per square inch in
obtaming a flow of 70 gallons per minute. Our raw material supplier does not recommend velocities in
exctss of 5.0 feet per second.
!:1.
""
!::.
~
!::....
\2
""
::s
.....
c;
!::.
;::s
""
00
Vl
83 6
Engineering Data
The mass density (p) of a gas or vapour in lb/ ft 3 can be calculated from the
following equations:
-
l44P
p = -RT
where
P=
MP
P = 10.72T
270P X Sg
p = -- - T
Table 1. Weight (mass) density of air lb/ft 3 for gauge pressures in lb/in 2
lb/ in 2
Air
temperature
op
30
40
so
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
0.0811
0.0795
0.0782
0.0764
0.07 so
0.0736
0.0722
0 .0709
0.0697
0.068 5
0.0673
0.0662
0.0651
0.0626
0.0602
0.0580
0.05 59
0.0540
0.0523
0.0490
0.0462
0.0436
0.0414
0.0393
0.03 75
0.1087
0.1065
0.1048
0.1024
0.1005
0.0986
0.0968
0.0951
0.0934
0.0918
0.0902
0 .0887
0.0873
0.0834
0.0807
0 .0777
0.07 50
0.0724
0.0700
0.0657
0.0619
0.0585
0.0555
0.0527
0.0502
0.1363
0.1335
0.1314
0.1284
0.1260
0.1236
0.1214
0.1192
0.1171
0.1151
0.1131
0.1113
0.1094
0.1051
0.1011
0.0974
0.0940
0.0908
0.0878
0.0824
0.0776
0.0733
0.0695
0.0661
0.0630
0.1915
0.1876
0.1846
0.1804
0.1770
0.1737
0.1705
0.1675
0.1645
0.1617
0.1590
0.1563
0.1537
0.1477
0.1421
0.1369
0.1321
0.1276
0.1234
0.1158
0.1090
0.1030
0.0977
0.0928
0.0885
0.247
0.242
0.238
0.232
0.228
0.224
0.220
0.216
0.212
0.208
0.205
0.201
0.1981
0.1903
0.1831
0.1764
0.1702
0.1644
0.1590
0.1491
0.1405
0.1327
0.1258
0.1196
0.1140
0.302
0.295
0.291
0.284
0.279
0.274
0.269
0.264
0.259
0.255
0.251
0.246
0.242
0.233
0.224
0.216
0.208
0.201
0.1945
0.1825
0.1719
0.1624
0.1540
0.1464
0.1395
0.357
0.350
0.344
0.336
0.330
0.324
0.318
0.312
0.307
0.302
0.296
0.291
0.287
0.275
0.265
0.255
0.246
0.238
0.230
0.216
0.203
0.1921
0.1821
0.1731
0.1649
0.412
0.404
0.397
0.388
0.381
0.374
0.367
0.361
0.354
0.348
0.342
0 .337
0.331
0.318
0.306
0.295
0.284
0.275
0.266
0.249
0.235
0.222
0.210
0.1999
0.1904
0.467
0.458
0.451
0.440
0.432
0.424
0.416
0.409
0.402
0.395
().388
0 .382
0.375
0 .361
0.347
0.334
0 .322
0.311
0.301
0.283
0.266
0 .252
0.238
0.227
0.216
0.522
0.512
0.504
0.492
0.483
0.474
0.465
0.457
0.449
0.441
0.434
0.427
0.420
0.403
0.388
0.374
0.361
0.348
0.337
0.316
0.298
0.281
0.267
0.253
0.241
0.578
0 .56 6
0.557
0.544
0.534
0.524
0.515
0.505
0.497
0.488
0.480
0.472
0.464
0.446
0.429
0.413
0.399
0.385
0.3 72
0.349
0.329
0.311
0.295
0.280
0.267
0.633
0.620
0.610
0.596
0.585
0.574
0.564
0.554
0.544
0 .535
0.525
0.51 7
0. 508
0.488
0 .470
0 .453
0.437
0.422
0.408
0.383
0.360
0.341
0.323
0.307
0.292
0. 688
0.674
0.663
0 .648
0.636
0.624
0.613
0.602
0.591
0.581
0.571
0.562
0.553
0.531
0.511
0.492
0.4 7 5
0.459
0.443
0.416
0.392
0.370
0.351
0 .334
0.318
0.743
0.728
0.71 7
0 .700
0.687
0.6 74
0.662
0 .650
0.639
0 .628
0.61 7
0.607
0.597
0.573
0.552
0.531
0.513
0.495
0.479
0.449
0.423
0.400
0.379
0.360
0.343
0. 798
0.7 82
0.770
0.752
0 .738
0 .724
0.7 11
0 .698
0.686
0.674
0 .663
0.652
0.641
0.6 16
0.593
0.5 7 1
0.551
0.532
0.515
0.483
0.455
0.430
0.40 7
0.38 7
0.369
V')
Ei
;::J
:;::,...
...
)::)
:;::,
;::J
:;:,...
Cj
<'>
..."'
r.i:;'
i:5
c;
;::J
"'
continued
oo
w
"'-..]
00
Table 1.
-continued
00
OF
tr:l
lb/in 2
Air
temperature
==
'2.
