Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.

org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

A. G E N E R A L

DATA

ON THE

SEGMENT

1. T H E SEGMENT STUDIED

COLOMBIAN ANDES
COLIN JOHN CAMPBELL
Hawksgrove. Hawkswood Lane. Gerrards Cross, Buckinghamshire

CONTENTS
A. General data on the segment
B. Subdivision of the segment
C. Data on individual structural zones
1. Western Cordillera
2. Cauca Basin
3. Central Cordillera
4. Middle Magdalena subzone
5. Upper Magdalena subzone
6. Eastern Cordillera subzone
7. Garz6n-Quetame Massifsubzone
8. Santander Massif subzone
D. References

705
714
715
715
716
717
718
719
720
722
722
723

This article describes the northernmost segment of the Andes marginal

to the Pacific, a belt which here gives evidence of orogenic activity
throughout most of Phanerozoic time. To the north the three cordillera
of Colombia bifurcate, linking both with Central America via the
Panama isthmus and with the Venezuelan Andes. Traced southwards
into Ecuador the ranges narrow and partly merge.
Segment: the segment described here has a north-south length of 1000
kin. The margins of the orogenic belt against non-orogenic areas are
both narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). The eastern margin is defined
by thrusts in most places, but northward splays make it a broader zone
in regional terms. Little detailed information is available on the northwest margin, which is taken at the thrust belt, although mild to
moderate deformation extends beyond. The width of the orogenic belt
thus defined increases from 150 km in the south to 500 km in the north
and averages 400 km.
Zones: the Colombian Andes are described here in terms of eight zones
and subzones. The Western Andes (zone 1) are built of metamorphic
rocks (?Jurassic) overlain by thick, eugeosynclinal Cretaceous sediments
and volcanics. In the Cauca Basin (zone 2) similar rocks are covered
by thick, Tertiary continental strata. The Central Andes (zone 3)
includes Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks, metamorphosed L. Palaeozoic
to Mesozoic rocks, Jurassic-Cretaceous strata and Neogene andesitic
volcanics. The M. and U. Magdalena Basins (subzones 4 and 5) contain very thick Jurassic and Triassic to Pliocene sequences; major batholiths were intruded in subzone 5 in early Triassic times. The Eastern
Andes include the Eastern Cordillera (subzone 6), the Garz6n-Ouetame
Massif (subzone 7) and the Santander Massif (subzone 8). The
Eastern Cordillera is built of U. Palaeozoic strata, thick miogeosynclinal late Jurassic to Cretaceous strata and continental Tertiary.
Subzones 7 and 8 are built dominantly of ?Pre-Cambrian plutonic
basement rocks and L. Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks cut by major
intrusions; late Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata occur locally.
History: Two or more post Pre-Cambrian orogenies are recognized.
Intermittent movements occurred throughout the Phanerozoic and
reached climaxes in mid-Palaeozoic, early Triassic, pre-Tithonian,
pre-Campanian, pre-U. Eocene, pre-U. Miocene and pre-Pliocene
times. The general evolution of the belt involved the progressive
westerly migration of sedimentary provinces and tectonic events.

2. SHAPE OF THE O R O G E N IN PLAN

in The belt continues along strike beyond the selected segment. The
Central and Western Andes continue without significant change into
Ecuador but the Eastern Andes die out at Moc6a. Northwards the

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

706

COLOMBIAN

ranges bifurcate and change in direction. 24 General trend: although in

gross terms partly arcuate, in fact the Andes consist of relatively
straight and structurally uniform segments of up to 1000 km in length
separated from one another by complex oroclines. Such oroclines
(e.g. at Maracaibo and at H u a n c a b a m b a - - n o r t h e r n Peril) appear
related to palaeogeographical gaps in earlier orogenic belts and are in
places associated with (?) major wrench faults. Major wrench faults
are believed (?) to exert a control on some of the major structural units
(e.g. subzone 8).
I

79"

77

75

73"

I
~~

71"

200km

I,

ANDES

3. S U R F A C E SHAPE OF T H E S E G M E N T IN E L E V A T I O N
30 Highest 5% of the ground: 2500 m Average height of: 31 north-west
margin of the belt, 100 m; 32 south-east margin, 500 m. 33 Geomorphological surfaces are recognized by summit heights on relict peneplains,
but a4 information on lower surfaces--other than in the references
listed---is not available. Summit peneplains: little detailed work, see
Biirgl (1961, p. 187) and Duran (1964). Reconnaissance surveys
indicate an erosion surface based on summit heights at 3000 m near
Bogoul and a tilted surface, dipping east at about 8 on the eastern
margin of the Central Cordillera, which may be of early Tertiary age
since an apparent continuation marks the base of the Tertiary in the
adjacent zone 5.
4. G E O P H Y S I C A L D A T A

SANTA

a8-9 Gravity data: Bouguer anomaly m a p with 20 milligal interval

M a p a gravimetrico (1959). See also Case et al. (1969). 41 The segment
is in approximate isostatic equilibrium and 42-3 the general gravity
field is parallel to the main tectonic and topographic trends.
45 Regional magnetic data are available and the anomalies are (?) concordant with the main tectonic and topographic trends.

Loma de

5. P R E S E N T - D A Y A C T I V I T Y
68 The region is currently seismically active (see Ramlrez 1969). M a p
of epicentres: Ramlrez & DurUm (1957).
o

6. T I M E R E L A T I O N S

....j

-va
c)

Figure 1. Geological Provinces of Colombia showing the Segment of the Andes under
consideration and the structural zones. Structural depressions are stippled.

Pre-Cambrian gneisses are overlain by L. and U. Palaeozoic strata; a

late Silurian--early Devonian orogeny can be recognized. Early
Triassic movements, which are classified as a separate orogeny
('Hercynian'), are here listed with the long sequence of late MesozoicTertiary movements. See Table 1.
85 The oldest undeformed rocks belong to the Pliocene Mesa Fro.
(Morales et al. 1958; Houten & Travis 1968; Wellman 1970). s3 The
youngest deformed rocks are the U. Miocene Real and Honda Fins
(references as 85).
87-9 The initiation of mobility associated with the Mesozoic-Tertiary
orogeny: probably at no time during the Phanerozoic has the segment
been orogenically dormant. It is difficult to distinguish the last phases
of the preceding orogeny, which reached a climax in the L.-M.
Triassic, from the first phase (considered to be number 3 in the above
list) of the orogeny under consideration here.
81 The oldest rocks deformed for the first time during the MesozoicTertiary orogeny are: E. Andes-Payand6 Fm (Carn-Nor) ( T r u m p y
1943).

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN

ANDES

707

Table 1
MESOZOIC-CENOZOIC

~ge

9~ Nature of mobility
~1 Phase

15
Uplift

IV. Andes

(2. Andes

Uplift of Andes

14
PostAndean
movements
13
Andean
12
ProtoAndean

E. Andes

PHASES OF MOBILITY

98 Maximum

94 Minimum

g5 Evidence for ages

?Pleist
?Movement on
Santa Marta
fault

Postlate Mioc

Tilting, broad Vulcanism

folding, minor
faulting

Tight folding
& thrusting

PostU. Mioc

Pre-Plioc

Unconformity beneath unfossiliferous, flat-lying beds (?Plioc) ; note that this

phase, in particular, masks the effects of earlier phases

Moderate
Onset of
folding, fault- vulcanism
hag & ?igneous
activity

Mild folding
associated with
faulting

PostTorton

?PreU. Mioc

Unconformity beneath beds considered U. Mioc, although evidence not conelusive; U. Mioc sediments usually rich in volcanic detritus from ?zone 3

PostBurdigal
(locally
postHelvet)

PreTorton

Minor unconformity beneath fossiliferous Torton, which in many areas rests

directly on Burdig (absence of Bulimena carmenensis biozone)

Post-L.
Aquit

Pre-U.
Aquit

Unconformity below fossiliferous U. Aquit (C. stainforthi zone in L. Magdalena)

in Western Andes

Post-Olig

Pre-Mioc

Absence of Olig in many areas, yet presence of reworked Olig foraminifera in

lowest Mioc (Bfirgl 1965)

11
PreMild deformaTortonian tion involving
faulting (L.
Magdalena &
Sinu-Athintico)
I0
Local
Tilting, broad folding, minor
Pre-U.
Aquitanian vulcanism
faulting & regional subsidence
(especially in the L. Magdalena
area)
9
Uplift &
EreNot recognized, ?represented
Miocene erosion
by conglomerates in La Cira Fm
8
Laramide Strong, local
Igneous activity Mild deformadeformation;
& ?metamor- tion associated
?initiation or
phism (also in with faulting
accentuation of eastern
major wrench W. Andes)
faults
7
(Sinu area)
?MetamorUplift of source
ProtoLaramide folding &
phism, not dis- areas
faulting
finguishable
from phase 8

The wrench fault (if correctly interpreted) shifts the Andean thrust belt & so is
late Mioc (i.e. very latest Mioc or Plioc)

Post-M.
Pre-U.
Eoc (locally Eoc
within
M. Eoc)

W. Andes (Sinu-Atl~mtico) : unconformity below U. Eoc fossiliferous strata;

Eastern W. Andes & C. Andes: intrusions dated as 51, 49 & 47 m.y. (U.S.G.S.);
also probable age of metamorphism of Cretaceous rocks in zone 3, Santa Marta
Massif & Guajira; E. Andes: unconformity becoming smaller to east beneath
Mirador & La Paz Fins which are palynologically dated as U. Eoc

PostMaestr

Mild unconformity beneath, or the appearance of elastics in Palaeoc (fossils,

including spores)

Pre-Eoc &
?Pre-U.
Palaeoc

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

708

COLOMBIAN

ANDES

Table 1 (continued)
92 Nature of mobility
91 P~Gse

6
Subhercynian

5
MidCretaceous
movements

W. Andes

(7. Andes

E. Andes

Batholith
emplacement

Tilting, broad
folding, minor
faulting

Local metamorphism &

batholith emplacement

4
Early
Cretaceous
movements

3
Nevadan

Intense deformation, metamorphism, batholith emplacement (radiometric date of

142 m.y., U.S.G.S.)

