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GE Power Systems
IIntroduction
ntroduction t
oM
WD
to
MWD
SERIAL NUMBER:
Client Company:
GE POWER SYSTEMS
1840 ROYSTON LANE
ROUND ROCK, TEXAS 78664
This document is an unpublished work. Copyright 2003 GE Power Systems. All rights reserved. This document and all
information and expression contained herein are the property of GE Power Systems and is provided to the recipient in
confidence on a need to know basis. Your use of this document is strictly limited to a legitimate business purpose
requiring the information contained herein. Your use of this document constitutes acceptance of these terms.
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDATION: BASIC SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE ...........7
1.1 Mathematics Review................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Arithmetic .............................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1.1 Basic Operations of Arithmetic ...................................................................... 8
1.1.1.2 Commutative Property .................................................................................... 9
1.1.1.3 Associative Property ..................................................................................... 10
1.1.1.4 Distributive Property..................................................................................... 10
1.1.2 Algebra................................................................................................................. 10
1.1.2.1 Lines and Graphs .......................................................................................... 10
1.1.2.2 Working With Variables ............................................................................... 15
1.1.2.3 Balancing an Equation .................................................................................. 15
1.1.2.4 Solving Quadratic Equations ........................................................................ 17
1.1.3 Trigonometry ....................................................................................................... 21
1.1.3.1 Triangles ....................................................................................................... 21
1.1.3.2 Sine, Cosine, Tangent ................................................................................... 23
1.1.3.3 Practical Application..................................................................................... 24
1.2 Basic Hydraulics........................................................................................................ 26
1.2.1 System Pressures.................................................................................................. 26
1.2.2 Bernoullis Principle ............................................................................................ 28
1.2.3 Annular Velocity.................................................................................................. 28
1.2.4 Pressure Pulses..................................................................................................... 31
1.2.5 Drilling Fluid ....................................................................................................... 33
1.3 The Drilling Rig......................................................................................................... 33
1.3.1 Different Types of Drilling Rigs.......................................................................... 33
1.3.1.1 Offshore ........................................................................................................ 34
1.3.1.2 Land .............................................................................................................. 38
1.3.2 Parts of a Drilling Rig .......................................................................................... 38
1.3.2.1 Rig Floor ....................................................................................................... 38
1.3.2.2 Mud Pumps ................................................................................................... 39
1.3.2.3 Standpipe....................................................................................................... 40
1.3.2.4 Draw Works .................................................................................................. 41
1.3.2.5 Kelly.............................................................................................................. 42
1.4 Bottom Hole Assemblies ........................................................................................... 42
1.4.1 Drill Collars ......................................................................................................... 42
1.4.2 Universal Bottom Hole Orienting Subs ............................................................... 43
1.4.3 Stabilizers............................................................................................................. 44
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1.4.4 Crossovers............................................................................................................ 45
1.4.5 Heavyweight Drill Pipe........................................................................................ 45
1.4.6 Jars ....................................................................................................................... 46
1.4.7 Drillpipe Configuration........................................................................................ 46
1.4.8 Positive Displacement Mud Motors..................................................................... 46
1.5 MWD Tools................................................................................................................ 47
1.5.1 What is an MWD Tool?....................................................................................... 47
1.5.2 Different Types of MWD Tools .......................................................................... 47
1.5.2.1 Retrievable MWD Tools............................................................................... 47
1.5.2.2 Non-Retrievable MWD Tools....................................................................... 48
1.5.2.3 Logging Tools............................................................................................... 48
1.5.3 The Role of the MWD Operator .......................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 2: FIELD OPERATIONS ..................................................................51
2.1 Recommended Paperwork ....................................................................................... 51
2.1.1 Equipment Inventory ........................................................................................... 51
2.1.2 MWD Job Sheet................................................................................................... 51
2.1.3 Environmental/Job Site Information.................................................................... 51
2.1.4 Paperwork List ..................................................................................................... 51
2.1.5 Job Charge sheet .................................................................................................. 51
2.1.6 MWD Insurance sheet.......................................................................................... 51
2.1.7 Magnetic Declination/Tool Face Offset............................................................... 51
2.1.8 Survey Tie-in Information sheet .......................................................................... 52
2.1.9 Electro-Magnetic Error Report sheet ................................................................... 52
2.2 Well Site Responsibilities ......................................................................................... 52
2.2.1 Arrival at Rig Site ................................................................................................ 52
2.2.2 Before Rigging Up............................................................................................... 53
2.3 Rigging Up Surface equipment................................................................................ 53
2.3.1 Lines and Cables .................................................................................................. 53
2.4 Directional-Only Service .......................................................................................... 53
2.4.1 Safe Area Rig-Up................................................................................................. 53
2.4.1.1 Set Up in the Safe Area................................................................................. 53
2.4.1.2 Use the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) .............................................. 53
2.4.1.3 Set Up Computer........................................................................................... 54
2.4.1.4 Connect RS-232 Cable.................................................................................. 54
2.4.1.5 Connect Programming Cable........................................................................ 54
2.4.2 Rig Floor Area Equipment................................................................................... 54
2.4.2.1 Set Up Terminal............................................................................................ 54
2.4.2.2 Connect 10-Pin Cable ................................................................................... 55
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1.1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1.1 Basic Operations of Arithmetic
+
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Eq. 1
Note that it does not matter how many numbers are added. The
order in which they are added remains unimportant. This fact is
called the Commutative Property.
However, when multiplication or division are mixed with addition
or subtraction, the order in which operations are performed is
important. For example,
4 + 2 * 10 is not the same as 2 + 4 * 10
Eq. 2
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Eq. 3
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Since eight minus two equals six, it is not the same as two minus
eight, which equals negative six.
Eq. 5
Eq. 6
1.1.2 Algebra
1.1.2.1 Lines and Graphs
If you were to take four steps to your right, you would then be
four steps from your starting point. Measuring your steps on a
number line like the one in figure 1.1.2.1.a, you would be a
distance of four from the starting point or origin. The origin is the
number zero. Positive numbers are expressed as steps to the
right of zero.
