1 INTRODUCTION 2 EARLY GEOGRAPHIES 3 THE EMERGENCE OF

MODERN GEOGRAPHY
4 THINKING ABOUT REGIONS
QUANTITATIVE REVOLUTION

5 SPATIAL SCIENCE AND THE

6 HUMANISTIC GEOGRAPHIES

7 MARXIST GEOGRAPHIES

8 FEMINIST GEOGRAPHIES

9 POSTMODERNISM AND BEYOND

10 TOWARD POSTSTRUCTURALIST GEOGRAPHIES

The history of geography includes various histories of geography which have differed over time
and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has
become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' derives from the Greek geographia,
[1]
a literal translation of which would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use
the word "geography" was Eratosthenes (276194 BC). However there is evidence for recognizable
practices of geography, such as cartography (or map-making) prior to the use of the term geography.

TYPES OF SURVEYES:
There are various types of surveys you can choose from. Basically, the types
of surveys are broadly categorized into two: according to instrumentation and
according to the span of time involved. The types of surveys according to
instrumentation include the questionnaire and the interview. On the other
hand, the types of surveys according to the span of time used to conduct the
survey are comprised of cross-sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys.

According to Instrumentation
In survey research, the instruments that are utilized can be either a questionnaire or
an interview (either structured or unstructured).

1. Questionnaires
Typically, a questionnaire is a paper-and-pencil instrument that is administered to the respondents.
The usual questions found in questionnaires are closed-ended questions, which are followed by
response options. However, there are questionnaires that ask open-ended questions to explore the
answers of the respondents.
Questionnaires have been developed over the years. Today, questionnaires are utilized in
various survey methods, according to how they are given. These methods include the selfadministered, the group-administered, and the household drop-off. Among the three, the selfadministered survey method is often used by researchers nowadays. The self-administered
questionnaires are widely known as the mail survey method. However, since the response rates
related to mail surveys had gone low, questionnaires are now commonly administered online, as in
the form of web surveys.

Advantages: Ideal for asking closed-ended questions; effective for market or consumer
research
Disadvantages: Limit the researchers understanding of the respondents answers; requires
budget for reproduction of survey questionnaires

2. Interviews
Between the two broad types of surveys, interviews are more personal and probing. Questionnaires
do not provide the freedom to ask follow-up questions to explore the answers of the respondents,
but interviews do.
An interview includes two persons - the researcher as the interviewer, and therespondent as the
interviewee. There are several survey methods that utilize interviews. These are the personal or
face-to-face interview, the phone interview, and more recently, the online interview.

Advantages: Follow-up questions can be asked; provide better understanding of the

answers of the respondents

Disadvantages: Time-consuming; many target respondents have no public-listed phone

numbers or no telephones at all

According to the Span of Time Involved

The span of time needed to complete the survey brings us to the two different types of surveys:
cross-sectional and longitudinal.

1. Cross-Sectional Surveys
Collecting information from the respondents at a single period in time uses the cross-sectional type
of survey. Cross-sectional surveys usually utilize questionnaires to ask about a particular topic at one
point in time. For instance, a researcher conducted a cross-sectional survey asking teenagers views
on cigarette smoking as of May 2010. Sometimes, cross-sectional surveys are used to identify the
relationship between two variables, as in a comparative study. An example of this is administering a
cross-sectional survey about the relationship of peer pressure and cigarette smoking among
teenagers as of May 2010.

2. Longitudinal Surveys
When the researcher attempts to gather information over a period of time or from one point in time
up to another, he is doing a longitudinal survey. The aim of longitudinal surveys is to collect data and
examine the changes in the data gathered. Longitudinal surveys are used in cohort studies, panel
studies and trend studies.

POLITICAL THINKERS:
In politics, representation describes how some individuals stand in for others or a group of others,
for a certain time period. Representation usually refers torepresentative democracies, where elected
officials nominally speak for their constituents in the legislature. Generally, only citizens are granted
representation in the government in the form of voting rights; however, some democracies have
extended this right further.

Ethics described Judith Shklar as "a towering presence" at Harvard for decades, an "influential
teacher and mentor to many of the best known political theorists working today in the United
States." One of this century's most important liberal scholars, she is remembered for her "sharp
intellect, forceful personality, and passionate intellectual honesty and curiosity."Political Thought
and Political Thinkers makes startlingly clear her role in the reinvigoration of liberal theory that has
been taking place over the last two decade
ADHUNIK KAVYA:
Literature in Hindi languages (Hindi: ) includes literature in the various Central
Zone Indo-Aryan languages which have writing systems. It is broadly classified into four prominent
forms (styles) based on the date of production. They are :

Vir-Gathas (poems extolling brave warriors) 11th14th century

Bhakti era poems (devotional poems) 14th18th century

Riti or Srngar poems (poems of romance) 18th20th century

Adhunik literature (modern literature) 20th century onwards

The literature was produced in dialects such

as Braj, Bundeli, Awadhi, Kannauji, Khariboli, Marwari, Angika, Vajjika, Maithili, Magahi and Bhojpuri.
[1]

From 20th century, works produced in Standard Hindi, a register of Hindustani, is sometimes

regarded as the only basis of modern literature in Hindi. [2]

HINDI BASHA AVAM SAHITYA KA ITHIHAS:

We offer Hindi Sahitya Evam Bhasha Ka Itihas (MHD-6) book. This book is useful for "Master
of Arts in Hindi (MA)" & other related courses. This book includes all significant topics related to
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Ka Vikas. The book will also provide excellent material, critical analysis and information that will
provide growth to its readers, and enjoyment at the same time. This book is organizing in QuestionAnswer format as previous year solved papers as per IGNOU standard and other open universities.
BRITISH POLITICAL SYSTEM:
The United Kingdom is a unitary democracy governed within the framework of a constitutional
monarchy, in which the Monarch is the head of state and the Prime Minister of the United
Kingdom is the head of government. Executive power is exercised by Her Majesty's Government, on
behalf of and by the consent of the Monarch, as well as by the devolved Governments

of Scotland and Wales, and the Northern Ireland Executive. Legislative power is vested in the two
chambers of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, the House of Commons and the House of Lords,
as well as in the Scottish parliament and Welsh and Northern Ireland assemblies. The judiciary is
independent of the executive and the legislature. The highest court is the Supreme Court of the
United Kingdom.
The UK political system is a multi-party system. Since the 1920s, the two largest political parties
have been the Conservative Party and the Labour Party. Before the Labour Party rose in British
politics, the Liberal Party was the other major political party along with the Conservatives.
Though coalition and minority governments have been an occasional feature of parliamentary
politics, the first-past-the-post electoral system used for general elections tends to maintain the
dominance of these two parties, though each has in the past century relied upon a third party such
as the Liberal Democrats to deliver a working majority in Parliament. The current ConservativeLiberal Democrat coalition government is the first coalition since 1945. [1]
With the partition of Ireland, Northern Ireland received home rule in 1920, though civil unrest meant
direct rule was restored in 1972. Support for nationalist parties in Scotland and Wales led to
proposals for devolution in the 1970s though only in the 1990s did devolution actually happen.
Today, Scotland, Wales and Northern Irelandeach possess a legislature and executive, with
devolution in Northern Ireland being conditional on participation in certain all-Ireland institutions. The
United Kingdom remains responsible for non-devolved matters and, in the case of Northern Ireland,
co-operates with the Republic of Ireland.