2
Late
Triassic
(post'Hercynian')

Age
93 Maximum

E. Andes:
post-Santon

94 Minimum

9s Evidence for ages

E. Andes: minor unconformity beneath Campan fossiliferous strata generally

leading to the absence of Santon, in such cases the youngest fossiliferous beds
beneath are Coniac; C. Andes: radiometric date 79 m.y. (Botero Arango 1963)

C. Andes :
Cenoman

E. Andes :
preCampan
C. Andes :
Cenoman

Mild folding
& faulting

Post-U.
Apt &
locally
postL. Alb

E. Andes:
pre-L. Alb
C. Andes:
preU. Alb

E. Andes: unconformity between fossiliferotrs strata as indicated; C. Andes:

U. Alb fossiliferous strata rest unconformably on low-grade metamorphic rocks
containing Apt fossils (Bfirgl & Radelli 1962). Radiometric date of 110 m.y. on
batholith (Pinson et al. 1962)

Tilting, broad
folding, minor
faulting

Mainly
post-L.
Valang;
locally
post-U.
Valang

Pre-Haut

Unconformity between fossiliferous strata as indicated

Deformation,
uplift,
erosion

E. Andes :
post-Toarc
C.&W.
Andes: ?

Pre-

E. Andes: fossiliferous 'Tith' strata rest unconformably on the Gir6n Gp in which

the youngest marine intercalations contain Toarc fossils; W. Andes: Cretaceous
rocks, believed to range down to Toarc (as in Guajira) rest on undated metamorphic rocks

E. Andes &
eastern C.
Andes: uplift &
erosion probably accompanied by
faulting. Intrusive & extrusive
igneous activity.
Emplacement of
batholiths in
C. Andes

Post-Nor

Pre-Sinem

Local fossiliferous layers in Gir6n Gp contain Sinem fossils; Gir6n Gp rests

unconformably on rocks, youngest of which contain Nor fossils (Trumpy 1943);
Radiometric dates of 195 (MacDonald 1964), 174, 172, 167 & 162 m.y. (U.S.G.S.
show igneous activity persisted through much of the Jurassic in the C. Andes

Block faulting,
emplacement of
batholiths &
associated
extrusive
activity

Post-L.
Perm

Pre-Carn

Palaeontological dates as indicated. Radiometric date of 210 m.y. (Mencher

1963)

'Tith'

L.-M.
Triassic
(Hercynian')

Intense folding,
metamorphism,
emplacement
of batholiths
& related
volcanic
activity

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN

7s-SBasement rocks: Within the orogenic segment basement rocks

range from Pre-Cambrian to L. Palaeozoic in age. In the Eastern
Andes ?Pre-Cambrian gneiss at Floresta underlies ?L. Palaeozoic
phyllite, which is in turn below M. Devonian fossiliferous strata. In the
Central Andes rocks occur of a lithology similar to those in the Sta.
M a r t a Massif for which there are dates of 940 + 47, 1300 and 750 m.y.
Basement rocks within 100 km of the south-east margin of the belt are
Pre-Cambrian (1205 60 m.y., Pinson et al. 1962). No basement rocks
are known within 100 km of the north-west margin of the orogenic belt.
*
I"

t2

77

73"

ANDES

709

7. S E D I M E N T A R Y R E L A T I O N S
The data here apply to the Eastern Andes; different conditions occur
in the Western Andes. In Table 2, pre-orogenic refers to the period
between the 'Hercynian' and Nevadan movements.
Table 2
SUMMARY

OF STRATAL

71

200km
'

In the orogenic belt in the segment

DATA

Syn- and Post-orogenic

sedimentation within
50 km outside the margins
of the orogenicpart
of the segment

Outside west Outside east

Pre-orogenic Syn-orogenic Post-orogenic margin
margin
97 Age span

Jrom
to
9s Maximum
thickness

I
/

."."~:.::.,::.. :~,

.~:.: ' ,

:. :: :...,i.

..: ::...::

........ i:::.!~,:
..:.
::,.:. :.-::.::: :i.i:i~: . "

......

:::

::.::: : :/::::':::i!. ;::::!: ' ~

.,.....i
i' :z

7}

'Tith'
U. Mioc

Plioc
Present

4000m

21,000m

300m

99 Estimated
26,000 km 3 200,000 km 3 4000 km 8
volume per 100
km length of
segment
20%
25%
20%
And probable
error in this
estimate
loo

:.,

Cam
Kimm

Dominant facies Continental Continental Fluviatile

with
Tertiary,
evaporites miogeosynclinal
Cretaceous

95 + 5%

75 + 20%

102 Volcanic rocks

2_+2%

0+0%

30+ 10%

103 Sedimentary
rocks with over
90% carbonate

0+2%

15+ 10%

0+0%

x04 Sedimentary
rocks with over
95% quartz

50+ 10%

lo5 Source area of

sediments
dashed lines--possible transcurrent faults.

'Tith'
Present
10,000m
1000 km 3

20%

Continental
with marine
intercalations in
west

Percentage of the total volume occupiedby-and the error

ioa Dominant facies 95 + 5%

Figure 2. Principal Fault Systems in the Segment (1 to 6). Continuous lines--thrusts;

'Tith'
Present

25_+ 5%

100_+0%

10_+ 5%

Guayana
Shield in late
Tertiary for
E. Andes

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

710

COLOMBIAN ANDES

,0~ Structural repetitions but not deformation have been taken into
account in assessing the above stratal thicknesses, x0v Sedimentation
was generally continuous in the pre- and syn-orogenic periods, but
z0s major pre-Tithonian, pre-Hauterivian, pre-Albian, pre-U. Eocene
and pre-U. Miocene erosion surfaces are present, z0~ Palaeogeographical
maps for Triassic to Upper Aquitanian times are given in Campbell
(1968).
8. S T R U C T U R A L R E L A T I O N S
m - z ~ Major faults. Fault 1, Eastern Andes marginal thrusts (east):
these SE-directed overthrusts have several kilometres of displacements
and probably moved in late Miocene times. Fault 2, Eastern Andes
marginal thrusts (west): as for faults 1, but movements directed
north-west. 3 Santa M a r t a fault: a sinistral wrench fault which has a
displacement of 110 km, as shown by the offset of structural zones
(see ~ ) ; movements probably commenced in latest Miocene to
Pliocene times and are probably still active; mylonite occurs along the
fault. 4 Dolores fault: movements are probably of ?dextral wrench
type and commenced in the ?U. Cretaceous to U. Eocene interval,
probably mainly in U. Eocene times; movements are probably still
active; mylonite occurs along the fault. 5 'Medellln' fault: this fault
separates zones 2 and 3 near Medellln and is a ?sinistral wrench fault,
along which movements probably commenced in late Miocene times.
6 Western Andes marginal thrusts: these NW-directed overthrusts have
several kilometres of displacement and probably moved in late
Tertiary times.
ng-~Megatectonics: there is no evidence of relative displacement of opposite sides of the whole belt. Evidence of relative lateral displacement of
opposite sides of the Eastern Andes is provided by the Santa M a r t a

wrench fault and the fact that thrusts on the e ~st splay southwards,
whereas those on the west splay northwards.

9. R E V I E W OF O R O G E N I C D E V E L O P M E N T
132

GEOPHYSICAL EVIDENCE OF OROGENIC STRUCTURE

Case et al. (1969) have recently furnished important gravity and

magnetic data on a portion of the Western Andes, that in general lends
support to the geotectonic conclusions given here. Typical Bouguer
anomalies of the various provinces are as follows:
Pacific Coast Range
Pacific Coast Basin
Western Cordillera (zone 1)

+75 to +135 mgal

up to - 74 mgal
- ve north of Lat. 5
+ve south of Lat. 5
Cauca Basin (zone 2)
- 25 to - 75 regal
Central Cordillera (zone 3)
- 6 0 to - 100 mgal
Middle Magdalena Basin (zone 4)
- 7 5 to - 1 5 0 mgal
Taking into account the elevations of the mountain ranges and the
thick sections of low density rock in the sedimentary basins, the authors
conclude that little or no granitic crust is present to the west of the
Central Cordillera. Steep gradients along the western margin of that
range probably mark the junction between Pre-Cambrian granitic
crust to the east and Mesozoic and younger oceanic crust to the west.
This junction also corresponds with the Dolores fault system (see a~a).
A crustal model proposed by Case et al. is reproduced below. Considering the uncertainties, discussed by Case et al. concerning the true
thickness and density of the units, the model corresponds reasonably
closely with that prepared independently in section z~n below (Fig. 3).

Tt!::

200-

I00-

~ . x ' ~ " Bouguer anomaly x

0-

Computed anomaly

-I00-

"x
.200-

regal

PACIFIC COAST
RANGE

@,,,o
~...o

r,.7,~0,
WESTERN CORDILLERA @o

oT F . . . , . : . . - ~ . - . . . . ; . . . . . . ; . - : . . , ~ : : : : : : : ~ , ~ . . . ~ ; : , ~ . . . ~ . : : . - - .

0
I

100km

~;~.,, NE~mTr~lrll~ ~L

CENTKAL CORD/LLERA
4~QUARTZIl~_%--;'c.'~I;/>~a;# ~ ' - -

1'4AGDALENA VALLEY
~:::::::::MESOZOIC

AND TERTIAR.YI~.=2..5.. iii:i:

O
I0
20km

Figure 3. Crustal Model, Cabo Corrientes--Magdalena Valley (after Case et al., 1969). T h e assumptions used are: (i) Oceanic crust in the west is 16 k m thick with a m e a n
density of 2"9 g per cm 3. (ii) Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the Pacific Coast Basin are 10 k m thick with a m e a n density of 2"4 g per cm 8. (iii) Mesozoic eugeosynclinal rocks

have a mean density of 2.85 g per cm8. (iv) Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary rocks in the Middle Magdalena Basin are 8 km thick and have a mean density of 2.5 gcm 8.

