Investigation of Post-Superplastic Forming Properties of AZ31 Magnesium Alloy

M.K. Khraisheh1, F.K. Abu-Farha1, K.J. Weinmann2 (1)

1
Center for Manufacturing and Mechanical Engineering Dept., University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA

Abstract
In the metal forming industry, most of the efforts are directed towards materials and process development,
with little attention paid to the properties of the formed components. In Superplastic Forming (SPF), the issue
of post-forming properties is particularly important because of the large plastic deformation, significant
microstructural changes, and exposure to elevated temperatures for prolonged periods of time. In this work, a
detailed experimental study on the mechanical and microstructural properties of superplastically-formed AZ31
magnesium alloy is presented. The results clearly show the necessity to integrate post-superplastic forming
analysis with material and process development for SPF optimization.
Keywords:
Deformation, Magnesium, Superplastic Forming

properties are thereafter correlated to the microstructural

changes in the material; cavitation and grain-growth.

1 INTRODUCTION
Superplastic Forming (SPF) is becoming a familiar term in
the metal forming industry, a fact embodied by the
increasing number of aerospace and automotive parts
formed using SPF. The increasing demand for lightweight
alloys and the inability of conventional forming techniques
to effectively form these alloys uniquely position SPF to
become the process of choices in the future. Most of the
activities in the field of SPF are focused on the
material/process level, with very limited attention given to
the properties of the components formed using SPF (i.e.
post-superplastic forming properties). The main
characteristics of SPF make the issue of post-SPF
properties particularly important.
Generally, higher strain values and better deformation
uniformity are often the criteria for selecting the optimum
process parameters and evaluating the various proposed
optimization practices. This could be misleading since
maximum ductility does not necessarily produce the best
mechanical properties in a formed component. Prolonged
exposure to elevated temperatures, large plastic strains
and the corresponding microstructural changes, are all
factors that might deteriorate the mechanical properties of
superplastically-formed materials, and their effects need
to be investigated and quantified in details.
There are few available studies on post-superplastic
forming (post-SPF) that focus on Aluminum or Titanium
alloys [1-6]. In general, these studies are limited to a
narrow range of temperatures, strains and strain rates,
and do not investigate this important subject in a
systematic way. In this work, a systematic approach for
evaluating the mechanical and microstructural postsuperplastic forming properties of the AZ31 magnesium
alloy is presented. Magnesium alloys are receiving
increasing interest from the industry, and there is no
available study in the literature on the post-superplastic
forming properties of magnesium alloys. Specimens,
which were machined from superplastically-formed
components under uniaxial and biaxial loading conditions,
are tested at room temperature to assess the changes in
yield strength, ultimate tensile strength and tensile
ductility, with reference to the properties of the alloy in the
as received condition. These changes in the mechanical
Annals of the CIRP Vol. 56/1/2007

EXPERIMENTS

2.1 Superplastic Forming at 400 C

The material used in this study is the commercial AZ31H24 magnesium alloy, received in 3.22mm thick sheets.
This alloy exhibits superplastic behavior at temperatures
higher than 325 C and at strain rates below 10-3 s-1 with
the maximum ductility achieved at about 400 C [7, 8].
Tensile test specimens (38x16mm) were machined along
the rolling direction of the sheet and constant true strain
rate uniaxial tensile tests were carried out at 400 C.
Heating to the forming temperature took about 35 min,
followed by 30 minutes dwell time to achieve thermal
equilibrium. The tests were stopped when the specimens
reached a certain pre-assigned true strain value, and the
specimens were then cooled down to room temperature
maintaining almost no load. Four different strain rates (10
3
, 5x10-4, 2x10-4 and 10-4 s-1) and six true strain values
(30, 50, 70, 90, 110 and 130%) were covered, where
each combination was repeated at least twice for
repeatability assurance. Stress-strain curves of the
specimens strained at 2x10-4 s-1 to different strain values
are shown in Figure 1. The results shown in Figure 1
clearly indicate that the tests are repeatable and that the
experimental setup and conditions are well controlled.
2.2 Post-Superplastic Forming (Post-SPF) Tests at
Room Temperature
To evaluate deformation uniformity, width and thickness
distributions along the gauge section of each specimen
were measured and recorded. Thereafter, the deformed
specimens were machined along the sides to produce a
uniform width. Thickness, on the other hand, was not
altered to avoid distorting the specimens. The machined
specimens were then tested again in simple tension at
room temperature at a constant speed of 1.5mm/min to
evaluate the post-SPF mechanical properties.