140
150
175
200
225
250
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.853
0.836
0.823
0.804
0.789
0.774
0. 760
0.747
0.734
0.721
0. 709
0.697
0.686
0.659
0.634
0.610
0.589
0.569
0.550
0.516
0.486
0.459
0.43 6
0.414
0. 394
0.909
0.890
0.876
0.856
0.840
0.824
0.809
0.795
0.781
0.768
0.755
0.742
0.730
0.701
0.675
0.650
0.627
0.606
0.586
0.550
0.518
0.489
0.464
0.441
0.420
1.047
1.026
1.009
0.986
0.968
0.950
0.932
0.916
0.900
0.884
0.869
0.855
0.841
0.807
0.777
0.749
0.722
0.698
0.675
0.633
0.596
0.563
0.534
0.508
0.484
1.185
1.161
1.142
1.116
1.095
1.075
1.055
1.036
1.018
1.001
0.984
0.967
0.951
0.914
0.879
0.847
0.817
0.790
0.764
0.716
0.675
0.638
0.604
0.575
0.547
1.323
1.296
1.275
1.246
1.223
1.200
1.178
1.157
1.137
1.117
1.098
1.080
1.062
1.020
0.982
0.946
0.913
0.881
0.852
0.800
0.753
0.712
0.675
0.641
0.611
1.460
1.431
1.408
1.376
1.3 so
1.325
1.301
1.278
1.2 55
1.234
1.213
1.193
1.173
1.127
1.084
1.044
1.008
0.973
0.941
0.883
0.832
0.786
0.745
0.708
0.675
1. 736
1. 702
1.674
1.636
1.605
1.575
1. 54 7
1.519
1.492
1.467
1.442
1.418
1.395
1.340
1.289
1.242
1.198
1.157
1.119
1.050
0.989
0.934
0.886
0.842
0.802
2.29
2.24
2.21
2.16
2.12
2.08
2.04
2.00
1.967
1.933
1.900
1.868
1.838
1.765
1.698
1.636
1.579
1.525
1.475
1.384
1.303
1.232
1.167
1.110
1.05 7
2.84
2.78
2.74
2.68
2.63
2.58
2.53
2.48
2.44
2.40
2.36
2.32
2.28
2.19
2.11
2.03
1.959
1.893
1.830
1. 717
1.618
1. 529
1.449
1.377
1. 312
3.39
3.32
3.27
3.20
3.14
3.08
3.02
2.97
2.92
2.86
2.82
2.77
2.72
2.62
2.52
2.43
2.34
2.26
2.19
2.05
1.932
1.826
1. 731
1.645
1.567
3.94
3.86
3.80
3.72
3.65
3.58
3.51
3.45
3.39
3. 33
3.27
3.22
3.17
3.04
2.93
2.82
2.72
2.63
2.54
2.38
2.25
2.12
2.01
1.912
1.822
4.49
4.40
4.33
4.24
4.16
4.08
4.00
3.93
3.86
3.80
3.73
3.67
3. 61
3.47
3.34
3.21
3.10
3.00
2.90
2.72
2. 56
2.42
2.29
2.18
2.08
5.05
4.95
4.87
4.76
4.67
4.58
4.50
4.42
4.34
4.26
4.19
4.12
4.05
3.89
3.75
3.61
3.48
3.36
3.2 5
3.05
2.87
2.72
2.58
2.45
2.33
5.60
5.49
5.40
5.28
5.18
5.08
4.99
4.90
4.81
4.73
4.65
4.57
4.50
4 .32
4.16
4.00
3.86
3. 73
3.61
3.39
3.19
3.01
2.86
2.72
2.59
""""==~.
==
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
175
200
225
250
275
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
'
839
Coefficient
i\11
Ratio or
specific heats
k(l4.7psia)
psi<~
Critical
temperature ( R)
(F+460)
Acetylene
Air
Ammonia
Argon
Benzene
26.04
28.97
17.()3
39.94
78.11
1.25
1.40
1.30
1.66
1.12
342
356
347
377
329
0.899
1.000
0.588
1.379
2.6%
890
547
1638
706
700
555
240
730
272
1011
N-butane
!so-butane
Carbon dioxide
Carbon disulplude
Carbon monoxide
58.12
58.12
44.0 l
76.13
28.01
1.18
1.19
1.29
1.21
1.40
335
336
346
338
456
2.006
2.006
1.519
2.628
0.967
551
529
1072
1147
507
766
735
548
994
240
Chlorine
Cyclohexane
Ethane
Ethyl alcohol
Ethyl chloride
70.90
84.16
30.07
46.07
64.52
1.35
1.08
1.19
1.13
1.19
352
325
336
330
336
2.447
2.905
1.038
1.590
2.227
1118
591
708
926
766
751
997
550
925
829
Ethylene
Freon 11
Preon J 2
Preon 22
Freon 114
28.03
137.37
120.92
86.48
170.93
1.24
1.14
1.14
1.18
1.09
341
331
331
335
326
0.968
4.742
4.174
2.985
5.900
731
654
612
737
495
509
848
694
665
754
Helium
N-heptetne
Hexane
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrogen
4.02
100.20
86.17
36.47
2.02
1.66
1.05
1.06
1.41
1.41
377
321
322
357
357
0.139
3.459
2.974
1.259
0.070
33
397
437
1198
188
10
973
914
584
60
Hydrogen chloride
sulphide
Methaoe
1\,fethyl alcohol
Methyl butane
36.47
34.08
16.04
32.04
72.15
1.41
1.32
1.3]
1.20
1.08
357
349
348
337
325
1.259
1.176
0.554
1.106
2.491
1205
1306
673
1154
490
585
672
344
924
829
Methyl chlori.de
Natural gas (typical)
Nitric oxide
Nitrogen
Nitrous oxide
50.49
19.00
30.00
28.02
44.02
1.20
1.27
1.40
1.40
1.31
337
344
356
356
348
1.743
0.65fi
1.036
0.967
1.520
968
671
956
493
1054
749
375
323
227
557
N-octane
Oxygen
N-pentaoe
!so-pentane
Propane
114.22
32.00
72.15
72.15
44.09
1.05
1.40
1.08
1.08
1.13
321
356
325
325
330
3.943
1.105
2.4n
2.491
1.522
362
737
490
490
617
1025
279
84fi
829
Sulfur dioxide
Toluene
64.04
92.13
1.27
1.09
344
326
2.211
3.180
1141
611
775
1069
Hydro~en
wei ~ht
Specific Critical
gravity pressure
666
00
H'o
Pipe dimensions
BS 3505 for PVC-U pipe: inch
CT'j
:::s
Diameter
Class C 9.0 bar
Nominal
size
s
,_.
