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This document is an unpublished work. Copyright 2003 GE Power Systems. All rights reserved. This document and all
information and expression contained herein are the property of GE Power Systems and is provided to the recipient in
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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: THE FOUNDATION: BASIC SKILLS AND KNOWLEDGE ...........7
1.1 Mathematics Review................................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Arithmetic .............................................................................................................. 8
1.1.1.1 Basic Operations of Arithmetic ...................................................................... 8
1.1.1.2 Commutative Property .................................................................................... 9
1.1.1.3 Associative Property ..................................................................................... 10
1.1.1.4 Distributive Property..................................................................................... 10
1.1.2 Algebra................................................................................................................. 10
1.1.2.1 Lines and Graphs .......................................................................................... 10
1.1.2.2 Working With Variables ............................................................................... 15
1.1.2.3 Balancing an Equation .................................................................................. 15
1.1.2.4 Solving Quadratic Equations ........................................................................ 17
1.1.3 Trigonometry ....................................................................................................... 21
1.1.3.1 Triangles ....................................................................................................... 21
1.1.3.2 Sine, Cosine, Tangent ................................................................................... 23
1.1.3.3 Practical Application..................................................................................... 24
1.2 Basic Hydraulics........................................................................................................ 26
1.2.1 System Pressures.................................................................................................. 26
1.2.2 Bernoullis Principle ............................................................................................ 28
1.2.3 Annular Velocity.................................................................................................. 28
1.2.4 Pressure Pulses..................................................................................................... 31
1.2.5 Drilling Fluid ....................................................................................................... 33
1.3 The Drilling Rig......................................................................................................... 33
1.3.1 Different Types of Drilling Rigs.......................................................................... 33
1.3.1.1 Offshore ........................................................................................................ 34
1.3.1.2 Land .............................................................................................................. 38
1.3.2 Parts of a Drilling Rig .......................................................................................... 38
1.3.2.1 Rig Floor ....................................................................................................... 38
1.3.2.2 Mud Pumps ................................................................................................... 39
1.3.2.3 Standpipe....................................................................................................... 40
1.3.2.4 Draw Works .................................................................................................. 41
1.3.2.5 Kelly.............................................................................................................. 42
1.4 Bottom Hole Assemblies ........................................................................................... 42
1.4.1 Drill Collars ......................................................................................................... 42
1.4.2 Universal Bottom Hole Orienting Subs ............................................................... 43
1.4.3 Stabilizers............................................................................................................. 44

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1.4.4 Crossovers............................................................................................................ 45
1.4.5 Heavyweight Drill Pipe........................................................................................ 45
1.4.6 Jars ....................................................................................................................... 46
1.4.7 Drillpipe Configuration........................................................................................ 46
1.4.8 Positive Displacement Mud Motors..................................................................... 46
1.5 MWD Tools................................................................................................................ 47
1.5.1 What is an MWD Tool?....................................................................................... 47
1.5.2 Different Types of MWD Tools .......................................................................... 47
1.5.2.1 Retrievable MWD Tools............................................................................... 47
1.5.2.2 Non-Retrievable MWD Tools....................................................................... 48
1.5.2.3 Logging Tools............................................................................................... 48
1.5.3 The Role of the MWD Operator .......................................................................... 49
CHAPTER 2: FIELD OPERATIONS ..................................................................51
2.1 Recommended Paperwork ....................................................................................... 51
2.1.1 Equipment Inventory ........................................................................................... 51
2.1.2 MWD Job Sheet................................................................................................... 51
2.1.3 Environmental/Job Site Information.................................................................... 51
2.1.4 Paperwork List ..................................................................................................... 51
2.1.5 Job Charge sheet .................................................................................................. 51
2.1.6 MWD Insurance sheet.......................................................................................... 51
2.1.7 Magnetic Declination/Tool Face Offset............................................................... 51
2.1.8 Survey Tie-in Information sheet .......................................................................... 52
2.1.9 Electro-Magnetic Error Report sheet ................................................................... 52
2.2 Well Site Responsibilities ......................................................................................... 52
2.2.1 Arrival at Rig Site ................................................................................................ 52
2.2.2 Before Rigging Up............................................................................................... 53
2.3 Rigging Up Surface equipment................................................................................ 53
2.3.1 Lines and Cables .................................................................................................. 53
2.4 Directional-Only Service .......................................................................................... 53
2.4.1 Safe Area Rig-Up................................................................................................. 53
2.4.1.1 Set Up in the Safe Area................................................................................. 53
2.4.1.2 Use the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) .............................................. 53
2.4.1.3 Set Up Computer........................................................................................... 54
2.4.1.4 Connect RS-232 Cable.................................................................................. 54
2.4.1.5 Connect Programming Cable........................................................................ 54
2.4.2 Rig Floor Area Equipment................................................................................... 54
2.4.2.1 Set Up Terminal............................................................................................ 54
2.4.2.2 Connect 10-Pin Cable ................................................................................... 55

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2.4.2.3 Connect Power/Communications Cable(s) ................................................... 55

2.4.3 Rig Floor Area Equipment................................................................................... 56
2.4.3.1 Protect the Standpipe Pressure Transducer................................................... 56
2.4.3.2 Install the Standpipe Pressure Transducer .................................................... 56
CHAPTER 3: INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING ..............................................57
3.1 Reference Points........................................................................................................ 57
3.1.1 Magnetic North .................................................................................................... 58
3.1.2 True North............................................................................................................ 60
3.1.3 Grid North............................................................................................................ 61
3.2 Corrections ................................................................................................................ 65
3.2.1 Magnetic Declination........................................................................................... 66
3.2.2 Grid Correction .................................................................................................... 70
3.3 Quality Factors.......................................................................................................... 72
3.3.1 Magnetic Dip Angle............................................................................................. 72
3.3.2 Total Magnetic Field............................................................................................ 74
3.3.3 Total Gravity Field............................................................................................... 76
CHAPTER 4: TRANSFORMING INFLUENCES ................................................79
4.1 Magnetic Interference From BHA .......................................................................... 79
4.1.1 Hole Angle ........................................................................................................... 81
4.1.2 Hole Direction...................................................................................................... 83
4.1.3 Latitude ................................................................................................................ 84
4.1.4 Not Enough Non-magnetic Material.................................................................... 85
4.1.5 Hot Spots.............................................................................................................. 88
4.2 Magnetic Interference From Formation................................................................. 88
4.2.1 Formation Constituents........................................................................................ 88
4.2.2 Steel Components in the Hole.............................................................................. 89
4.3 Magnetic Interference From Solar Flares .............................................................. 89
4.4 Incorrect Operator Input ......................................................................................... 89
4.5 Incorrect Calibration................................................................................................ 89
4.6 Survey Technique...................................................................................................... 90
4.6.1 Drill String Movement......................................................................................... 90
4.6.2 Bad Detection....................................................................................................... 90
4.6.3 Stored Surveys ..................................................................................................... 90

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4.6.4 Incorrect Survey Depth ........................................................................................ 91

CHAPTER 5: CALCULATING BOTTOM HOLE LOCATION.............................93
5.1 Calculating Bottom Hole Location .......................................................................... 94
5.1.1 Average Angle ..................................................................................................... 99
5.1.2 Radius of Curvature ........................................................................................... 102
5.1.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature .......................................................................... 105
5.2 Plotting Bottom Hole Location .............................................................................. 109
CHAPTER 6: GEOMETRICAL STEERING......................................................111
6.1 Toolfaces .................................................................................................................. 111
6.1.1 Magnetic Toolfaces (mTF) ................................................................................ 113
6.1.2 Gravity or Highside Toolfaces (gTF) ................................................................ 114
6.1.3 Orienting MWD Tools to Steering Tools .......................................................... 116
6.1.3.1 Orienting Retrievable Tools........................................................................ 117
6.1.3.2 Orienting Fixed Collar Tools ...................................................................... 119
INDEX...............................................................................................................123

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Chapter 1: The Foundation:

Basic Skills and Knowledge
MWD stands for Measurements While Drilling. The measurements considered
for the purposes of this manual are directional measurements. An MWD
Operator must have certain basic skills to perform at an optimum level. Among
the skills necessary is a working knowledge of Mathematics, which encompasses
simple arithmetic to trigonometry.
The mathematical skills will be necessary when dealing with problems involving
hydraulics. While computer programs solve many of the problems for the
operator, the operator must be able to calculate hydraulic problems when the
need arises. The same may be said of survey calculations. The operator may
occasionally need to calculate a survey without the benefit of a computer.
The MWD operator must know how a drilling rig operates. Rig operations affect
many aspects of the MWD tool operation. The best MWD operators are those
who know not only their job but also how the rig runs.
Knowledge of rig operations includes knowing what a Bottom Hole Assembly
(BHA) is and how it works. The MWD tool is part of the Bottom Hole Assembly.
An operator should know as much as possible about this and all other
components of the drill string.
MWD operators should know the different types of MWD tools available and their
basic components. An operator should know how the components work and how
they contribute to the drilling process.
The MWD operator has an important job in ensuring that problems and rig
downtime are kept to a minimum. This job is difficult, demanding and requires
many different types of skills.
The sum of the skills and knowledge presented in this chapter will be the
foundation for a successful career in the MWD field.

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1.1 Mathematics Review

An MWD operators duties require an understanding of mathematics from
arithmetic through trigonometry.
This section provides a review of basic mathematical concepts and tests
the understanding of those concepts.

1.1.1 Arithmetic
1.1.1.1 Basic Operations of Arithmetic
+

means add or put two things together.

5 + 2 indicates that 5 and 2 should be joined together to
make 7.

means subtract or take something away.

3 means take 3 away from 6 leaving 3

means to multiply something.

This is another way of adding.
5 * 6 means add 6 to itself 5 times such as:
6 + 6 = 12
(first and second additions),
6 + 12 = 18
(third addition)
6 + 18 = 24
(fourth addition) and
6 + 24 = 30
(fifth addition).
Since 6 was added to itself 5 times, multiplication is often
stated as 5 times 6.

/ or means divide. Division is another means of multiplying.

12/3 means find out how many times 3 fits into 12
This is another way of saying 12 * . The result of
multiplying any number by a fraction is division.
n

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means multiply something by itself the number of times

shown by the little number (the exponent) next to the big
number (the base).
Just as multiplication indicates how many times to perform
an addition, the exponent indicates how many times to
perform a multiplication.
In this case, the number

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indicated by X must be multiplied by itself the number of

times specified by the little number to the upper right.
If X is 6 and n is 3, it means multiply 6 by itself 3 times:
6 * 6 = 36
(first and second multiplication)
6 * 36 = 216
(third multiplication).
X

means square root, that is, find the number which,

multiplied by itself, equals the number represented by X.
For example:
16 asks, Which number, times itself, equals 16?
The answer is 4, because 4 * 4 = 16, or 42 = 16.

1.1.1.2 Commutative Property

Most of Mathematics is plain common sense. For instance, the
order in which numbers are added is unimportant. The following
equation illustrates this point:
2 + 4 equals 4 + 2

Eq. 1

Note that it does not matter how many numbers are added. The
order in which they are added remains unimportant. This fact is
called the Commutative Property.
However, when multiplication or division are mixed with addition
or subtraction, the order in which operations are performed is
important. For example,
4 + 2 * 10 is not the same as 2 + 4 * 10

Eq. 2

because the answer depends upon which operation is performed

first. If the addition is done first, the answer is 60 in both cases.
But if the multiplication is done first, the answer is 24 in the first
case and 42 in the second.
One of the rules of Mathematics is to perform multiplication and
division first, then addition and subtraction.
The order in which numbers are subtracted is also important:
8 2 is not the same as 2 8

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Since eight minus two equals six, it is not the same as two minus
eight, which equals negative six.

1.1.1.3 Associative Property

This property is much like the Commutative Property but it
involves adding three or more numbers in groups.
The
parentheses are used to indicate which numbers should be
added first.
Adding (5 + 6) + 7 is the same as adding 5 + (6 + 7). In the first
case five plus six equals eleven and seven plus eleven equals
eighteen. For the second case, five added to the sum of six and
seven (which is thirteen) also equals eighteen.

1.1.1.4 Distributive Property

The Distributive Property or Distributive Law is a very important
and powerful concept. The Distributive Property states that:
A * (B + C) = (A * B) + (A * C)

Eq. 5

5 * (10 + 2) is the same as (5 * 10) + (5 * 2)

Eq. 6

Remember, always do the multiplication before the addition. In

this example, five times twelve (ten plus two) equals sixty and is
the same as five times ten (fifty) plus five times two (ten). Fifty
plus ten equals sixty.
Application of The Distributive Property permits the solution of
most algebra problems.

1.1.2 Algebra
1.1.2.1 Lines and Graphs
If you were to take four steps to your right, you would then be
four steps from your starting point. Measuring your steps on a
number line like the one in figure 1.1.2.1.a, you would be a
distance of four from the starting point or origin. The origin is the
number zero. Positive numbers are expressed as steps to the
right of zero.

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Steps to the left of zero represent negative numbers. Negative

numbers are identified with a minus in front of them. Adding a
negative number is like subtracting a positive number:
4 + (2) is the same as 4 2

Eq. 7

Both methods give the same answer: go four steps to the right,
then two steps to the left. No matter how it is stated, you still end
up at the number two.

-4

-3

-2

-1

Figure 1.1.2.1.a Number line

If we add a second number line perpendicular to the first, passing

it through the first number lines origin, we create a rectangular
coordinate system, as in figure 1.1.2.1.b.

c) Intersection
of lines
a and b

a) Two spaces
above the origin

Origin
b) Two spaces
to the right
of the origin

Figure 1.1.2.1b

Rectangular Coordinate System

The rectangular coordinate system allows the location of points

not only on the number lines but also in the spaces, or quadrants,
between the lines. With two lines for reference, each point gets
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two numbers, or coordinates, to define its location. The two

numbers are expressed in parentheses with a comma after the
first number, for example, (2, 2).
The first number, called the X coordinate, tells the points
horizontal distance from the origin. The second number, called
the Y coordinate, tells the points vertical distance from the
origin.
Both coordinates can be used in an equation to determine a
points straight-line distance from the origin:
a2 + b2 = c2.

Eq. 8

(Where a represents the X coordinate (the first number),

b represents the Y coordinate (the second number) and
c represents the points distance from the origin.)
So:
a + b = c

Eq. 9

Using this method, the distance from the origin is:

22 + 22 = c2

or

8 = c2

c2 = 8

or

4 + 4 = c2

Now take the square root (the symbol means square root) of
both sides of the equation
c = 8 or approximately 2.8284
The slope of the line that goes from the origin through point c is
calculated by dividing how many spaces go up or down by how
many go right or left. This is called dividing the rise (up or down)
by the run (left or right).
Calculate the slope of the line in Figure 1.1.2.1.a. by:
Slope = 2 (the rise) 2 (the run) so
Slope = 1

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A slope of one means that for every space that goes up or down,
one space goes to the right or left. (See figure 1.1.2.1.b.)
For every one space moving up there is one space moving to the
right.

2
1

Figure 1.1.2.1.b Slope of 1

As the position of the line changes, the slope changes. Suppose

that for every space up, there are two spaces to the right.
Dividing the rise by the run yields a slope of one half. On the
other hand, if there are two spaces up and one to the right the
slope is two. See Figure 1.1.2.1.c.

2
1

1
1

Figure 1.1.2.1.c Two different slopes

The graph on the left has a slope of while the graph on the
right has a slope of 2.
Suppose that two points along the line are known. Each point is
defined by two values, the distance along the x or horizontal axis
and the distance along the y or vertical axis. See Figure
1.1.2.1.d. Whenever the x and y values are given they look like

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(3, 2). The x value is always given first. Values for Point 2 are
presented as (6, 3).
Chapt

Point 1:

Point 2:

X = 3, Y = 2

X = 6, Y = 3

3
2
X

3
Figure 1.1.2.1.d

Two points on the line are known.

If two points are known, the difference between their y values

divided by the difference between their x values determines the
slope of the line:
Y value of Point 2 minus Y value of point 1
Divided by
X value of point 2 minus X value of point 1
Therefore, the slope of the line in Figure 1.1.2.1.d. is determined
in the following manner:
(3 2) (6 3) =
1 3 = 1/3
The slope is 1/3: the line goes one space up for every three
spaces to the right.