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doi:10.1016/j.cirp.2007.05.067

deformation takes place at a low strain rate of 10-4 s-1 and

around 37.5% when deformation takes place at the high
-3 -1
strain rate of 10 s . Practically, such a map would be
used in a reversed way by specifying the lowest
acceptable thinning level, then selecting strain rate for a
give desired strain value. If a part, for example, is to be
formed with no less than 60% thinning at the most critical
region with 110% true strain, Figure 3 indicates that
-4 -1
forming at 2x10 s or slower would guarantee that.

True Stress (MPa)

15

0.0

10

0.5
0.7

0.9

t min / t 0 (%)

1.1

0
0

25

50

75

100

125

150

True Superplastic Strain

Figure 1: Stress-strain curves of specimens stretched to

various strains at 2x10-4 s-1.
3

RESULTS

3.1 Deformation Uniformity

Having recorded the width and thickness along each
specimen, the effect of forming strain rate on the
uniformity of deformation can be evaluated as
deformation progresses. An example is shown in Figure
2, where the thinning ratio percentage (defined as the
percentage ratio between the thickness after deformation
and the initial sheet thickness) is plotted along the gauge
length for specimens deformed to a true strain value of
110% at different strain rates. Forming at the high strain
-3 -1
rate of 10 s , not only resulted in severe thinning, but
also yielded the largest thickness variation along the
deformed specimen at about 25%. This variation drops to
about 4% for the lowest strain rate of 10-4 s-1.

t / t0 (%)

55
50
45
40
35
0

10

20

x/L (%)

30

70

90

1e-3
130

110

True Superplastic Strain (%)

3.2 Post-SPF Mechanical Properties

The mechanical properties of the superplastically-formed
specimens were determined from room temperature
tensile tests. The goal is to arrive at a quantitative
assessment of the changes in the yield strength, tensile
strength and room temperature ductility. For the different
combinations of strain rates and superplastic strain values
used in this study, post-superplastic forming properties
were compared to reference values, corresponding to the
properties of the as received material. A 3D plot of the
post-SPF room temperature ductility is shown in Figure 4.
In this figure, the percentage ratio between the fracture
strain of the post-SPF specimen (H) and that of the asreceived material (Hf) is plotted against the amount of
superplastic strain for different strain rates. The trend is
somewhat expected; the higher the superplastic strain,
the lower the post-SPF ductility is. Also, the effect of
strain rate is significant, particularly at high superplastic
strains, where the lower strain rate gives higher ductility.
-3 -1
In fact, specimens stretched at 10 s fractured at about
130% true strain, and therefore the post-SPF ductility was
set to zero.
An interesting observation from Figure 4 is the high strain
ratios (>100%) achieved at low superplastic strains for all
the strain rates.

1e-3
5e-4
2e-4
1e-4

60

5e-4

Figure 3: Maximum thinning ratio percentage for various

strain rates at different deformation stages.