"'...,
:::s
Wall thickness
Mean
outside
diameter
Individual
outside
diameter
c:J
Average
value
Individual value
Average
value
Individual value
Average
value
Individual value
min.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
max.
min.
max.
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
17.0
21.2
26.6
33.4
42.1
17.3
21.5
26.9
33.7
42.4
17.0
21.2
26.6
3 3.3
42.0
17.3
21.5
26.9
3 3.8
42.5
1.5
1.7
1.9
2.2
2.7
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.7
3.2
4
5
4 8.1
60.2
88.7
114. 1
140.0
48.4
60.5
89.1
114.5
140.4
48.0
60.0
88.4
113.7
139.4
48.5
60.7
89.4
114.9
141.0
6
8
10
12
14
168.0
218.8
272.6
323.4
3 55.0
168.5
219.4
273.4
324.3
356.0
167.4
218.0
271.6
322 .2
3 53.7
16
18
20
24
405.9
456.7
507.5
609.1
406.9
457.7
508.5
610.1
404.3
454.9
505 .4
606.5
3/ s
1
11
3/4
11 /*
1l I 2
2
3
2 .7
2.2
2.7
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.7
3.2
2.5
3.1
4.6
6.0
7.3
3.0
3.7
5.3
6.9
8.4
3.7
4.5
6.5
8.3
10.1
3.1
3.9
5.7
7.3
9.0
3.7
4.5
6.6
8.4
10.4
8.8
3.0
4.1
5.2
6.3
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
3.0
4.1
5.2
6.4
3.0
3.7
5.3
6.8
8.3
169 .1
220.2
2 74.4
32 5. 5
3 57.3
7.5
8.8
10.9
12.9
14.1
6.6
7.8
9.7
11.5
12.6
7.6
9.0
11 .2
13.3
14.5
9.9
11.6
14.3
17.0
18.6
10.3
12 .8
15.2
16.7
10.2
11.9
14.8
17.5
19.2
12.1
14.1
17.5
20.8
22.8
10.8
12.6
15.7
18.7
20.5
12.5
14.5
18.1
21.6
23.6
408.5
459.5
510.6
612.7
16.2
18.2
20.2
24.1
14.5
16.3
18.1
21.7
16.7
18.8
20.9
25.0
21.1
23.8
19.0
21.4
21.9
24.6
26.0
23.4
27.0
::::,
;::;-
Diameter
Nominal
size
Mean outside
diameter
Individual outside
diameter
Class B
6.0 bar
Class D
15.0 bar
Class C
9.0 bar
Class E
15.0bar
ClassTt
12.0bar
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
min.
max.
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
17.0
21.2
26.6
33.4
17.3
21.5
26.9
33.7
17.0
21.2
26.6
33.4
17.3
21.5
26.9
33.7
1.9
2.1
2.5
2.7
1.6
1.9
2 .4
3.0
1.8
2.1
2.6
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.5
4.2
3.6
3.7
3.7
4.5
42.1
48.1
60.2
88.7
42.4
48.4
60.5
89 .1
42.0
48.0
60.0
88.4
42.4
48.5
60.7
89 .4
11 .' 2
2
3
2.4
2.7
3.4
5.0
2.6
3.0
3.7
5.3
3.1
3.6
4.5
6.5
3.4
3.9
4.9
6.9
3.8
4.4
5.4
8.0
4.1
4.7
5.8
8.5
5.1
5.8
7.0
5.5
6.2
7.4
4
6
8
114.1
168.0
218.8
114.5
168.5
219.4
113.7
167.4
218.1
114.9
169.1
220.2
6.4
9.4
12.2
6.9
10.4
8.4
12.3
8.9
13.3
10.3
10.9
min.
mm
3/ '6
lh
3
/4
11:4
6.1
8.4
6.4
8.8
13.2
Mean outside diameter' of a pipe is taken to be the arithmetic mean of any two perpendicularly opposed individual outside diameters. Alternatively, the mean
outside diameter mat be determined by means of a circumference tape.
tctass T pipe is intended only for threading. Its maximum sustained working pressure (12 bar) applies when threading is carried out in accordance with BS 21.
V'J
....
:::
l::l..
~
"'
~
:::
l::l..
"'
:::
l:l
....
c;
~-
:::
"'
00
H:>~
842
Engineering Data
Size
6 bar
10 bar
16 bar
25 bar
o.d.
wall
emm
wall
emm
wall
emm
wall
emm
1.5
1.8
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.6
4.3
5.3
6.0
6.7
7.7
8.6
9.6
10.8
11.9
13.4
1 5.0
16.9
19.1
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.2
1.5
1.9
2.4
3.0
3.7
4.7
5.6
6.7
8.2
9.3
10.4
11.9
13.4
14.9
16.7
18.6
20.8
23.4
26.3
29.7
6
8
10
12
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
180
200
225
250
280
315
355
400
1.8
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.7
3.2
3.7
4.1
4.7
5.3
5.9
6.6
7.3
8.2
9.2
10.4
11.7
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.8
2.3
2.8
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
l.l
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.9
3.0
3.2
843
-- Size
2.5 bar
6 bar
lObar
o.d.
wall
emm
wall
emm
wall
e rrun
1.8
1.8
2.0
2.3
2.9
3.6
4.3
5.1
6.3
7.1
8.0
9.1
10.2
11.4
12.8
14.2
15.9
17.9
20.1
22.7
2.0
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.7
4.6
5.8
6.9
8 .2
10.0
11 .4
12.8
14.6
16.4
18.2
20.5
22.8
25.5
28.7
32.3
36.4
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
180
200
225
250
280
315
355
400
1.8
1.8
1.9
2.2
2.7
3.1
3.5
3.9
4.4
4.9
5.5
6.1
6 .9
7.7
8.7
9.8
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.5
1.7
1.8
2.1
2.3
2.6
2.9
3.2
3.6
1.8- 2.0
2.2-3.0
3.1-3.9
4.3-4.9
5.1-5.8
6.1 7.0
7.1-8.0
8.2-8. 7
9.1- 10.0
10.2-11.0
11 .4
12.2 and 12.8
13.7
14.2 and 14.6
15.4and15.9
16.4
17.4 and 17.9
18.2
19.3 and 19.6
20.1 and 20.5
21.6
22.0 and 22.8
24.3 and 24.4
25.5
27.4
28.3 and 28.7
30.8
31.7
32.3
34.7
35 .7
36.4
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
l.O
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.1
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.7
3.8
3.9
844
Engineering Data
Horizontal pipe-systems support spacings are greatly influenced by operating temperature. The charts
show the recommended support spacing according to size. schedule and operating temperatures. Do
not clamp supports tightly- this restricts axia l movement or the pipe. If short spacing is necessary.
continuous supports may be more economical. Charts are based on liquids up to l.OO specific gravity.
but do not include concentrated loads, nor do they include allowance for aggressive reagents.