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1.1.2.2 Working With Variables

Sometimes a variable is used to represent the unknown
information in a problem. Typically, a letter is used for the
variable, as in the following formula:
5n + 3 = 18

Eq. 10

The letter n is a variable standing for an unknown value. To

identify the value, solve the equation for n.
To solve for n, we will isolate the variable on one side of the
equation (normally the left side) with everything else on the other
side of the equal sign.
Start the process of isolating n by subtracting three from both
sides of the equation.
5n + 3 3 = 18 3
By subtracting three from both sides, the values remain
equivalent. Now the equation looks like:
5n = 15
Dividing both sides by 5 completes the process.
5n / 5 = 15 / 5
Since 5n divided by 5 is n and 15 divided by 5 is 3, the solution
for n is that n equals 3.
n=3
To identify the value of a variable, isolate the variable on one
side of the equation by applying identical operations to both sides
of the equation.

1.1.2.3 Balancing an Equation

Solving an equation for an unknown, as covered in section
1.1.2.2, involves balancing an equation. Balancing means
keeping each side equivalent while you solve for the unknown.
In the following example, the equivalence of each side of the
equation is preserved.
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5n + 3 = 8n 6
Add a negative three to the left side to isolate 5n. Also add a
negative three to the right side to preserve equivalence.
5n + 3 3 = 8n 6 3
5n = 8n 9
Now add 8n to the left side to remove n from the left. Add the
same to the right side to preserve the balance.
3n = 9
Multiply both sides by 1
3n = 9
Divide both sides by 3
n=3
Notice that all the operations performed maintained the
equivalence of both sides. To maintain the equivalence while
solving for the unknown is to balancing the equation.
Units of measure are also multiplied and divided, just like
numbers, to balance equations.
Suppose you need to convert 10,000 feet-per-second into
miles-per-hour. Ask the question like this: If you can go 10,000
feet in one second, how many miles can you go in one hour
(3,600 seconds)? Now put it equation form:
10,000 feet
1 second

n miles
1 hour

Convert feet-per-second to feet-per-hour:

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10,000 feet *
1 second

3,600 seconds
1 hour

n miles
1 hour

10,000 feet *
1 second

3,600 seconds
1 hour

n miles
1 hour

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36,000,000 feet
1 hour

n miles
1 hour

Note: You can multiply just one side of an equation by a factor

only when that factor is equal to 1.
The factor

3,600 seconds
1 hour

is equal to 1 because 3,600 seconds equals 1 hour.

3,600 seconds / 1 hour equals 1/1 or 1.
Now convert feet-per-hour to miles-per-hour:
36,000,000 feet *
1 hour

1 mile
5,280 feet

n miles
1 hour

36,000,000 feet *
1 hour

1 mile
5,280 feet

n miles
1 hour

(36,000,000 5,280) miles

1 hour

n miles
1 hour

36,000,000 5,280 6,818.2 miles per hour.

Note: The symbol means, is approximately equal to. In this
case, if the decimal point were carried out to four places
the answer would be 6,818.1818. The decimal portion is
rounded off to .2.
6818.2 miles
1 hour

n miles
1 hour

So the answer is, if you can go 10,000 feet per second, you can
go approximately 6818.2 miles per hour.

1.1.2.4 Solving Quadratic Equations

Quadratic equations contain a squared variable, that is, a
variable with an exponent of 2, such as x2. An example of a
quadratic equation is 3x2 + 2x + 5 = 21.

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Many strategies can be used to simplifying these equations so

they are not so intimidating. In the above example, 3x2, 2x, 5 and
21 are all terms of the equation. A term, in an equation, is
anything that is separated by an operation sign, or operator, such
as + , , * , , or = . Think of terms as packages that can be
moved around or opened and repacked.
To begin solving this equation for x, reduce one side of the
equation to zero by subtracting 21 from each side.
3x2 + 2x + 5 21 = 21 21
3x2 + 2x 16 = 0
Now apply the simplifying strategy of grouping. In grouping, you
divide the non-zero side of the quadratic equation into two
smaller equations, in accordance with the distributive property.
Each of the smaller equations will contain the variable adding or
subtracting a number. If the term containing the squared variable
also has a number, such as the 3 in 3x2, place the number with
the variable in the first smaller equation
Once you have reduced one side of the equation to zero (and
arranged the terms on the non-zero side from greatest to least
factors of the variable) you can use the terms and operators as
clues to find the smaller equations.
You can determine the operation signs of the smaller equations
from the signs in the quadratic equation. The fact that the second
operation sign is minus tells you that the two smaller equations
will have different operation signs. One will be plus, the other will
be minus.
So far, we know the smaller equations look like this:
(3x + __ ) (x __ ) = 0
Note: When terms are enclosed in parentheses and put close
together, it indicates that the terms must be multiplied.
( c ) ( b ) means multiply c times b.
You can determine the numbers to add or subtract in the smaller
equations from the terms of the quadratic equation. These two
numbers, when multiplied by each other, equal the last term in
the quadratic equation, in this case 16. They will also equal the
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numerical portion of the middle term when added or subtracted

according to the operators in the two smaller equations.
However, when the first term in the quadratic equation also has a
numerical portion, you must also account for this number in
finding the second terms for the smaller equations.
Two questions will help you find the missing two numbers.
First question: Which sets of two numbers each multiply to
equal 16?
Answer: The sets 1 and 16, 2 and 8, and 4 and 4. Each of these
pairs, when multiplied, equals 16.
Second question, Which of these pairs of numbers, when one of
its numbers is multiplied by 3, add or subtract to make 2 (the
numerical portion of the equations middle term)?
Does 16 (3 * 1) equal 2? How about (3 * 4) 4?
No, but 8 (3 * 2) does equal 2. So use 8 and 2 as the second
terms in the smaller equations.
Now we know the smaller equations will be:
(3x + 8) (x 2) = 0
Lets verify: use the FOIL (First, Outside, Inside, Last) method to
multiply the smaller equations.
First, multiply the first terms of each smaller equation:
3x * x = 3x2
Second, multiply the outside terms:
3x * 2 = 6x
Note that you include the minus sign with the term.
Third, multiply the inside terms:
8 * x = 8x
Fourth, multiply the last terms:

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8 * 2 = 16
Now add the results of the FOIL method:
3x2 6x + 8x 16 = 0
and simplify:
3x2 + 2x 16 = 0
So (3x + 8) (x 2) does equal our quadratic equation.
With the correct combination of terms, we can now solve the
equation for x. We have used the distributive property to restate
the quadratic equation as:
(3x + 8) (x 2) = 0
With the right side of the equation set to zero, we can know that
at least one of the factors on the left side equals zero. The only
way a product can equal zero is if at least one of the factors
equals zero. So we know that either (3x + 8) = 0 or (x 2) = 0
Solve (3x + 8) = 0 for x.
Subtract 8 from both sides of the equation:
3x = 8
Divide both sides by 3.
x = 8/3
Substitute 8/3 for x in the original equation:
3x2 + 2x + 5 = 21
3 * (8/3) 2 + 2 * 8/3 + 5 = 21
3 * (64/9) + 16/3 + 5 = 21
64/3 16/3 + 5 = 21
21 1/3 5 1/3 + 5 =21
16 + 5 = 21

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21 = 21
So one value of X is 8/3.
Now solve (x 2) = 0 for x.
Add 2 to both sides of the equation:
x=2
Substitute 2 for x in the original equation:
3x2 + 2x + 5 = 21
3 * ( 4 ) + 4 + 5 = 21
12 + 9 = 21
21 = 21
So the other value of x is 2.
Using the strategies of balancing equations, grouping and the
distributive property, we have identified the possible values of x
and solved the quadratic equation.

1.1.3 Trigonometry
1.1.3.1 Triangles
Triangles have several interesting properties. The three angles
of any triangle in a single plane must add up to 180 degrees. All
Right Triangles, like the ones shown in Figure 1.1.3.1, have one
angle that is 90 degrees. That means that the other two angles
must equal 90 degrees when added together.
Another property of triangles is that the ratio of sides is always
the same for similar triangles (two triangles with identical angle
measurements), even if they are of different sizes.
In Figure 1.1.3.1, assuming the two triangles are similar, the
ratios of the sides for triangle A are the same as for those of
triangle B. For instance, the ratio of sides c and a on triangle A is
the same as the ratio of sides c and a on triangle B.

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c
a
c
A

a
b

B
b

Figure 1.1.3.1 Two Right Triangles

Another property of Right Triangles that is extremely useful is

that the length of any side can be determined if the lengths of the
other two sides are known.
In Figure 1.1.3.1, the sides are labeled a, b and c. Side c is the
hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is the side opposite the right angle
(90 degree angle) in a Right Triangle.
For any Right Triangle, the sides have the following relationship:
c2 = a2 + b2
This means that if you know the length of any two sides, the
length of the other side can be calculated. For example, suppose
that the length of side a is 10 and side c is 15, the length of side
b is:
b2 = c2 a2
b = (c2 a2)
b = (152 102)
b = (225 100)
b = (125)
b 11.1803

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1.1.3.2 Sine, Cosine, Tangent

The ratios of the sides of a triangle have peculiar names. An
example is the cosine. The cosine is the ratio of the side
adjacent an angle to the hypotenuse. See Figure 1.1.3.2 for an
example of the cosine function.

Figure 1.1.3.2

Right Triangle with angles and sides labeled

The cosine of angle is the ratio of side b to side c or in other

words, the length of the adjacent side b divided by the length of
the hypotenuse c. Suppose angle is sixty degrees. The cosine
of 60 degrees is 0.5, so the ratio of side b to c is 0.5. If side b is
10 feet, side c must be 20 feet
0.5 = 10 side c
side c * 0.5 = 10
side c = 10 0.5
side c = 20
As long as the angle is 60 degrees, the ratio of the adjacent side
to the hypotenuse will be 0.5, even if the Right Triangle is sized
or oriented differently from the one presented in Figure 1.1.3.2.
If one angle in Figure 1.1.3.2 is 60 degrees and the right angle is
always 90 degrees, then the remaining angle must be 30
degrees:

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180 (60 + 90) = 30

180 150 = 30.
If angle is 30 degrees, the length of side b can be determined
by using the cosine of angle :
Cosine = length of side b hypotenuse
Cosine 30 = a 20
0.86602 = a 20
a = 20 * 0.86602
a = 17.32
Rules for sine, cosine and tangent are:
Sine =

the length of the side opposite the angle divided by

the length of the hypotenuse

Cosine = the length of the side adjacent the angle divided by

the length of the hypotenuse.
Tangent = the length of the side opposite the angle divided by
the length of the side adjacent the angle.
The sine, cosine and tangent values for all angles are found in
tables or are available on most scientific calculators.

1.1.3.3 Practical Application

Trigonometry is used extensively in drilling a directional well.
Directional wells are those not drilled vertically, that is, not drilled
straight down. Chapter 2 discusses directional wells in more
detail. Chapter 3 discusses the surveying of directional wells.
Suppose a well is drilled at a 50-degree angle instead of straight
down (see Figure 1.1.3.3. for a theoretical directional well).
While the depth of the hole from the surface to the drill bit can be
measured directly, the vertical depth cannot.
No sensor
measures vertical depth. However, vertical depth is important
because it establishes a comparison point between a vertical well

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and a directional well. It also allows comparison between two

directional wells.

Vertical
Depth

Well angle
measured
from
vertical
plane

Measured
Depth

Offset of well bottom

from vertical plane
or vertical section
Figure 1.1.3.3 Directional well

Notice that the measured depth looks like the hypotenuse of a

triangle and the vertical depth is the adjacent side to the angle of
offset from vertical. To calculate the vertical depth, you must
know two things:
1) The angle of the offset from vertical, called the hole
angle and
2) The measured depth of the hole.
With a hole angle of 50 degrees and a measured depth of 1,000
feet the vertical depth is calculated by:
Cosine 50 0.6428
Cosine 50 vertical depth 1,000
Cosine 50 * 1,000 vertical depth
0.6428 * 1,000 642.8 feet.
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Using the same hole angle and measured depth, the offset from
vertical (vertical section) can be calculated by taking the sine of
the hole angle. Remember that the sine is defined as dividing
the opposite side, the vertical section, by the hypotenuse, the
measured depth. So,
Sine 50 0.7660
Sine 50 vertical section 1000
Sine 50 * 1,000 vertical section
0.7660 766.0 feet
In a typical directional well, surveys are calculated at regular
intervals with the vertical depth and vertical section part of the
survey calculation.

1.2 Basic Hydraulics

1.2.1 System Pressures
One of the most important concepts when dealing with hydraulics as it
applies to MWD service is that pressure is felt equally throughout a
system. While this may seem too sensible to even state formally, it is
very important to keep it in mind.
When drilling a well, the cuttings, or drilling residue, must be removed
from the well bore by some means. The means may be a flow of
water, weighted mud, foam, steam or air. Most wells are drilled with
either water or some type of weighted mud.
The column of water or mud will be called a drilling fluid. Drilling fluids
exert hydraulic pressure against the formation. Remember that this
pressure is exerted in all directions. The pressure is called the
hydrostatic head or hydrostatic pressure. It can be calculated by
using the formula:
Pressure = 0.052 * Weight of the drilling fluid * Vertical depth
Hydrostatic pressure is normally measured in pounds per square inch
or psi. In Europe, Asia and some parts of Latin America, the pressure
may be measured in Bars. For the purposes of this manual, pounds
per square inch will be used. Similarly, Weight of the drilling fluid in
the United States is normally stated in pounds per gallon. In parts of

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Europe, Asia and Latin America, it may be stated as grams per cubic
centimeter. The example in this manual will use pounds per gallon.
When calculating the hydrostatic pressure (also called the Bottom
Hole Pressure, or BHP) it is important to remember to multiply by the
Vertical Depth if the hole is a directional well. The following example
shows how to calculate bottom hole pressure (BHP):
Vertical Depth = 10,000 feet
Weight of the Drilling Fluid = 10 pounds per gallon
BHP = 0.052 * 10 * 10,000
BHP = 0.052 * 100,000
BHP = 5,200 psi
The reason it is important to remember that pressure is felt equally
throughout the system for a particular depth is that MWD tools are
limited to a maximum system pressure, typically 20,000 psi.
If the maximum mud weight to be used is 18 pounds per gallon (ppg),
what is the maximum vertical hole depth before the system pressure
exceeds the tools maximum pressure rating?
20,000 psi = 0.052 * 18 * Max_Vertical_Depth
Max_Vertical_Depth = 20,000 (0.052 * 18)
Max_Vertical_Depth = 20,000 0.936
Max_Vertical_Depth = 18,720 feet
Once the tool depth exceeds 18,720 feet, there is a possibility that
one or more systems will fail due to excessive pressure.

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1.2.2 Bernoullis Principle

Squeeze a water hose near the end. Water shoots out of the hose at
a high rate. Why? Ask Bernoulli, the person who first explained this
phenomenon. In the pinched region of the hose, the cross sectional
area of the hose is reduced, an area of low pressure is created and
the velocity of the water is greatly increased. The increased velocity
causes the water to shoot out of the hose.
Figure 1.2.2 illustrates three separate areas with different pressure
regions. The pressure is higher before the restriction than in or past
the restriction. In the area of restriction, the pressure is relatively low.
After the restricted area, the pressure returns to normal.

Higher Pressure Area

Direction
Of
Flow

Pressure is reduced
and
velocity is increased
in this area
Pressure returns to
normal in this area

Figure 1.2.2 Hydraulic system with a restriction

1.2.3 Annular Velocity

Annular velocity (AV) is the speed of a fluid traveling in a closed
pressure system such as in the annulus (the ring-shaped space)
between the drill pipe and the hole. Erosion on the metal surfaces of
the MWD tool as well as around areas where restrictions occur are
directly related to annular velocity and the amount of solid material in
the mud system.
Two types of mud flow will be considered in this manual, turbulent flow
and laminar flow. Turbulent flow occurs when the annular velocity
reaches a critical point called critical velocity. Below the critical
velocity mud flow is laminar (flowing smoothly). Above the critical flow
value mud flow is turbulent.
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Turbulent mud flow describes a situation in which the fluid column has
eddy currents. See Figure 1.2.3.a.

Restriction in this region

creates turbulent flow
below

Area of turbulent flow

Figure 1.2.3.a Restrictions create turbulence at critical velocity

The area of erosion in Figure 1.2.3.a is right below the two blades on
either side of the drill pipe.
Laminar flow causes less damage. In the laminar flow region,
particles are moving parallel with the object in the hole and very little
damage due to erosion occurs. See Figure 1.2.3.b.