H = 110%

65

2e-4

50

75
70

1e-4

82.5-85
80-82.5
77.5-80
75-77.5
72.5-75
70-72.5
67.5-70
65-67.5
62.5-65
60-62.5
57.5-60
55-57.5
52.5-55
50-52.5
47.5-50
45-47.5
42.5-45
40-42.5
37.5-40
35-37.5

-1

30%-1
30%-2
50%-1
50%-2
70%-1
70%-2
90%-1
90%-2
110%-1
110%-2
130%-1
130%-2

400 C
2x10 -4 s -1

Strain Rate (s )

20

40

Figure 2: Thickness distribution along specimens strained

to 110% at various strain rates.
By combining the results of maximum thinning at various
strain levels for all the strain rates covered, a deformation
map as the one shown in Figure 3 can be generated.
Each color in this map corresponds to a certain thinning
ratio band, which is set to 2.5% wide. To highlight the
importance of such a plot, consider for instance the true
strain of 50%. By referring to the map, it is noticed that all
the strain rates share the same color strip (dark blue).
This means that up to that strain level, changing the rate
of deformation would not yield any improvement in terms
of deformation uniformity. Nevertheless, as the straining
level increases, color variation along any vertical line (i.e.
constant strain) is noticed, always in favor of the lower
strain rate. This color variation keeps increasing with
strain, giving a quantitative measure of deformation
uniformity as a function of strain and strain rate. If a strain
level of 130% is desired, the map in Figure 3 indicates
that the thinning ratio percentage is around 55% when

112.5-120
105-112.5
97.5-105
90-97.5
82.5-90
75-82.5
67.5-75
60-67.5
52.5-60
45-52.5
37.5-45
30-37.5
22.5-30
15-22.5
7.5-15
0-7.5

HH 
(%)
120
112.5
105
97.5
90
82.5
75
67.5
60
52.5
45
37.5
30
22.5
15
7.5
0

1e-04
30

50

2e-04
70

5e-04
90

True Superplastic Strain (%)

110

1e-3

Strain Rate

130

Figure 4: Post-superplastic forming map of room

temperature tensile ductility.

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Grain-growth dependence on both heat and strain is

different for different superplastic materials. For the AZ31
Mg alloy, an investigation revealed a stronger
dependency of grain growth on heat compared to strain.
Figure 7 shows the static grain growth (only heating
without straining) curve at 400 C, which clearly indicates
that most of the grain growth takes place within the first
65 minutes of heating (from 4.5 to 8 microns). Note that
this time is almost the same as the total heating time prior
to straining in the tensile tests (section 2.1). This means
that at the threshold of straining, the actual grain size is
about 8m, and not the initial grain size of 4.5m for the
as received material.
The results of the heating cycle investigation concluded
that heating the sample at 400 qC for 65 minutes and then
cooling to room temperature caused the grains to grow to
about 8m. Room temperature tensile tests of the
material that was subjected to this cycle recorded about
38% drop in the yield strength as shown in Figure 6. Such
result is consistent with the Hall-Petch relation.

These ratios imply that the post-SPF ductility is initially

enhanced, and then gradually decreases as higher strains
are achieved. An explanation of this behavior can be
given from a heating cycle analysis, in which tensile
specimens were heated to 400 C and then cooled down
to the ambient temperature without straining. Room
temperature tensile tests of these specimens revealed
about 23 % increase in ductility over the as received
material. It is believed that these changes are caused by
the associated microstructural changes due to heating, as
will be further discussed in later sections.
The post-SPF tensile strength is shown in Figure 5.
Similar to Figure 4, the ultimate tensile strength of the
post-SPF material is inversely proportional to the amount
of superplastic strain, but with less dependency on strain
rate. The heating cycle analysis discussed above
concluded that heating was responsible for about 7%
drop in the ultimate tensile strength.
87.5-90
85-87.5
82.5-85
80-82.5
77.5-80
75-77.5
72.5-75
70-72.5
67.5-70
65-67.5
62.5-65
60-62.5
57.5-60
55-57.5
52.5-55
50-52.5

90
87.5
85
82.5
80
77.5
75
72.5
70
67.5
65
62.5
60
57.5
55
52.5
50

13

1e-04
30

2e-04

50

90

True Superplastic Strain (%)

110

1e-3

9
8

Actual grain size at the threshold of

superplastic deformation ( 8 m )

7
6

Initial grain size of the as

received material ( 4.5 m )

5
4

Heating time before straining (

0

130

100

200

300

400

Ductility
120

2e-04
1e-04

2x10-4 s

-1

18

Cavitation

100

50
80

100

120

140

True Superplastic Strain (%)

12

Due to heating only

H / H 0 (%)

60

10

60

Figure 6: Post superplastic forming room temperature

yield strength.