Pipe
$CHEDIJLE40
si7.e
temperature (0 P)
in
60
80
100
120
140
60
80
100
3'12
3111
3 1/z
3 112
2 1/z
4
4
1 14
5 1/z
5 h
5h
5
5
6 1h
/z
3 112
/z
llO
140
4 1h
2 112
4 lz
! 1h
3 lz
5 1h
6 12
6 1 /z
6 112
3 1 lz
7 1lz
f. 1 h
3 1 lz
4 1 /2
'> 112
3 1 lz
6 1/z
3 1 /.!
7 112
7 1h
6 ' 12
4 1/z
7 ' /2
8 h
7 h
4 1 12
7 1h
4 112
/z
3 112 3 1 i l
12
S 1lz
? 1 l2
8 1 lz
8 111
7 112
9 1h
9 11z
4l1z
11
10
12
5 lz
12
13
12
14
13 112
11
14
13 1 /l
ll 1l1
16
12 112
11 1 h
18
13
12
l0 1h
7 1h 6 ' h
SOR4l
11
13
12
8 1lz 5 1l2
SDR 26
14
lY/z 12 /z ll' h 8 h
1
3 1h
6 1 12
()
8 l2
5 12 3 1h
1
10
14
lOU
3 1 /z
22
SO
/z 2 h
S 1h
9 11,
20
()()
2 12 2 h
10
140
20
2 112 2 1h
6
7
4 1/1
SCHEDULE 120
SCHEDULE 80
/ 1
15
15 111
14 1/
15
12
2
12 1 /z
13
9 1 h 8 11?
10
'Alt hough support spacing Is shown at 1401'. consideration should be given to the use o f CPVC or continuous suppo(t abow 120 f.
The possibil ity of temperat\l(e overrides beyond regu lar working temperatures and cost may make either o r the altl'matiws more
desirable.
This chnrt is based on continuou s spans and for iniusulated line carrying nuirls of specific gravily up to 1.00.
73
100
112
5
5
4 1lz
5
1
5 12
5 1/z
6
6
7
7
1
7 12
7 1lz
8
9
10
10 1 12
314
l
1 114
1
1 I2
2
2 1 12
3
1
3 Iz
4
6
8
10
12
SCHEDULE 80
temperature F
SCHEDULE40
temperature F
5 112
5 112
6
6
7
7
1
7 lz
7 1h
8 1/z
9 1h
10 112
1
11 h
2 112 2 1h
21h. 21/z
3 21/z
3
3
3 112 3
31 /z
3
31
/z
4
4
Vh
4
4
1
4 12 4
5
4 112
1
5 12 5
6
5 1/z
1
6 12 6
73
100
120
140
S1l2
5
5 lz
6
6
4 1lz
5
1
5 I2
6
61 h.
71l z
71/z
8
81 /z
9
10
10 112
11 1l 2
41h
41/z
5
51 /z
51/z
6
1
6 I2
7
71/z
7 1h
8
9
1
9 12
10 1/z
5 112
6
61 /z
7
7
8
8
81I 2
8 1I 2
10
11
11 112
12 1/z
6 12
7
7 12
8
1
8 lz
9
9 1/z
10 1h
1
11
12
160 180
3
3
3 1 12
2 112
21 /-2
3
3 1h
3
3 112 3 112
4
3 1I z
41/z
4
41 /z
4
1
5
4 l2
5
4 1 12
51 /z
5
6
5 1 12
6 112 6
7 1 l z 6 1 12
This chart is based on continuous spans and for in insulated line carrying fluids of specific gravity up
tol.OO.
The data furnished herein is based on information furnished by manufacturers of the raw material.
This information may be considered as a basis for recommendation, but not as a guarantee. Materials
should be tested under actual service to determine duitability for a particular purpose.