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Figure 1.2.3.b

Laminar flow creates very little erosion

Fluid velocity, or as it is commonly called, annular velocity, is usually

expressed in units of feet per minute. Use the following formula to
calculate fluid velocity:
Pump Output * Strokes Per Minute
Annular Capacity
Pump Output is in Barrels per Stroke

bbls/stk

Strokes Per Minute

spm

Annular Capacity is in Barrels per Foot

bbl/ft

Remember to treat the units as if they were numbers. That is they are
added, subtracted, multiplied and divided.
Annular capacity is the diameter of the larger cylinder squared minus
the diameter of the smaller cylinder squared divided by 1029.
Calculate the annular capacity using the following formula:
Inside Diameter2 Outside Diameter2
1029

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If the hole diameter is 9.5 inches and the drill pipe is 5 inches, then
the calculation is:
9.52 52
1029
90.25 25
1029
65.25
1029
0.06341
Assume the pump output is 0.107 barrels per stroke and the pump is
operating at 100 strokes per minute:
0.107 bbls/stk * 100 stks/min
0.6341 bbls/ft.
10.7 bbls/min
0.6341 bbls/ft
16.87 ft/min
The annular velocity in this case is approximately 16.87 feet per
minute.

1.2.4 Pressure Pulses

Most of the MWD tools in service today use Bernoullis principle to
communicate between the tool and the surface computer. The data
from the tool are encoded into a series of pressure pulses and
decoded at the surface. Figure 1.2.4 shows how the pressure pulses
are created.

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Normal state:
no restriction

P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

Restriction
creates
high pressure

Pressure
returns to
normal

3000 psi
High Pressure
Pulse = 500 psi

2000 psi

1500 psi
0 psi

TIME
Figure 1.2.4 Pressure Pulse Creation

High-pressure pulses are created by a momentary restriction of the

hydraulic system (see Figure 1.2.4.). Data are arranged into a series
of restrictions. A sensor at the surface converts the mechanical
pressure of the pulse to an electrical signal. The electrical signal is
sent to a signal converter and then to a computer. The surface
computer decodes the data and displays the information on the
computer screen.

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1.2.5 Drilling Fluid

In the oil and gas industry drilling fluids are collectively called mud.
Some exceptions are areas where wells are drilled with foam or air.
However, the majority of wells drilled in the United States are drilled
with mud.
For the Tensor MWD system the fluid column of a well acts as part of
the communications system or communications bus, also called the
qbus. Instead of communicating with electrical pulses, the system
uses changes in fluid pressure to send data. The fluid or mud
system then becomes part of the qbus, essentially a mud bus.
The mud system controls the quality of the mud and is critical to
successfully transmitting MWD data through the mud bus. Thicker or
more viscous muds affect pulses by creating less sharp peaks.
Imagine swimming through molasses compared to swimming through
clear water. Just as a swimmer would lose energy more quickly while
trying to swim through molasses, the pulse loses energy when
transmitted through a viscous fluid.
Sometimes gas or air will get into the mud. Both will cause symptoms
that look like pulse failures.

1.3 The Drilling Rig

The several different types of drilling rigs can be organized into two basic
categories:
1) drilling rigs that operate on land and
2) drilling rigs that operate over water, including offshore rigs.
Most rigs have some basic parts in common. Learning the names of the
basic parts is extremely important since the oil field has developed its own
vocabulary. Once the names are mastered, working on a drilling rig will be
considerably easier.

1.3.1 Different Types of Drilling Rigs

Although the types of drilling rigs are confined to two major categories,
the types of rigs that operate in very shallow water in inland lakes,
marshes and swamps deserve their own category. These are inland
barges. For the purposes of this manual the inland barges will be
considered offshore rigs.

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1.3.1.1 Offshore
1.3.1.1.1 Inland Barge
As noted in the introduction to this section, the inland barge
exists somewhere between land rigs and offshore rigs. They
are included in the offshore section because they work over
water.
An inland barge is a drilling rig that has been mounted on a
barge. It is not self-propelled and must be moved by special
push boats to the drilling site.
It is very rare for an inland barge to drill in more than fifty feet
of water. Normally the water depth is less than thirty feet.
See Figure 1.3.1.1.1

Figure 1.3.1.1.1 Inland barge

1.3.1.1.2 Platform
As the name suggests, the drilling rig sits on a platform. The
platform has very long legs on each corner that stand on the
bottom of the ocean floor.
Generally, the platform rig is involved with production rather
than drilling. However, at some platform rigs, new wells are

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being drilled horizontally out from existing wells to increase

production.
Some platform rigs do not have legs but are anchored to the
ocean floor with huge wire cables called tension legs. These
type platform rigs are used to drill the initial holes and can be
quite large. See Figure 1.3.1.1.2.

Figure 1.3.1.1.2 Platform rig

The depths at which platform rigs operate vary. The tension

leg platform rigs can be used in very deep water. Traditional
steel leg type platform rigs are usually found in water depths
of less than two thousand feet.
1.3.1.1.3 Jack Up
Jack up drilling rigs are literally jacked up. They have three
or four large legs that are affixed to pontoons. To prepare
the rig for transit, the pontoons are filled with air and jacked
up to the surface by shortening the rig legs. Tugboats then
tow the rig. At the new location, the pontoons are filled with
water and jacked down by lengthening the rig legs.
The largest jack up rigs may drill in water depths between
four hundred and one thousand feet of water. However, the
length of their legs limits this type of rig to shallower water.
See Figure 1.3.1.1.3.

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Figure 1.3.1.1.3

Jack up Rig

1.3.1.1.4 Semi-Submersible
Semi-submersible drilling rigs operate in the deeper waters.
These rigs are able to operate in water depths greater than
two thousand feet.
This type of rig rests on pontoons. Unlike the jack ups the
semi-submersible drilling rigs actually float on the pontoons.
They are held in position by eight large anchors, with two
anchors at each corner of the drilling rig.
At one time, the semi-submersible drilling rigs were used only
for exploration drilling. Now, the rigs are also used as
floating production platforms, especially in the deep water off
the coast of Brazil. See Figure 1.3.1.1.4.

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Figure 1.3.1.1.4 Semi-submersible rig

1.3.1.1.5 Drill Ships

As the name implies, these ships have been developed
specifically for drilling. They operate in very deep water,
generally from two thousand to seven thousand feet.
See Figure 1.3.1.1.5.

Figure 1.3.1.1.5 Drill ship

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1.3.1.2 Land
Land rigs vary less than offshore rigs. The major difference in
land rigs is how deep the rigs can drill.
No matter what type of drilling rig, land or offshore, the majority of
rigs have several parts in common. With few exceptions, the
parts will only differ in size. See Figure 1.3.1.2.

Figure 1.3.1.2 Land drilling rig

1.3.2 Parts of a Drilling Rig

1.3.2.1 Rig Floor
The rig floor is where the business of drilling a hole takes place.
The draw works, traveling block, kelly, rotary table, standpipe and
drillers console are all on the rig floor.
Because the majority of work occurs on the rig floor, it is the
place where most accidents happen. While on the floor, it is
necessary to be alert to avoid being seriously injured.
See Figure 1.3.2.1.

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Figure 1.3.2.1 Rig Floor

1.3.2.2 Mud Pumps

When the term mud is used, it should be understood to mean a
heavier drilling fluid, such as water. Although air or foam may be
used to drill a well, the vast majority of wells are drilled with a
heavier type of drilling fluid. The muds function is to remove the
drilling residue (the drilled formation) from the hole.
The mud pumps pump the mud downhole and back to the
surface where it flows over the shakers. Shale shakers remove
the drilled cuttings from the mud. From the shakers, the mud
goes to the return pit. It is then sent back to the suction pit where
it is pumped back downhole. See Figure 1.3.2.2.

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Figure 1.3.2.2 Mud Pump

If the mud pumps run smoothly, the signal from the MWD tool will
be clear and easy to decode. When the mud pumps have
problems, the signal from the MWD tool may be compromised.
The mud pumps have pulsation dampers that smooth the noise
created by the action of the pumps. The pulsation dampers must
be set to correct operating pressure for good detection of the
MWD pulse signal.
Mud pumps come in two varieties, a duplex pump which pumps
fluid on the forward and backward stroke of the pump piston and
a triplex pump which pumps fluid only on the forward stroke of
the piston.
Duplex pumps are noisier than triplex pumps and create
pulsations that interfere with the MWD signal.

1.3.2.3 Standpipe
The mud travels from the mud pumps, through the standpipe,
into the kelly, down through the drill string and out the drilling bit.
The standpipe is located next to the derrick and is about forty feet
tall.
Mud goes through a standpipe manifold on the drill floor before
traveling up through the standpipe. The pressure transducer,
that converts the physical energy of the pulse into an electrical

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signal, is located on the standpipe manifold. It is called the

Standpipe Pressure Transducer (SPT).

1.3.2.4 Draw Works

Also on the drill floor is a large spool wound with thick wire rope.
This is the draw works. It works in conjunction with a huge winch
system containing the traveling block and the crown block.
The wire rope, called the drill line, comes off the spool or draw
works, is routed to the crown block, goes from the crown block to
the traveling block and then to an anchor called the dead line.
Both the crown block and the traveling block have a series of
pulleys that the drilling line winds around. The crown block is
located at the top of the derrick and is stationary while the
traveling block moves up and down. See Figure 1.3.2.3.

Figure 1.3.2.3 Typical draw works, land rig example

The drill string is lengthened by picking up a thirty-foot section of

drill pipe and screwing it into the pipe already in the hole. The
crown block and traveling block hold the weight of the drill pipe
while a brake on the draw works controls the release of the
weight. Since the drill string is very heavy, the weight of the string
pushes the bit into the formation, allowing it to drill. The most
common type drill bit has a series of chisel-like teeth on three
rollers. The draw works is rotated and as the weight is released,
the hole is drilled deeper.

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1.3.2.5 Kelly
The kelly is a part of the drilling process, not a persons name. It
is the drive connector at the top of the drill string. Most new rigs
use top drives so that fewer connections are necessary to drill
the well.
Sections of drill pipe are called joints. Joints are usually thirty
feet long. Once a joint is drilled down, the kelly is raised and
detached from the drill string. The new joint is put in the drill
string below the kelly.
A typical kelly is about 45 feet long. About 40 feet of the kelly is
extended below the surface with the drill string. So the total depth
of the hole (called the measured depth) equals the length of the
drill string plus the part of the kelly extended below the surface.
Putting a new joint into the drill string is called making a
connection.
Directional surveys are often taken when a
connection is made. These surveys allow the directional driller to
make necessary corrections and keep the hole on the correct
course.
Much of what the directional driller does involves manipulating
the Bottom Hole Assembly to cause the hole to be drilled in the
desired direction. Bottom Hole Assemblies are discussed in the
next section.

1.4 Bottom Hole Assemblies

Bottom Hole Assemblies consist of many different types of specialized drill
pipe. These special function pieces are grouped together at the bottom of
the drill string, hence the name Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA). The
directional driller sometimes needs to change the Bottom Hole Assembly to
effect the necessary changes in course direction or angle.

1.4.1 Drill Collars

To drill into the formation (the selected volume of earth), the drill bit
requires weight, much like a hand drill and drill bit require pressure to
drill through wood. Without pressure, the bit will not drill the hole.
Pressure on a drill bit is supplied by the weight of very heavy drill pipe
called drill collars. The more drill collars in the Bottom Hole Assembly,
the more weight that can be imposed on the drill bit. Because drill
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collars are larger than normal drill pipe, the number of drill collars that
can be used in the Bottom Hole Assembly is limited.

1.4.2 Universal Bottom Hole Orienting Subs

Universal Bottom Hole Orienting (UBHO) subs are also called
muleshoe subs. A sleeve is inserted into the UBHO sub for the
alignment of directional components. See Figure 1.4.2. Names for
this sleeve include the muleshoe, the insert, and the orienting sleeve.
At the bottom of the MWD tool is a cutaway that mates to a key in the
muleshoe insert. This keyed connection orients the directional
module to the bend in the Mud Motor (refer to section 1.4.8).

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Orientation
Key

Orientation
sleeve

Orientation sleeve
inserted in the
UBHO

UBHO
Orientation
Sleeve
Orientation
Key

Top View:
Orientation sleeve inserted
in the UBHO
Figure 1.4.2 Orientation sleeve, key and UBHO

1.4.3 Stabilizers
Stabilizers are aptly named. They provide stiffness to the Bottom
Hole Assembly (BHA). These specialized pieces have blades on
them that are almost the same diameter as the hole being drilled.
Putting more stabilizers in the hole creates a stiffer Bottom Hole
Assembly. The stiffer the Bottom Hole Assembly, the less the hole
will stray from the desired direction.
The stabilizer blades outside diameter and their placement in the
BHA control how the BHA performs while drilling. Additional, smaller
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stabilizers, called under-gauge stabilizers are used to either build

angle or lose angle, depending on their location in the BHA.

1.4.4 Crossovers
Drill pipe, drill collar and other specialized drill string items do not have
standardized threads. In order to assemble two drill string elements
having different connections, a crossover is used (see Figure 1.4.4).

Box-by-Pin
Crossover

Box-by-Box
Crossover

Pin-by-Pin
Crossover
Figure 1.4.4 Different types of crossover subs

A drill string component may have either a protruding, threaded

connector, called a pin, or a recessed, threaded connector, called a
box. Some drill string components have a box at both. If the end of
the piece that it screws into also has a box, a pin-by-pin crossover is
used to attach the two pieces.
Conversely, the drill string elements may have a pin at both ends of
the pipe. To attach this item to another pipe that also has a pin, a
box-by-box crossover is used.

1.4.5 Heavyweight Drill Pipe

As the name implies, heavyweight drill pipe is heavier than normal drill
pipe. Like drill collars, heavyweight drill pipe adds weight to the
Bottom Hole Assembly. There is a limit to how much heavyweight drill
pipe can be used in the drill string. Too many sections of heavyweight
drill pipe make it difficult to adequately control the amount of weight

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transferred to the drill bit. Heavyweight drill pipe is also more

expensive than normal drill pipe, so its use may also be limited by
cost.

1.4.6 Jars
Sometimes the drill string becomes stuck in the formation. It is the job
of the jars to help free the drill string. Jars operate by creating a very
strong shock in the drill string. This is why the name is appropriate: it
jars the drill string loose.

1.4.7 Drillpipe Configuration

The drill string is normally configured with the drill collars on the
bottom, the heavyweight pipe above the drill collars and drillpipe from
the heavyweight to the surface. The mud pumped downhole goes
through the kelly then through the drillpipe, the heavyweight, the drill
collars and out through nozzles in the drill bit.

1.4.8 Positive Displacement Mud Motors

A mud motor rotates the drill bit. It uses the Moineau principle to
create rotation. A positive displacement mud motor consists of a
molded rubber stator and a steel rotor. The rotor and stator have a
helix shape. Rotation results from forcing the mud down through the
area between the rotor and stator.
A drill string configuration that includes a mud motor allows rotation of
the drill bit without rotation of the drill string. Such a configuration
therefore allows the drill string to be oriented in new directions.
The use of a mud motor to influence drilling direction pre-dates MWD
tools. MWD tools complement the mud motor with two critical
functions:

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1)

they tell in which direction the hole is being drilled and

2)

they enable the directional driller to orient the mud motor

to the desired angle and direction.

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1.5 MWD Tools

1.5.1 What is an MWD Tool?
Guiding the hole to its final destination is the job of the MWD tool. It is
like a pair of downhole eyes for the directional driller. The MWD tool
shows not only how the mud motor is oriented while drilling, but also
how successful the orientation has been.
MWD stands for
Measurements While Drilling. It is part of the Bottom Hole Assembly,
typically located right above the mud motor. If no mud motor is
installed, the MWD tool is placed as close to the bit as possible.
At the most basic level, the MWD tool provides readout of tool facing
(how the mud motor is oriented), hole direction and hole angle. MWD
tools may also supply a variety of services beyond the basic level.
The most revolutionary advance in MWD technology has been the
addition of sensors that provide data about hole characteristics while
drilling. This advanced level of service is called Logging While Drilling
(LWD).
It is now common practice to refer to directional-only capable tools as
DMWD or Directional Measurements While Drilling. For the purposes
of this manual, DMWD tools will be referred to as MWD tools.

1.5.2 Different Types of MWD Tools

MWD tools are grouped according to their capabilities and
characteristics into two types: retrievable and non-retrievable (also
called fixed collar type).

1.5.2.1 Retrievable MWD Tools

Retrievable MWD tools are those that may be removed from the
drill string in the event the tool fails to function or the drill string
becomes stuck. This type of tool has been improved over the
years so that it is now comparable in reliability to the
non-retrievable type.
Retrievable MWD tools tend to have only directional capability.
They are used in situations where it is important to control the
cost of drilling a hole.

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1.5.2.2 Non-Retrievable MWD Tools

The traditional advantage of non-retrievable MWD tools was that
they were more reliable than retrievable tools. This is no longer
the case.
If the tool fails to function downhole, all the drill string must be
brought to the surface and the tool replaced. This is an
expensive and time-consuming procedure.
With a few exceptions, the non-retrievable MWD tools are used
for higher-level capabilities.