16
14

80

40

700

20

140

5e-04

20

600

Figure 7: Static grain growth at 400 C.

Grain growth analysis explains the post-SPF results of the
yield strength, but does not explain the reduction in
ductility and tensile strength as a function of superplastic
strain. Examining the cavitation behavior of the material
provided the explanation. Cavitation during SPF is
temperature and strain dependent, and does not depend
on heating time. The growth of voids (or cavities) during
superplastic deformation at 400 C is shown in Figure 8.
The area fraction of voids was measured by an optical
microscope using specialized visualization software.
Interestingly, by plotting the post-SPF ductility on the
same graph, one can clearly observe the correlation
between the two quantities. Escalation of cavitation in the
material, especially after a superplastic strain of 50%,
causes the deterioration of post-SPF ductility. The same
applies to the effect of cavitation on the tensile strength,
presented in Figure 5.

1e-03

500

HeatingTime (min)

Due to Heating Only

55

65 min)

60

VYV Y0 (%)

602 min

10

Strain Rate

Figure 5: Post-superplastic forming map of room

temperature ultimate tensile strength.
The post-SPF yield strength results were different from
the ductility and tensile strength results. Neither
superplastic strain nor strain rate showed any significant
impact on the yield strength of the post-SPF material, as
shown in Figure 6. Yield strength of the post-SPF material
varies between 58% and 62% of the yield strength of the
as-received material, regardless of strain or strain rate.
This large drop in the yield strength is explained from the
heating cycle analysis, discussed in the next section
(section 3.3).
65

69 min

11

5e-04

70

As Received

12

Average Grain Size (m)

(%)

8
6

40

4
20

3.3 Post-SPF
Mechanical
Properties
vs.
Microstructural Changes
The results discussed in the previous section suggest that
both heat and strain affect post-SPF properties. The key
for understanding these effects is to investigate the
microstructural changes associated with them separately.

0
0

30

50

70

90

110

130

True Superplastic Strain (%)

Figure 8: Cavitation vs. post-SPF ductility

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Cavitation (%)

V UT V UT0

In conclusion, these results indicate that cavitation is

directly responsible for the deterioration of post-SPF
mechanical properties that are strain dependent, namely
ductility and tensile strength. Yield strength, on the other
hand, is not strain dependent, but is rather associated
with heat and heating time, which directly control the
grain-growth in the material.
POST-SPF INVESTIGATION FOLLOWING BIAXIAL
STRETCHING
During actual superplastic forming, biaxial stretching is
the dominant loading condition. For this reason, in this
section, the post-SPF properties of superplastically
deformed materials under biaxial stretching are
evaluated. Circular disks, 80mm in diameter, were cut
from 1.65mm thick sheets of the same alloy. The sheets
were superplastically-bulged using pressurized argon gas
into various cylindrical dies, at 400 C and constant
effective strain rate of 2x10-4 s-1. The dies are all 63.5mm
in diameter, but have different depths; 12.5, 19 and 25.5
mm. Forming pressure profiles were generated from
Finite Element Analysis to ensure constant effective strain
rate. More details on the superplastic bulge forming
setup, the FE simulations and the generated pressuretime profiles are available in [8]. Cups were formed to the
three different heights. Out of the flat bottom part of each
cup, a 12.5x9.5mm tensile specimen was machined
(milling) along the rolling direction of the sheet for postSPF testing, as shown in Figure 9. Thickness at the
gauge section of each machined specimen provided a
mean to estimate the superplastic thickness strain
achieved during SPF as also shown in Figure 9.

tmin/t0

Ht

(%)

(%)

12.5

86

15

19

63

46

25.5

47

76

90

125

80

Ductility
100

70

60

50

75

Yield Strength
Due to
heating
only
0

Ductility Ratio (%)

Strength Ratio [V/V0] (%)

Tensile Strength

(mm)

150

100

50
15

46

76

True Thickness Strain (%)

Figure 10: Post-SPF mechanical properties in 2D.