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN ANDES
133

EFFECTS OF TRANSCURRENT OR STRIKE-SLIP FAULTING

Structural interpretationsinvolving transcurrent faulting are generally

controversial, for the evidence is usually capable of more than one
interpretation. This is certainly the case in Colombia: some geologists,
including the writer, believe that transcurrent faulting has been of
fundamental importance whereas others are equally firm in holding
views to the contrary. The two major fault systems with possible
transcurrent movement are described below (see also 111-18):
(1) Santa M a r t a Fault: This has been recognized by de Cizancourt
(1933), Raasveldt (1956) and Campbell (1968). It runs S. 15 E. from
the Caribbean coast near Santa M a r t a for a distance of 550 km to the
Eastern Cordillera where it dies out in a series of thrusts. A m a x i m u m
sinistral movement of about 110 km is suggested by the displacement
of the following elements, believed to have been contiguous prior to
the faulting: (i) Central Cordillera-Santa M a r t a Massif, (ii) Middle
Magdalena Basin-Cdsar Basin, (iii) belt of Jurassic dykes and extrusions
found along the east flank of the Central Cordillera and on the southeast flank of the Santa M a r t a Massif, (iv) thrust belt on west margins
of Eastern Cordillera and Perij~ Range. It is also suggested by stratigraphical differences across the fault between the Cdsar Basin and the
now adjacent Lower Magdalena Basin: in the former the succession
consists of Palaeozoic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Palaeocene, Eocene and
Miocene sediments, whereas in the latter Miocene rocks rest unconformably on granite. Vertical separation near the Caribbean coast
amounts to as much as 10,000 m, measured from the base of the
Tertiary in the Lower Magdalena Basin to its inferred position above
the Santa M a r t a Massif, which rises to 5400 m above sea level. The
absence of coarse elastic sediments in the adjacent basin is also significant, implying that the massif was not in its present position during the
Tertiary.
The last movement on the Santa M a r t a fault appears to post-date the
development of the thrust belt bordering the Eastern Cordillera, which
affects U. Miocene beds (Real Fro). It is therefore believed to be of
latest Miocene or Pliocene age and the last major event in the MesozoicTertiary orogeny. Definite evidence of earlier movements has not been
found.
The alignment of the Santander Massif at an oblique angle to the
PACIFIC
COAST
RANG ~