1.5.2.3 Logging Tools

Before the advent of Logging While Drilling, the drilling process
had to be stopped and logging tools run in the hole on a wire line
in order to obtain both quantitative and qualitative data about the
formation through which the hole was drilled. Adding sensors
that previously were reserved for wire line operations saved
operating companies money and in many cases supplies
superior data.
The most common type of data supplied by the Logging While
Drilling tools are gamma ray activity and formation resistivity.
Gamma ray data give an indication of the type of formation being
drilled. Resistivity data impart quantitative information about the
presence of hydrocarbons.
Other developments in Logging While Drilling include providing
downhole pressure readings, downhole temperature, formation
density, formation porosity, downhole weight on bit and downhole
torque on the BHA.

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1.5.3 The Role of the MWD Operator

While the primary role of the MWD operator on location is to ensure
that the tool works properly, the MWD operator also has a number of
supplemental or collateral duties.
It is vitally important that the directional driller receive correct data. If
a problem occurs with the data, decisions relating to the data will be
faulty, causing lost rig time and money. All values relating to the
accuracy of directional data must be thoroughly checked.
In addition to providing data, the MWD operator on location is the last
person in the supply line capable of preventing a defective part or
incorrect information from lowering the quality of service provided.
The MWD operator must check the equipment to assure that
problems are non-existent or minimal.
Establishing good communications and having a good working
relationship with the directional driller and company man are vitally
important. Problems, limitations and requirements for the MWD tools
must be communicated to the responsible person(s) in order to plan
the work effectively.
In a sense, the MWD operator runs a small business at the rig site.
Tools and equipment must be kept in good running order. All items
sent to the rig or sent from the rig must be accounted for. In some
cases, keeping track of daily costs is required. Reports and forms
must be filled out in a timely manner and given to the person(s)
requesting them with a minimum of delay.
An MWD operator represents the MWD service company at the rig
site. Unacceptable conduct by the engineer reflects negatively on the
service provider. Professional behavior and demeanor are important.

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Chapter 2: Field Operations

2.1 Recommended Paperwork
2.1.1 Equipment Inventory
A Tensor MWD Equipment Inventory Form accompanies all
deployed equipment. The field engineer should fill out this form
before returning the equipment box from a job.

2.1.2 MWD Job Sheet

Operations provides an M/LWD Job sheet which contains basic job
information such as Job Number, operating company, well information
and directions to the rig.

2.1.3 Environmental/Job Site Information

This sheet contains job site magnetic field information including
magnetic declination, grid correction and total magnetic field.

2.1.4 Paperwork List

This page lists the names of all the forms included in the folder and
their locations in the folder.

2.1.5 Job Charge sheet

Operations fills out this sheet which details the charges for services
provided on the job.

2.1.6 MWD Insurance sheet

This form must be filled out before the tool goes downhole. The
company man must sign the insurance Form. This form allows the
MWD company to provide and charge for insurance on the tool when
it is downhole.

2.1.7 Magnetic Declination/Tool Face Offset

The company man, directional driller and MWD operator must all sign
the Magnetic Declination/Tool Face Offset form to verify that the

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operating company, the directional drillers and the MWD company all
agree on the magnetic declination parameter being used.

2.1.8 Survey Tie-in Information sheet

The directional driller and MWD operator must both sign the Survey
Tie-In Information sheet to verify that the tie-in used by the directional
driller agrees with the tie-in used by the MWD company.

2.1.9 Electro-Magnetic Error Report sheet

The company man and the directional driller must both review the
Electro-Magnetic Error Report sheet to verify the amount of
non-magnetic material required above and below the MWD tool.

2.2 Well Site Responsibilities

2.2.1 Arrival at Rig Site
Upon arrival at the rig site, check in with the company man and find
out whether any special operating procedures are necessary when
providing service. Also, meet with the directional driller to determine
the following specifications:
the flow rate to be used while the tool is in the drill string
how often tool face updates are required
magnetic declination used by the directional drilling company
non-magnetic material required above and below the MWD tool
current rig activity
For offshore rigs, contact the rig electrician to provide the correct
power to the unit and to determine where to run the power line.
Contact the tool pusher to check for any special instructions for
running cables and installing sensor(s).
Land rigs and some inland barges do not have a rig electrician. In
such cases, contact the tool pusher to provide the correct power and
to determine where to run the power cable and how to connect to rig
power.

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2.2.2 Before Rigging Up

Quickly check the equipment box inventory. Make sure everything
necessary to run the job is available and proper subs and monel drill
collars are on location. Call the office immediately if an important
piece of equipment is missing.

2.3 Rigging Up Surface equipment

Once power to the unit is provided the tool can be programmed and
highsided. If power to the unit is not available and time is limited, find
a safe area where the SAPS OR SAI and surface computer can be
located temporarily, then program and highside the tool from the safe
area. Once power is provided to the unit, the SAPS OR SAI and
surface computer can be moved to the unit.

2.3.1 Lines and Cables

Run all lines and cables so that they are protected from falling objects.
This precaution is especially important when running the power cable.
Be sure to keep lines away from areas where others might trip over
them or where standing water will accumulate.
Avoid running sensor cables alongside rig power cables or any other
cables that may carry high voltage, as such a layout can interfere with
signal detection. Cable connections exposed to weather or moisture
should be taped.

2.4 Directional-Only Service

2.4.1 Safe Area Rig-Up
2.4.1.1 Set Up in the Safe Area
Set up the SAPS or SAI inside the unit, trailer or other safe area.
If offshore, the area should conform to the MMS regulations for a
Safe Area (see Appendix A, MMS regulations for Safe Area Rig
Up).

2.4.1.2 Use the UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

Route power to the SAPS OR SAI through the UPS
(Uninterruptible Power Supply) power conditioner to eliminate
power spikes.
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2.4.1.3 Set Up Computer

Set up both the Surface Computer and the Offline Computer.

2.4.1.4 Connect RS-232 Cable

Connect the RS-232 cable (a) to the Surface Computer and to
the SAPS or SAI. See Figure 2.4.2.1.

2.4.1.5 Connect Programming Cable

Connect the programming cable (b) to the tool and to the SAPS
or SAI. See Figure 2.4.2.1.

2.4.2 Rig Floor Area Equipment

2.4.2.1 Set Up Terminal
Locate an area in the drillers console to set up the Remote
Drillers Terminal or Rig Floor Display. Use rope, chain or wire to
hang the Remote Drillers Terminal or Rig Floor Display in a
visible but unobtrusive location.

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Surface Computer

Remote Drillers Terminal

Safe Area
or Unit
SAPS

d
c

On / Off
Switch

Power

Drill
Floor

Standpipe
Pressure
Transducer

Outside
Unit

Figure 2.4.2.1 Safe area rig up

2.4.2.2 Connect 10-Pin Cable

Connect the 10-pin cable from the Standpipe Pressure
Transducer (SPT) to the Remote Drillers Terminal (c). Always
connect this cable before connecting the cables on either side of
it. This cable is difficult to connect after the other two cables.
(See Diagram 3.5.2.).

2.4.2.3 Connect Power/Communications Cable(s)

Connect the power and communication cable(s) (d) from the
Remote Drillers Terminal: two cables to the SAPS or one cable
to the SAI.
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2.4.3 Rig Floor Area Equipment

2.4.3.1 Protect the Standpipe Pressure Transducer
Although the Standpipe Pressure Transducer looks rugged, it
contains a very sensitive strain gauge element. Be careful when
handling the Standpipe Pressure Transducer.
Always remove the Standpipe Pressure Transducer before
leaving the rig for any reason. Try to position the transducer
vertically to prevent mud solids from packing around its base.
Mud or debris packed around the transducer can cause signal
distortion. Make sure that the transducer is on the pressure side
of any valves. Check to make sure that valves in-line with the
transducer are open.

2.4.3.2 Install the Standpipe Pressure Transducer

2.4.3.2.1 Locate 2 NPT Female Fitting
Find a location on the standpipe that has an available 2 NPT
female fitting.
2.4.3.2.2 Connect SPT
Insert the Standpipe Pressure Transducer adapter into the
available fitting and screw in until hand-tight.
2.4.3.2.3 Tighten SPT
Carefully torque the Standpipe Pressure Transducer with a
36 pipe wrench.

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Chapter 3: Introduction to Surveying

Surveying is the process of obtaining information about the location of the well
bore at multiple depths. The two components of any survey are Inclination (also
called angle) and Azimuth (also called direction). Azimuth readings may require
correction to fixed reference points. Inclination or hole angle does not require
correction.
Azimuth and Inclination are both measured in degrees. For Azimuth, the scale is
zero to three-hundred-and-sixty degrees. For inclination, the scale is zero to onehundred-and-eighty degrees, but inclination rarely goes over one hundred
degrees.
Azimuth and compass direction are not identical. Where azimuth direction is
measured from 0 degrees at due north and proceeds clockwise to 359 degrees,
compass direction can start at either 0 degrees north or 0 degrees south, and
proceed to 90 degrees east or west. Compass direction is an older method of
identifying direction but is still used in some cases.
Whether compass or azimuth is used, the raw azimuth readings must be
corrected from Magnetic North to True North and may be corrected to Grid North.
Magnetic North, True North and Grid North serve as reference points. They
serve as familiar objects to help locate one point in relation to another.
It is important to know whether a survey is correct or flawed. Some indicators
that help make that determination are Magnetic Dip Angle, Total Magnetic Field
and Total Gravity Field. These indicators serve as quality factors when evaluating
a survey.

3.1 Reference Points

Look around you. How do you know where you are? In a featureless
landscape you would have difficulty determining your position. Now
suppose you see a tree fifty feet south of a house and thirty feet west of a
barn. You are standing half way between the house and the tree and ten
feet from the barn. You can now determine your position very precisely.
The same principle works with surveying. It is important to establish
reference points.
Unfortunately, several different reference systems are used in well
surveying. The system used depends upon the wells location. However,
all of these reference systems relate to Magnetic North.

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3.1.1

Magnetic North
Magnetic North is the most important reference point in directional
surveying. In the absence of magnetic interference, magnetometers
point to Magnetic North.
The earth has a magnetic field like that of a magnet.
See Figure 3.1.1.a.

Figure 3.1.1.a The Earth is like a giant magnet.

Magnetic North changes with time on a cyclical basis. Changes in

Magnetic North can be modeled using sophisticated computer
programs and accounted for when taking surveys.
True North and Magnetic North are not perfectly aligned. Survey
azimuths must be corrected for the difference between the two.
Azimuth is the direction of the hole in relation to north. An azimuth
reading is given in degrees from 0 for north, 90 for east, 180 for south,
270 for west and back to 0. Both 0 and 360 degrees signify north.

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North is
0 Azimuth

West is
270 Azimuth

East is
90 Azimuth

South is
180 Azimuth

Figure 3.1.1.b Azimuth is measured in circular degrees from north.

Direction is also presented in compass form, especially when using

older survey instruments such as a magnetic single shot. In the
compass system the circle is divided into quadrants or four equal
parts. Compass directions start at zero at north and south and
increase to ninety degrees going east or west.
Compass quadrants are northeast, southeast, southwest and
northwest. When giving direction with compass quadrant, north or
south is always stated first, then the degrees from north or south and
finally the east or west direction. Direction is in degrees from north or
south, so north 30 east (or N30E) is thirty degrees east of north, while
south 70 west (or S70W) is seventy degrees west of south. See
Figure 3.1.1.b.

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North

North 30 East (N30E)

North East

North West
West

East

South 70 West (S70W)

South West

South East
South

Figure 3.1.1.c Compass Direction

3.1.2

True North
Geographic North or True North is one end of a line drawn through the
center of the earths rotational axis. Magnetic North is one end of a
line drawn through the center of the earths magnetic field. The lines
lie near one another and both extend through Antarctica, but they are
not aligned. They diverge and provide two different points of
reference. See Figure 3.1.2.

Figure 3.1.2 Geographic or True North

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In Louisiana the difference between True North and Magnetic North is

about 1 to 3 degrees. Going west from Louisiana, the correction
becomes larger. Corrections are always made from Magnetic North to
True North.

3.1.3

Grid North
Map North or Grid North is another north reference used in surveying.
Several different Grid North systems are used, depending upon rig
location. This manual will cover Lambert Projection and Universal
Transverse of Mercator or UTM. Both systems convert the earths
curved surface onto a flat plane but use different methods.
The Lambert Projection projects the earths surface onto a cone. The
point or vertex of the cone can be over geographic north or south,
depending on which hemisphere is to be mapped. See Figure 3.1.3.a.

These grid lines

are projected
onto a flat plane

Dashed lines are

conic lines projected
onto a flat plane

Arrows Point to
geographic north

Figure 3.1.3.a

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Geographic north and Map North are different. The difference

between them will be greater or smaller depending on where the rig is
located on the earths surface.
Where Lambert Projection uses a conic section, UTM takes points
along the earths surface and presents it on a cylindrical plane laid flat.
To visualize how this is done, assume that the earth is transparent
with a light in the center. Now roll a sheet of photographic film in a
cylinder around the earth as shown in Figure 3.1.3.b. Light rays travel
from the center outward striking the cylindrical film, projecting a flat
image of the earths curved surface.

P1: The projection touches the

outside of the cylinder.

P: A projection from
the center of the earth
contacts the earths surface.

Q1: The projection touches the

outside of the cylinder.

Q: A projection from
the center of the earth
contacts the earths surface.

Central Meridian:
Any projection on this line
points to geographical north.
Figure 3.1.3.b Universal Transverse Mercator

Points along the Central Meridian have correct scale values while
those to the east or west have distorted scale values.
Remember that the earth is divided along lines of Latitude and
Longitude. Latitude measures a points distance north or south from
the Equator. Longitude, also called departure, measures how many

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degrees east or west a point on the earth is from a reference line

called the Greenwich Meridian. The Greenwich Meridian goes
through Greenwich, England and is Longitude 0. Latitude and
Longitude are both measured in degrees.
The UTM system maps the earths surface as 60, six-degree-wide,
north-south sections, or zones, each centered on a reference
meridian. The zones are numbered from one to sixty, starting at
180 degrees west longitude. The UTM zones introduce no scale
distortion.
Magnified
Section

12

12

WEST

Figure 3.1.3.c

EAST

UTM maps the earths surface as sixty, 6 sections.

Each UTM zone is also divided horizontally in 8 increments of latitude

starting at the Equator. The latitude divisions are lettered for
identification. For instance, the section covering the Louisiana Gulf
coast is Zone 15R. See Figure 3.1.3.d.
Zones extend from 80 Latitude south to 84 Latitude north. The
location of any point within a zone is stated in meters from the
reference meridian and meters from the equator. See Figure 3.1.3.d.
The distance above the horizontal lines is called Northing while the
distance from a zones central meridian is called Easting. UTM has

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assigned starting values for the central meridians and equator to

make location values more convenient.
The zones are divided into squares of 100 by 100 kilometers and may
be further subdivided into squares of 10 by 10 kilometers. One
kilometer is 1,000 meters.

Figure 3.1.3.d

UTM Zones of the United States

Figure 3.1.3.e

Location is calculated in meters from reference lines

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Universal Transverse Mercator Zone Locations and Central Meridians (CM)

Zone
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

CM
177W
171W
165W
159W
153W
147W
141W
135W
129W
123W
117W
111W
105W
099W
093W
087W
081W
075W
069W
063W
057W
051W
045W
039W
033W
027W
021W
015W
009W
003W

Range
180W-174W
174W-168W
168W-162W
162W-156W
156W-150W
150W-144W
144W-138W
138W-132W
132W-126W
126W-120W
120W-114W
114W-108W
108W-102W
102W-096W
096W-090W
090W-084W
084W-078W
078W-072W
072W-066W
066W-060W
060W-054W
054W-048W
048W-042W
042W-036W
036W-030W
030W-024W
024W-018W
018W-012W
012W-006W
006W-000E

Zone
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60

CM
003E
009E
015E
021E
027E
033E
039E
045E
051E
057E
063E
069E
075E
081E
087E
093E
099E
105E
111E
117E
123E
129E
135E
141E
147E
153E
159E
165E
171E
177E

Range
000E-006E
006E-012E
012E-018E
018E-024E
024E-030E
030E-036E
036E-042E
042E-048E
048E-054E
054E-060E
060E-066E
066E-072E
072E-078E
078E-084E
084E-090E
090E-096E
096E-102E
102E-108E
108E-114E
114E-120E
120E-126E
126E-132E
132E-138E
138E-144E
144E-150E
150E-162E
156E-162E
162E-168E
168E-174E
174E-180W

Table 3.1.3 A list of UTM zones: Louisiana is in Zone 1.