5 SUMMARY
The mechanical properties of superplastically deformed
AZ31 Mg alloy are significantly affected by process
parameters such as temperature, strain and strain rate.
The change in the yield strength was found to be related
to grain growth while the changes in the tensile strength
and ductility were found to be related to the cavitation
developed during deformation. In addition, the study
provides new and unique quantitative maps describing
the effects of various process parameters on deformation
uniformity. These important findings can be very useful for
the optimizing the superplastic forming process.
6 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The support of the National Science Foundation,
CAREER Award # DMI-0238712, is acknowledged.
7 REFERENCES
[1] Wisbey, A., Kearns, M., Patridge P., Bowen, A.,
1993, Superplastic Deformation and Post-formed
Mechanical Properties of High Temperature
Titanium Alloy IMI834, Mat Sci Tech, 9/11: 987-993.
[2] Cope, M., Evetts, D., Ridley, N., 1987, Post-Forming
Tensile Properties of Superplastic Ti-6Al-4V Alloy,
Mat Sci Tech, 3/6:455-461.
[3] Duffy, L., Hawkyard, J., Ridley, N., 1988, PostForming Tensile Properties of Superplastically Bulge
Formed High Strength Ti-Al-Mo-Sn-Si Alloy, Mat Sci
Tech, 4/8:707-712.
[4] Miyagi, Y., Hino, M., Eto, T., Hirose, Y., 1987, Void
Formation and its Effect on Post-Formed
Mechanical Properties in Superplastic AA7475 Alloy,
Kobelco Technology Review, 2:45-48.
[5] Shakesheff, A., 1985, The Effect of Superplastic
Deformation on the Post-Formed Mechanical
Properties of the Commercially Produced Supral
Alloys, Proceedings of the Superplasticity in
Aerospace Aluminium, Cranfield, England, 36-54.
[6] Dunford, D., Wisbey, A., Partridge, P., 1991, Effect
of Superplastic Deformation on Microstructure,
Texture, and Tensile Properties of Ti-6Al-4V, Mat
Sci Tech, 7/1:62-70.
[7] Abu-Farha, F., Khraisheh, M., 2006, On the
Superplastic Forming of the AZ31 Magnesium Alloy,
Proceedings of 7th Int. Conference on Magnesium,
Dresden, Germany, Wiley-VCH Verlag, 399-405.
[8] Khraisheh, M., Abu-Farha, F., Nazzal, M.,
Weinmann, K., 2006, Combined MechanicsMaterials Based Optimization of Superplastic
Forming of Magnesium AZ31 Alloy, Annals of the
CIRP, 55/1:233-236.

Figure 9: Tensile specimens machined out of the formed

cups and their corresponding thickness strains
The machined specimens were then subjected to uniaxial
tensile tests at room temperature to evaluate the postSPF properties. Each test was repeated three times
under the same conditions to ensure the accuracy of the
results. Post-SPF results of the biaxially deformed
specimens are summarized in Figure 10, and show the
same behavior as in the uniaxial SPF case.
Ductility enhancement due to heating is also observed in
this case at low strain values. The tensile strength is
lower for the heated specimens, and similarly decreases
with superplastic strain. Note that large strains were not
achieved in the cups, and therefore sharp drops in postSPF ductility and ultimate strength were not observed.
Finally, no effect of superplastic strain on the post-SPF
yield strength was observed, supporting the conclusions
discussed in section 3.3 that post-SPF drop in the yield
strength is related to grain growth, which largely depends
on heating that takes place prior to deformation. The
interaction between the microstructural changes and the
post-SPF mechanical properties for the biaxial case under
wide range of strains and strain rates need to be further
investigated.

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