Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1 Etymology
4 History
5 Composition
5.1 Fillers
5.2 Plasticizers
5.3 Colorants
6 Classification
o
7 Ebonite
o
7.1 Bakelite
8 Representative polymers
o
8.1 Polystyrene
8.3 Nylon
8.4 Rubber
9 Properties of plastics
o
9.1 UL Standards
9.2 ISO
10 Toxicity
o
10.1 Bisphenol A
11 Environmental effects
o
11.5 Recycling
12 See also
13 References
14 External links
Etymology
The word plastic is derived from the Greek (plastikos) meaning
"capable of being shaped or molded", from (plastos) meaning "molded".
[7][8]
It refers to their malleability, or plasticity during manufacture, that allows
them to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapessuch
as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.
The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical
adjective plastic, which is applied to any material which undergoes a permanent
change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond a certain
point. Aluminum which is stamped or forged, for instance, exhibits plasticity in
this sense, but is not plastic in the common sense; in contrast, in their finished
forms, some plastics will break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in
the technical sense.
Common plastics and uses
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) One of the aminoplasts and used as a multicolorable alternative to phenolics. Used as a wood adhesive (for plywood,
chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings.
SiliconeHeat resistant resin used mainly as a sealant but also used for
high temperature cooking utensils and as a base resin for industrial paints.
History
Plastic piping and firestops being installed in Ontario. Certain plastic pipes can be
used in some non-combustible buildings, provided they are firestopped properly
and that the flame spread ratings comply with the local building code.
Styrene polymerization
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC, commonly called "vinyl")[24] incorporates chlorine atoms.
The C-Cl bonds in the backbone are hydrophobic and resist oxidation (and
burning). PVC is stiff, strong, heat and weather resistant, properties that
recommend its use in devices for plumbing, gutters, house siding, enclosures for
computers and other electronics gear. PVC can also be softened with chemical
processing, and in this form it is now used for shrink-wrap, food packaging, and
rain gear.
Vinylchloride polymerization
All PVC polymers are degraded by heat and light. When this happens, hydrogen
chloride is released into the atmosphere and oxidation of the compound occurs.
[25]
Because hydrogen chloride readily combines with water vapor in the air to
form hydrochloric acid,[26] polyvinyl chloride is not recommended for long-term
archival storage of silver, photographic film or paper (mylar is preferable).[27]
Nylon
Main article: Nylon
The plastics industry was revolutionized in the 1930s with the announcement
of polyamide (PA), far better known by its trade name nylon. Nylon was the first
purely synthetic fiber, introduced by DuPont Corporation at the 1939 World's
Fair in New York City.
In 1927, DuPont had begun a secret development project designated Fiber66,
under the direction of Harvard chemist Wallace Carothersand chemistry
department director Elmer Keiser Bolton. Carothers had been hired to perform
pure research, and he worked to understand the new materials' molecular
structure and physical properties. He took some of the first steps in the
molecular design of the materials.
His work led to the discovery of synthetic nylon fiber, which was very strong but
also very flexible. The first application was for bristles for toothbrushes.
However, Du Pont's real target was silk, particularly silk stockings. Carothers and
his team synthesized a number of different polyamides including polyamide 6.6
and 4.6, as well as polyesters. [28]
The first fully synthetic rubber was synthesized by Sergei Lebedev in 1910. In
World War II, supply blockades of natural rubber from South East Asia caused a
boom in development of synthetic rubber, notably styrene-butadiene rubber. In
1941, annual production of synthetic rubber in the U.S. was only 231 tonnes
which increased to 840,000 tonnes in 1945. In the space race and nuclear arms
race, Caltech researchers experimented with using synthetic rubbers for solid
fuel for rockets. Ultimately, all large military rockets and missiles would use
synthetic rubber based solid fuels, and they would also play a significant part in
the civilian space effort.
Properties of plastics
The properties of plastics are defined chiefly by the organic chemistry of the
polymer such as hardness, density, and resistance to heat, organic
solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt
upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius.[29] While plastics can be made
electrically conductive, with the conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretchoriented polyacetylene,[30] they are still no match for most metals
like copper which have conductivities of several hundreds kS/cm.