3.2 Corrections
Since Magnetic North and True North are not aligned, survey calculations
must account for the offset. If a grid system is used, further corrections
must be made.

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3.2.1

Magnetic Declination
Magnetic Declination is the difference, in degrees, between Magnetic
North and True North at a given location. An uncorrected azimuth,
called a raw reading, is first corrected for Magnetic Declination, and
then for other corrections as necessary.
Declination correction from Magnetic North to True North may be
either east or west. If the declination correction is east, the number is
added, if west the number is subtracted. See Figure 3.2.1.a and
3.2.1.b.
Values for Magnetic Declination change and are updated every six
months. The values are taken from magnetic monitoring stations
placed throughout the world.
Figure 3.2.1.a shows the correction from Magnetic North to
Geographic (True) North. If the measured azimuth is 65 and the
difference between Magnetic North and True North is 10 east, add
ten to the measured azimuth for a corrected reading of 75 east.
The correction from measured azimuth to True North is subtracted if
the correction is west. In figure 3.2.1 b, the correction is added
because, in this example, Magnetic North is east of True North.

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Geographic
North

Magnetic
North

The correction between

Magnetic North and
Geographic North

The tools
actual
measurement
Measured
Azimuth

EAST

WEST
Figure 3.2.1.a

Correcting Azimuth to Geographic North, east declination

East declination is always added, to increase the angle between the

measured azimuth and True North. West declination is always
subtracted to decrease the angle between measured azimuth and
True North. See Figure 3.2.1.b.

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Geographic
North

Magnetic
North

The correction between

Magnetic North and
Geographic North

The tools
actual
measurement

Measured
Azimuth

EAST

WEST

Figure 3.2.1.b Correcting azimuth to Geographic North, west Declination

If the measured azimuth is 95 and the Magnetic Declination is 20

west, the corrected Azimuth is 75 east.
The rule of adding east declination and subtracting west declination
only applies to azimuth direction. When dealing with compass
direction the rules change. Compass directions are divided into
quadrants. See Figure 3.1.1.b. Which quadrant the direction is in
determines whether declination is added or subtracted. See Figure
3.2.1.c.

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North

West

East

+
South

East Declination

North

+
West

East

+
South

West Declination
Figure 3.2.1.c

Adding or Subtracting compass declination

If the direction is N30E and the magnetic declination is 10 east, the

corrected direction is N40E. If the direction is S70E and the magnetic
declination is 10 east, the corrected direction is S60E. If the
declination correction is 10 west, N30E is corrected to N20E and
S70E is corrected to S80E.

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Compass direction is rarely used with MWD tools. However, single

shot instruments, magnetic multishots and gyro survey instruments
still use compass direction.

3.2.2

Grid Correction
When correcting from Magnetic North to True North, the angle must
be adjusted to conform to True North. Further, when correcting from
True North to Grid North, the angle must be adjusted to Grid North.
The grid correction is subtracted from the True North reading.
East grid correction remains positive and west grid correction remains
negative. The result of grid correction is called grid convergence.
Grid convergence will be zero if the magnetic declination is zero and
the hole location falls along a central meridian.
Magnetic North

True North

Grid North is 15 West

of True North

Measured Azimuth is 85 east

Grid North
Measured
Azimuth
Magnetic declination is
10 west of True North

West

Figure 3.2.2.a

East

Correcting to Grid North

The measured azimuth in Figure 3.2.2.a is 85 east, the Magnetic

Declination is 10 west and the Grid correction is 15 west. Calculate
Grid convergence:
Total Correction = Magnetic declination Grid correction
Total Correction = (-10) (-15)
Total Correction = (-10) + 15

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Total Correction = 5
In this example, 5 degrees are added to the raw azimuth reading of 85 degrees
east. The calculated azimuth is:
Corrected Azimuth = 85 + 5
Corrected Azimuth = 90 east
Corrected azimuth is 90 degrees east.
convergence is subtracted.

Notice that the grid

Consider what happens when the magnetic declination correction is

east rather than west and grid correction remains west. In this case,
magnetic declination is positive while grid correction remains negative.
See Figure 3.2.2.b.
True North
Magnetic North
Grid North

Measured
Azimuth

West

East

Figure 3.2.2.b 10 east magnetic declination, 15 west grid correction

If the measured azimuth is 55, the magnetic declination is 10 east

and the grid correction is 15 west as in Figure 3.2.2.c, then the
corrected azimuth is 80 east.
Total correction is calculated by:
Total Correction = Magnetic declination Grid Correction
Total Correction = 10 (15) = 25

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Total Correction = 25 east

Corrected Azimuth = Raw Azimuth + Total Correction
Corrected Azimuth = 55 east + 25 east.
Corrected Azimuth = 80 east

3.3 Quality Factors

Once the survey data are transmitted uphole by the MWD tool, three
quality factors are used to determine if the survey data are valid. The
quality factors used are:

Magnetic Dip Angle (sometimes referred to as Mag Dip)

Total Magnetic Field
Total Gravity Field
It is absolutely essential that an MWD operator know how these factors work and
whether or not they indicate bad readings.

3.3.1

Magnetic Dip Angle

Lines of magnetic force radiate from the earths core. The angle at
which magnetic force lines penetrate the earths surface determine the
strength of the magnetic field. A vector is a line that has both
magnitude and direction. Figure 3.3.1 shows that the magnetic dip
angle is the angle between the Magnetic North horizontal line (Line C)
and the magnetic field vector (Line B).

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Line C: Magnetic North

Location A:
Magnetic Dip is 50

Location B:
Magnetic Dip is 1

Line B:
magnetic field
vector line

Dashed lines
represent earths
magnetic field

Figure 3.3.1 Magnetic Dip Angle

Magnetic dip angle is also called magnetic inclination. It is rarely

either zero or ninety degrees. The dip angle is zero at the Equator
and ninety degrees at the point on earth where Magnetic North is
located. The places on earth where the dip angle is ninety degrees
are called dip holes.
For some common magnetic dip angle values around the world see
Table 3.3.1. Notice that those areas near or south of the equator
show negative values. When the lines of magnetic force enter
through the South Pole, the magnetic dip values are negative.
Magnetic inclination is calculated for each rig location. The known
values are compared to what the MWD tool transmits. Small
differences may indicate the presence of magnetic interference.
Values should not vary by more than 0.3.

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Area
Assen, Holland

Magnetic Dip Angle

67

Gulf of Mexico, Louisiana

59

Lake Maricaibo, Venezuela

44

Muscat, Oman

35

Singapore

-17

Rio de Janiero, Brazil

-35

Table 3.3.1 Magnetic Dip Angle values to the nearest whole degree

3.3.2

Total Magnetic Field

Total magnetic field is measured in units of gauss, tesla, or gamma.
In some tables, it will be given the abbreviation F. The relationship
between the various units is summarized in table 3.3.2.
1 gamma

Is equal to

1 nanotesla

1 micro tesla

Is equal to

1000 gamma

1 tesla

Is equal to

1,000,000,000 gamma

1 gauss

Is equal to

10,000 gamma

1 gauss

Is equal to

.0001 tesla

1 gauss

Is equal to

1 oersted

Table 3.3.2 Magnetic field strength units

Note: The conversion factors in table 3.3.2 are correct, but further
conversion factors may not necessarily follow from them.
For example, though one tesla equals 1,000,000,000 gamma
and one gauss equals 10,000 gamma, one gauss does not

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equal 0.00001 tesla. Rather, one gauss equals 0.0001 tesla, as

stated on table 3.3.2.
The strength of earths magnetic field shows a subtle variation.
It varies from roughly 60,000 gamma (or 60 micro tesla) at Magnetic
North to around 27,000 gamma (27 micro tesla) at the equator.
The most important part of the magnetic field strength is the horizontal
component. Sometimes the horizontal component of the magnetic
field strength is written as H. See Figure 3.3.2.
Geographic North

Magnetic Declination

X
Magnetic North

H
Y

East
Magnetic Inclination

Down

Z
Figure 3.3.2 Horizontal Component of Earths magnetic field

The horizontal component determines how strongly a compass needle

or any magnetic material is pulled to the north. Magnetic inclination
determines the strength of the horizontal component. To calculate the
horizontal component Total Magnetic Field strength is multiplied by
the cosine of the magnetic dip angle. If the Total Magnetic Field
strength for Houston, Texas is 48,838 gamma and the magnetic dip
angle is 59.25 degrees, the horizontal component is:
48,838 gamma * cosine 59.25 = 24,970 gamma

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Near Magnetic North the horizontal component is less because the

magnetic dip angle is greater. For example, the total magnetic field
around Great Slave Lake, Canada is approximately 59,774 gamma
and the magnetic inclination is 83.5 degrees.
59,774 gamma * cosine 83.5 = 6,766 gamma
Total Magnetic Field (TMF) is the vector sum of the X, Y, and Z
components. See Figure 3.3.2. Calculate the vector sum using the
following method:
TMF = X2 + Y2 + Z2
Using the example from Great Slave Lake Canada, the X component
is 6153 gamma, Y component is 2753 gamma and Z component is
59393 gamma.
TMF = 6,1532 + 2,7532 + 59,3932
TMF = 3,572,966,867
TMF 57,774 gamma
Notice that most of the force is in the down direction for Great Slave
Lake while proportionately less force is in the down direction for
Houston. Magnetic component data for Houston show that:
H = 24,970

X = 24,894

Y = 2,000

Z = 41,970

Magnetometers are very sensitive instruments and variance between

the calculated Total Magnetic Field and that transmitted by the tool
should not be more than 350 gamma. If the variance is greater than
350 gamma, magnetic interference may have influenced the
measurement.

3.3.3

Total Gravity Field

Total Gravity Field (TGF) takes input from three axes. In most cases,
the Z-axis is pointed down hole. The Total Gravity Field is the sum of
the output from three accelerometers arranged in an orthogonal (three
axes) system. See Figure 3.3.3. Accelerometers measure either a
change in velocity or a change in the relation between the downhole
or Z-axis and the earths gravity field. At very low angles, the strength
of the gravity field will be relatively small, with input from the X and

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Y-axes providing proportionately larger values than at higher

inclinations.

The force of gravity

is straight down.

Figure 3.3.3 Z-Axis is down hole

The force of gravity is always straight down. As the Z-axis comes

closer to horizontal, the force of gravity is greater on the Z-axis. This
is why hole inclination or angle is less accurate at lower angles.
Total Gravity Field is the vector sum of the three axes. TGF depends
upon the altitude of the rig location and the mass of the earth below
the location. However, the values are very close to the value one.
TGF = X2 + Y2 + Z2
Since gravitys influence is greater on the Z-axis that value is larger
than the X or Y-axes values at hole angles greater than ten degrees.
Suppose the hole angle is twelve degrees. Assume the X- axis value
is 0.3 and the Y-axis value is 0.1.
TGF = 0.32 + 0.12 + 0.952
TGF = 0.09 + 0.01 + 0.9025
TGF = 1.0025
TGF = 1.00125

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Variation from the local Total Gravity Field by more than 0.003 gravity
indicates a possible problem.
A bad inclinometer might not be the source of the problem. With
flow-off surveys, any movement of the drill pipe while the pumps are
off may give TGF values that are not within specification.

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Chapter 4: Transforming Influences

Before calculating surveys, the MWD operator must check the survey information
for validity. Though most surveys are not exposed to transforming influences,
one or several transforming influences may cause erroneous readings and
corrupt survey data.
Magnetic interference is the primary cause of incorrect survey data. The most
likely source of magnetic interference is the BHA (bottom hole assembly).
Magnetic interference may also come from the formation. Formations may
contain natural magnetic material. They may also contain drill strings or casing
left from an earlier well.
Another potential source of magnetic interference is Solar Wind, which constantly
buffets earths magnetosphere with polarized magnetic particles. When high
solar flare activity increases the amount of particles, solar winds may create
errors in azimuth data.
Aside from natural phenomenon, operator or service provider errors can create
bad data. Certain common errors, such as calibration error, can be costly and
must be avoided. An incorrectly calibrated tool may introduce enough error that
the hole is drilled in the wrong direction.
Errors in survey technique may also create problems. Small errors in technique
can result in large errors in survey data.
It is imperative that the MWD operator recognize those conditions which may
cause error and report them as soon as possible to all responsible parties.

4.1 Magnetic Interference From BHA

With some types of electromagnetic waves, shielding or insulation
mitigates harmful interference. This is not true of magnetic interference.
The only way to ensure that a tool is not influenced by magnetic forces
(other than the earths magnetic field) is to get the tool away from those
forces. Magnetic force varies by the square of the distance from the
magnetic material. For instance, if the total magnetic field is 10,000
gamma at 2 feet, it will be 2500 gamma at 4 feet and 625 gamma at 8 feet.
See Figure 4.1.

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Resultant field strength = Original field strength

distance2
Example:
Distance
2

Strength

Calculation

10,000

2,500

10,000
(4/2)2

625

10,000
(8/2)2

or

2,500
(8/4)2

Strength
Distance
Figure 4.1 Magnetic field strength varies by the square of the distance

If the essence of real estate is location, location, location, the essence of

magnetic interference is distance, distance, distance! Non-magnetic
spacing is especially important when planning the bottom hole assembly.
Enough non-magnetic drill collars and subs should be available to distance
the BHA from magnetic drill string components and remove the potential of
magnetic interference.
The drill string and its steel components are similar to the bar magnet
presented in Chapter 3, Figure 3.1.1.a. Each steel component, if
separated by a non-magnetic component of sufficient length, will have its

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own north and south poles and will not link magnetic fields with other steel
components. See Figure 4.1a.

Non-magnetic material

Figure 4.1.a Steel components separated by a non-magnetic component

4.1.1 Hole Angle

As the inclination of the hole increases, the influence of magnetic
interference from the drill string increases. See Figure 4.1.1. The
influence increases because the horizontal component of the drill
string becomes a larger percentage of the magnetic field influencing
magnetic measurement.

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Example A:
Hole angle is 0.
Magnetic field
of steel
component

Accelerometer
Magnetometer

Distance to
magnetometer
is 5 feet

Total magnetic field

intensity from drill string
component is 1000 gamma.
Horizontal Component of
tool axis relative to vertical
is 90
Total magnetic field at 5 feet
equals 1,000 52 = 40
40 * Cosine 90 = 40 * 0 = 0
The Horizontal Component
has no effect on the
magnetic reading.

Non-Magnetic
Drill Collar
Example B:
Hole angle is 45.
Horizontal Component of
tool axis relative to vertical
is 45
Total magnetic field
at 3.5 feet
equals 1,000 3.52 = 87
87 * Cosine 45 = 57
The Horizontal Component
contributes 57 gamma
to the magnetic reading
Distance to
Magnetometer
is 3.5 feet.
Figure 4.1.1 Drill string magnetic interference increases with inclination

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The total field strength does not change. The amount of interference
due to the horizontal component does change with drill string
inclination.

4.1.2 Hole Direction

Drilling due north or south reduces interference from steel
components in the BHA, while drilling due east or west increases that
interference. In order to understand this, remember that the magnetic
inclination near the equator is around one degree. Due east or west is
then approximately parallel to the horizontal component of the earths
magnetic field, while due north or south is almost perpendicular to the
horizontal component.
Because the east / west direction is roughly parallel to the horizontal
component, the influence of the field pulling in the direction of
Magnetic North is greatly reduced. As the horizontal component of
the magnetic field decreases in strength, magnetic force from the BHA
becomes a larger portion of the total magnetic field strength. See
Figure 4.1.2.

Borehole perpendicular
to the horizontal component of
The earths magnetic field

Borehole parallel
to the horizontal component of
The earths magnetic field

Figure 4.1.2 Effect of direction on horizontal component

Drilling at high angles along the east / west line produces a greater
likelihood of interference from the BHA because the horizontal

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component of the drill strings magnetic field is a greater proportion of

the total magnetic field.

4.1.3 Latitude
As discussed in chapter 3, section 3.3.1, moving closer to Magnetic
North reduces the contribution from the horizontal component of the
earths total magnetic field. The magnetometers respond to the
horizontal component. Any reduction of the earths magnetic influence
equals greater influence from the magnetic field of the drill string. See
Figure 4.1.3.

Latitude
68 North

Great Slave Lake,

Canada

Latitude
24 North

Houston,
Texas

The horizontal component

is approximately 3.7 times greater
at Houston, Texas
than at Great Slave Lake, Canada

Figure 4.1.3 Higher latitude reduces horizontal component

At higher latitudes, both north and south, more non-magnetic spacing

is required to reduce interference from the drill string. Every company
providing MWD services has a method to either calculate the required
non-magnetic spacing or has a look up chart for the local conditions.