PACIFIC COAST BASIN

/

WESTERN CORDILLERA C A U C A
BASIN

CENTRAL

...I....... I . . . .
....................
~~~/

~i!ili!ii!~!ii!~e~
taceous

CORDILLERA

711

Eastern Cordillera and Mdrida Andes is believed to be related to the

Santa M a r t a fault. The Santander Massif would then be a lineagenic
element in the sense of Hills (1963, p. 315).
(2) Oca-Dolores-Guayaquil Fault System: The Oca fault (Rod
1956; Feo-Codecido 1970) runs from the mouth of Lake Maracaibo
westwards along the northern boundary of the Santa M a r t a Massif.
Parallel faults in the Guajira (Cuiza fault, MacDonald op. cit.) exhibit
a dextral displacement of as much as 15 kin. Estimates of the amount
of lateral displacement of the Oca fault vary; 45 km is accepted by
some geologists, whilst others doubt if any transcurrent movement has
occurred. The fault has probably had a long history of movement,
having been especially active during the Laramide phase. The evidence
for early lateral displacement is partly masked by effects of the Andean
phase, when transcurrent movement m a y not have been dominant.
Campbell (1968) suggested that an extension of the Oca fault,
displaced by the Santa M a r t a fault and buried below the Miocene
sediments of the Lower Magdalena Basin, follows the lower reaches of
the Rio Cauca. Confirmation is required, although faulting parallel
with that postulated is known at outcrop in the Central Cordillera.
This presumed fault is in turn displaced by the sinistral faults-mentioned earlier--at the northern end of the Cauca Basin. It
continues southwards as the Dolores fault, forming the western
boundary of the Central Cordillera, and extends into Ecuador where
it connects with the Guayaquil fault, considered a dextral transcurrent
fault by Marchant (1961). Positive evidence of lateral movements has,
however, not been found in Colombia and the interpretation is largely
conjectural.
134

T H E O V E R A L L EVOLUTION OF THE BELT

Although confirmation must await the results of further study of the

age of certain critical developments of metamorphic rocks, present
evidence suggests that the evolution of the Colombian Andes was
largely accomplished by the progressive westerly migration of sedimentary provinces and tectonic events through Phanerozoic time.
The following brief outline of the evolution of the chain summarizes
the evidence for this hypothesis.
Geosynclinal subsidence occurred in the East Andean region during

MIDDLE
MAGDALENA
BASIN

EASTERN CORDILLERA

LLANOS BASIN

. I ........... ! ..................................................................................................................
. ....
" ...... :':!: :i.:i:i:i:i:i:~:i:!::~ ......... ~:::~:i:~:::~....... '" :l-ert iar~" ":::
iiiii~iiiiiiiii~ ~:i: ............
p
~:~:~:~:~:>~:~:~<.~:~:~.,.~.~.,~,.~.~</~:~.~<f~::~.~~~z~

Tlthonlan

[0

20kin
0

100km

F~ure 4. Diagrammatic Profile showing Variation in the Original Thickness of the Sediments and the Boundaries of Metamorphism. The westward migration of metamorphism in time should be noted.

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

712

COLOMBIAN

ANDES

the early Palaeozoic and was brought to a close by the late Silurian
to early Devonian ('Caledonian') orogenic movements. The geosynclinal rocks were isoclinally folded and faulted by compressive
E - W forces, mildly metamorphosed, uplifted and eroded.
During the late Palaeozoic a new geosyncline is thought to have
developed in the Central Andes, represented by pre-Triassic schists
and phyllites. Shelf and continental conditions prevailed in the
Eastern Andes, where geosynclinal conditions existed previously. This
cycle was brought to a close by early Triassic so-called ('Hercynian')
movements that were responsible for the metamorphism of the geosynclinal prism and for the emplacement of batholiths in both the
Central and Eastern Andes. Widespread volcanic activity, especially
along the eastern margin of the Central Andes, characterized the later
phases of the orogeny possibly as a result of tensional faulting.
During the early (pre-Tithonian) Mesozoic, geosynclinal conditions
prevailed in the western Central Andes, the Cauca Basin and the
Western Andes and are represented by the Dagua Group (preCretaceous). Mainly continental conditions prevailed in the Eastern
Andes although temporary marine incursions entered from the west
and may have been responsible for the deposition of evaporites. The
cycle was brought to a close by Nevadan orogenic movements that
metamorphosed the geosyncline. They were less intense in the Eastern
Andes where they were nevertheless responsible for a major unconformity below the Tithonian.
During the late (post-Tithonian) Mesozoic, miogeosynclinal conditions set in to the east of the Central Andes, while eugeosynclinal
conditions, characterized by the extrusion of submarine lavas, persisted
to the west, from the western Central Andes through the Western
Andes to the Pacific. The Central Andes formed a partly submerged
welt between the two geosynclines and was characterized by the

emplacement of late Cretaceous batholiths, locally accompanied by

metamorphism. Although the sea withdrew from the miogeosynclinal
province in the Maestrichtian and paralic conditions set in during the
Palaeocene and early Eocene, and although diastrophism occurred
during the Palaeocene in the eugeosynclinal province to the west,
essentially the late Mesozoic tectonic cycle persisted until the outbreak
of Laramide orogenic disturbances in the late M. Eocene. These
movements were most intense in the West Andean region where they
were accompanied by igneous activity and possibly even metamorphism
along the western flank of the Central Andes. Deformation was
apparently caused partly by major wrench faulting (see 133).
After the Laramide phase continental conditions continued in the
East Andean region, which now received the greater part of its
sediment by erosion of the Central Andes which had been uplifted
during the preceding movements. Marine conditions persisted in the
West Andean province. The latter was affected by several phases of
intra-Tertiary diastrophism that was responsible for thrusting in the
Montafias de Maria. The majority of these movements were also felt
less intensely in the western part of the East Andean region, especially
in the Magdalena basins, where they caused faulting and important
changes in the sedimentary history. The last phase of this cycle of
tectonism was the pre-U. Miocene 'proto-Andean' movement during
which volcanic activity broke out in the Central Andes.
The main Andean orogenic phase of late Miocene to Pliocene age is
responsible for the greater part of the present structure. In contrast to
earlier orogenic movements, the Andean phase was more intense in the
east than the west. The Eastern Andes were moderately folded and cut
by marginal thrusts. The chain is bilaterally symmetrical suggesting
that deformation was due mainly to vertical movements of the crust,
possibly caused by isostatic adjustment after the long period of sub-

PACIFIC
COAST
RANGE
0
10- ~ , _ - ; .
20-

PACIFICCOAST BASIN

_~ "I':,,.

~-_,

CAUCA
WESTERN CORDILLERA BASIN

7W~

--'T', ......

.... ~..-,

...:~:::..~..

CENTRAL _
'--,

.., - , , , - . K - ~ , . .

. . . .~. ._ ,'- ",:, ,'.--,'-,. . . .

~..~.~.~.~.~:.~.~.~F`~:.:~::~::~:~`:::~?~:~::~::~:~:
]K'~*

~-

"

-'-

304050km-

Tertiary

D-P

Devonian to Permian

Cretaceous & Tithonian

-S

Cambrian to Silurian

Jurassic & Triassic

P- C

Pre- Cambrian

Non - marine Sediments

(T and J)
IMarine (T)

Jmiogeosynclinal (K)
shallow marine & non
marine (D.- P) .and shelf
deposits (E- S)

Figure 5. Profile

across

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN ANDES
sidence to which the belt had been subjected. Indirect evidence from
mineralization suggests that igneous rocks were intruded along the
margins of the chain but they are not exposed. The last major effect
of the phase was the development of a major wrench fault (see ~aa).
In the Central Andes volcanic activity intensified during the Andean
phase, and the Western Andes were also subjected to moderate to mild
diastrophism.
The westerly migration of tectonic elements may result from the
easterly underthrusting of oceanic crust below the continent. It appears
that initially the leading edge of the continent is dragged down by subcrustal currents to form a geosyncline. At a critical point when subsidence has reached a depth of about 15,000 m stress can no longer be
released in this manner, and instead the geosyncline is deformed and
metamorphosed, with the concurrent formation of igneous rocks by
fusion of sediments and the addition of material from the mantle. In
this way the geosynclines become welded to the shield. After stabilization the process begins again to the west of the previous geosyncline
that now acts as the leading edge of the continent.
This hypothesis may explain the observation that intrusions become
progressively younger and more basic in composition from east to west
across the Andes. The Central Andes may mark the western limit of
Pre-Cambrian sialic rocks, and the Western Andes may rest on a
basement composed of oceanic crust, possibly in part represented by
the immense quantities of spilitic lava extruded in this region during
the Cretaceous.
~a5

(i)

CYCLICAL SEDIMENTATIONIN RELATION TO TECTONISM

In the Colombian Andes Cretaceous and Tertiary sedimentation was

713

largly controlled by tectonic activity. The phenomenon is particularly

well demonstrated in the East Andean Cretaceous miogeosyncline.
Biirgl (1960) and Stainforth (1968) have given details of the age and
character of, respectively the Cretaceous and Tertiary cycles. A
typical Cretaceous cycle opens with the deposition of shallow marine
to epicontinental sands, which commonly rest on an eroded surface of
older rocks. Deeper water limestones and shales, passing upwards into
shales alone, follow and are in certain cases succeeded by a return to
shallow water sandstone deposition at the close of the cycle. Such a
cycle is characteristic of the eastern margin of the geosyncline, but
may be also recognized in the central parts--beyond the limit of
sandstone deposition--by alternating shallow and deep water faunas.
These cycles range through several stages and are distinct from the
short-term cyclical sedimentation characteristic of, for example, coal
measure deposition.
The cycles are essentially synchronous and recognizable over great
distances: the cycle which opened in the Albian may, for example, be
traced from Venezuela through Colombia and Ecuador to Peril.
They apparently reflect fundamental events in the structural evolution
of the region that cause uplift of the source areas, concomitant subsidence of the geosyncline and in many cases mild deformation of the
geosynclinal margin.
Superimposed on the regional cycles are the effects of purely local
tectonic events giving rise to minor stratigraphic variation and perhaps
delaying or advancing the development of the relevant phase of the
regional cycle. These local events may lead to diachroneity which is,
however, measured in sub-stages and not the several stages of the
regional cycle and is not, therefore, considered evidence against the
synchroneity of the regional cycles.

EIN 47" W

CORDILLERA
~

S 47" E l

MIDDLE
MAGDALENA
BASIN

EASTERN CORDILLERA

---

.~T--.

-~.,,.~

LLANOS BASIN

..

. . , .

....

.............

g,.-;,:,.{.:rj+ + l ~ ' t n ' / ' d c ' ~ ~ , , " ~ . - ' v /