846
Engineering Data
<
PVC-U
Pipe bracket intervals Lin em at
mm
in
20C
30C
40C
50"C
16
20
25
32
40
3/s
80
90
95
105
120
140
150
165
180
200
210
225
240
255
270
70
80
85
90
llO
130
140
155
170
190
200
215
230
240
260
50
60
65
70
90
110
120
135
150
170
185
195
210
220
240
Continuous
su pport
55
40
60
45
70
55
85
65
95
70
110
80
95
125
145
115
125
160
170
140
185
155
200
170
215
185
Jh
J/4
1
1 1/4
11I z
2
so
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
200
225
21/z
3
4
5
6
7
8
60C
PVC-C
Pipe bracket intervals Lin em at
mm
in
20C
30C
40C
50C
60C
70C
80C
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
75
90
110
160
225
3/ s
100
115
120
135
150
16.5
18.5
205
225
250
300
355
95
110
115
125
140
160
175
195
210
235
285
335
90
100
110
120
85
95
100
110
125
140
160
175
190
210
255
300
75
87
90
100
115
67
60
70
70
80
90
110
125
135
150
165
liz
3/4
1
1 1/ 4
1
1 /2
2
21/z
4
6
8
130
1.50
165
185
200
220
270
320
130
150
165
180
195
240
280
77
80
90
105
120
135
150
165
180
220
260
200
235
ABS
d
mm
20C
30C
40C
sooc
60C
3/ 8
70
80
85
100
110
115
130
160
180
230
65
70
80
90
100
110
120
145
165
210
60
55
60
45
50
60
65
75
80
85
105
120
155
16
20
25
32
40
Jl /4
63
90
110
160
1 1 /2
2
3
4
6
so
liz
3/4
65
75
85
95
100
110
135
155
200
65
75
85
90
100
120
135
175
847
pp
mm
200C
30"C
40C
50C
600C
80C
100C
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
180
200
225
250
315
75
80
70
7')
85
95
110
120
135
150
165
180
190
205
225
240
250
260
275
305
70
70
85
95
105
115
130
145
155
175
185
195
210
225
235
250
265
295
65
70
80
90
100
110
125
135
150
165
180
190
200
215
225
240
255
285
65
65
75
85
95
105
120
55
60
70
75
85
90
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
85
95
105
85
100
110
125
140
155
16'>
185
200
210
225
240
250
265
280
315
130
145
160
170
180
190
200
215
230
240
270
lOS
115
125
140
150
155
165
170
185
200
210
235
ll5
125
130
135
145
200
225
llO
PB
d
mm
20C
30C
40C
50C
60C
80C
100C
16
20
25
32
40
50
63
75
90
70
78
81
93
103
115
130
141
154
188
69
68
76
79
90
100
112
126
137
150
184
66
74
64
72
75
85
95
106
60
68
71
80
90
100
112
122
134
164
55
61
64
73
81
90
102
llO
77
80
91
102
114
128
139
15 2
186
77
88
98
109
123
133
146
179
119
130
142
173
llO
121
148
848
Engineering Data
PE
mm
20C
30C
40C
sooc
60C
20
25
32
40
75
80
90
100
115
130
140
1S5
170
185
195
210
235
2SO
70
80
90
100
110
125
135
lSO
165
175
185
200
220
235
65
75
85
95
lOS
120
130
145
160
170
180
190
210
220
6S
70
80
90
100
115
125
60
65
75
85
95
lOS
llS
130
140
150
155
170
186
200
so
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
200
225
135
150
160
170
180
200
210
-- -
PVDF
d
mm
20C
40C
60C
80C
100C
120C
140C
16
20
25
32
40
75
80
85
100
110
12 5
140
155
165
185
200
210
22S
2 50
265
70
75
85
95
110
120
135
150
16S
180
190
20S
22 5
250
260
70
70
85
95
lOS
115
130
145
155
175
185
195
210
235
250
65
70
80
90
100
llO
125
135
150
165
180
190
200
225
240
65
65
75
85
95
105
120
130
145
160
170
180
190
21 5
230
55
60
70
75
85
90
105
115
125
140
150
155
165
185
200
40
45
50
55
60
70
80
85
95
105
110
115
125
13 5
145
so
63
75
90
110
125
140
160
200
225
SECTION 10
Author's Acknowledgements
Author's Acknowledgments
Abacus Valves Mfg Ltd
ASCO I Joucomatic
N HBennett
Biwater Industries
British Standards Institute
Buracco SA
BVAMA
Crosby Valve Inc
CUES
Dan foss
Dow Chemical Company
Dresser Industries
Durabla Fluid Technology Inc.
Fisher-Rosemount
FMC Corporation
George Fischer
Griffin Pipe Products
Harvel Plastics Inc.
SECTION 11
Buyer's Guide to Valves and Pipes
Air Valves
Posi-Flate
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Actuated Valves-Hydraulic
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Actuated Valves-Manual
PCC FIO\v Technologies
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Pos i-Flate
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG
Actuated Valves-Pneumatic
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB
Posi-Flate
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Victaulic Company
Hattersley Newman Hend er Ltd
Actuated Valves-Portable
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
BaJI Valves
PCC Flow Technologies
Changdel Industrial Co. Ltd
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Haitima Corporation
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Victaulic Company
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Georg Fischer AG
Actuators
PCC Flow Technologies
Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAF AB
Posi-Flate
Hattersley Newm an Hender Ltd
Georg Pischer t\G
Butterfly Valves
PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB
Posi-Plate
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hatte rs ley Newman Hender Ltd
Georg fischer AG
85 6
Gate Valves
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Manifold Valves
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Metal Valves
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB
Metering Valves
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Mixing Valves
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Georg Fischer AG
Regulating Valves
NAFAB
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Needle Valves
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Relief Valves
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Non-return Valves
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Rotary Valves
NAFAB
Pinch Valves
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Pipeline Valves
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Safety Valves
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Plastics Valves
Screwdown Valves
Georg Pischer AG
Victaulic Company
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
NAFAB
Slide Valves
Pneumatic Valves
Solenoid Valves
Poppet Valves
Spool Valves
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Steam Valves
Pressure Operated Valves
ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Process Valves
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB
Posi-Plate
Quiet Valves
ASCO/joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Stop Valves
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
8 57
8 58
Swingcheck Valves
Pipe Fitt.ings-Piastics
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG
Tank Valves
Georg Fischer AG
Pipe Joints
Temperature Control Valves
Georg Fischer AG
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd
Plastic Pipe
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG
Throttling Valves
NAFAB
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd
Pressfit Pipe
PVC-C Pipe
Vacuum Valves
Georg Fischer AG
Victaulic Company
PVC-UPipe
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Thermoplastic Pipe
Knife Gate Valves
Georg Fischer AG
ABS Pipe
Georg Fischer AG
CPVC Pipe
Georg Fischer AG
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Noise Control
Georg Fischer AG
NAFAB
Flexible Pipe
Pad:ings
Georg Fischer AG