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Eq. 7
Both methods give the same answer: go four steps to the right,
then two steps to the left. No matter how it is stated, you still end
up at the number two.
-4
-3
-2
-1
c) Intersection
of lines
a and b
a) Two spaces
above the origin
Origin
b) Two spaces
to the right
of the origin
Figure 1.1.2.1b
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Eq. 8
Eq. 9
or
8 = c2
c2 = 8
or
4 + 4 = c2
Now take the square root (the symbol means square root) of
both sides of the equation
c = 8 or approximately 2.8284
The slope of the line that goes from the origin through point c is
calculated by dividing how many spaces go up or down by how
many go right or left. This is called dividing the rise (up or down)
by the run (left or right).
Calculate the slope of the line in Figure 1.1.2.1.a. by:
Slope = 2 (the rise) 2 (the run) so
Slope = 1
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A slope of one means that for every space that goes up or down,
one space goes to the right or left. (See figure 1.1.2.1.b.)
For every one space moving up there is one space moving to the
right.
2
1
2
1
1
1
The graph on the left has a slope of while the graph on the
right has a slope of 2.
Suppose that two points along the line are known. Each point is
defined by two values, the distance along the x or horizontal axis
and the distance along the y or vertical axis. See Figure
1.1.2.1.d. Whenever the x and y values are given they look like
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(3, 2). The x value is always given first. Values for Point 2 are
presented as (6, 3).
Chapt
Point 1:
Point 2:
X = 3, Y = 2
X = 6, Y = 3
3
2
X
3
Figure 1.1.2.1.d
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Eq. 10
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5n + 3 = 8n 6
Add a negative three to the left side to isolate 5n. Also add a
negative three to the right side to preserve equivalence.
5n + 3 3 = 8n 6 3
5n = 8n 9
Now add 8n to the left side to remove n from the left. Add the
same to the right side to preserve the balance.
3n = 9
Multiply both sides by 1
3n = 9
Divide both sides by 3
n=3
Notice that all the operations performed maintained the
equivalence of both sides. To maintain the equivalence while
solving for the unknown is to balancing the equation.
Units of measure are also multiplied and divided, just like
numbers, to balance equations.
Suppose you need to convert 10,000 feet-per-second into
miles-per-hour. Ask the question like this: If you can go 10,000
feet in one second, how many miles can you go in one hour
(3,600 seconds)? Now put it equation form:
10,000 feet
1 second
n miles
1 hour
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10,000 feet *
1 second
3,600 seconds
1 hour
n miles
1 hour
10,000 feet *
1 second
3,600 seconds
1 hour
n miles
1 hour
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36,000,000 feet
1 hour
n miles
1 hour
3,600 seconds
1 hour
1 mile
5,280 feet
n miles
1 hour
36,000,000 feet *
1 hour
1 mile
5,280 feet
n miles
1 hour
n miles
1 hour
n miles
1 hour
So the answer is, if you can go 10,000 feet per second, you can
go approximately 6818.2 miles per hour.
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8 * 2 = 16
Now add the results of the FOIL method:
3x2 6x + 8x 16 = 0
and simplify:
3x2 + 2x 16 = 0
So (3x + 8) (x 2) does equal our quadratic equation.
With the correct combination of terms, we can now solve the
equation for x. We have used the distributive property to restate
the quadratic equation as:
(3x + 8) (x 2) = 0
With the right side of the equation set to zero, we can know that
at least one of the factors on the left side equals zero. The only
way a product can equal zero is if at least one of the factors
equals zero. So we know that either (3x + 8) = 0 or (x 2) = 0
Solve (3x + 8) = 0 for x.
Subtract 8 from both sides of the equation:
3x = 8
Divide both sides by 3.
x = 8/3
Substitute 8/3 for x in the original equation:
3x2 + 2x + 5 = 21
3 * (8/3) 2 + 2 * 8/3 + 5 = 21
3 * (64/9) + 16/3 + 5 = 21
64/3 16/3 + 5 = 21
21 1/3 5 1/3 + 5 =21
16 + 5 = 21
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21 = 21
So one value of X is 8/3.
Now solve (x 2) = 0 for x.
Add 2 to both sides of the equation:
x=2
Substitute 2 for x in the original equation:
3x2 + 2x + 5 = 21
3 * ( 4 ) + 4 + 5 = 21
12 + 9 = 21
21 = 21
So the other value of x is 2.
Using the strategies of balancing equations, grouping and the
distributive property, we have identified the possible values of x
and solved the quadratic equation.
1.1.3 Trigonometry
1.1.3.1 Triangles
Triangles have several interesting properties. The three angles
of any triangle in a single plane must add up to 180 degrees. All
Right Triangles, like the ones shown in Figure 1.1.3.1, have one
angle that is 90 degrees. That means that the other two angles
must equal 90 degrees when added together.
Another property of triangles is that the ratio of sides is always
the same for similar triangles (two triangles with identical angle
measurements), even if they are of different sizes.
In Figure 1.1.3.1, assuming the two triangles are similar, the
ratios of the sides for triangle A are the same as for those of
triangle B. For instance, the ratio of sides c and a on triangle A is
the same as the ratio of sides c and a on triangle B.
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c
a
c
A
a
b
B
b
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Figure 1.1.3.2
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Vertical
Depth
Well angle
measured
from
vertical
plane
Measured
Depth
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Using the same hole angle and measured depth, the offset from
vertical (vertical section) can be calculated by taking the sine of
the hole angle. Remember that the sine is defined as dividing
the opposite side, the vertical section, by the hypotenuse, the
measured depth. So,
Sine 50 0.7660
Sine 50 vertical section 1000
Sine 50 * 1,000 vertical section
0.7660 766.0 feet
In a typical directional well, surveys are calculated at regular
intervals with the vertical depth and vertical section part of the
survey calculation.