,~g...c.,.~,,~ l ~ - 4 ~ ~ /

+ ,-, -o-+

,~

-0
-I0
-20
-30

4-

Eugeosynclinal rocks
Metamorphosed
geosynclinal rocks

Igneous rocks

Igneous rocks generated by

the fusion of buried sediments
and by additions from the mantle

(diachronous- old in east, young in west)

the

Colombian Andes.

4-

4-

Pre- Cambrian igneous &

metamorphic rocks forming

continental crust

40
-50kin

IOOkm

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

714
135

COLOMBIAN ANDES

(ii)

The Eastern Andes bifurcate at a point 70 km east of Bucaramanga.

One branch continues across Venezuela as the M6rida Andes to
impinge on the Coast Range near Barquisimeto. The other swings
northwards as the Santander Massif, in turn passing into the Perij~
Range that is ultimately truncated by the Oca Fault. The orientation
of this branch is thought to be largely controlled by the Santa Marta
fault (see 133).
The Central Andes extend from the Ecuadorian border to a point
near E1 Banco where they partly plunge below the Miocene sediments
of the Lower Magdalena Basin and are partly truncated by the Santa
Marta fault. The Santa Marta Massif and the Guajira are believed
to represent parts of an extension of the Central Andes that swings
eastwards below the Gulf of Venezuela and the younger and differently
oriented structures of Falc6n to connect with the Coast Range of
Venezuela. The recognition of this orocline, which is partly offshore,
is made difficult by the effects of major wrench faulting (see 133) and
the superimposition of younger structures in Falc6n. A correlation
between the Central Andes of Colombia and the Coast Range of
Venezuela is, however, suggested by similarities in the evolution of the
two chains, especially the existence of Mesozoic batholiths and late
Cretaceous to Eocene phases of metamorphism.

CORRELATION OF THE COLOMBIAN ANDES WITH THE

ADJACENT OROGENIC BELTS

The Central and Western Andes merge south of Pasto and continue
as a single chain through Ecuador, although the Cuenca Basin and the
graben near Quito form an extension of the intermontane depression
that separates the ranges in Colombia. The Eastern Andes impinge
upon the Central Andes near Moco~ and do not extend as such into
Ecuador, although the Napo and Cutucu uplifts are to a certain extent
analogous structures.
In northern Colombia the Eastern and Western Andes bifurcate,
while the Central Andes swing abruptly eastwards along the northern
margin of the continent. The bifurcation of the Western Andes occurs
at a point of 100 km south-east of the Gulf of Urubd. One branch,
represented by a belt of igneous intrusions forming in part the Loma
de Cuchillo, crosses the lower Atrato valley into Panam~ and forms a
connection between the Andes and the Central American fold-belts.
A parallel and possibly related element is the Pacific Coast Range that
follows the coast from Cabo Corrientes into Panama. The other branch
of the Western Andes swings north-eastwards to form the Montafias de
Maria that pass offshore near Barranquilla.

B. S U B D I V I S I O N

OF THE SEGMENT
Table 3

~IZONES AND ELEMENTS IN THE SEGMENT

1

Cauca
Basin

Middle
Central
Magdalena
Cordillera s u b z o n e

Upper
Magdalena
subzone

Eastern
Cordillera
subzone

7
8
GarzdnQuetame Santander
subzone subzone

c Metamorphic rocks of uncertain

x
ages (L. Devonian + L.-M. Trias +
pre-'Tith' + ?Cretaceous)

Inferred

Inferred

Inferred

Inferred

Inferred

]:x

Inferred

Inferred

Inferred ?x

Elements

Western
Cordillera

a Volcanic cap (?U. Mioc) Plioc-Rec

b Sedimentary cover (DevonianU. Mioc)

d L. Palaeozoic strata metamorphosed at end of L. Palaeozoic

e Pre-Cambrian basement

[? if?

Oceanic Oceanic
Lcrust _! Lcrust _1

?x

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN ANDES

C. D A T A

ON INDIVIDUAL
ZONES

STRUCTURAL

Z O N E 1. W E S T E R N C O R D I L L E R A
~o~ Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 kin). ~0s-:z Areas o f
the zone occupied by the outcrop o f rock types: volcanic 40%; plutonic 5%;

sedimentary 10% ; metamorphic 45%.

~z~-:: Elements: the strata of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are
faulted and isoclinally folded. The schists and phyllites of the 1V[etamorphic complex (element c) are ?isoclinally folded. Deformation has
probably produced E - W shortening of elements b and c, although
vertical movements are mainly responsible for the structure. Element b
rests unconformably on element c. Any basement rock unit (?oceanic
crust) beneath element c is unexposed.

Table 4
STRATIGRAPHY IN ZONE 1
~o Age and
evidencefor
age

~:~ Unit

Diabase
Gp
Dagua
Gp

~ Thickness
m

3~: Lithology

Cret (?& 'Tith') ;

oldest fossils
Barrem, youngest
Senon
?Jur; metamorphic
rocks underlying
?'Tith' & C r e t

~ Element
in which
the rocks
occur

Black shale, siliceous ?10,000

argillite, chert,
spiliticpillow lava &
andesitic tuff & lava
Phyllite& schist, with ?10,000
graphitic,tuffaceous,
calcareous& siliceous
members

NW

I~

715

~:~-:~ Outcrop areas o f the elements: b and c both outcrop over the whole
zone (length 800 kin; width 50-100 kin, average (60 kin).
3~6-3~ Igneous activity: Episode 1--metamorphosed intermediate and
basic tufts of?Jurassic age occur in element c (Nelson 1962). Episode 2
--Cretaceous and 'Tithonian' vulcanism is indicated by the intermediate and basic lavas and tufts of element b; submarine activity,
probably in deep water, is indicated by pillow structures; the proportion of volcanic components decreases from about 90% in zone 2
to about 10% on the Pacific Coast, and is perhaps 75% in zone 1, thus
suggesting derivation from the western margin of the Central Cordillera
(zone 3). Volume (for zones 1 and 2 combined)--?250,000 km 3.
Episode 3--acid and intermediate major intrusions cut elements b and
c and are probably of Tertiary age; they cut Cretaceous strata and
?pre-date the U. Eocene and/or the U. Miocene phases of mobility;
also, there is evidence of Laramide and proto-Andean igneous activity
in adjoining basins. Volume--?20,000 km 3.
~5-4~ Metamorphism: low-grade regional metamorphism affected element
c in pre-Barremian times, probably in the late Kimmeridgian (i.e.
Nevadan): the metamorphism pre-dates the fossiliferous Cretaceous
strata of element b. Basic rocks contain chlorite, actinolite, albite,
clinozoisite, epidote, titanite, leucoxene, calcite and quartz. Pelitic
rocks contain quartz, albite, biotite, calcite and graphite.
Unconfirmed reports indicate that Tertiary rocks are metamorphosed
locally and these should therefore be removed from the Dagua Gp.
Differentiation is not possible, however, on present information.
34~-s Deformation: (Phase 1 Nevadan)--intense folding and faulting,
leading to regional metamorphism, affected element c in pre-Barremian
times, probably in the late Kimmeridgian: the movements pre-date
the fossiliferous Cretaceous strata of element b. Later phases--direct

_1

ZONE I

~,,o

--

8ii

0
I

10kin
I

~"

~" -

~l

SE
(.f,x

IOkm
~

Tertiary strata

Kd

DiabaseGp

Calcareous ~ Members Jn ~he

Tertiary granitic rocks

Dg

DaguaGp

Volcanic

Figure 6. Profile across the Western Cordillera (zone I).

j> Dagua Gp

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

716

COLOMBIAN ANDES

evidence of the occurrence of later phases in zone 1, other than the

deformed nature of the Cretaceous, is lacking; the adjacent basins were
affected by Palaeocene, Laramide (late M. Eocene), proto-Andean
(late M. Miocene) and Andean (late U. Miocene) phases, however.
85o-5 Fold structures: details of the folds produced by phase 1 are not
known and on present information it is not possible to distinguish the
effects of later, individual phases. The axial surfaces of the phase 1 and
later folds are mainly steeply dipping and lineation and foliation
structures are present in element c as a result of phase 1 (Nelson 1957,
1962).
Z O N E 2. C A U C A BASIN
808 Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). 808-11Areas of
the zone occupied by the outcrops of rock types: volcanic 30%; plutonic 3%;

sedimentary 65% ; metamorphic 2%.

813-14 Elements: the oldest rocks of the Volcanic cap (element a) are
Table 5
STRATIGRAPHY IN ZONE 2
~22 Thickness 323 Element

~19 Unit

~2oAge and
evidencefor
age

Gale6n Fm

m
321Lithology

Average

?Plioc,stratigraphical position

Volcanic conglomerate,tuff,
sandstone

450

Patia &
Buga Fms

?U. Mioc,
stratigraphical
position

Continental
conglomerate,
sandstone

1500

Marafi6n &
Morales
Fms

?L.-M. M i o c ,
stratigraphical
position

Continental
massive sandstones

Vijes
Limestone

Olig-L. M i o c ,
foraminifera

Biohermal
limestone

300

Cauca Gp

U. Eoc, f r e s h
water molluscs &
stratigraphic
position

Carbonaceous
siltstone,coal,
sandstone, minor
conglomerates

600

Nogales
Fm

Palaeoc,foraminlfera & pollen

Chert, sandstone

600

Diabase
Gp

Cret & 'Tith',

fossils (see zone 1)

Spilite, black shale,

siliceousargillite,
chert

? 10,000

Schist, phyllite

?10,000

Dagua Gp

Pre-'Tith',
stratigraphical
position

in which
the rocks
occur

moderately deformed and the youngest are flat lying; they rest unconformably on older rocks. The rocks of the Sedimentary cover (element
b) and of the Metamorphic complex (element c) have probably been
affected by E - W shortening due to deformation, although possible
wrench faulting is partly responsible for their structure; the contact
relation of the two elements is unknown. Any basement rock unit
(?oceanic crust) beneath element c is unexposed.
z15-16 Outcrop areas of the elements: a is a local volcanic capping originating from zone 3; b and c outcrop over the whole zone (length 700 km;
width 25 to 40 kin).
336-32 Igneous activity: Episode 1--metamorphosed intermediate and
basic tufts of?Jurassic age occur in element c (Nelson 1957). Episode 2
--see zone 1, episode 2. Episode 3--irregular, plug-like intrusions of
serpentine were emplaced in ?U. Eocene (Laramide) times; they cut
Cretaceous rocks but underlie the Vijes Limestone; they appear to be
related to the Dolores fault on the east margin of the zone (this line
was possibly also the main source of Cretaceous submarine extrusions).
V o l u m e - - ? l km 3. Episode 4--rhyolite lavas and intrusions mainly of
intermediate composition formed in ?U. Eocene (Laramide) times;
the lavas underlie the Vijes Limestone. Volume--?5000 km 3. Episode
5--vulcanism of Pliocene to Recen tage has produced andesitic lavas,
tufts and agglomerates and major intrusions of intermediate composition; the age of the rocks is inferred from geomorphology; the
volcanoes are currently semi-quiescent. Volume--?1200 km 3.

greenschist facies metamorphism has affected

element c, see zone 1.
844-8 Deformation: Phase 1 (Nevadan)--see zone 1, phase 1. Phase 2
(Laramide)--strong folding and wrench faulting (see 183) affected
elements b and c in the post-Palaeocene to pre-U. Eocene interval,
probably in late M. Eocene times; evidence for the age is provided
by an unconformity between fossiliferous sediments. Phase 3 (protoA n d e a n ) - - m o d e r a t e folding and faulting affected elements b and c,
probably in late M. Miocene times by analogy with the Eastern Andes.
Phase 4 (Andean)--faulting and subsidiary folding and the rejuvenation
of wrench faults affected elements b, c and (a) probably in late U.
Miocene to Pliocene times by analogy with the Eastern Andes. The
ages of deformation phases 3 and 4 are doubtful because of the uncertainties in the ages of the unfossiliferous strata.
335-4~ Metamorphism:

2500
(> 1300,
<3000)