Latty International SA
PE Pipe
Positioners
Georg Fischer AG
NAFAB
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Pipe Clamps
Georg Fischer AG
Process Controllers
NAFAB
Pipelines Couplings
Victaulic Company
Georg Fischer AG
Regulators
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Seals
Latty International SA
Sealing Materials
Latty International SA
NAFAB
Beverage
Steam Traps
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Ratters ley Newman Render Ltd
Traps/Drainers
Brewery
Valve Position Indicators
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Valve Testing
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Dairy
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Distiller:s
Brackish Water
PCC Flow Technologies
Cooling Water
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Drinking Water
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
General Food
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Posi-Flate
Sugar
PCC Plow Technologies
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Wine
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Sea Water
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Sewage
PCC Flow Technologies
Hatters ley Newman Hender Ltd
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Chlor Alkali
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Clarifying
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Waste Water
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hatters ley Newmao Hender Ltd
Emulsions
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
8 59
860
Grease/Lubricating Oil
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Industrial Chemicals
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Posi-Flate
Public Utility
Process
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Resins
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Posi-Fiate
Electricity
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Posi-Fiate
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Gas
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
Pharmaceutical
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Posi-Flate
Other Applications
Automotive
PCC Flow Technologies
Posi-Flate
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Aviation & Aerospace
Posi-Flate
Cement Slurry
PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB
Posi-Fiate
Rattersley Newman Render Ltd
Coal Mining
PCC Flow Technologies
NAPAB
Posi-Plate
Hatters ley Newman Render Ltd
Coal Washing
PCC Flow Technologies
Concrete Handling
PCC Flow Technologies
Posi-Flate
Ratters ley Newman Bender Ltd
Thick Sludge
PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB
Condensate Extraction
PCC Flow Technologies
Pharmaceutical, Medical
Oescaling
PCC Flow Technologies
Biotechnology
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Fire Stationary
PCC Flow Technologies
Rattersley Newman Render Ltd
Cosmetics
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Glass
PCC Flow Tecbnologies
Posi-Plate
Laboratory
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joncomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Heating
PCC Plow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Medical
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
High Pressure
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
8 61
862
Hydro-Pneumatic
Posi-Flate
Irrigation (Intake)
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Irrigation (Spray)
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Land Drainage
PCC Flow Technologies
Machine Tool Coolants
PCC Flow Technologies
Hattersley Newman Bender Ltd
Marine
PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Military /Defence
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
Mineral Processing
PCC Flow Technologies
Mining
PCC Flow Technologies
Mine Drainage & Dewatering
PCC Flow Technologies
Nuclear
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Oil & Gas
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Petrochemical
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (t\SCO Controls BV)
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
NAFAB
Posi-Flate
Printing
PCC Flow Technologies
Posi-Flate
Pulp & Paper
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Posi-Flate
Hattersley Newman Render Ltd
Refining
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/ Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
NAFAB
Shipping
PCC Flow Technologies
Hindle Cockburns Ltd
NAFAB
Tar & Liquor
PCC Flow Technologies
NAFAB
Hattersley Newman Hender Ltd
Textiles
PCC Flow Technologies
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Cootr:-ols BV)
Tyres & Rubber
PCC Flow Technologies
NAPAB
Posi-Piate
Viscous Products
PCC Flow Technologies
Head Office:
Latty 0l International SA. 57 bis Rue de
Versailles. F- 91400 Orsay, France
Tel: + 33 169 861112
fax:+33169869625
E-mail: sales-market:ing@ latty.com
Website: www.latty.com
Georg Fischer AG
Rohrleitunsyrk, Ebnat Strasse ll.
Cl-1-8201 Schaffhausen. Switzerland
Tel: +4152 6311111
Fax: +41 52 6312875
Plant Qffice:
Latty " International SA. l. Rue Xavier-Latty,
BP 13. F-28160 Brou. France
Tel: +33 2 37 44 77 77
Fax: +33 2 37 44 77 99
E-mail: customerservice@latty.com
Website: www.latty.com
Haitima Corporation
SF. No 201 Titing Boulevard Sec2.
Neihu Area. Taipei, Taiwan 114. ROC
Tel: +886 2 26585800
Fax: +886 2 26582266
E-mail: haitima (ilms8.binet.net
864
NAFAB
Gelbgjntaregatan 2. S-5818 7 Linkoping,
Sweden
Tel: +4613 3 316000
Fax: +4613 136054
E-mail: info@nar.se
Website: www.naf.se
PCC Fl.o w Technologies
Unit C. Ryknild Street. Barton Turn.
Corporation Headquarters:
Posi-flate, 1125 Willow Lake Boulevard.
StPaul. MN 55110. USA
Tel: +1 651484 5800
Fax: +1651484 7015
U11ited Kingdom:
Posi-flate, 14 Carters Lane. Kiln Farm,
Milton Keynes, MK11 3ER. UK
Tel: +44 (0) 1908 564455
Fax: +44 (0) 1908 564615
Website: www. posiflate.com
Rotork
Brass Mill Lane, Bath. BA1 3JQ. UK
Tel: 01225 733261
Fax: 01225 733539
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Charlton House. Cheltenham.
Gloucestershire GL53 8ER. UK
Tel: +441242 521361
Pax: +441242 573342
E-mail: eng@spiraxuk.attmail.com
Website: www.spirax-sarco.com
Victnalic Company of America
Po Box 31. Easton PA. 18044-0031, USA
Tel: + 1 610 5 59 3 3 00
Fax: +1610 250 8817
E-mail: victualic@victualic.com
Website: www.victualic.com
Wyeco Auto Valves Co Ltd
4F No 98 Section 3, Chien Kuo N. Road.
Taipei. Taiwan 104, ROC
Tel: +886 2 2502 5166
Fax: +886 2 2501 2863
Yih Kuang Metal Corporation
l2F-l, No 51. Fu Hsing N. Road,
Taipei 105. ROC
Tel: +886 2 277 66455
Fax: +886 2 277 66795
866
Editorial Index
2-way valves
3-way valves
4-way valves
148
149
150
c
Calculation of condensate flowrates 6 52.
655
Capacitance probes 304
Carbon steel pipe 3 3 2, 401
Cathodic protection 444.451.453,454.
456.462.472.473,659
Cavitation 190, 236.286.443.462. 566.
600,637,658.669,671,673.675.677.