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Europe, Asia and Latin America, it may be stated as grams per cubic
centimeter. The example in this manual will use pounds per gallon.
When calculating the hydrostatic pressure (also called the Bottom
Hole Pressure, or BHP) it is important to remember to multiply by the
Vertical Depth if the hole is a directional well. The following example
shows how to calculate bottom hole pressure (BHP):
Vertical Depth = 10,000 feet
Weight of the Drilling Fluid = 10 pounds per gallon
BHP = 0.052 * 10 * 10,000
BHP = 0.052 * 100,000
BHP = 5,200 psi
The reason it is important to remember that pressure is felt equally
throughout the system for a particular depth is that MWD tools are
limited to a maximum system pressure, typically 20,000 psi.
If the maximum mud weight to be used is 18 pounds per gallon (ppg),
what is the maximum vertical hole depth before the system pressure
exceeds the tools maximum pressure rating?
20,000 psi = 0.052 * 18 * Max_Vertical_Depth
Max_Vertical_Depth = 20,000 (0.052 * 18)
Max_Vertical_Depth = 20,000 0.936
Max_Vertical_Depth = 18,720 feet
Once the tool depth exceeds 18,720 feet, there is a possibility that
one or more systems will fail due to excessive pressure.
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Pressure is reduced
and
velocity is increased
in this area
Pressure returns to
normal in this area
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Turbulent mud flow describes a situation in which the fluid column has
eddy currents. See Figure 1.2.3.a.
The area of erosion in Figure 1.2.3.a is right below the two blades on
either side of the drill pipe.
Laminar flow causes less damage. In the laminar flow region,
particles are moving parallel with the object in the hole and very little
damage due to erosion occurs. See Figure 1.2.3.b.
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Figure 1.2.3.b
bbls/stk
spm
bbl/ft
Remember to treat the units as if they were numbers. That is they are
added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
Annular capacity is the diameter of the larger cylinder squared minus
the diameter of the smaller cylinder squared divided by 1029.
Calculate the annular capacity using the following formula:
Inside Diameter2 Outside Diameter2
1029
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If the hole diameter is 9.5 inches and the drill pipe is 5 inches, then
the calculation is:
9.52 52
1029
90.25 25
1029
65.25
1029
0.06341
Assume the pump output is 0.107 barrels per stroke and the pump is
operating at 100 strokes per minute:
0.107 bbls/stk * 100 stks/min
0.6341 bbls/ft.
10.7 bbls/min
0.6341 bbls/ft
16.87 ft/min
The annular velocity in this case is approximately 16.87 feet per
minute.
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Normal state:
no restriction
P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E
Restriction
creates
high pressure
Pressure
returns to
normal
3000 psi
High Pressure
Pulse = 500 psi
2000 psi
1500 psi
0 psi
TIME
Figure 1.2.4 Pressure Pulse Creation
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1.3.1.1 Offshore
1.3.1.1.1 Inland Barge
As noted in the introduction to this section, the inland barge
exists somewhere between land rigs and offshore rigs. They
are included in the offshore section because they work over
water.
An inland barge is a drilling rig that has been mounted on a
barge. It is not self-propelled and must be moved by special
push boats to the drilling site.
It is very rare for an inland barge to drill in more than fifty feet
of water. Normally the water depth is less than thirty feet.
See Figure 1.3.1.1.1
1.3.1.1.2 Platform
As the name suggests, the drilling rig sits on a platform. The
platform has very long legs on each corner that stand on the
bottom of the ocean floor.
Generally, the platform rig is involved with production rather
than drilling. However, at some platform rigs, new wells are
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Figure 1.3.1.1.3
Jack up Rig
1.3.1.1.4 Semi-Submersible
Semi-submersible drilling rigs operate in the deeper waters.
These rigs are able to operate in water depths greater than
two thousand feet.
This type of rig rests on pontoons. Unlike the jack ups the
semi-submersible drilling rigs actually float on the pontoons.
They are held in position by eight large anchors, with two
anchors at each corner of the drilling rig.
At one time, the semi-submersible drilling rigs were used only
for exploration drilling. Now, the rigs are also used as
floating production platforms, especially in the deep water off
the coast of Brazil. See Figure 1.3.1.1.4.
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1.3.1.2 Land
Land rigs vary less than offshore rigs. The major difference in
land rigs is how deep the rigs can drill.
No matter what type of drilling rig, land or offshore, the majority of
rigs have several parts in common. With few exceptions, the
parts will only differ in size. See Figure 1.3.1.2.
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If the mud pumps run smoothly, the signal from the MWD tool will
be clear and easy to decode. When the mud pumps have
problems, the signal from the MWD tool may be compromised.
The mud pumps have pulsation dampers that smooth the noise
created by the action of the pumps. The pulsation dampers must
be set to correct operating pressure for good detection of the
MWD pulse signal.
Mud pumps come in two varieties, a duplex pump which pumps
fluid on the forward and backward stroke of the pump piston and
a triplex pump which pumps fluid only on the forward stroke of
the piston.
Duplex pumps are noisier than triplex pumps and create
pulsations that interfere with the MWD signal.
1.3.2.3 Standpipe
The mud travels from the mud pumps, through the standpipe,
into the kelly, down through the drill string and out the drilling bit.
The standpipe is located next to the derrick and is about forty feet
tall.
Mud goes through a standpipe manifold on the drill floor before
traveling up through the standpipe. The pressure transducer,
that converts the physical energy of the pulse into an electrical
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1.3.2.5 Kelly
The kelly is a part of the drilling process, not a persons name. It
is the drive connector at the top of the drill string. Most new rigs
use top drives so that fewer connections are necessary to drill
the well.
Sections of drill pipe are called joints. Joints are usually thirty
feet long. Once a joint is drilled down, the kelly is raised and
detached from the drill string. The new joint is put in the drill
string below the kelly.