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4.1.4 Not Enough Non-magnetic Material

Since distance is required to reduce a magnetic fields influence,
insufficient non-magnetic spacing will allow magnetic interference.
Any company that provides MWD services should have a method to
either calculate or look up the non-magnetic spacing required for local
conditions.

Shaded area represents

the magnetic field
of the steel collars
Steel Drill Collar
Magnetometer in
non-magnetic drill collar
Steel Drill Collar
Figure 4.1.4a Too little non-magnetic spacing

In Figure 4.1.4a there is too little non-magnetic material. The surveys

will be influenced by the magnetic field of the drill string. As a result
the azimuth reading will be incorrect.
Magnetic interference from the drill string is calculated by taking the
magnetic force of the drill string and dividing it by the length of
non-magnetic material in the string.
To calculate the amount of interference takes a little guesswork. The
strength of the magnetic field of steel drill collars, mud motors,
crossover subs and stabilizers is rarely measured when they are put
in the BHA. Some approximations have been made based upon
experience. For instance, mud motors can produce anywhere from
500 to 2500 gamma. Steel components separated by non-magnetic
spacing may generate 500 to 800 gamma, depending upon length.
For the purposes of this document, 2500 gamma are used for a mud
motor and 500 gamma are used for other steel components. A short
steel sub 2 feet long is assigned a value of 50 gamma. Assume the
BHA has the following configuration from the bit up:

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30

M1: Non-magnetic
material above
magnetometer

NMa

10
M2: Magnetometer in
non-magnetic collar
20
NMb

15

30

M3: Non-magnetic
crossover

S1: Steel drill collar

Sb

S2 : Bit

Figure 4.1.4.b BHA configuration

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In Figure 4.1.4.b the abbreviations mean:

NMa

Length of non-magnetic material above sensor

NMb

Length of non-magnetic material below sensor

Sb

Length of steel below sensor

In order to calculate the effect of magnetic interference on the

magnetometer use the following formula:
IF = LP
d2
Where:
IF

Magnetic Interference force

LP =

Strength of field

Distance from field

Calculating the effect on azimuth requires the following information

about the location:
F

DM =

Earths total magnetic field strength

Magnetic dip of the total magnetic field

Obtain from surveys:

HI

Hole inclination

AR =
Uncorrected Azimuth (Azimuth without Magnetic
declination or Grid Correction)
Obtain from directional driller:
Bottom Hole Assembly Report
Use common accepted values for:
Pole strength of magnetic material (LP)
If the pole strength of the magnetic components below the
non-magnetic collars is 2500 gamma
IF = (2500 (NMa)2) + (2500 (NMb) 2) (2500 (NMa + NMb +Sb) 2)
= (2500 402) + (2500 352) (2500 1072)
1.5625 + 2.0408 0.2184 = 3.3849 gamma
Employ magnetic dip and total field strength for Houston, Texas (See
Chapter 3, Section 3.3.2.) Hole inclination (HI) is 60 and uncorrected
azimuth (AR) is 45. To find out the azimuth error (EA) use:

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EA = (48838 * IF * Sine HI *Sine AR) (48838 * Cosine D)

= (48838 * 3.3849 * Sine 60 * Sine 45) (48838 * Cosine 59.5)
101232.3567 24787.1586
4.0841
Azimuth is incorrect by 4.0841 degrees. Since there is no indication
of the direction in which the error occurs, this cannot be used to
correct the azimuth.

4.1.5 Hot Spots

Drill collars and other steel components may develop local areas
where the magnetic field strength is greater than normal. These are
called hot spots in the component. Any component that has a hot
spot creates greater magnetic interference than expected. It is difficult
to account for theses areas because of the interaction of the steel
collar with the mud column.
As the mud is circulated, it creates a small magnetic field across steel
components. The hot spot may be intensified by this action. Even if
the magnetic field is measured at the surface, it may not be
discovered until conditions are no longer static.

4.2 Magnetic Interference From Formation

Magnetic interference can come from any source. Drilling through a
formation that contains magnetic material certainly will create interference.
However, the material may not be a natural constituent of the formation.
Occasionally a drill string gets stuck in its hole and is left in place. A fish
or drill string left in its hole will create erroneous readings if a new well is
drilled too near the fish.
Casing is also a source of magnetic interference. When drilling out from
casing, it is important to get far enough away in order to obtain an
acceptable survey.

4.2.1 Formation Constituents

Wells are generally not drilled in areas containing massive iron ore
deposits. Some iron-bearing formation types do affect azimuth
readings. For example, a formation may contain oolitic pyrite deposits
large enough to present problems. If magnetic interference is
suspected check with the well site geologist to find out if magnetic
material is in the formation samples.

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4.2.2 Steel Components in the Hole

A fish is a portion of a drill string left in the hole on a previous well. It
is a sure source of magnetic interference. Ensure that the current well
bore is far enough from the fish to prevent magnetic interference.
At certain intervals during the drilling process, casing is set. Casing,
comprised of steel tubes threaded together, keeps the hole stable.
Since the drill string passes through the set casing, the
magnetometers must be drilled far enough beyond the casing to
ensure that surveys are not influenced by magnetic interference.

4.3 Magnetic Interference From Solar Flares

About ninety percent of the earths total magnetic field is generated
internally and approximately ten percent is contributed by solar wind
sweeping over the earths magnetosphere. Severe changes in the solar
activity may affect azimuth readings. Magnetic storms created by solar
flares may be intense enough to interfere with magnetic readings on earth.
Some of the solar activity occurs on a cyclical basis and is not intense
enough to create problems. However, random solar flares have the
potential to generate magnetic interference. Most companies that provide
MWD service issue warnings if solar activity is causing problems.

4.4 Incorrect Operator Input

The best systems in the world will be rendered useless by a careless or
inept operator. If the MWD operator incorrectly enters the magnetic
declination, then not only will the surveys be incorrect, but the magnetic
toolfaces will be incorrect as well. Omitting or incorrectly calculating grid
correction creates the same problem. A well drilled in the wrong direction
may cost the client a considerable amount of money. A competent MWD
operator knows no substitute for careful attention to detail.

4.5 Incorrect Calibration

Magnetometers and accelerometers are sensitive to temperature changes,
especially accelerometers. The tools must be calibrated to account for
changes in temperature. If the tool is calibrated incorrectly, the azimuth
readings will be incorrect.

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4.6 Survey Technique

Good surveys are no accident. However, they may be difficult to obtain,
given the number of things that can create incorrect readings. The MWD
operator must be aware of the many hidden problems that can make an
apparently good survey give misleading information.

4.6.1 Drill String Movement

Surveys can be taken either while the pumps turned off or on. Proper
pump status during surveys depends on the type of system powering
the tool electronics. If batteries are used, the surveys are normally
taken with the pumps shut down. If a turbine/alternator is used, the
surveys are taken with the pumps turned on.
When taking surveys with the pumps off, the drill string must not be
moved. Otherwise, the accelerometers will interpret the movement as
acceleration in the plane of movement. In such a case, the inclination
and possibly the azimuth will be incorrect.
Movement can also cause errors in a pumps on survey. After the
pumps are turned on, the tool delays before it starts pulsing. The
survey is acquired during this delay. If the pipe is moved during the
survey acquisition time, the inclination and possibly the azimuth
readings will be corrupted.
A corrupted survey may appear to be normal. However, movement
errors should show up in the total gravity field. If the TGF looks
suspicious, retake the survey.

4.6.2 Bad Detection

Sometimes a survey may look good but actually be misleading. This
problem occurs when the surface system decodes pressure pulses
that are not part of the actual data stream or pulses that are slightly
out of synch with the surface gear. When a survey appears abnormal,
bad detection should be considered as a possible cause. Verify that
all detection parameters are set correctly.

4.6.3 Stored Surveys

When a battery-operated tool obtains a survey, it keeps the survey
data in memory until data from the next survey replaces it. A problem
results when the pumps are not shut down long enough to take a new
survey. In this case, the tool sends up data from the last survey point,

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not the current depth.

correct.

Such out-of-place data may appear to be

Tool operating parameters should be set up so that an old survey is

never sent in place of a current one. Additionally, the MWD operator
should recognize the problem if it does occur.

4.6.4 Incorrect Survey Depth

An error as simple as failing to keep up with the correct depth can
cause an otherwise correct survey to give false information. This
problem is most severe when the angle or direction changes greatly
from one survey to the next.
The consequences of incorrect survey depth are severe. See
Figure 4.6.4 for an example of taking surveys at the wrong depth.
Survey station #1 is at the correct depth but survey station #2a is
taken at the wrong depth. The geologist, thinking that Survey
station #2a is really at the point indicated by survey station #2b, wants
the angle increased to enter the productive sand. The directional
driller increases the angle of the hole, but misses the sand because
he was given misleading information.
Had the well be drilled with correct information, it would have followed
the path indicated by survey stations 3a and 3b. Note that the
dashed-and-dotted line intersects the productive sand at the desired
angle.
Related to taking surveys at the wrong depth is using the wrong
sensor offset. Survey depth is the depth at which the magnetometers
and accelerometers operate. If the survey sensors are not offset from
the bit depth or are incorrectly offset, surveys will be taken at the
wrong depth.

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Measured Depth

Survey station #1
Survey station #2a
True
vertical
depth

Survey station #3a

Survey station #2b
Survey station # 3b

Productive
sand

Vertical Section
Figure 4.6.4 Survey at wrong depth

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Chapter 5: Calculating Bottom Hole Location

To survey a well bore, the MWD operator calculates well bore position in two
dimensions. True Vertical Depth (TVD) is plotted versus Measured Depth (MD)
in the vertical plane. Looking down hole from the surface, the direction is plotted
on North/South and East/West or horizontal axis. See Figure 5.

Measured
Depth

North

1000
2000
3000

Planned
well path
plotted
in the
vertical
plane

Actual
well
path

4000
5000

East

6000
7000

Planned
well path
on the
North/South
and
East/West
axes

8000
9000
10000
11000

True 0
Vertical
Depth

100

200

300

400

500

Vertical Section

Figure 5 Location of the drill string in the well bore

This chapter presents several methods of calculating surveys. Although the

methods are quite different, the differences are minute as long as surveys are
taken close together.

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5.1 Calculating Bottom Hole Location

In Figure 5.1, looking at the vertical plane is like looking at the hole from
the side, with the Earth sliced down along the well bore. The solid line is
the actual path of the well bore and is plotted using information from
surveys. Inclination (I, Figure 5.1a) refers to the hole angle relative to an
imaginary line perpendicular to the earths surface.
Azimuth
(A, Figure 5.1.b) refers to the direction of the hole in relation to Magnetic
North.
Measured Depth (M, Figure 5.1a) means how deep the hole is drilled
along the well path. True Vertical Depth (V, Figure 5.1.a) is the distance
straight down from the surface origin to the level of the survey or bottom
hole. Note that Measured Depth and True Vertical Depth are only identical
when the hole is drilled straight down. The difference between Measured
Depth and True Vertical Depth depends on the angle at which the hole is
drilled. The difference increases as hole angle increases.
An imaginary horizontal line drawn from the target (the proposed bottom
hole location or PBHL) to the vertical line descending from the origin (the
bore hole start point on the surface) is called the Vertical Section
(S, Figure 5.1.a and 5.1.b).

Earths
Surface

M
I

Figure 5.1.a Parts of a survey Vertical Plane

In addition to the vertical plane presented in Figure 5.1.a, a view is taken

from the origin of the hole to the bottom hole location along the

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North/South and East/West axes. Displacement in the North/South

direction is sometimes called Latitude (L, figure 5.1.b) while displacement
in the East/West direction may be called Departure (D, Figure 5.1.b).
Displacement values in the North/South direction are positive to the north
and negative to the south while those in the East/West direction are
positive to the east and negative to the west.

Magnetic
North
Bottom
Hole
Location

A
L
S
D
Figure 5.1.b View from top of hole looking down

Several methods are available for calculating survey data to derive the
bottom hole location.
All methods of calculating surveys use the
components in Figures 5.1.a and 5.1.b. This document will cover three of
the many methods used for calculating surveys.
Average Angle takes the average of two survey station values. It is the
easiest method of calculating survey data. Differences between average
angle and other methods are significant only if surveys are taken too far
apart or the angle changes drastically over short distances.
The Minimum Radius of Curvature and Radius of Curvature methods
are closely related. While Average Angle assumes a straight well bore
between two survey stations, both Minimum Radius of Curvature and
Radius of Curvature assume that the well bore has the shape of an arc
between two survey stations.
Once the survey is calculated, it is displayed on a survey sheet. Survey
sheets differ from company to company but follow the same general format
shown in Table 5.1.

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Measured
Depth
FT

Incl.
Angle
Deg

Drift
Direction
Deg

15510.00

4.60

117.00

15542.00
15562.00
15593.00

5.60
6.40
7.70

118.60
117.90
121.20

Table 5.1

True
Vertical
Depth

Vertical
Section
FT

N-S
FT

E-W
FT

Tie In Survey From Friendly Gyro Co., Inc.

15498.01
378.95
131.09
-361.95
Surveys From Best MWD, Inc.
15529.88
376.25
129.76
-359.43
15549.77
374.27
128.77
-357.59
15580.54
370.69
126.89
-354.29

CLOSURE
Distance
Direction
FT
FT

Dogleg
Severity
Deg/100ft

384.95

289.91

3.51

382.14
380.07
376.32

289.85
289.80
289.70

3.16
4.02
4.39

Survey sheet

Tie-in surveys are those provided by another survey company or method

taken before the MWD surveys. Tie-ins allow a continuation of the
previously calculated surveys.
The direction from the origin to the target is called the Vertical Section
Direction or the Plane of Proposal. This is the direction of the vertical
section when plotted on the North/South East/West axes also called
the Horizontal Plane.
Measured Depth means the depth of the survey sensors it is not the
same as the hole depth. On survey sheets, measured depth is sometimes
called survey depth.
Inclination is the hole angle obtained from the accelerometers.
Drift Direction or azimuth is obtained from the magnetometers. Azimuth,
when used in calculations, must be corrected for magnetic declination
and/or grid correction before calculations are executed. Once the survey is
calculated, azimuth is displayed on the survey sheet as drift direction.
True Vertical Depth is the product of the incremental vertical depths at
each survey station. The same is true of vertical section. Incremental
vertical section is calculated for each survey station and added together for
total vertical section.
The North/South (N-S) and East/West (E-W) components of the holes
direction are recorded as rectangular coordinates in feet from the origin. In
most cases the origin is the center of the hole at the surface.
Closure Distance and Closure Direction are also known as
Closure Azimuth and Horizontal Displacement. Most companies use
the first set of terms. Closure Distance is the displacement of the bottom
hole from the origin. An imaginary line drawn straight from the origin to the
bottom hole location would represent Closure Distance. Closure Direction
is the angle between a north/south line (Latitude) and the displacement.
See Figure 5.1.c.

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Bottom Hole
Location

Latitude

Closure

Closure
Direction

Target

Origin

Displacement
or
Closure Distance

Vertical
Section

Figure 5.1.c Closure Distance and Closure Direction

As the hole is drilled to the target, it must be guided along the correct
azimuth and inclination. Places where the turns are made are called
doglegs and are displayed as Dogleg Severity in degrees per one
hundred feet. The dogleg severity depends upon changes in both azimuth
and inclination. Figure 5.1.d shows a well drilled with high dogleg in both
the vertical and horizontal planes.

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a
Vertical Plane

b
d
c

Vertical Section

Horizontal Plane
Figure 5.1.d Dogleg severity

Section a in Figure 5.1.d has a low dogleg severity because the changes in
angle and direction are slight. Sections b and d have high dogleg severity
because the changes are much greater. Section c has a moderate dogleg
severity because the changes are moderate.

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5.1.1 Average Angle

The Average Angle method uses simple Trigonometry to calculate
bottom hole location. This method assumes a straight line between
two survey points. Position can be calculated using a simple hand
held calculator, providing it has the Sine, Cosine, and Tangent
functions. Table 5.1.1 presents a series of surveys taken by an MWD
tool. The bottom hole location will be calculated for each survey.
Tie-in survey is:
Survey
Depth
4980

Incl
29.0

Azi
137.0

TVD
4276.89

Vertical
Section
2414.35

N-S
-1707.20

E-W
1676.35

Plan of Proposal is 135.

Survey #

Depth

Inclination

Azimuth

5000

30.0

135.0

5030

31.0

135.5

5060

31.2

135.5

5090

32.0

136.0

Table 5.1.1 MWD Surveys

First calculate the Course Length, then the Average Angle and
Average Direction.
Course Length: (CL) The difference between the measured depths,
of two survey stations. The calculation to determine the course length
for the first set of surveys is:
Survey Depth2 Survey Depth1 = Course Length
Starting with the Tie-in survey, Survey Depth2 is 5000 while
Survey Depth1 is 4980, so the course length calculation is:
5000 4980 = 20
Average Angle: The average inclination of the current and previous
survey.