696. 702
Cement mortar lining 328.465
Cement-buried pipelines 610
Centrifugal casting 345
Chatter 139, 165,554.677
Check valves 20. 82, 164.185.243.469,
492,693,706.731 . 732,744.775
Chemical resistance 355,359.364.368,
430.469 . 470
Choice of energy system 2 59
Clamp valves 116. 776
Class B bedding 62 5
Class C bedding 624
Cold-solvent cement welding 3 74
Colebrook-White equation 549
Colour codes for pipeline identification 3 5
Combined loading 629
Communication and supervisory
control 271
Complex mixture flow 55 7
Compound joints 434
Compressible flow in pipes 5 72
Compression jointing 3 90
Compression moulding 344
Contact or hand lay up mouldings 344
Contractions and enlargements 596
Control valves 158. 192,199,229.250.
256,261 , 266.275.280. 587.659,663.
668.686. 693,699.732
868
D
Deflection 352,402.610.618.620
Depth of trench 624
Desirable features of an insulating
joint 455
Diaphragm actuators 251.256
Diaphragm valves 118,719
Direct-acting valves 151,160,225.229,
230
Discharge through penstocks 1 70
Discharge through pipes and fittings 595
Domestic water-supply valves 715
Double-containment piping 371.527
Double-disc valves 100
Double-seat valves 288. 718
Double-spool vaJves 143
Dual-containment piping 371.527
E
Eccentric valves 176
Effect of inclined flow 5 51
Electric control 266
Electric solenoid 139,251.256
Electric systems 266
Electric-motor actuators 2 56
Electrical continuity 452
Electromagnetic control valves 2 9 7
Electromechanical methods of pipeline
cleaning 4 79
Enhanced cleaning pigs 490
Epoxy resin-based pipe systems 342. 345
Erosion-corrosion 461
Expansion and contraction joints 42 7
External loading 628. 630
p
Feed-check valves 732
fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) pipe 3 3 9
Fieldbus control 77,272
Filament winding ofFRP pipe 344
H
Handwheel drives for powered
actuators 2 54
Head loss through valves and fittings 59 3
Heterogeneous flow 53 8. 55 8
High-integrity flange 415
Homogeneous flow 538,558.560
Hot tapping and plugging 506
Hybrid jacketing 523
Hydraulic and pneumatic check valves
187,195
Hydraulic systems 2 7. 265. 78 5
Hydrodynamic noise 669
Hygienic services 718
Editoriallndex
J
Jacketed system design 524
Jacketed valves 525
Jacketing and dual containment
jointsmadecold 714
Joints using heat 713
0
Oblique valves 97
Optimum pipeline cleaning methods
492,495
Overshoot 283
702
481,
522
L
Laminar and turbulent flow 5 38
Launchers and receivers 484
Laying conditions 332
Leakde~ction
518
Leak-off 643
Level probes 303
Limit switches 2 78
Limiting length 5 77
Limiting pressure 5 77
Limiting temperature 5 77
Limiting values 575
Limiting velocity 576
Line protection 51 9
Location of sub-marine pipelines 520
Long pipelines and tunnels 517
Longitudinal strength 622
Losses in bends and fittings 584
Low-temperature valves 770
M
Manual operators 2 51
Manual reset valves 150
Marine services 7 59
Mechanical characteristic of the
casing 709
Mechanical joints 3 52. 397
Metal-seated ball valves 53
Metallic bellows 94. 430
Mitred bends 608
Modulating control valves 292. 300
Multi-turn actuators- modulating duty
250
Multi-turn actuators-on- off duty 2 50
N
Natural gas regulators 316
Needle valves 92.107.133.663
Noisecontrol 667
869
Paperstock(pulp) 571
Parallel-slide valves 100
Path treatment for noise control 66 7, 6 76
Penstocks 168
Pharmaceuticals 719
Pigging 482
Pilot-operated valve 151. 158, 229
Pinch valves llO
Pipe bends 500, 608
Pipe cutting and bending 49 7
Pipe joint sleeves 431
Pipe sizing 535
Pipe-wall thickness according to British
Standards 603
Pipeline cleaning 4 79
Pipeline inspection and evaluation 511
Pipeline protection 328,451.471
Pipeline sizing 741
Pipewraps 473
Piston check valves 188
Piston-operated control valves 2 92
Pitting corrosion 460, 712
Plastic bellows 430
Plastic coatings 465
Plastic pipes 339.356.436
Plastic-lined pipe 335,345 . 354.474,
727
Plug valves (cocks) 41
Pneumatic control valves 296
Pneumatic piston controlled on-off
valve 173
Pneumatic actuation systems 259
Polybutylene (PB) 368,423
Polyester. vinyl ester and bisphenol
resin-based pipe systems 345
Polyethylene 354.357,361.371.374,
402.421 . 467, 471, 763
Polyethylene encasement 328.471
Polymervalves 178.718
Polypropylene (PP) 123, 178, 336,354.
368.371.390,421.442,468
Polyvinylchloride(PVC) 178.210,354,
357,362.374.377. 379.392,402,405,
420,467, 470,474.506.626,727
8 70
s
Safety and relief valves 200
Safety factors 357
Screw threads 418
Screw-down valves 133
Screwed connections 416
Screwedunions 419
Sealed joints 413
Segment control valve 286
Self-acting reducing valves 2 2 5
Self-operated regulator 3 14
Servo-valves 140
Shock preventers 681
Shock removers 681
Signalling 254
Simple corrosion 443
Simplified orifice formulae 582
Sizing of condensate-return lines 648
Sizing of steam lines 65 5
Slidevalves 127. 138
Sliding-platevalves 141
Sludge 117.128 . 327.538.556,567
Sluice valves 102
Slurries 73 . 100,111 . 128,137.326.538,
556.560, 562
Smart pigs 490
T
Tee junctions and intersections 609
Temperature control valves 306
Temperature measurement method 68 7
Test specifications on non-return
valves 708
Thermal insulation of pipes 380
Thermoplastic inner liners 3 54, 4 74
Thermopl astic pipe 356.506.626.726
Thickness of bends 504
Thrustactuators-on-oiTduty 250
Tilting disc check v alves 18 7
Tracking systems for pigs 48 5
Trench beddings 636
Trenching 623
Triple offset butterfl y valve 770
Tube bending 502
Tunneldiverter va lve 1 73
Turbulent flow 538.542.574
TV surveyin g of pipelines 513
Two-stagevalves 142
Two-wire communication systems 2 72
()
Ultra-violet light
3 60
Editorial Index
v
Vacuum breakers 706
Vacuum seal-off valves 765
Vacuum services llS. 119. 763
Valve actuators 249
Valve coefficients and tlow values 16
Valve corrosion 462
Valve linings 468
Valve positioning 275
Valve sizing 21. 79, 161.282
Valve trim 11.671
Valve-open or valve-closed test 743
Valve-spindle corrosion 463
8 71
w
Wafercheckvalves 187.194
Water hammer 173.176,185.191.197.