A typical kelly is about 45 feet long. About 40 feet of the kelly is
extended below the surface with the drill string. So the total depth
of the hole (called the measured depth) equals the length of the
drill string plus the part of the kelly extended below the surface.
Putting a new joint into the drill string is called making a
connection.
Directional surveys are often taken when a
connection is made. These surveys allow the directional driller to
make necessary corrections and keep the hole on the correct
course.
Much of what the directional driller does involves manipulating
the Bottom Hole Assembly to cause the hole to be drilled in the
desired direction. Bottom Hole Assemblies are discussed in the
next section.
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collars are larger than normal drill pipe, the number of drill collars that
can be used in the Bottom Hole Assembly is limited.
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Orientation
Key
Orientation
sleeve
Orientation sleeve
inserted in the
UBHO
UBHO
Orientation
Sleeve
Orientation
Key
Top View:
Orientation sleeve inserted
in the UBHO
Figure 1.4.2 Orientation sleeve, key and UBHO
1.4.3 Stabilizers
Stabilizers are aptly named. They provide stiffness to the Bottom
Hole Assembly (BHA). These specialized pieces have blades on
them that are almost the same diameter as the hole being drilled.
Putting more stabilizers in the hole creates a stiffer Bottom Hole
Assembly. The stiffer the Bottom Hole Assembly, the less the hole
will stray from the desired direction.
The stabilizer blades outside diameter and their placement in the
BHA control how the BHA performs while drilling. Additional, smaller
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1.4.4 Crossovers
Drill pipe, drill collar and other specialized drill string items do not have
standardized threads. In order to assemble two drill string elements
having different connections, a crossover is used (see Figure 1.4.4).
Box-by-Pin
Crossover
Box-by-Box
Crossover
Pin-by-Pin
Crossover
Figure 1.4.4 Different types of crossover subs
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1.4.6 Jars
Sometimes the drill string becomes stuck in the formation. It is the job
of the jars to help free the drill string. Jars operate by creating a very
strong shock in the drill string. This is why the name is appropriate: it
jars the drill string loose.
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2)
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operating company, the directional drillers and the MWD company all
agree on the magnetic declination parameter being used.
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Surface Computer
Safe Area
or Unit
SAPS
d
c
On / Off
Switch
Power
Drill
Floor
Standpipe
Pressure
Transducer
Outside
Unit
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3.1.1
Magnetic North
Magnetic North is the most important reference point in directional
surveying. In the absence of magnetic interference, magnetometers
point to Magnetic North.
The earth has a magnetic field like that of a magnet.
See Figure 3.1.1.a.
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North is
0 Azimuth
West is
270 Azimuth
East is
90 Azimuth
South is
180 Azimuth
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North
North West
West
East
South East
South
3.1.2
True North
Geographic North or True North is one end of a line drawn through the
center of the earths rotational axis. Magnetic North is one end of a
line drawn through the center of the earths magnetic field. The lines
lie near one another and both extend through Antarctica, but they are
not aligned. They diverge and provide two different points of
reference. See Figure 3.1.2.
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3.1.3
Grid North
Map North or Grid North is another north reference used in surveying.
Several different Grid North systems are used, depending upon rig
location. This manual will cover Lambert Projection and Universal
Transverse of Mercator or UTM. Both systems convert the earths
curved surface onto a flat plane but use different methods.
The Lambert Projection projects the earths surface onto a cone. The
point or vertex of the cone can be over geographic north or south,
depending on which hemisphere is to be mapped. See Figure 3.1.3.a.
Arrows Point to
geographic north
Figure 3.1.3.a
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P: A projection from
the center of the earth
contacts the earths surface.
Q: A projection from
the center of the earth
contacts the earths surface.
Central Meridian:
Any projection on this line
points to geographical north.
Figure 3.1.3.b Universal Transverse Mercator
Points along the Central Meridian have correct scale values while
those to the east or west have distorted scale values.
Remember that the earth is divided along lines of Latitude and
Longitude. Latitude measures a points distance north or south from
the Equator. Longitude, also called departure, measures how many
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12
12
WEST
Figure 3.1.3.c
EAST
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Figure 3.1.3.d
Figure 3.1.3.e
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CM
177W
171W
165W
159W
153W
147W
141W
135W
129W
123W
117W
111W
105W
099W
093W
087W
081W
075W
069W
063W
057W
051W
045W
039W
033W
027W
021W
015W
009W
003W
Range
180W-174W
174W-168W
168W-162W
162W-156W
156W-150W
150W-144W
144W-138W
138W-132W
132W-126W
126W-120W
120W-114W
114W-108W
108W-102W
102W-096W
096W-090W
090W-084W
084W-078W
078W-072W
072W-066W
066W-060W
060W-054W
054W-048W
048W-042W
042W-036W
036W-030W
030W-024W
024W-018W
018W-012W
012W-006W
006W-000E
Zone
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
CM
003E
009E
015E
021E
027E
033E
039E
045E
051E
057E
063E
069E
075E
081E
087E
093E
099E
105E
111E
117E
123E
129E
135E
141E
147E
153E
159E
165E
171E
177E
Range
000E-006E
006E-012E
012E-018E
018E-024E
024E-030E
030E-036E
036E-042E
042E-048E
048E-054E
054E-060E
060E-066E
066E-072E
072E-078E
078E-084E
084E-090E
090E-096E
096E-102E
102E-108E
108E-114E
114E-120E
120E-126E
126E-132E
132E-138E
138E-144E
144E-150E
150E-162E
156E-162E
162E-168E
168E-174E
174E-180W
3.2 Corrections
Since Magnetic North and True North are not aligned, survey calculations
must account for the offset. If a grid system is used, further corrections
must be made.
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3.2.1
Magnetic Declination
Magnetic Declination is the difference, in degrees, between Magnetic
North and True North at a given location. An uncorrected azimuth,
called a raw reading, is first corrected for Magnetic Declination, and
then for other corrections as necessary.