UL Standards
Many properties of plastics are determined by tests as specified by Underwriters
Laboratories, such as:
Flammability - UL94
ISO
Many properties of plastics are determined by standards as specified by ISO,
such as:
Toxicity
Pure plastics have low toxicity due to their insolubility in water and because they
are biochemically inert, due to a large molecular weight. Plastic products contain
a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For
example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle
plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food
packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach
out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates,
theEuropean Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate)
and other phthalates in some applications, and the United States has limited the
use of DEHP, DPB,BBP, DINP, DIDP, and DnOP in children's toys and child care
articles with the Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act. Some compounds
leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with
hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. [31] Other chemicals of
potential concern include alkylphenols.[15]
Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the
manufacture of the parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts
of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing
is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized vinyl chloride, the precursor to
PVC, as a human carcinogen.[31]
Bisphenol A
Some polymers may also decompose into the monomers or other toxic
substances when heated. In 2011, it was reported that "almost all plastic
products" sampled released chemicals with estrogenic activity, although the
researchers identified plastics which did not leach chemicals with estrogenic
activity.[32]
The primary building block of polycarbonates, bisphenol A (BPA), is an estrogenlike endocrine disruptor that may leach into food.[31] Research in Environmental
Health Perspectives finds that BPA leached from the lining of tin cans, dental
sealants and polycarbonate bottles can increase body weight of lab animals'
offspring.[33] A more recent animal study suggests that even low-level exposure
to BPA results in insulin resistance, which can lead to inflammation and heart
disease.[34]
As of January 2010, the LA Times newspaper reports that the United States FDA
is spending $30 million to investigate indications of BPA being linked to cancer. [35]
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, present in plastic wrap based on PVC, is also of
concern, as are the volatile organic compounds present in new car smell.
The European Union has a permanent ban on the use of phthalates in toys. In
2009, the United States government banned certain types of phthalates
commonly used in plastic.[36]
Environmental effects
See also: Plastic pollution, Marine debris and Great Pacific Garbage Patch
Most plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the very chemical bonds that
make them so durable tend to make them resistant to most natural processes of
degradation. However, microbial species and communities capable of degrading
plastics are discovered from time to time, and some show promise as being
useful for bioremediating certain classes of plastic waste.
Microbial communities isolated from soil samples mixed with starch have
been shown to capable of degrading polypropylene.[45]
Less desirably, hazardous molds have been found aboard space stations,
molds that degrade rubber into a digestible form. [53]
Several species of yeasts, bacteria, algae and lichens have been found
growing on synthetic polymer artifacts in museums and at archaeological
sites.[54]
The futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyesters, polyesterpolyurethane, and poly(methylmethacrylate.) One such house was found
to be harmfully degraded by Cyanobacteria and Archaea. [60][61]
Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and some of that
material might persist for centuries or much longer, as is demonstrated by the
persistence of natural materials such as amber. [62]
Serious environmental threats from plastic have been suggested in the light of
the increasing presence of microplastics in the marine food chain along with
many highly toxic chemical pollutants that accumulate in plastics. They also
accumulate in larger fragmented pieces of plastic called nurdles.[63] In the 1960s
the latter were observed in the guts of seabirds, and since then have been found
in increasing concentration.[64] In 2009, it was estimated that 10% of modern
waste was plastics,[12] although estimates vary according to region.[64] Meanwhile,
50-80% of debris in marine areas is plastic.[64]
Before the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and in general
use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the
production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer, but
current extrusion processes use non-CFCs.
Climate change
The effect of plastics on global warming is mixed. Plastics are generally made
from petroleum. If the plastic is incinerated, it increases carbon emissions; if it is
placed in a landfill, it becomes a carbon sink [65] although biodegradable plastics
have caused methane emissions.[66] Due to the lightness of plastic versus glass
or metal, plastic may reduce energy consumption. For example, packaging
beverages in PET plastic rather than glass or metal is estimated to save 52% in
transportation energy.[3]
Production of plastics
Production of plastics from crude oil requires 62 to 108 MJ of energy per kilogram
(taking into account the average efficiency of US utility stations of 35%).
Producing silicon and semiconductors for modern electronic equipment is even
more energy consuming: 230 to 235 MJ per 1 kilogram of silicon, and about
3,000 MJ per kilogram of semiconductors. [67] This is much higher, compared to
many other materials, e.g. production of iron from iron ore requires 20-25 MJ of
energy, glass (from sand, etc.) - 18-35 MJ, steel (from iron) - 20-50 MJ, paper
(from timber) - 25-50 MJ per kilogram.[68]
Incineration of plastics
Controlled high-temperature incineration, above 850C for two seconds,
[69]
performed with selective additional heating, breaks down toxic dioxins and
furans from burning plastic, and is widely used in municipal solid waste
incineration.[69] Municipal solid waste incinerators also normally include flue gas
treatments to reduce pollutants further. [69] This is needed because uncontrolled
incineration of plastic produces polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, a carcinogen
(cancer causing chemical). The problem occurs as the heat content of the waste
stream varies.[70] Open-air burning of plastic occurs at lower temperatures, and
normally releases such toxic fumes.