295,406.551.649. 668,677.731,738,
741
Water services 120. 368.463 . 467. 693
Wedge-gate valves 100. 775
Welded pipeline fittings 510
Welded joints 423.510
Width of trench 623
Advertisers Index
ASCO/Joucomatic (ASCO Controls BV)
Auma Werner Riester GmbH & Co KG
Changdel Industrial Co, Ltd
EMG Elektro-Mechanik GmbH
Georg Fischer AG
Haitima Corporation
Hatters ley Newman Render Ltd
Hindle Cock burns Ltd
John- Valve MFG Company Ltd
Latty<R' International SA
NAFAB
PCC Flow Technologies
Posi-Flate
Rotork
Spirax-Sarco Limited
Victaulic Company of America
Wyeco Auto Valves Co Ltd
Yih Kuang Metal Corporation
xvi
Facing page 2 51
Facing page 7 5
Facing page 250
vi
Facing page 59
viii
Double page spread between
40 and 41
90
Facing page 283
Facing page 58
40
Facing page 7 4
Facing page 2 51
Facing page 2 8 2
Facing page 410
Facing page 2 8 3
Facing page 59
www.naf.se
Intelligent valves
When you require an intelligent valve solution in your process there are three main
points to consider: Better control,
Predictive
maintenance
and
Communication. NAF control valves with
the NAF-LinkiT intelligent valve positioner provides you with the practical solution that makes the vision of the intelligent
valve systems come true.
NAFAB
SE-581 87 LINKOPING
SWEDEN
Telephone
Facsimile
e-mail
webpage
+46 13 31 61 00
+46 13 13 60 54
info@naf.se
www.naf.se
~ensys
Intelligent Automation
HAITIMA
VALVES
[C1:1[~.
'iltil g
. .:, .~oo!
IWI:.A.
~, - CRN
1
,....,..
...,..,.
. .!""
REGISTERED
How It Works:
Closed, unsealed,
depressurized.
Closed, sealed,
pressurized.
Open, unsealed,
depressurized.
www.posiflate.com
Corporate Headquarters
1125 Willow Lake Blvd.
St. Paul, MN 55110 U.S.A.
Phone (651) 484-5800 Fax (651) 484-7015
posflat
butterfly valves
United Kingdom
14 Carters lane, Kiln Farm,
Milton Keynes MK11 3ER, England
Phone +44 (O) 1908 564455 Fax +44 (0) 1908 564615
Remote settings
Contactless
measurements
Applications
- Waterworks and waste water treatment plants
- Power stations
- Waste Incinerator
-Chemical and Petrochemical Industry
spirax
/sarco
Spirax-Sarco Limited, Charlton House, Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, GL53 8ER. Tel: 01242 521361 Fax: 01 242 573342
lntemct: llttv//www.spirax-sarco.co.uk c-11/flil: enq@spiraxuk.attmail.com
LATTYgraf 6940
LATTYflon 3260 LM
LATTYinternational s.a.
Cylir~der
Control Valve
With Over 24 years of experience, Wyeco Auto Valves is one of Taiwan's leading valve
manufacturers. We supply:
Cast Iron, Carbon Steel, Stainless Steel
Valve modification
OEM manufacturing
ictaulic~
An .jjO 9001 certified company
J 1900 V!CkUitc
PUMPING
MANUAL
9th Edition
By Christopher Dickenson
\\'idLh recognised a s the
tir-.r source of refence o n
.1ll .hpLds of pump
tvLhn()lt>g\ and
.lplliL;nions the Pumping
\ Lmu.1i w ill en~1blc \'Oll
to .. .
effective
in:-.ull.n ion, oper.nion
;111d tll;lintl'nance of <111
your r'umpmg
FthltrL'
1000+ pages
1500 figures and tables
ISBN: 185617 215 5
A complete system of
fitti ngs, pipes, valves,
measurement and co ntro l
technology and plastic
pumps.
Excellence
PE, SYGEF'''-PVDF
in piping systems
...,.,41
.,
~(., Flow Technologies
111
Butterflv
... Valve Materials available are:
Body
Disc
Shaft
Seats
Aluminium, Cast Iron, Ductile Iron, Carbon Steel and Stainless Steel.
Ali-Bronze, Cast Iron, Stainless Steel.
Stainless Steel.
EPDM (Black and White), Buna, Silicon, Viton, Nitrile, PTFE
HEAD OFFICE:
Spiersbridge Terrace
Unit 5/6- Block 6
Thornliebank Industrial Estate
Glasgow G46 8HZ
Telephone 0141 638 8138
Fax 0141 638 8588
SALES OFFICE:
Unit C, Ryknild Street
Barton Turn, Barton Under
Needwood
Nr Burton On Trent
Staffordshire DE13 8EB
Telephone 01283 713034
Fax 01283 716930
(PCC Flow Technologies Ltd. is a wholly owned subsidiary of Precision Castparts Corp., a
worldwide manufacturer of complex metal components and products serving a wide variety
of aerospace and general industrial applications)