Declination correction from Magnetic North to True North may be
either east or west. If the declination correction is east, the number is
added, if west the number is subtracted. See Figure 3.2.1.a and
3.2.1.b.
Values for Magnetic Declination change and are updated every six
months. The values are taken from magnetic monitoring stations
placed throughout the world.
Figure 3.2.1.a shows the correction from Magnetic North to
Geographic (True) North. If the measured azimuth is 65 and the
difference between Magnetic North and True North is 10 east, add
ten to the measured azimuth for a corrected reading of 75 east.
The correction from measured azimuth to True North is subtracted if
the correction is west. In figure 3.2.1 b, the correction is added
because, in this example, Magnetic North is east of True North.
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Geographic
North
Magnetic
North
The tools
actual
measurement
Measured
Azimuth
EAST
WEST
Figure 3.2.1.a
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Geographic
North
Magnetic
North
The tools
actual
measurement
Measured
Azimuth
EAST
WEST
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North
West
East
+
South
East Declination
North
+
West
East
+
South
West Declination
Figure 3.2.1.c
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3.2.2
Grid Correction
When correcting from Magnetic North to True North, the angle must
be adjusted to conform to True North. Further, when correcting from
True North to Grid North, the angle must be adjusted to Grid North.
The grid correction is subtracted from the True North reading.
East grid correction remains positive and west grid correction remains
negative. The result of grid correction is called grid convergence.
Grid convergence will be zero if the magnetic declination is zero and
the hole location falls along a central meridian.
Magnetic North
True North
Grid North
Measured
Azimuth
Magnetic declination is
10 west of True North
West
Figure 3.2.2.a
East
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Total Correction = 5
In this example, 5 degrees are added to the raw azimuth reading of 85 degrees
east. The calculated azimuth is:
Corrected Azimuth = 85 + 5
Corrected Azimuth = 90 east
Corrected azimuth is 90 degrees east.
convergence is subtracted.
Measured
Azimuth
West
East
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3.3.1
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Location A:
Magnetic Dip is 50
Location B:
Magnetic Dip is 1
Line B:
magnetic field
vector line
Dashed lines
represent earths
magnetic field
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Area
Assen, Holland
59
44
Muscat, Oman
35
Singapore
-17
-35
Table 3.3.1 Magnetic Dip Angle values to the nearest whole degree
3.3.2
Is equal to
1 nanotesla
1 micro tesla
Is equal to
1000 gamma
1 tesla
Is equal to
1,000,000,000 gamma
1 gauss
Is equal to
10,000 gamma
1 gauss
Is equal to
.0001 tesla
1 gauss
Is equal to
1 oersted
Note: The conversion factors in table 3.3.2 are correct, but further
conversion factors may not necessarily follow from them.
For example, though one tesla equals 1,000,000,000 gamma
and one gauss equals 10,000 gamma, one gauss does not
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Magnetic Declination
X
Magnetic North
H
Y
East
Magnetic Inclination
Down
Z
Figure 3.3.2 Horizontal Component of Earths magnetic field
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X = 24,894
Y = 2,000
Z = 41,970
3.3.3
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Variation from the local Total Gravity Field by more than 0.003 gravity
indicates a possible problem.
A bad inclinometer might not be the source of the problem. With
flow-off surveys, any movement of the drill pipe while the pumps are
off may give TGF values that are not within specification.
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Strength
Calculation
10,000
2,500
10,000
(4/2)2
625
10,000
(8/2)2
or
2,500
(8/4)2
Strength
Distance
Figure 4.1 Magnetic field strength varies by the square of the distance
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own north and south poles and will not link magnetic fields with other steel
components. See Figure 4.1a.
Non-magnetic material
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Example A:
Hole angle is 0.
Magnetic field
of steel
component
Accelerometer
Magnetometer
Distance to
magnetometer
is 5 feet
Non-Magnetic
Drill Collar
Example B:
Hole angle is 45.
Horizontal Component of
tool axis relative to vertical
is 45
Total magnetic field
at 3.5 feet
equals 1,000 3.52 = 87
87 * Cosine 45 = 57
The Horizontal Component
contributes 57 gamma
to the magnetic reading
Distance to
Magnetometer
is 3.5 feet.
Figure 4.1.1 Drill string magnetic interference increases with inclination
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The total field strength does not change. The amount of interference
due to the horizontal component does change with drill string
inclination.
Borehole perpendicular
to the horizontal component of
The earths magnetic field
Borehole parallel
to the horizontal component of
The earths magnetic field
Drilling at high angles along the east / west line produces a greater
likelihood of interference from the BHA because the horizontal
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4.1.3 Latitude
As discussed in chapter 3, section 3.3.1, moving closer to Magnetic
North reduces the contribution from the horizontal component of the
earths total magnetic field. The magnetometers respond to the
horizontal component. Any reduction of the earths magnetic influence
equals greater influence from the magnetic field of the drill string. See
Figure 4.1.3.
Latitude
68 North
Latitude
24 North
Houston,
Texas
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30
M1: Non-magnetic
material above
magnetometer
NMa
10
M2: Magnetometer in
non-magnetic collar
20
NMb
15
30
M3: Non-magnetic
crossover
Sb
S2 : Bit
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NMb
Sb
LP =
Strength of field
DM =
Hole inclination
AR =
Uncorrected Azimuth (Azimuth without Magnetic
declination or Grid Correction)
Obtain from directional driller:
Bottom Hole Assembly Report
Use common accepted values for:
Pole strength of magnetic material (LP)
If the pole strength of the magnetic components below the
non-magnetic collars is 2500 gamma
IF = (2500 (NMa)2) + (2500 (NMb) 2) (2500 (NMa + NMb +Sb) 2)
= (2500 402) + (2500 352) (2500 1072)
1.5625 + 2.0408 0.2184 = 3.3849 gamma
Employ magnetic dip and total field strength for Houston, Texas (See
Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2.) Hole inclination (HI) is 60 and uncorrected
azimuth (AR) is 45. To find out the azimuth error (EA) use:
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Measured Depth
Survey station #1
Survey station #2a
True
vertical
depth
Productive
sand
Vertical Section
Figure 4.6.4 Survey at wrong depth
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Measured
Depth
North
1000
2000
3000
Planned
well path
plotted
in the
vertical
plane
Actual
well
path
4000
5000
East
6000
7000
Planned
well path
on the
North/South
and
East/West
axes
8000
9000
10000
11000
True 0
Vertical
Depth
100
200
300
400
500
Vertical Section
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Earths
Surface
M
I
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Magnetic
North
Bottom
Hole
Location
A
L
S
D
Figure 5.1.b View from top of hole looking down
Several methods are available for calculating survey data to derive the
bottom hole location.