850-5 Fold structures: details of the phase 1 folds are not known. Phase 2

and 3 folds are masked by those of phase 4. The latter are large-scale,
gentle synclines separated by steeply dipping fault zones which are
possibly controlled by wrench faults. Two such folds occur on average
in a cross-section of the zone. Apical angles of the anticlines are
typically 10 ; axial surfaces are vertical. See Nelson (1957). Lineation
and foliation structures are present in element c as a result of phase 1.

J
c

866-~ Faulting: numerous straight (average trend 030 ) and apparently

steeply dipping faults, indicated by zones of steep to vertical dip, occur

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

C O L O M B I A N ANDES

L_.
I--

717

ZONE 2

W'NW

ESEI
.A~o(c

~" 3~,
~~

"

~)0\0~2 Serp

5kin

0
[

5kin
I

Figure 7. Profile across Cauca Basin (zone 2). (Kd--Diabase Gp; Tc--Cauca Gp; Tm--Marafion Fm; Tp--Patia Fm; Ta--Arboleda Fm; Tg--Gale6n
Fm; Q--Quaternary terrace). The majority of the faults are thought to have transcurrent displacements: the Mercaderes Shear-Fold is interpreted
as a flexure genetically associated with transcurrent faulting.

separated by wide synclines. T h e y do not exhibit recognizable stratigraphical separation, which together with their a l i g n m e n t parallel
with the Dolores fault m a y m e a n t h a t the movements (possibly not
great, ?dextral) have been m a i n l y lateral. T h e youngest beds affected
are U. Miocene b u t faulting m a y have c o m m e n c e d in the U. Eocene
or earlier.

Z O N E 3. C E N T R A L

Table 6
S T R A T I G R A P H Y IN Z O N E 3
822

8z~ Unit

Volcanic
rocks

Plioc (& ?U.

Mioc) to Present;
undeformed,
therefore postAndean phase

Cretaceous

Alb, fossils

CORDILLERA

303 Zone margins are n a r r o w l y g r a d a t i o n a l ( to 3 km). 30s-zi Areas o f

the zone occupied by the outcrop o f rock types: volcanic 17%; plutonic 30%;
sedimentary 3% ; m e t a m o r p h i c 50%.
~z~-z4 Elements: rocks of the Volcanic cap (element a) are flat lying a n d
rest u n c o n f o r m a b l y on older rocks. S e d i m e n t a r y cover rocks (element
b) occur in m i n o r grabens filled with Cretaceous strata; they rest
u n c o n f o r m a b l y on the isoclinally folded schists a n d phyllites of the
M e t a m o r p h i c complex (elements c a n d d) ; these two groups of elements
(b, c-d) h a v e p r o b a b l y been affected by E - W shortening due to
deformation. U n c o n f o r m a b l y b e n e a t h elements c - d lie the gneisses a n d
plutonic rocks of the P r e - C a m b r i a n b a s e m e n t (element e).
815-16 Outcrop areas o f the elements: a outcrops as dissected terraces m a i n l y
s u r r o u n d i n g volcanic centres; b occurs over 230 x 5-15 k m ; c a n d d
outcrop over the whole zone (length 1000 kin; width 30-150 km,
average 80 kin).

330 Age and

evidencefor
age

Jurassic
&U.
Triassic
*Cajamarca
Gp
PreCam-

brian

831Lithology

Thickness m

Maxi- Minimum mum

Andesite lava
& tuff

Limestone,
basal conglomerate
Locally present in fault blocks on the
east of the zone but essentially part
of zones 4 and 5
Ordovic--late
Cret

Schist, phyllite, 20,000 10,000

slate

Radiometric ages
determined by the
U.S.G.S.

Igneou~ rocks

823 E l e m e n t

in which
the rocks

Average

occur

?200

?200

c, d

* Cajamarca Gp is a blanket term which covers metamorphic rocks from several

distinct sequences that may have been affected by more than one phase of metamorphism.

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

718

COLOMBIAN ANDES

326--32Igneous activity: Episode 1--Pre-Cambrian radiometric ages have

been determined for acid, major intrusives by the U.S.G.S. Episode 2 - intermediate lavas and tufts and alkaline major intrusions formed in
early Triassic times; they underlie fossiliferous U. Triassic strata.
Episode 3--intermediate lavas and tufts and intermediate and basic
dykes and sills of Jurassic age occur interbedded in the Giron Gp along
the east margin of the zone (see zone 4). Episode 4--acid major
intrusions in elements c and d have given radiometric age of 79 m.y.
and 110 m.y. (Cretaceous). Episode 5--Pliocene (?and U. Miocene)
to Recent vulcanism has produced intermediate lavas and tufts; the
age of these rocks is indicated by their unfolded nature and the
existence of volcanoes with minor current activity; an U. Miocene
tuff in zone 4 has probably been derived from the same sources; the
volcanoes occur in a straight line, parallel with and possibly related
to the Dolores fault on the west margin of the zone. Volume--?4500
km 3.

Albian to pre-U. Eocene interval, probably during the Subhercynian

or Laramide phases: Cretaceous fossils occur locally (Senonian forams)
in the metamorphosed rocks (Bfirgl, personal communication).
344-8 Deformation: zone 3 has a long history of deformation, the details
of which are not known (see Feininger 1970). The above phases of
metamorphism correspond to the main movements. In addition, the
zone was uplifted and faulted during the Tertiary, especially during
the Laramide, proto-Andean and Andean phases.
366-72 Faulting: Tertiary faults, probably originating in the Laramide
phase but since rejuvenated, affect all elements except a. Details are
not known, but many of the faults parallel the Dolores fault and may
belong to the same system.

335-~2 Metamorphism: the metamorphic history of this zone has not been
worked out in detail but evidence from isolated localities points to the
following phases (Nelson 1957). Phase 1--high grade metamorphism of
Pre-Cambrian age is inferred by analogy with the Santa Marta Massif.
Phase 2--low-grade regional metamorphism affected elements c and d
in mid-Palaeozoic times, probably in the early Devonian: the metamorphosed rocks locally contain Ordovician graptolites (Harrison
1930). Phase 3--low-grade regional metamorphism affected elements
c and d in the early Mesozoic, probably in L.-NI. Triassic times: the
metamorphosed rocks underlie fossiliferous Carnian strata (Trumpy
I943). Phase 4 low-grade regional metamorphism affected elements
c and d in the late Aptian to pre-U. Albian interval : the metamorphosed
rocks locally contain Aptian fossils and underlie fossiliferous U. Albian
strata (Bfirgl & Radelli 1962). Phase 5--low-grade regional (and
?partly thermal) metamorphism affected elements c and d in the post-

WNW

I"

SUB-ZONE 4. M I D D L E M A G D A L E N A BASIN
3o3 Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). 310 Sedimentary
rocks outcrop over the whole zone.
312-14 Elements: the strata of the Volcanic cap (element a) are undeformed and rest unconformably on older rocks. Rocks of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are moderately folded and faulted;
deformation has produced some E - W shortening, although vertical
movements are dominant. The rocks of elements c-d (1V[etamorphic
complex) and e (Pre-Cambrian basement) are unexposed.
315-16 Outcrop areas of the elements: a and b outcrop over the whole zone
width (90-20 kin, average 55 km); b outcrops along the whole length
of the zone (350 km).

ZONE

ESE

I'

QUATERNARY &
0
I

10km
I

UPPER TERTIARY
L. TERTIARY

t-

~ I
~]

Alluvial fan
Extrusive rocks
Shales & Sandstones

M- U. CRETACEOUS ~ ]

Diabase flows

PERMIAN

Rhyodacitic flows

~Grandiorites
CAJAMARCA
GROUP

Figure 8. Profile across Central Cordillera (zone 3) (After Nelson, 1957).

~ G n e i s s i c quartzschists

~-~Undifferentiated ~
Quartzphyllites
metamorphicrocks
~-~Greenschists
i"~JiDiabase flows
" ' & amphibolites
~ G r a p h i t e schists [~-'~CrystaHine limestone

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

C O L O M B I A N ANDES

719

Table 7
S T R A T I G R A P H Y IN Z O N E 4

322 T h i c k n e s s

322 Thickness m
320

319

Unit
Mesa Fm

Age and
evidencefor
age
Plioc,
stratigraphic
position

321

Lithology
Tuffaceous sand,
gravel

Maxi- Mini- Avermum mum age

600

300

Real Fm

U. Mioc,
stratigraphic
position

Continental
3600
sandstone, shale,
conglomerate

400 2000

Chuspas
Gp

Olig-Mioc,
fossils

3200
Continental
clay, sandstone,
siltstone

575

Chorro Gp

U. Eoc, fossils
including
pollen

Continental
sandstone, clay

2300

Lisama Fm

Palaeoc,
pollen

Continental
siltstone, minor
sandstone

1225

Umir Fm

CampanMaestr, pollen

Paralic,
carbonaceous
siltstone, coal

La Luna
Fm

Turon-Santon,
ammonites

Argillaceous
limestone, chert

Tablazo,
Simiti &
Salto Fms

Alb-Cenoman,
ammonites

Limestone,
shale

Paja Shale

Barrem-Apt,
ammonites

Shale

in which
the rocks
OCCUr

333 E l e m e n t

in which
the rocks

Maxi- Mini- Avermum

mum
age

391 L i t h o g y

Rosa
Blanca
Limestone

Haut-Barrem,
ammonites

Limestone

425

150

300

Tamb6r
Fm

Haut,
ammonites

Sandstone

650

500

Gir6n Gp

Jurassic,
palaeobotany
& local
ammonites

Red beds,
sandstone, clay,
conglomerate

4000

oc~lgr

1000 2000

3~6-32 Igneous activity: i n t e r m e d i a t e lavas a n d tufts, w i t h associated

dykes, o c c u r i n t e r b e d d e d in the G i r 6 n G p of J u r a s s i c age; t h e y are
exposed o n l y a l o n g the west m a r g i n of the zone a n d a d j a c e n t to zone 3.

1225 1500

950

a9 Unit

1000

335-4~ Metamorphism: see zone 5.

344-8 Deformation: see zone 5.
3ee-72 Faulting: sub-surface studies i n d i c a t e periods o f f a u l t i n g ( p r o b a b l y
n o r m a l a n d reverse block faults) p r i o r to U. M i o c e n e a n d U. E o c e n e
times. I t is difficult to i d e n t i f y these systems o f faults because t h e y are
m a s k e d b y y o u n g e r faults. T h e a n t i c l i n a l structures are m a i n l y fault
controlled. Naps s h o w i n g f a u l t s - - s e e M o r a l e s et al. (1958).

1000

1000

675

280

500 I b

1095

450

750

625

125

400

SUB-ZONE

5. U P P E R

1VIAGDALENA B A S I N

3o3 Zone margins are n a r r o w l y g r a d a t i o n a l ( to 3 k m ) . T h e n o r t h e r n

b o u n d a r y w i t h zone 4 is g r a d a t i o n a l ; some a u t h o r s place it f u r t h e r
south ( H o u t e n & T r a v i s 1968; C o r r i g a n 1967). 30s-n Areas of the zone
occupied by the outcrop of rock types: v o l c a n i c 2%; p l u t o n i c 5%; s e d i m e n t a r y
93%.
312-14 Elements: the s t r a t a o f the V o l c a n i c c a p ( e l e m e n t a) are u n SE

NW

323 E l e m e n t

3~o Age and

evidence
for age

'

r5-6
~:,o
:~i;!i; ::~~ >-~:~:-~:~~'~:~:..................

TI6-

r,-3

17

TII-15

='~:~: :~: ....

-i~

S-

rocks
I

IOkm0
IL

IOkm
!

, $

Figure 9. Profile across Middle Magdalena Basin (zone 4) (J--Jurassic: K3-5--Hauterivian to Aptian; Ke---Albian; KT-X--Cenomanian to Santonian; K 11-12~
Campanian and Maestrichtian; T1-3--Danian to Ypresian; TS-6--Ledian and Ludian; T 7-1--Lattorfian to L. Aquitanian; Tn-15--U. Aquitanian to Tortonian
T 16-17 Sarmatian and Pontian).

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

720

COLOMBIAN ANDES

deformed and rest unconformably on older rocks. Rocks of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are moderately folded and faulted;
deformation has produced some E - W shortening, although vertical
movements are dominant. The rocks of elements c-d (Metamorphic
complex) and e (Pre-Cambrian basement) are unexposed (Fig. 10).
3x5-1n Outcrop areas of the elements: a occurs in isolated terraces derived
from zone 3 and on the western margin of the Basin; b outcrops over
the whole zone (length 500 kin; width 20-60 kin, average 35 km).
Table 8
STRATIGRAPHY

IN ZONE 5
322 T h i c k n e s s m

32o

319 Unit

Age and
evidencefor