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Avg_Ang = (Inclination1 + Inclination2) 2

Average Direction: The average of the current and previous direction
Avg_Dir = (Azimuth1 + Azimuth2) 2
Next calculate True Vertical Depth (TVD), Vertical Section (VS) and
the N-S, E-W portions of the survey.
TVD: Take the Cosine of the average angle and multiply it by the
course length. In this example Inclination1 is from the Tie-in survey
and Inclination2 is from the first MWD survey:
Cosine (29 + 30) 2 = Cosine 29.5 = 0.8704
Multiply the cosine of the average angle by the course length. This
calculation gives the incremental change from the previous survey:
0.8704 * 20 = 17.40
Add the result to the TVD of the Tie-in survey:
4276.89 + 17.4 = 4294.29
Incremental Displacement (DI): Incremental Displacement is
calculated similarly to Total Vertical Depth except the course length is
multiplied by the sine of the average angle:
DI = CL * Sine (Avg_Ang)
DI = 20 * Sine (29.5)
DI = 20 * (0.4924)
DI = 9.85
Since this result is only the incremental change from the last survey, it
must be added to the previous total displacement (D):
D = 2414.35 + 9.85 = 2424.20
N-S: To calculate N-S, use this formula:
N-S = CL * Sine (Avg_ Ang) Cosine (Avg_Dir)
Calculate N-S for the information provided by the Tie-in survey and
the first MWD survey:
N-S = 20 * Sine (29.5) * Cosine ((137 + 135) / 2)
N-S = 20 (0.4924) * Cosine (136)
N-S = 20 (0.4924) * (0.7193)
N-S = 7.0837

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Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for N-S. This
formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into account. It
yields a negative result because that direction is to the south.
Add this incremental change in N-S to the previous survey:
N-S = 1707.2 + -7.08 = 1714.28
E-W: To calculate E-W, use this formula:
E-W = CL * Sine (Avg_ Ang) Sine (Avg_Dir)
Note: Close placement of terms indicates terms must be multiplied.
In the equation above, Sine (Avg_ Ang) Sine (Avg_Dir)
means the same as Sine (Avg_ Ang) * Sine (Avg_Dir).
With the information provided by the Tie-in survey and the first MWD
survey:
E-W = 20 * Sine (29.5) Sine ((137 + 135) 2)
E-W = 20 (0.4924) * Sine (136)
E-W = 20 (0.4924) *(0.6947)
E-W = 6.84
Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for E-W. This
formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into account. It
yields a positive result because that direction is to the east.
Adding incremental change in E-W to the previous survey:
E-W = 1676.35 + 6.84 = 1683.19
Dogleg Severity, Closure Angle, Closure Distance and
Vertical Section are calculated the same regardless of survey
calculation method and so will be presented at the end of Section
5.1.3, Minimum Radius of Curvature.
When using Radius of
Curvature method, degrees must be converted to radians.

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5.1.2 Radius of Curvature

Before calculating a survey position with the Radius of Curvature
method, the MWD operator must convert all angles from degrees to
radians. A radian equals the angle of an arc in which the length of the
arc is equal to the length of the radius of a circle.

c
1 radian
b

Figure 5.1.2 Radian angular measurement

In Figure 5.1.2, the length of the arc c is equal in length to a and b,

which are radii of the circle.
Radians are converted to degrees by the formula:
1 radian = 180 = 57.3
Degrees are converted to radians by the formula:
1 = radians 180 = 0.0175 radian
First, calculate the vertical radius or Rv.
Rv = (CL * 180) ( * (I2 I1))
Where:
CL = Course Length
I2

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NOTE: This expression incorporates the

conversion of degrees to radians.
I1

= Inclination of previous survey

Using information from the tie-in and survey station #1 from Table
5.1.1:
CL = 5000 4980 = 20
Rv = (20 * 180) ( * (30 29)) = 1145.9156
Incremental Vertical Depth (VD): Calculate the incremental change
in vertical depth:
VD = Rv * (Sine I2 Sine I1)
VD = 1145.9156 * (Sine 30 Sine 29)
VD = 1145.9156 * (0.5 0.4848) = 17.42
TVD: Add the result to the TVD of the Tie-in survey:
4276.89 + 17.42 = 4294.3
Notice that there is a slight difference between this calculation and the
result using average angle.
Incremental Displacement (DI): This result is the change in vertical
section from the previous survey to the current survey:
DI = Rv * (Cosine I1 Cosine I2)
DI = 1145.9156 * (Cosine 29 Cosine 30)
DI = 1145.9156 * (0.8746 0.8660) = 9.85
Where:
DI = Incremental Displacement
Displacement: Since DI is only the incremental change from the last
survey, it must be added to the previous total displacement:
D = 2414.35 + 9.85 = 2424.20
Now, calculate the horizontal radius or Rh:
Rh = (180 * DI) ( * (AZI2 AZI1)

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NOTE: This expression incorporates the

conversion of degrees to radians.
Again, using information from the tie-in and survey station #1 from
Table 5.1.1:
Rh = ABS ((180 * DI) ( * (135 137))
Rh = ABS (180 * 9.85) ( * (2))
Rh = ABS (282.18) = 282.18
NOTE: ABS means absolute value.
Absolute values are always positive.
N-S: To calculate N-S, use this formula:
N-S = Rh * (Sine AZI2 Sine AZI1)
N-S = 282.18 * (Sine 135 Sine 137)
N-S =282.18 * (0.7071 0.6820)
N-S = 7.08
Survey direction = southeast = negative
N-S = 7.08
Notice the difference between this result and that obtained using
average angle. This result is only the incremental change from one
survey to the next so it must be added to the previous total for N-S.
Also, the number must be negative because the direction is to the
south.
Adding incremental change in N-S to the previous survey:
N-S = 1707.2 + 7.08 = 1715.00
E-W: To calculate E-W, use this formula:
E-W = Rh * (Cosine AZI2 Cosine AZI1)
E-W = 282.18 (Cosine 135 Cosine 137)
E-W = 282.18 (0.0242)
E-W = 6.83
Survey direction = northeast = positive
E-W = 6.83

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Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for E-W. Also, the
number is positive because the survey direction is to the east.
Adding incremental change in E-W to the previous survey:
E-W = 1676.35 + 6.83 = 1683.18

5.1.3 Minimum Radius of Curvature

Linear distance between survey points is smoothed using a ratio
factor. The ratio factor creates a curved interval. Curvature of the
well path is the Dog Leg Severity.
DL: Dog leg is the curvature of the well bore at one particular point.
Dog Leg Severity makes the same calculation but uses one hundred
foot intervals (See Figure 5.1.c.).
Calculating Dog Leg:
DL = Cosine1[Cosine(I2 I1) SineI1SineI2(1-Cosine(A2 A1))]
NOTE: The notation Cosine-1 indicates the inverse of the Cosine,
which is referred to as the Arccosine.
If
then
and

y = Cosine x
x = Cosine-1 y
x = arccosine y.

The arcosign is used to get an angle from a trigonometric

function.
The other inverse functions are arcsine and arctangent.
Dog Leg Severity: (DLS): divide the given dogleg by the course
length and multiply the result by 100.
3 degrees 30 feet = 0.1 degree per foot
DLS = 0.1 degree per foot * 100 feet = 10 degrees
Calculate the dogleg and dogleg severity for the tie-in survey and first
survey shown in table 5.1.1
DL = Arccosine [Cosine (30 29) Sine30 Sine29 (1-Cosine (135 137))]
DL = Arccosine [0.7574 * (1 0.9993)] = Arccosine (.0005)
DL = 0.029

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DLS = DL * 100 = 0.029 * 100 = 2.9 per 100 feet

RF: The minimum curvature method then uses a ratio factor (RF) to
smooth the line segments defined by the survey points to a curved
space. It uses dogleg in the calculation:
RF = (360 (DL * )) * Tangent (DL 2)
RF = (360 (.029 * )) * Tan (.0145)
NOTE: If DL is less than 0.25, RF = 1.
RF = 3951.43 * .00025 = .98786
RF = 1
VD: The incremental increase (or decrease) in vertical depth is
calculated by:
VD = (CL 2) * (Cosine I2 + Cosine I1) * RF
VD = (20 2) * (Cosine 30 + Cosine 29) * 1
VD = 10 * 1.7406 * 1
VD = 17.41
TVD: Add the result to the TVD of the Tie-in survey:
4276.89 + 17.41 = 4294.3
Notice that this result differs slightly from the average angle and
radius of curvature results.
Incremental Displacement (DI): This result is the change in vertical
section from the previous survey to the current survey:
DI = (CL 2) * (Sine I2 + Sine I1) * RF
DI = 10 * (Sine 30 + Sine 29) * 1
DI = 10 * 0.9848 * 1 = 9.85
Where:
DI = Incremental Displacement
Displacement (D): Since DI is only the incremental change from the
last survey, it must be added to the previous total vertical section:
D = 2414.35 + 9.85 = 2424.20
N-S: Use the following formula:
N-S = (CL 2) * (Sine I1 Cosine A1 + Sine I2 Cosine A2) * RF

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N-S = 10 * ( 0.3546 + 0.3536) * 1

N-S = 10 * 0.7082 * 1
N-S = 7.08
Notice that this result agrees with both the radius of curvature and
average angle results. This result is only the incremental change from
one survey to the next so it must be added to the previous total for
N-S. This formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into
account. It yields a negative result because that direction is to the
southeast.
Adding incremental change in N-S to the previous survey:
N-S = 1707.2 + -7.08 = 1714.28
E-W: Use the following formula:
E-W = (CL 2) * (Sine I1 Sine A1 + Sine I2 Sine A2) * RF
E-W = 10 * (0.3306 + 0.3536) * 1
E-W = 10 * 0.6842 *1
E-W = 6.84
Note that this result is only the incremental change from one survey to
the next so it must be added to the previous total for E-W. This
formula takes the direction of the average survey angle into account. It
yields a positive result because that direction is to the northeast.
Adding incremental change in E-W to the previous survey:
E-W = 1676.35 + 6.84 = 1683.19
Closure Distance or Displacement (CD): Imagine a straight line
drawn directly from the origin to the last survey station: that line is the
closure distance or displacement. The abbreviation CD refers to
either closure distance or displacement. Latitude (N-S) and departure
(E-W) must be known to calculate the closure distance (refer to
Section 5.1 and Figure 5.1.b):
CD = Lat2 + Dep2
Using the data calculated for Table 5.1.1, the CD for survey #1 is:
CD = 1714.282 + 1682.932
CD = 2402.29

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The displacement is different from the vertical section because the

displacement is plotted to the last survey station while the vertical
section is plotted to the target. See Figure 5.1.c.
Closure Azimuth (CA):
Closure azimuth (or closure angle)
represents the angular difference between a line drawn from the
surface location (the origin) to the last survey station (the termination),
referenced to True North. See Figure 5.1.c. Closure azimuth is the
arctangent of the Bottom Hole Location (BHL) departure divided by
the latitude.
CA = Tangent1 (BHL Departure Latitude)
CA = Tangent1 (1682.93 1714.28)
Process the results according to the Latitude and Departure values:

If Latitude is positive and Departure is positive, use the result.

If Latitude is negative and Departure is positive, subtract the
absolute value of the result from 180
If Latitude is negative and Departure is negative, add the result
to 180.
If Latitude is positive and Departure is negative, subtract the
result from 360 and take the absolute value.
Since the Latitude is negative and the Departure is positive:
CA = (180 ABS (result)) = 180 ABS (58.36)
CA = 180 58.36 = 121.64
Target Azimuth (TA):
Target azimuth represents the angular
difference between a line drawn from the surface location (the origin)
to the Proposed Bottom Hole Location (PBHL) or target, referenced to
True North. Target azimuth is the arctangent of the target departure
divided by the latitude.
TA = Tangent1 (Target Departure Latitude)
Vertical Section (VS): After calculating the displacement for each
survey station, the Vertical Section is calculated using the formula:
VS = Displacement * Cosine (TA CA)
Where:
TA = Target Azimuth
CA = Closure Azimuth
VS = 2402.29 * Cosine (135 135.52)
VS = 2402.29 * 0.99995 = 2402.17

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5.2 Plotting Bottom Hole Location

Figure 5.1.a shows the vertical and horizontal plane views of the borehole.
If the earth were sliced along the well bore and stood on end, the view
would be the vertical plane. If the earth were transparent and you were
standing at the origin, looking down the well bore, you would see the
horizontal plane of the well bore.
Once survey data are acquired, the bottom hole location is plotted on both
the vertical and horizontal planes (See Figure 5.2). Vertical section, true
vertical depth and measured depth are plotted on the vertical plane while
vertical section and horizontal displacement are plotted on the horizontal
plane. Table 5.2 presents the survey data from Table 5.1, calculated with
the average angle method.

Plane of
Proposal

Course

135

M.D.
Feet

Tie In

4,980

Length

Incl.
Angle
deg.

Azimuth Coords.
Angle
deg.
+N, -S

Vert.
Sec.
+E, -W

T.V.D.
Feet

Feet

29.00

137.00

-1707.20

1676.35

4276.89 2400.35

Dogleg Closure
Dist.
Deg./100' Feet

Direc.
Deg.

2392.63

135.52

5,000

20.00

30.00

135.00

-1714.28

1682.93

4294.32 2402.18

7.02

2402.49

135.52

5,030

30.00

31.00

135.50

-1725.11

1693.92

4320.17 2417.62

3.44

2417.72

135.52

5,060

30.00

31.20

135.50

-1736.16

1704.78

4345.86 2433.11

0.67

2433.22

135.52

5,090

30.00

32.00

136.00

-1747.42

1715.75

4371.42 2448.83

2.81

2448.94

135.52

Table 5.2 Calculated surveys (from data in Table 5.1.1)

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1000

1000

2000

1000

2000

2000

3000

4000

5000

1000

2000

3000

4000

Figure 5.2 Survey from Table 5.2 is plotted on graph

The graph or survey plat has the proposed well path. Actual survey data
are plotted along with the well plat. In Figure 5.2, thick lines represent the
actual well path while the thin line represents the planned well path.
Notice that the actual well path is slightly above and to the left of the
planned well path.

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Chapter 6: Geometrical Steering

Like a ship steered to its final destination, the well must be steered to the target.
The directional driller uses various methods to guide the well to the target but all
methods depend upon a survey instrument of some kind. The most advanced
survey instrument available for steering a well to the target is the MWD tool.
Geometrical steering involves using only survey and toolface data to adjust the
position of the well bore. Other data necessary to determine the orientation of
the well bore in relation to the formations are resistivity, neutron porosity and
density or sonic measurements. When data other than survey data are used to
guide the well bore, it is called geological steering. This document is only
concerned with geometrical steering.
One of the problems most people have when first introduced to MWD tools is the
notion of toolface. Oilfield terminology is a language all its own and the concept
of toolface is no different.
This chapter introduces the concept of toolface and delineates two different kinds
of toolfaces, those based upon the magnetometers called magnetic toolfaces
(mTF) and those based upon the accelerometers called gravity or highside
toolfaces (gTF).

6.1 Toolfaces
Going from home to work or school involves directions. The directions may
be simple, such as go two blocks and turn right then walk 200 yards and
turn right again. The directions tell which way to turn at specific points. In
order to turn right, you must face right, and then move right.
The same principle applies to steering a well. Steering tools must be
pointed in the direction that the well is to be drilled. The angle at which the
steering tool is pointed is called the toolface. See Figure 6.1.

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Current Hole Direction

Toolface

Figure 6.1 Toolface changes the hole direction

At low angles, the accelerometers are not as accurate as the

magnetometers so low angle toolfaces are based on magnetic readings.
Low angle toolfaces are called magnetic toolfaces. Since the readings are
oriented to Magnetic North, they must be adjusted for magnetic declination
and grid correction if necessary.
Basically, using magnetic toolfaces means pointing the steering tool in the
direction of the target. For instance, if the target is at an azimuth of 135
and the current hole direction is 90, the tool is set to point at 135. If drilled
long enough in this direction the hole will eventually turn to the desired
azimuth.
Once the hole direction is established, typically around 5 degrees, the type
of toolface changes from magnetic toolface to gravity toolface. The well
bore has an established direction and can be turned either to the left or
right of the current direction. How much the toolface must be turned
depends upon how quickly the well bore is to be turned to the target
direction.