All methods of calculating surveys use the
components in Figures 5.1.a and 5.1.b. This document will cover three of
the many methods used for calculating surveys.
Average Angle takes the average of two survey station values. It is the
easiest method of calculating survey data. Differences between average
angle and other methods are significant only if surveys are taken too far
apart or the angle changes drastically over short distances.
The Minimum Radius of Curvature and Radius of Curvature methods
are closely related. While Average Angle assumes a straight well bore
between two survey stations, both Minimum Radius of Curvature and
Radius of Curvature assume that the well bore has the shape of an arc
between two survey stations.
Once the survey is calculated, it is displayed on a survey sheet. Survey
sheets differ from company to company but follow the same general format
shown in Table 5.1.
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Measured
Depth
FT
Incl.
Angle
Deg
Drift
Direction
Deg
15510.00
4.60
117.00
15542.00
15562.00
15593.00
5.60
6.40
7.70
118.60
117.90
121.20
Table 5.1
True
Vertical
Depth
Vertical
Section
FT
N-S
FT
E-W
FT
CLOSURE
Distance
Direction
FT
FT
Dogleg
Severity
Deg/100ft
384.95
289.91
3.51
382.14
380.07
376.32
289.85
289.80
289.70
3.16
4.02
4.39
Survey sheet
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Bottom Hole
Location
Latitude
Closure
Closure
Direction
Target
Origin
Displacement
or
Closure Distance
Vertical
Section
As the hole is drilled to the target, it must be guided along the correct
azimuth and inclination. Places where the turns are made are called
doglegs and are displayed as Dogleg Severity in degrees per one
hundred feet. The dogleg severity depends upon changes in both azimuth
and inclination. Figure 5.1.d shows a well drilled with high dogleg in both
the vertical and horizontal planes.
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a
Vertical Plane
b
d
c
Vertical Section
Horizontal Plane
Figure 5.1.d Dogleg severity
Section a in Figure 5.1.d has a low dogleg severity because the changes in
angle and direction are slight. Sections b and d have high dogleg severity
because the changes are much greater. Section c has a moderate dogleg
severity because the changes are moderate.
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Incl
29.0
Azi
137.0
TVD
4276.89
Vertical
Section
2414.35
N-S
-1707.20
E-W
1676.35
Depth
Inclination
Azimuth
5000
30.0
135.0
5030
31.0
135.5
5060
31.2
135.5
5090
32.0
136.0
First calculate the Course Length, then the Average Angle and
Average Direction.
Course Length: (CL) The difference between the measured depths,
of two survey stations. The calculation to determine the course length
for the first set of surveys is:
Survey Depth2 Survey Depth1 = Course Length
Starting with the Tie-in survey, Survey Depth2 is 5000 while
Survey Depth1 is 4980, so the course length calculation is:
5000 4980 = 20
Average Angle: The average inclination of the current and previous
survey.
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Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for N-S. This
formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into account. It
yields a negative result because that direction is to the south.
Add this incremental change in N-S to the previous survey:
N-S = 1707.2 + -7.08 = 1714.28
E-W: To calculate E-W, use this formula:
E-W = CL * Sine (Avg_ Ang) Sine (Avg_Dir)
Note: Close placement of terms indicates terms must be multiplied.
In the equation above, Sine (Avg_ Ang) Sine (Avg_Dir)
means the same as Sine (Avg_ Ang) * Sine (Avg_Dir).
With the information provided by the Tie-in survey and the first MWD
survey:
E-W = 20 * Sine (29.5) Sine ((137 + 135) 2)
E-W = 20 (0.4924) * Sine (136)
E-W = 20 (0.4924) *(0.6947)
E-W = 6.84
Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for E-W. This
formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into account. It
yields a positive result because that direction is to the east.
Adding incremental change in E-W to the previous survey:
E-W = 1676.35 + 6.84 = 1683.19
Dogleg Severity, Closure Angle, Closure Distance and
Vertical Section are calculated the same regardless of survey
calculation method and so will be presented at the end of Section
5.1.3, Minimum Radius of Curvature.
When using Radius of
Curvature method, degrees must be converted to radians.
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c
1 radian
b
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Using information from the tie-in and survey station #1 from Table
5.1.1:
CL = 5000 4980 = 20
Rv = (20 * 180) ( * (30 29)) = 1145.9156
Incremental Vertical Depth (VD): Calculate the incremental change
in vertical depth:
VD = Rv * (Sine I2 Sine I1)
VD = 1145.9156 * (Sine 30 Sine 29)
VD = 1145.9156 * (0.5 0.4848) = 17.42
TVD: Add the result to the TVD of the Tie-in survey:
4276.89 + 17.42 = 4294.3
Notice that there is a slight difference between this calculation and the
result using average angle.