age

321 Lithology

Maxi- Mini- Avermum

mum
age

in which
the rocks
occur

Mesa Fm

Plioc,
stratigraphic
position

Tuffaceous
sand, gravel

1200

Honda Fm

U. Mioc,
vertebrates &
stratigraphic
position

Conglomerate
& sandstone,
continental

3100 1200 2000

La Cira
Fm

L. Mioc (?&
Olig) pollen?
& vertebrates

Continental
1500
clay & sandstone

600

1000

Gualanday
Gp

U. Eoc-Olig
pollen

Continental
conglomerate
& clay

3400

600

1500

Guaduas
Fm

Late Cret &

Palaeoc

Clay, sandstone, 2000

local conglomerate,
mixed marine
& non-marine

700

1000

Guadalupe
Fm

Maestr,
molluscs

Sandstone &
local conglomerate (marine)

100

30

100

Villeta Fm

Alb-Campan,
ammonites

Black shale,
chert, limestone

1000

400

1000

Caballos
Fm

Alb (?& Apt),

ammonites

Sandstone &
limestone

300

100

200

Motema
Fm (postPayand6
Red Beds of
Trumpy
1943)

L.-M. Jur,
correlation

Red sandstone,
volcanic rocks,
local marine
limestone

Payand6
Fm

Nor & Cam

Limestone, basal
red beds (PrePayande Fm)

323 E l e m e n t

1000

700

500

I000

500

300

32n-3~ Igneous activity: Episode 1--alkaline batholiths and related acid

to alkaline extrusive rocks formed in L. to M. Triassic times; intrusive
contacts are not exposed but the rocks must be earlier than the fossiliferous U. Triassic strata; also, on the evidence from zone 6 (position of
extrusive equivalents-), they must be post-Carboniferous. V o l u m e - ?125,000 km 3. Episode 2--acid and intermediate lavas and tufts occur
interbedded in the Gir6n/Motema Fms and are of L. Jurassic age.
Volume--160 km 3.
335-~2 Metamorphism: the presence of metamorphic rocks, of midPalaeozoic and L.-M. Triassic age, beneath the zone is inferred from
the conditions in zones 3 and 7.
344--8Deformation: Phase 1--intense deformation and metamorphism
probably affected the rocks of element d in this zone in late Silurian
times, by analogy with zone 6. Phase 2--deformation affected elements
b, c and d in the Permian to late M. Triassic interval, probably in
L.-M. Triassic times; block faulting occurred in the east and intense
deformation in the west; this phase is based on the presumed existence
in this zone of metamorphic rocks beneath fossiliferous Carnian strata.
Phase 3 (Nevadan)--deformation may have affected element b in the
post-M. Jurassic to pre-Albian interval, probably in early 'Tithonian'
times; the existence of this phase is suspected on regional grounds.
Phase 4 (Laramide)--faulting and folding affected element b in the
post-Palaeocene to pre-U. Eocene interval and is evidenced by an
unconformity beneath U. Eocene strata. Phase 5 (Andean)--folding
and faulting affected element b in the U. Miocene to Pliocene interval
and is evidenced by an unconformity beneath Pliocene strata.
350-5 Fold structures: folds produced during the earlier phases are masked
by the effects of the stronger Andean phase. Phase 5 folds have varying
sizes, typical apical angles of 70 and east-dipping axial planes; on
average, two folds larger than 1 km in size occur in a cross-section of
the zone.
366--74Faulting: details of faults developed before the Andean phase are
not known. The northern part of the sub-zone is affected by block
faulting (mainly normal faults downthrowing < 100 m to the east),
probably initiated during the Laramide phase but periodically reactivated especially during the Andean phase. Andean thrusting affects
the zone (see lXl). Map showing faults--Morales et al. (1958).

SUB-ZONE 6. E A S T E R N C O R D I L L E R A
303 Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). 310 Sedimentary
rocks outcrop over the whole of the zone.
312-14 Elements: the strata of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are
moderately folded and thrusted; they have been affected by some
E - W shortening, but movements were mainly vertical. The rocks of
elements c-d (iVfetamorphic complex) and e (Pre-Cambrian basement)
are unexposed.
315-16 Outcrop areas of the elements: b outcrops over the whole zone

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN ANDES

Igneous activity: hydrothermal veins and mineralization (including

the famous emerald deposits) occur in the thrust belts bordering the
zone. This activity is probably of late Tertiary age, related to the
Andean phase, and suggests the presence of batholiths at depth.
335-41 M e t a m o r p h i s m : none of the exposed rocks in the zone are metamorphosed, but a late Palaeozoic phase of metamorphism is inferred.
344-8 Deformation: Phase 1--intense deformation and metamorphism is
inferred to have affected element d in mid-Palaeozoic times by analogy
with zone 7. Phase 2--?block faulting affected elements b and d in the
Permian to U. Triassic interval, probably in L.-M. Triassic times.
Phase 3 (Nevadan)--deformation may have affected elements b and d
in the Liassic to pre-'Tithonian' interval, probably in late Kimmeridgian times and is evidenced by the unconformity beneath 'Tithonian'
strata. Phase ~ mild deformation affected elements b and d in the
Valanginian to Hauterivian interval and is evidenced by a minor
unconformity beneath Hauterivian strata. Phase 5--mild deformation
affected elements b and d in the Aptian to Albian interval and is
evidenced by an unconformity. Phase 6 (Subhercynian)--mild deformation affected elements b and d in the Coniacian to Campanian
interval and is evidenced by a minor unconformity. Phase 7 (Laramide)
- - m i l d deformation affected elements b and d in the Palaeocene to
U. Eocene interval, probably in late M. Eocene times, and is evidenced
by a disconformity. Phase 8 (Andean)--elements b and d were affected by moderate folding and thrusting probably in late U. Miocene
times; see zones 4 and 5.
350-5 F o l d structures: folds of earlier phases cannot be identified because
of the effects of the Andean phase. Folds produced by the latter have:
average amplitude 3 km, average wavelength 8 kin, vertical axial
surfaces and, on average, five folds larger than 1 km occur in a crosssection of the zone (see Campbell & Bfirgl 1965, p. 1).
366-74 Faulting: a series of thrusts, representing the southern termination
of the Santa Marta fault (see 133), cut the north central part of this zone.
They presumably have a large horizontal component. They dip N W
and the south-east plate is downthrown relative to the north-western
plate. See Campbell (1968) for maps showing faults.

(length 140-600 km, average 400 km; width 60-200 kin, average
150 km); d probably underlies b throughout the zone.

326--32

Table 9
STRATIGRAPHY IN ZONE 6
322

and
evidencefor
age

Thickness m

.q23

3~0 Age

az9 Unit

Usme-Concentraci6n
Fins
RegaderaPicacho
Fins
Guaduas
Fm

U. Eoc-?Mioc,
forams&
pollen
U. Eoc,
stratigraphic
position
U. MaestrPalaeoc, pollen
& ammonites
CampanMaestr, foraminit~ra
Haut-Santon,
ammonites

3~zLithology

Maxi- Mini- Avermum mum age

Clay, fine sand- 1300

stone, ironstone,
local coal
Conglomeratic
180
sandstone

500

Element

in which
the rocks
occur

500 "~

90

721

150

Red & grey

1000 300 500
clay, coal,
sandstone
Guadalupe
Sandstone,
800 400 700
Fm
siliceous
argillite
Villeta Gp
Black shale,
5700 2200 4000
limestone,
sandstone
C~iqueza
'Tith'-Valang,
Blackshale, lime- 3000 I500 2500
Gp
ammonites
stone, sandstone,
turbidites, basal
conglomerate
Gir6n Fm
L.-M.Jur,
Continentalred
2500
(subsurface) marinefossils
beds with marine
intercalations &
?evaporites
U. PalaeoM. Devon,
Shallow marine
1200
zoic
Carb & ?Perm, sandstones,shales
molluscs
& limestone &
continental red
beds

,6~,#,.

NW

O-~-i~- _1, "ill--%,,xt ~1"

....

r.

.........

~'

"~

SE
0

<'.t;~,;:.....

-5km

5km

0L

5~m

?Met

"~"",~'~"i~ ......

Figure 10. Profile across Upper Magdalena Basin (zone 5) (Tr--Triassic; Tr-ig--Triassic igneous rocks; JqJurassic; KS--Albian; KV-l--Cenomanian to Santonian; K11-lz-

Campanian and Maestrichtian; TK--Uppcr Maestrichtian and Paleocene; T6---Upper Eocene; T6-1--Uppcr Eocene to Lower Aquitanian; TS-Z~---Upper Eocene to
Hclvetian; TZe-zv--Sarmatian and Pontian).

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

722

COLOMBIAN

SUB-ZONE 7. GARZ(~N-QUETAME MASSIF

3o8 Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). 808-10Areas of
the zone occupied by the outcrop of rock types: plutonic 45% ; sedimentary 5% ;
metamorphic 50%.
~1~-14 Elements: the strata of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are
moderately deformed and have been affected by some NW-SE
shortening, but their structure is mainly due to vertical movements;
they rest unconformably on the older rocks. The rocks of the Metamorphic complex (element d) are strongly deformed and have been
affected by NW-SE shortening. The Pre-Cambrian basement rocks
(element e) consist of high-grade metamorphic and plutonic rocks
which are strongly deformed.
315--16 Outcrop areas of the elements: b now outcrops only in isolated
patches; d and e outcrop over the whole zone (length 600 km; width,
average 50 kin, maximum 85 km).

ANDES

885-4~ Metamorphism: Phase I--low-grade regional metamorphism affected element d in the Ordovician to M. Devonian interval, probably
in late Silurian to early Devonian times. Phase 2 ('Hercynian')-metamorphism, probably of contact type, produced local high-grade
rocks associated with 'Hercynian' granites in the Garz6n Massif during
the Carboniferous to U. Triassic interval, probably in L.-M. Triassic
times.
844-SDeformation: Phase 1--intense folding and faulting affected
element d in mid-Palaeozoic times, see metamorphic phase 1. Phase
2--?block faulting affected elements b and d in the post-Carboniferous
to pre-Carnian interval, probably in L.-M. Triassic times. Deformation
phases 4 to 8 of zone 6 have probably affected this zone also, but they
cannot be specifically identified.
85-~Fold structures: deformation phase 1 produced isoclinal folds with
axial planes whose dip varies from 30 to the SE in the north-west,
through vertical, to 60 to the NW in the south-east of the zone. Fold
structures due to later movements have not been distinguished.

Table 10
STRATIGRAPHY

Sl9 Unit

820 Age and

evidence f o r
age

IN ZONE 7

331 Lithology

SUB-ZONE 8. SANTANDER MASSIF

333 Element
833 Thickness
in which
m
the rocks
Average
occur

Red Beds

L.-M. Trias?,
stratigraphic
position

Continental red
beds with volcanic
rocks

2000

U.
Palaeozoic

M. Devon, Carb &

?Perm fossils
(Campbell &
Biirgl 1965)

Marine shale,
sandstone & limestone & continental
red beds

1100

Q.uetame
Gp

L. Palaeozoic
(mainly Ordovician), graptolites
& stratigraphic
position

Phyllite &
quartzite locally
passing into slate &
quartzite with
limestone

?3000

Granites
(in Garz6n
Massif)

?Pre-Cambrian,
petrological
conclusions of
Radelli (1967)

8~6-89. Igneous activity: Episode 1--alkaline major intrusions cut the

Quetame Gp but underlie M. Devonian strata; they are little known
(Radelli 1967, p. 135). Episode 2--alkaline major intrusions cut
Carboniferous strata but underlie Jurassic rocks; together with the
associated acid lavas and tufts they are probably of L.-M. Triassic age.

803 Zone margins are narrowly gradational ( to 3 km). 809-n Areas of

the zone occupied by the outcrop of rock types: plutonic 50% ; sedimentary 5% ;
metamorphic 45%.
812-14 Elements: the strata of the Sedimentary cover (element b) are
moderately deformed and rest unconformably on older rocks. The
Metamorphic complex (element d) consists of strongly deformed
metamorphic rocks. The Pre-Cambrian basement (element e) consists
of high-grade metamorphic and plutonic rocks.