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6.1.1 Magnetic Toolfaces (mTF)

Magnetic toolfaces are based upon the magnetometer readings. They
must be adjusted for magnetic declination and grid correction where
appropriate.
In Figure 6.1.1.a the well angle (inclination) is 2 and direction is 190
azimuth, which puts the well in the southwest quadrant. If the final
well orientation is to be 20 inclination with 290 azimuth, the well
must be steered to the northwest.

Figure 6.1.1.a Low angle well in the southwest quadrant

If the well currently has a depth of 5,000 feet, and must reach the
target angle and direction by 10,000 feet, the build-up rate (the rate at
which the angle must increase per 100 feet) is a relatively mild 0.36
per 100 feet. Since the current angle is 2 it will take 833 feet to reach
5. During the 833 feet, magnetic toolfaces will be used. The hole will
turn 16.7 in 833 feet, so the azimuth will be 206.7.
See Figure 6.1.1.b.

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North
Desired hole
direction:
290 azimuth

West

East

Hole direction
after 833 feet:
206.7 azimuth

Figure 6.1.1.b

South

Current hole
direction:
190 azimuth

Turn from 190 to 290

To accomplish the turn from 190 azimuth to 290 azimuth, the

directional driller will orient the steering tool to 290.

6.1.2 Gravity or Highside Toolfaces (gTF)

Although a hole can be guided to the desired direction using only
magnetic toolfaces, the crossover to gravity (highside) toolfaces is
desirable for several reasons. Magnetic interference creates incorrect
mTF. An incorrect magnetic declination and/or grid correction creates
error in mTF. As hole angle increases, the accelerometers become
more accurate while the magnetometers loose sensitivity. Finally,
gravity toolfaces are not influenced by magnetic material in the
drillstring, hole direction, hole angle or latitude. See Chapter 3 for a
discussion of various factors that potentially create incorrect magnetic
readings.
From the center of the hole in Figure 6.1.1.b, looking in the original
hole direction, the desired hole direction is 100 degrees to the right. If
the hole direction is superimposed on a compass with the hole
direction straight up, it is obvious that the hole must be steered 100
degrees to the right of the current direction. See Figure 6.1.2.a.

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North

Hole direction
is positioned
straight up

West

Desired direction
is 100 degrees
to the right of
original direction

East

South
Figure 6.1.2.a

Hole direction set straight up and referenced to compass

Once the hole direction is established, the desired direction is either to

the right or left of the hole direction. The directional driller then steers
the hole to the right or left of the current direction to reach the desired
direction. Highside direction changes with each new survey.
Unlike magnetic tool faces, highside toolfaces cannot be held constant
in the target direction. Consider Figure 6.1.2.a. If the toolface is
turned 100 degrees to the right of the current hole direction, the result
will be a loss of hole angle. Remember that inclination must be 20 by
the time the direction is 290.
When highside toolfaces are used, they are set both to turn and to
build angle. In the example, the toolface may be set to 45 right after
each survey to both turn to the target and build angle at the same
time. See Figure 6.1.2.b.

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Highside

Toolface is 45 Right
of Highside

Figure 6.1.2.b Toolface is 45 right of highside

With each survey, the amount of turn and build may be adjusted
based upon the survey data.

6.1.3 Orienting MWD Tools to Steering Tools

Mud motors are the most common type of steering tools an MWD
operator is likely to encounter. It works like a positive displacement
pump using a stator and rotor. The stator is the portion that does not
turn while the rotor turns and rotates the bit. See Figure 6.1.3.a.

Housing
Rotor

Stator

Figure 6.1.3.a

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The mud motor has a bend and causes the bit to drill the hole in the
direction the bend is turned. See Figure 6.1.3.b.

Figure 6.1.3.b Bend in the Mud Motor changes hole direction

A scribe line inside the bend of the mud motor allows the bend to be
aligned with a reference point on the MWD tool called the MWD scribe
line or, in some cases, the MWD highside.
When the mud motor bend is aligned to the MWD tool, the tool is said
to be oriented to the bend.
Two different methods are used to align the mud motor scribe line to
the MWD reference point, in accordance with the two basic types of
MWD tools. As mentioned in Chapter 1, Section 1.5.2, MWD tools
come in two basic types: retrievable and fixed-in-the-collar.
Retrievable tools are oriented using one method and fixed collar tools
are oriented using another.

6.1.3.1

Orienting Retrievable Tools

Retrievable tools are oriented with reference to the highside of
the MWD tool. Highside is a physical location at the bottom of
the pulser.
Before installing the retrievable MWD tool in the drill collar, it
must be assembled and programmed so that the highside of the
tool aligns with a slotted keyway machined into the pulser.
The MWD rests in a subassembly, or sub, below the MWD collar
called the muleshoe sub. Inside the muleshoe sub is an
orientation sleeve. See Figure 6.1.3.1.a.
Within the orientation sleeve is a special key that must be lined
up with the mud motor scribe line. The orientation sleeve in the

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muleshoe is rotated to the mud motor scribe line with a special

tool. Special setscrews lock the orientation sleeve in the
muleshoe sub.

Orientation
Key

Muleshoe
Sub

Orientation
Sleeve

Orientation Sleeve
(Top View)

Figure 6.1.3.1.a Muleshoe sub and orientation sleeve.

At the bottom of the pulser is a ramped section that guides the

pulser into the orientation key. This ramp seats the pulser
orientation key slot onto the orientation key. See Figure 6.1.3.1.b.

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Orientation
Key Slot
Orientation
Ramp

Figure 6.1.3.1.b Section of pulser showing ramp and slot

After the orientation sleeve is aligned with the mud motor scribe
line, the tool is inserted into the MWD drill collar where it turns to
the correct orientation.

6.1.3.2 Orienting Fixed Collar Tools

Unlike the retrievable tool, the fixed collar tool is inserted into the
MWD monel drill collar before being deployed to the field.
The tool is oriented to an indexed keyway inside the MWD monel
drill collar. The highside reference scribe line, milled on the
outside of the collar, is aligned with the indexed keyway on the
inside of the collar.
When the MWD monel drill collar is connected to the mud motor,
the MWD scribe line is randomly oriented in relation to the mud
motor scribe line. The directional driller uses chalk to transfer the
mud motor scribe line up to the MWD tool. The angular
difference between the two scribe lines is then measured.

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Figure 6.1.3.2.a Measuring scribe line offset

The angular difference between the mud motor scribe line and
the MWD scribe line may be measured several different ways. It
is extremely important to know whether the scribe line
measurement is to be made from the MWD scribe line to the mud
motor scribe line or the other way around. One measurement will
produce a negative number and the other will produce a positive
number.
For instance, if the angle in Figure 6.1.3.2.a is measured from the
MWD scribe line to the mud motor scribe line, it will be 80.
However, if the angle is measured from the mud motor scribe line
to the MWD scribe line, it will be 280. The line from which the
measurement is made is the primary reference line, while the line
to which the measurement is made is the secondary reference
line.

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NOTE: Always make the measurement clockwise

as if standing on top of the collar
facing the primary reference line.

The angular difference may be measured using either a

protractor, as shown in Figure 6.1.3.2.b, or using a tape
measure.

Secondary
Reference
Line
Primary
Reference
Line

Figure 6.1.3.2.b Measuring offset angle with a protractor

The protractor is marked off in degrees and matched to drill collar

size. The zero edge is placed on the primary reference line and
read clockwise to the secondary reference line.
In
Figure 6.1.3.2.b, the secondary reference line is 80 to the right
of the primary reference line. Offset is recorded as 80.
If a protractor is not available, the measurement can still be made
using a tape measure.

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1 7/8

Figure 6.1.3.2.c Measuring offset angle with a tape measure

First, measure the circumference with the tape measure, then

measure the distance between the primary reference line and
secondary reference line. Remember to measure from the
primary reference line to the secondary reference line.
NOTE: Always make the measurement clockwise
as if standing on top of the collar
facing the primary reference line.
Next, perform the following calculation:
Angular offset = (Distance between reference lines Circumference) * 360
If the circumference is 8 and the measured distance between
reference lines is 1 the angular offset is:
(1 8) * 360
0.2205 * 360 = 79.4
Thus the angular offset entered into the software will be 79.

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Index
1

10-Pin Cable, 55
A

Algebra, 10
anchor
dead line, 41
semi-submersible drilling rig, 36
angle
of inclination, 57
Annular Velocity, 28
Antarctica, 60
Arithmetic, 8
Basic Operations, 8
Associative Property, 10
Average Angle, 99
Average Direction, 100
Azimuth, 57, 96
B

Balancing an Equation, 15
Bernoullis Principle, 28
BHA (Bottom Hole Assembly), 42
Bottom Hole Assembly
Crossovers, 45
Drill Collars, 42
Drillpipe Configuration, 46
Heavyweight Drill Pipe, 45
Jars, 46
magnetic interference from, 79
Mud Motors, 46
Stabilizers, 44
UBHOs, 43
Bottom Hole Location, 93
calculating
Average Angle, 99
Minimum Radius of Curvature, 105
Radius of Curvature, 102
Bottom Hole Location, Plotting, 109

Introduction to MWD

Cable
10-Pin, 55
Power/Communications, 55
Programming, 54
RS-232, 54
Cables (Lines and -), 53
Calculating Bottom Hole Location, 93
calculating Location, 93
Calibration (incorrect), 89
Chapter 1
The Foundation
Basic Skills and Knowledge, 7
Chapter 2
Field Operations, 51
Chapter 3
Introduction to Surveying, 57
Chapter 4
Transforming Influences, 79
Chapter 5
Calculating Bottom Hole Location, 93
Chapter 6
Geometrical Steering, 111
communications bus (qbus), 33
Commutative Property, 9
compass direction, 57
compass directions, 59
Computer, Set Up, 54
Constituents (of formations), 88
Corrections (to azimuth), 65
Cosine, 23
Course Length, 99
Crossovers, 45
crown block, 41
cuttings (drilling residue), 26
D

dead line, 41
Declination (Magnetic), 66
Dip Angle, Magnetic, 72

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dip holes, 73
direction
Azimuth, 57
of compass, 57
Directional Measurements While
Drilling (DMWD), 47
directional wells, 24
Directional-Only Service, 53
Display (Rig Floor), 54
Distributive Property, 10
DMWD. See Directional Measurements
While Drilling
Draw Works, 41
Drift Direction. See Azimuth
drill line, 41
Drill Ships, 37
Drill String Movement, 90
Drilling Fluid, 33
Drilling Rig, 33
Land, 38
Offshore, 34
Drill Ships, 37
Inland Barge, 34
Jack Up, 35
Platform, 34
Semi-Submersible, 36
Parts, 38
Draw Works, 41
Kelly, 42
Mud Pumps, 39
Rig Floor, 38
Standpipe, 40
Drillpipe Configuration, 46

Field Operations, 51
fish, 88, 89
FOIL method, 19
Formation, 42
constituents, 88
magnetic interference from, 88
G

gamma, 74
gauss, 74
Geographic North (True North), 60
geometrical steering, 111
Gravity Field, Total, 76
grid convergence, 70
Grid Correction, 70
Grid North, 61
gTF (Gravity Toolface), 111
gyro survey instruments, 70
H

Heavyweight Drill Pipe, 45

highside
reference scribe line, 119
Hole Angle, 81
Hole Direction, 83
horizontal component, 75
Hot Spots (magnetic), 88
hydraulics, 26
hydrostatic head (hydrostatic pressure),
26
hydrostatic pressure, 26

Easting (UTM coordinate), 63

Electro-Magnetic Error Report sheet, 52
Environmental/Job Site Information, 51
Equipment
Inventory, 51
Rig Floor Area, 54, 56
E-W (East-West coordinate), 96

Inclination, 57, 96
Incorrect
calibration, 89
detection, 90
operator input, 89
survey depth, 91
Inland Barge, 34
inland barges
as offshore rigs, 33

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Input, incorrect, 89
Insurance sheet, 51
iron ore, 88
J

Jack Up, 35
Jars, 46
Job Charge sheet, 51
Job Sheet, 51
Job Site Information, 51
K

Kelly, 42
L

Lambert Projection, 61
Latitude, 84
Lines and Cables, 53
Lines and Graphs, 10
Logging Tools, 48
Logging While Drilling, 47
Louisiana Gulf coast, 63
LWD (Logging While Drilling), 47
M

Mag Dip, 72
Magnetic Declination, 66
Tool Face Offset form, 51
Magnetic Dip Angle, 57, 72
Magnetic Field
horizontal component, 75
Hot Spots, 88
strength units (table), 74
Total, 74
units of measure
gamma, 74
gauss, 74
tesla, 74
magnetic inclination, 73
Magnetic Interference
from BHA, 79
from formation, 88
from solar flares, 89
Introduction to MWD

magnetic multishots, 70
Magnetic North, 58
magnetic single shot, 59
Map North (Grid North), 61
Mathematics Review, 8
maximum mud weight, 27
maximum pressure rating. See maximum
system pressure
maximum system pressure, 27
Measured Depth, 96
Measurements While Drilling. See
MWD
Minimum Radius of Curvature, 105
Moineau principle, 46
monel drill collar, 119
mTF (Magnetic Toolface), 111
mud (drilling fluid), 33, 39
Mud Motors, 46
Mud Pumps, 39
MWD
highside. See MWD:scribe line
Insurance sheet, 51
Job Sheet, 51
scribe line, 117
MWD (Measurements While Drilling), 7
MWD operator, role of, 49
MWD Tools, 47
Different Types, 47
Logging Tools, 48
Non-Retrievable, 48
Retrievable, 47
What is an MWD Tool?, 47
N

Non-magnetic Material, 85
Non-Retrievable MWD Tools, 48
Orienting, 119
North
Grid, 61
Magnetic, 58
True, 60
Northing (UTM coordinate), 63
N-S (North-South coordinate), 96

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oolitic pyrite, 88
operation sign, 18
operator
in an equation, 18
MWD, 7
Orienting
MWD Tools to Steering Tools, 116
Non-Retrievable (Fixed Collar) Tools,
119
origin, 94
orthogonal (three axes) system, 76
P

Paperwork, 51
Paperwork List, 51
PBHL (proposed bottom hole location)
(target), 94
Plan of Proposal (Vertical Section
Direction), 96
Platform, 34
Plotting Bottom Hole Location, 109
Power/Communications Cable(s), 55
Pressure Pulses, 31
Pressure Transducer, Standpipe, 56
Programming Cable, 54
proposed bottom hole location (PBHL)
(target), 94
Q

qbus (communications bus), 33

Quadratic Equations, 17
Quality Factors, 72
R

Radius of Curvature, 102

Radius of Curvature, Minimum, 105
raw reading (uncorrected Azimuth), 66
rectangular coordinates, 96
Reference Points, 57
Remote Drillers Terminal, 54
Responsibilities
Well Site, 52
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Retrievable MWD Tools, 47

Orienting, 117
rig electrician, 52
Rig Floor, 38
Rig Floor Area Equipment, 54, 56
Rig Floor Display, 54
Rigging Up Surface equipment, 53
Lines and Cables, 53
rise, 12
RS-232 Cable, 54
run, 12
S

Safe Area Rig-Up, 53

Semi-Submersible, 36
shale shakers, 39
Sine, 23
single shot instruments, 70
slope, 12
Solar Flares
magnetic interference from, 89
Solar Wind, 79
SPT. See Standpipe Pressure Transducer
Stabilizers, 44
Standpipe, 40
standpipe manifold, 40
Standpipe Pressure Transducer (SPT),
41
installing, 56
protecting, 56
Steering, geometrical, 111
Surface equipment, Rigging Up, 53
Survey
Depth (Measured Depth), 96
incorrect depth, 91
stored, 90
technique, 90
Survey Tie-in Information sheet, 52
Surveying
Introduction to, 57
System Pressures, 26

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Table of Contents, 3
Tangent, 23
target (proposed bottom hole location),
94
Technique, survey
technique, 90
tension legs, 35
term (of an equation), 18
Terminal
Remote Drillers, 54
tesla, 74
three axes (orthogonal) system, 76
tie-in, 96
Tool Face Offset form, 51
tool pusher, 52
Toolfaces, 111
Gravity or Highside (gTF), 114
Magnetic (mTF), 113
Total Gravity Field, 57, 76
Total Magnetic Field, 57, 74
Transforming Influences, 79
traveling block, 41

Introduction to MWD

Triangles, 21
Right Triangles, 21
Trigonometry, 21
True North, 60
True Vertical Depth, 96
U

under-gauge stabilizers, 45
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM),
62
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply), 53
V

Variables, 15
vector, 72
Vertical Section, 94
Vertical Section Direction, 96
W

well plat, 110

Well Site Responsibilities, 52
Arrival at Rig Site, 52
Before Rigging Up, 53

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