Incremental Displacement (DI): This result is the change in vertical
section from the previous survey to the current survey:
DI = Rv * (Cosine I1 Cosine I2)
DI = 1145.9156 * (Cosine 29 Cosine 30)
DI = 1145.9156 * (0.8746 0.8660) = 9.85
Where:
DI = Incremental Displacement
Displacement: Since DI is only the incremental change from the last
survey, it must be added to the previous total displacement:
D = 2414.35 + 9.85 = 2424.20
Now, calculate the horizontal radius or Rh:
Rh = (180 * DI) ( * (AZI2 AZI1)
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Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for E-W. Also, the
number is positive because the survey direction is to the east.
Adding incremental change in E-W to the previous survey:
E-W = 1676.35 + 6.83 = 1683.18
y = Cosine x
x = Cosine-1 y
x = arccosine y.
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Plane of
Proposal
Course
135
M.D.
Feet
Tie In
4,980
Length
Incl.
Angle
deg.
Azimuth Coords.
Angle
deg.
+N, -S
Vert.
Sec.
+E, -W
T.V.D.
Feet
Feet
29.00
137.00
-1707.20
1676.35
4276.89 2400.35
Dogleg Closure
Dist.
Deg./100' Feet
Direc.
Deg.
2392.63
135.52
5,000
20.00
30.00
135.00
-1714.28
1682.93
4294.32 2402.18
7.02
2402.49
135.52
5,030
30.00
31.00
135.50
-1725.11
1693.92
4320.17 2417.62
3.44
2417.72
135.52
5,060
30.00
31.20
135.50
-1736.16
1704.78
4345.86 2433.11
0.67
2433.22
135.52
5,090
30.00
32.00
136.00
-1747.42
1715.75
4371.42 2448.83
2.81
2448.94
135.52
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1000
1000
2000
1000
2000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1000
2000
3000
4000
The graph or survey plat has the proposed well path. Actual survey data
are plotted along with the well plat. In Figure 5.2, thick lines represent the
actual well path while the thin line represents the planned well path.
Notice that the actual well path is slightly above and to the left of the
planned well path.
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6.1 Toolfaces
Going from home to work or school involves directions. The directions may
be simple, such as go two blocks and turn right then walk 200 yards and
turn right again. The directions tell which way to turn at specific points. In
order to turn right, you must face right, and then move right.
The same principle applies to steering a well. Steering tools must be
pointed in the direction that the well is to be drilled. The angle at which the
steering tool is pointed is called the toolface. See Figure 6.1.
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Toolface
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If the well currently has a depth of 5,000 feet, and must reach the
target angle and direction by 10,000 feet, the build-up rate (the rate at
which the angle must increase per 100 feet) is a relatively mild 0.36
per 100 feet. Since the current angle is 2 it will take 833 feet to reach
5. During the 833 feet, magnetic toolfaces will be used. The hole will
turn 16.7 in 833 feet, so the azimuth will be 206.7.
See Figure 6.1.1.b.
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North
Desired hole
direction:
290 azimuth
West
East
Hole direction
after 833 feet:
206.7 azimuth
Figure 6.1.1.b
South
Current hole
direction:
190 azimuth
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North
Hole direction
is positioned
straight up
West
Desired direction
is 100 degrees
to the right of
original direction
East
South
Figure 6.1.2.a
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Highside
Toolface is 45 Right
of Highside
With each survey, the amount of turn and build may be adjusted
based upon the survey data.
Housing
Rotor
Stator
Figure 6.1.3.a
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The mud motor has a bend and causes the bit to drill the hole in the
direction the bend is turned. See Figure 6.1.3.b.
A scribe line inside the bend of the mud motor allows the bend to be
aligned with a reference point on the MWD tool called the MWD scribe
line or, in some cases, the MWD highside.
When the mud motor bend is aligned to the MWD tool, the tool is said
to be oriented to the bend.
Two different methods are used to align the mud motor scribe line to
the MWD reference point, in accordance with the two basic types of
MWD tools. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.2, MWD tools
come in two basic types: retrievable and fixed-in-the-collar.
Retrievable tools are oriented using one method and fixed collar tools
are oriented using another.
6.1.3.1
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Orientation
Key
Muleshoe
Sub
Orientation
Sleeve
Orientation Sleeve
(Top View)
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Orientation
Key Slot
Orientation
Ramp
After the orientation sleeve is aligned with the mud motor scribe
line, the tool is inserted into the MWD drill collar where it turns to
the correct orientation.
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The angular difference between the mud motor scribe line and
the MWD scribe line may be measured several different ways. It
is extremely important to know whether the scribe line
measurement is to be made from the MWD scribe line to the mud
motor scribe line or the other way around. One measurement will
produce a negative number and the other will produce a positive
number.
For instance, if the angle in Figure 6.1.3.2.a is measured from the
MWD scribe line to the mud motor scribe line, it will be 80.
However, if the angle is measured from the mud motor scribe line
to the MWD scribe line, it will be 280. The line from which the
measurement is made is the primary reference line, while the line
to which the measurement is made is the secondary reference
line.