315-16 Outcrop areas of the elements: b is only preserved in isolated outliers;
d and e outcrop over the whole zone (length 400 km; width, average
50 kin, maximum 70 km).
82~-3~ Igneous activity: alkaline major intrusions, lavas and tufts of
various ages (U. Devonian, L. Carboniferous, early Triassic) occur
but are poorly known.
835-42 Metamorphism : Phase l--low-grade regional metamorphism
affected elements b and d in the Ordovician to M. Devonian interval,
probably in late Silurian to early Devonian times; muscovite, biotite,
chlorite and albite occur in pelitic rocks. Phase 2 ('Hercynian')--highgrade gneisses formed in elements b and d associated with granite
emplacement in the M. Devonian to Jurassic interval, probably in
Carboniferous to early Triassic times.
844-SDeformation: Phase 1---intense folding and faulting affected
element d in mid-Palaeozoic times, see metamorphic Phase 1. Phase 2 mild deformation affected elements b and d in the L. to M. Pennsylvanian interval and is evidenced by an unconformity below M.
Pennsylvanian strata. Deformation phases 2 to 8 of zone 6 have

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

COLOMBIAN

[_
F

ANDES

723

ZONE 8

-I

E
MIDDLE MAGDALENA VALLEY

~.~ ~-

SANTANDER MASSIF

N, LLANOS

.~ ..~.
....

"

'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

~-~

.~.

--

FOOTHILLS

D-C
-

,~. . . . . . .

v,-,~

" ~ ' -

'"

-I Okra

10km-

,Okra

Tertiary strata

Triassic granite

~Triassic

migmatite

Figure 11. Profile across Santander Massif (zone 8) (C-O--Cambro-Ordovician; D-C--Devonian to Carboniferous; KS-5--Hauterivian to Aptian; K ~ - ~ A l b i a n
Cenomanian; KS-12--Turonian to Maestrichtian; for legend in Middle Magdalena Basin, see Fig. 9.)

Table 11

STRATIGRAPHY IN ZONE 8

819 Unit

330 Age and

evidence jbr
age

Umir Fm

331 Lithology

333 Element
in which
333 Thickness
the rocks
m
occur

Campan-Maestr,
foraminifera

Carbonaceous
shale

La Luna
Fm

Turon-Santon,
ammonites

Black shale, chert,

argillaceous
limestone

200

Uribante
Fm

Alb, *Cenom

Sandstone &
limestone

500

Gir6n Gp

Jur, ammonites in
marine intercalations

Continental red
beds

Bocas Fm

Pennsylvanian,
palaeobotany

Continental red
beds

300

Surat/t Fm

Mississippian,
marine fossils

Sandstone, shale &

marl

600

Ouetame
Gp (in
Floresta
Massif only)

L. Palaeozoic
(?mainly Ordovician), stratigraphic position

Phyllite &
quartzite

590

Gneiss (in
Floresta
Massif only)

?Pre-Cambrian,
inferred from high
metamorphic grade
& stratigraphic
position

to

probably affected this zone but cannot be distinguished. Wrench

faulting related to the Santa Marta fault is believed to be responsible
for the dominant structure of the zone.
36G-V~Faulting: groups of faults occur which are parallel with and
related to the Santa Marta fault (see z33).

1000

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1000
( < 3500,
> 100)

This contribution derives from a study of the geology of Colombia

made in 1966 for the British Petroleum Company Limited whose help
in releasing information is gratefully acknowledged. The author wishes
to thank Dr. J. E. Ramlrez (Director, Instituto Geoflsico de Los Andes
Colombianos, Bogota) for supplying geophysical and seismic information and the United States Geological Survey for allowing unpublished
radiometric dates to be included.

D.

* Some authors indicate that the Cretaceous succession ranges down to the Valanginian, a conclusion based on lithological comparisons with zone 4, but this is doubted
by the writer.

REFERENCES

Boa~Ro ARANGO,G. 1963. Contribuci6n al conocimiento de la geologia de la zona

central de Antioquia. An. Fac. Minas Medellin, 57
BRUYN, J. W. DE. 1951. Isogram maps of Caribbean Sea and surroundings and of
southeast Asia. Proc. 3rd Wld. Petrol. Congr. 1, 598-612.
BOROL, H. 1958. Biostratigrafla de la s~bana de Bogot/t y sus alrededores. Boln. geol.
Bogotd, 5 (2), 113-85.
---1960. Sedimentaci6n ciclica en el geosinclinal Cretaceo de la cordillera oriental
de Colombia. Boln. geol. Bogotd, 7 (1-3), 85-118.
1961. Historia geol6gica de Colombia. Revta. Acad. colomb. Cienc. exact, fis. nat.
11 (43), 137-94.
1965. El limite Oligo-Mioceno en el Terciario marino de Colombia. Revta.
Acad. colomb. Gienc. exact, fis. nat. 12 (43), 245-58.
1967. The orogenesis in the Andean system of Colombia. Tectonophysics, 4,
429--43.
BORGL,H. & ]~.ADELLI,L. 1962. Nuevas localidades fosilfferas en el cordillera central
de Colombia. Geol. Colorabiana, 3, 133-8.
-

Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Heriot-Watt University on March 6, 2015

724

COLOMBIAN

CAMPBELL, C . J . 1968. The Santa Marta wrench fault of Colombia and its regional
setting. Trans. 4th Caribbean Geol. Conf. Trinidad, pp. 247-61.
C.~JPBELL, C. J. & BUROL, H. 1965. Section through the Eastern Cordillera of
Colombia, South America. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 76, 567-90.
CASE, J. E. et al. 1969. Tectonophysics of Western Colombia, a regional gravity,
magnetic and structural investigation. Unpublished report to the National Science
Foundation.
CEDIEL, F. 1969. Die Gir6n-Gruppe eine friih-mesozoische Molasse der Ostkordillere
Kolumbiens. W. aTb. Geol. Paldont. Abh. 133, 111-62.
CIZANCOURT, H. DE 1933. Tectonic structure of northern Andes in Colombia and
Venezuela. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 17, 211-28.
CORRIOAN, H. T. 1967. Guidebook to the geology of the Upper Magdalena basin (northern
portion). Bogota (Colombian Society of Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists).
DOTT, R. H. Jr. 1964. Superimposed rhythmic stratigraphic patterns in mobile belts.
Bull. Kans. geol. Surv. 169 (1), 69-85.
DURAN, L. G. 1964. Geomorfologla analitica de los perfiles fluviales longitudinales.
Revta. Acad. colomb. Cienc. exact.fis. nat. 12 (46), 220-9.
FEImNCER, T. 1970. The Palestina Fault, Colombia. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 81, 1201-16.
FEo-CoDEClDO, G. 1970. Consideraciones estructurales sobre la Falle de Oca, Venezuela. Preprint: Primer Congreso Latino-americano de Geologia, Lima, Perti.
23 pp.
GANSSER, A. 1955. Ein Beitrag zur Geologic und Petrographic der Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta. Schweiz. miner, petrogr. Mitt. 35, 209-79.
GEOLOGICAL MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA(SCALE 1 : 5,000,000), 1967 (Geological Society
of America).
GERTH, H. 1955. Der geologische Bau der Siidamerikanischen Kordillere. (Geologic von
Sfidamerika 2. Bd.) Berlin (Borntr~iger).
HA~MEN, T. VAN DER 1958. Estratigrafla palinol6gica de la SAbana de Bogot~i.
Boln. geol. Bogotd, 5 (2), 189-203 (for 1957).
----1961.
Estratigrafla del Terciario y Maestrichtiano continentales y tectogdnesis de los Andes Colombianos. Boln. geol. Bogotd, 6 (1-3), 67-128.
HARRINOTON, H.J. 1963. Deep focus earthquakes in South America and their possible
relation to continental drift. Spec. publ. Soc. Econ. Pal. Miner. no. 10, 55-73.
HARRISON, J. V. 1930. The Magdalena Valley, Colombia, South America. Int. geol.
Congr. 15, 2, 399-409.
HILLS, E. S. 1963. Elements of Structural Geology. New York (Wiley).
HOUTEN, F. B. vAN & TRAVIS, R. B. 1968. Cenozoic deposits, Upper Magdalena
Valley, Colombia. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 52, 675-702.
LANGENHEIM,J. H. 1960. Late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic fossil plants from the
Cordillera Oriental of Colombia and correlation of the Gir6n Formation. Boln.
geol. Bogotd, 8, (I-3), 95-132.
MACDONALD, W. D. 1964. Geology of the Serrania de Macuira area, Guajira Peninsula, Colombia. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Princeton University.
MAPA GEOLdGICO DE COLOMBIA (SCALE 1: 2,000,000). 1944. Bogota (Servieio Geo16gico Nacional).
MAPA GEOL6GICO DE COLOMBIA (SCALE I : 1,500,000). 1966. Bogot~ (Servicio Geo16gico Nacional).
_~.~.PA GEOL6GICO (SCALE 1:200,000). Bogota (Servicio Geol6gico Nacional), Issued
in the following sheets: Espinal (1956), Ataco (1957), Armero (1957), Neiva

ANDES
(1959), Villeta (1961), Guajira (5 sheets) (1963), Villavicencio (1965), Medina
(1965), Medellfn (1965). Other sheets are in preparation.
MAPA GRAVIMI~TRICO, I~EPI~BLICA DE COLOMBIA, ANOMALIASDE BOUGUER (SCALE
1 : 1,500,000). 1959. Bogota (Instituto GeogrAfico 'Agustin Codazzi').
MARCHANT, S. 1961. A photogeological analysis of the structure of the western
Guayos Province, Ecuador. Q.oTl. geol. Soc. Lond. 117, 215-32.
MENCHER, E. 1963. Tectonic History of Venezuela. In: Childs, O. E. & Beebe, B. W.
(Eds.). Backbone of the Americas. Mere. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 2, 73-87.
MILLER, J. B. 1962. Tectonic trends in Sierra de Perija. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol.
46, 1565-95.
MORALES, L. G. et al. 1958. Oil in Magdalena valley. In: Weeks, L. G. (Ed.) Habitat
of Oil. Tulsa (Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol.), pp. 641-95.
NELSON, H. W. 1957. Contribution to the geology of the central and western Cordillera
of Colombia in the sector between Ibaque and Cali. Leid. geol. Meded. 22, 1-76.
--1962.
Contribucidn al conocimiento de la Cordillera Occidental--secciGn
Cali-Buenaventura. Boln. geol. Bogotd, 10 (1-3), 81-108.
NOaXSTEm, F. B., HUBMAN,C. W. & BOWLER,J. W. 1944. Geology of the Barco Concession, Republic of Colombia, South America. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 55, 1165-1216.
NYGm~.N, W. E. 1950. Bolivar geosyncline of northwestern South America. Bull. Am.
Ass. Petrol. Geol. 34, 1998-2006.
OLSSON, A. A. 1956. Colombia. In JERKS, W. F. (Ed.) Handbook of South American
Geology. Mem. geol. Soc. Am. 65, 293-326.
PINSON, W. H., HURLEY, P. M., MENCHER, E. & FAIRBAIRN, H. W. 1962. K/Ar and
Rb/Sr ages of biotites from Colombia, South America. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 73,
909-10.
RAASVELDT, H. C. 1956. Fallas de rumbo en el nordeste de Colombia. Revista Petroleo,
Bogotd, 64, 19-26.
RADELLI, L. 1967. Gdologie des Andes Colombiennes. Mhn. Lab. Ggol. Univ. Grenoble,
no. 6, 1-457.
RAMiREZ, J. E. 1969. Historia de los terremotos en Colombia. Bogota (Editorial Argra).
Rn.~iREZ, J. E. & DURAN, L. F. 1957. Mapa sismico y tect6nico de Colombia (Scale
1 : 4,000,000). Bogota (Instituto Geofisico de los Andes Colombianos).
RICHARDS, H. G. 1968. Cretaceous section in Barco area of northeastern Colombia.
Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 52, 2324-36.
ROD, E. 1956. Strike-slip faults of northern Venezuela. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol.
40, 457-76.
ROLLINS, J. F. 1960. Stratigraphy and structure of the Guajira Peninsula, northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia. Univ. Stud. Univ. Nebraska, 30.
STAINFORTH, R. M. 1968. Mid-tertiary diastrophism in northern South America.
Trans. 4th Caribbean Geol. Conf., Trinidad.
STIBANE, F. R. 1967. Pal~iogeographie und Tectogenese der kolumbianischen Anden.
Geol. Rdsch. 56, 629-42.
TRUMPY, D. 1943. Pre-Cretaceous of Colombia. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 54, 1281-1304.
U.S.G.S. Mission to Colombia. [Reference is made in the text above to unpublished
radiometric determinations made by this organization, which has completed a
great deal of work, especially on the previously largely neglected pre-Cretaceous
rocks. It is understood that the results will be published shortly in Colombia.]
WELLMAN, S. S. 1970. Stratigraphy and petrology of the non-marine Honda Group
(Miocene), Upper Magdalena Valley, Colombia. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 81, 2353-74.