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Secondary
Reference
Line
Primary
Reference
Line
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Index
1
10-Pin Cable, 55
A
Algebra, 10
anchor
dead line, 41
semi-submersible drilling rig, 36
angle
of inclination, 57
Annular Velocity, 28
Antarctica, 60
Arithmetic, 8
Basic Operations, 8
Associative Property, 10
Average Angle, 99
Average Direction, 100
Azimuth, 57, 96
B
Balancing an Equation, 15
Bernoullis Principle, 28
BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly), 42
Bottom Hole Assembly
Crossovers, 45
Drill Collars, 42
Drillpipe Configuration, 46
Heavyweight Drill Pipe, 45
Jars, 46
magnetic interference from, 79
Mud Motors, 46
Stabilizers, 44
UBHOs, 43
Bottom Hole Location, 93
calculating
Average Angle, 99
Minimum Radius of Curvature, 105
Radius of Curvature, 102
Bottom Hole Location, Plotting, 109
Introduction to MWD
Cable
10-Pin, 55
Power/Communications, 55
Programming, 54
RS-232, 54
Cables (Lines and -), 53
Calculating Bottom Hole Location, 93
calculating Location, 93
Calibration (incorrect), 89
Chapter 1
The Foundation
Basic Skills and Knowledge, 7
Chapter 2
Field Operations, 51
Chapter 3
Introduction to Surveying, 57
Chapter 4
Transforming Influences, 79
Chapter 5
Calculating Bottom Hole Location, 93
Chapter 6
Geometrical Steering, 111
communications bus (qbus), 33
Commutative Property, 9
compass direction, 57
compass directions, 59
Computer, Set Up, 54
Constituents (of formations), 88
Corrections (to azimuth), 65
Cosine, 23
Course Length, 99
Crossovers, 45
crown block, 41
cuttings (drilling residue), 26
D
dead line, 41
Declination (Magnetic), 66
Dip Angle, Magnetic, 72
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GE Power Systems
dip holes, 73
direction
Azimuth, 57
of compass, 57
Directional Measurements While
Drilling (DMWD), 47
directional wells, 24
Directional-Only Service, 53
Display (Rig Floor), 54
Distributive Property, 10
DMWD. See Directional Measurements
While Drilling
Draw Works, 41
Drift Direction. See Azimuth
drill line, 41
Drill Ships, 37
Drill String Movement, 90
Drilling Fluid, 33
Drilling Rig, 33
Land, 38
Offshore, 34
Drill Ships, 37
Inland Barge, 34
Jack Up, 35
Platform, 34
Semi-Submersible, 36
Parts, 38
Draw Works, 41
Kelly, 42
Mud Pumps, 39
Rig Floor, 38
Standpipe, 40
Drillpipe Configuration, 46
Field Operations, 51
fish, 88, 89
FOIL method, 19
Formation, 42
constituents, 88
magnetic interference from, 88
G
gamma, 74
gauss, 74
Geographic North (True North), 60
geometrical steering, 111
Gravity Field, Total, 76
grid convergence, 70
Grid Correction, 70
Grid North, 61
gTF (Gravity Toolface), 111
gyro survey instruments, 70
H
Inclination, 57, 96
Incorrect
calibration, 89
detection, 90
operator input, 89
survey depth, 91
Inland Barge, 34
inland barges
as offshore rigs, 33
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Introduction to MWD
g
GE Power Systems
Input, incorrect, 89
Insurance sheet, 51
iron ore, 88
J
Jack Up, 35
Jars, 46
Job Charge sheet, 51
Job Sheet, 51
Job Site Information, 51
K
Kelly, 42
L
Lambert Projection, 61
Latitude, 84
Lines and Cables, 53
Lines and Graphs, 10
Logging Tools, 48
Logging While Drilling, 47
Louisiana Gulf coast, 63
LWD (Logging While Drilling), 47
M
Mag Dip, 72
Magnetic Declination, 66
Tool Face Offset form, 51
Magnetic Dip Angle, 57, 72
Magnetic Field
horizontal component, 75
Hot Spots, 88
strength units (table), 74
Total, 74
units of measure
gamma, 74
gauss, 74
tesla, 74
magnetic inclination, 73
Magnetic Interference
from BHA, 79
from formation, 88
from solar flares, 89
Introduction to MWD
magnetic multishots, 70
Magnetic North, 58
magnetic single shot, 59
Map North (Grid North), 61
Mathematics Review, 8
maximum mud weight, 27
maximum pressure rating. See maximum
system pressure
maximum system pressure, 27
Measured Depth, 96
Measurements While Drilling. See
MWD
Minimum Radius of Curvature, 105
Moineau principle, 46
monel drill collar, 119
mTF (Magnetic Toolface), 111
mud (drilling fluid), 33, 39
Mud Motors, 46
Mud Pumps, 39
MWD
highside. See MWD:scribe line
Insurance sheet, 51
Job Sheet, 51
scribe line, 117
MWD (Measurements While Drilling), 7
MWD operator, role of, 49
MWD Tools, 47
Different Types, 47
Logging Tools, 48
Non-Retrievable, 48
Retrievable, 47
What is an MWD Tool?, 47
N
Non-magnetic Material, 85
Non-Retrievable MWD Tools, 48
Orienting, 119
North
Grid, 61
Magnetic, 58
True, 60
Northing (UTM coordinate), 63
N-S (North-South coordinate), 96
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GE Power Systems
oolitic pyrite, 88
operation sign, 18
operator
in an equation, 18
MWD, 7
Orienting
MWD Tools to Steering Tools, 116
Non-Retrievable (Fixed Collar) Tools,
119
origin, 94
orthogonal (three axes) system, 76
P
Paperwork, 51
Paperwork List, 51
PBHL (proposed bottom hole location)
(target), 94
Plan of Proposal (Vertical Section
Direction), 96
Platform, 34
Plotting Bottom Hole Location, 109
Power/Communications Cable(s), 55
Pressure Pulses, 31
Pressure Transducer, Standpipe, 56
Programming Cable, 54
proposed bottom hole location (PBHL)
(target), 94
Q
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Introduction to MWD
g
GE Power Systems
Table of Contents, 3
Tangent, 23
target (proposed bottom hole location),
94
Technique, survey
technique, 90
tension legs, 35
term (of an equation), 18
Terminal
Remote Drillers, 54
tesla, 74
three axes (orthogonal) system, 76
tie-in, 96
Tool Face Offset form, 51
tool pusher, 52
Toolfaces, 111
Gravity or Highside (gTF), 114
Magnetic (mTF), 113
Total Gravity Field, 57, 76
Total Magnetic Field, 57, 74
Transforming Influences, 79
traveling block, 41
Introduction to MWD
Triangles, 21
Right Triangles, 21
Trigonometry, 21
True North, 60
True Vertical Depth, 96
U
under-gauge stabilizers, 45
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM),
62
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), 53
V
Variables, 15
vector, 72
Vertical Section, 94
Vertical Section Direction, 96
W
09/11/03