Pyrolytic disposal
Plastics can be pyrolyzed into hydrocarbon fuels, since plastics have hydrogen
and carbon. One kilogram of waste plastic produces roughly a liter of
hydrocarbon.[71]
Recycling
Conductive polymer
Corn construction
Molding (process)
Flexible mold
Injection molding
Films
Nurdle
Plastics engineering
Plastics extrusion
Plastic film
Plastic recycling
Plasticulture
Roll-to-roll processing
Self-healing plastic
Thermoforming
References
healing the sick or killing pests and weeds. Obviously some chemicals are useful
but many are toxic and their harm to the environment and our health far
outweighs their benefit to society. We need to manage the risks better by only
using chemicals, which are safe.
Chemicals enter air as emissions and water as
effluent. Industrial and motor vehicle emissions of
nitrogen and sulphur oxides cause acid rain, which
poisons fish and other aquatic organisms in rivers and
lakes and affects the ability of soil to support plants.
Carbon dioxide causes the greenhouse effect and
climate change. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) cause the
destruction of ozone in the stratosphere and create
the possibility of serious environmental damage from
ultraviolet radiation. Chemical fertilisers and nutrients
run-off from farms and gardens cause the build up of
toxic algae in rivers, making them uninhabitable to
aquatic organisms and unpleasant for humans. Some
toxic chemicals find their way from landfill waste sites
into our groundwater, rivers and oceans and induce genetic changes that
compromise the ability of life to reproduce and survive.
The impact of human activities on the environment is complex and affects a
chain of interconnecting ecosystems. The extinction of species all along the
chain may mean the loss of useful genetic material or life saving cancer drugs or
safer alternatives to the dangerous chemicals in use at the moment.
Organochlorines
Organochlorine compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs were
developed originally for use in electric equipment as cooling agents and are very
dangerous chemicals. During the manufacture and disposal of products
containing PCBs, and as a result of accidents, millions of gallons of PCB oil have
leaked out. Although their manufacture in the UnitedStates was halted in the
1970s and they are being phased out, they are difficult to detect, are nearly
indestructible and large quantities remain in existence and they will remain in
the environment for a long time. They accumulate in the food chain and
significant levels of them have been found in marine species, particularly
mammals and sea birds, decades after their production was discontinued. They
are carcinogenic and capable of damaging the liver, nervous system and the
reproductive system in adults. When PCBs are burned, even more toxic dioxins
are formed.
Dioxins
Dioxins, are a class of super-toxic chemicals formed as a by-product of the
manufacture, moulding, or burning of organic chemicals and plastics that contain
chlorine. They are the most toxic man-made organic chemicals known. They
cause serious health effects even at levels as low as a few parts per trillion. Only
radioactive waste is more toxic. They are virtually indestructible and are excreted
by the body extremely slowly. Dioxins became known when Vietnam War
veterans and Vietnamese civilians, exposed to dioxin-contaminated Agent
Orange, became ill.
Dioxins enter the body in food and accumulate in body fat. They bind to cell
receptors and disrupt hormone functions in the body and they also affect gene
functions. Our bodies have no defence against dioxins which may cause a wide
range of problems, from cancer to reduced immunity to nervous system
disorders to miscarriages and birth deformity. The effects can be very obvious or
subtle. Because they change gene functions, they can cause genetic diseases to
appear and they can interfere with child development. Attention Deficit
Disorder, diabetes, endometriosis, chronic fatigue syndrome, rare nervous and
blood disorders have been linked to exposure to dioxins and PCBs.
Over the past 40 years there has been a dramatic increase in the manufacture
and use of chlorinated organic chemicals in plastics, insecticides and herbicides.
Dioxins have been found in high concentrations near to the sites where these
chemicals have been produced and where insecticides and herbicides have been
heavily used, such as on farms, orchards, or along electric and railway lines.
They have also been a found downstream from paper mills where chlorine
chemicals have been used to bleach wood pulp.
In the last few years we have begun to discard our unfashionable household
plastic products, together with industrial and medical waste by burning them in
incinerators. Dioxins formed during the combustion process have been carried
for hundreds of miles on tiny specks of ash and contaminated the countryside.
They settle on pastures and crops and get eaten by cows, pigs and chickens.
They get into lakes, streams, and ocean and are taken up by fish. They go
through the food chain and appear in meat and milk and accumulate in the fat
cells of our bodies.
Cadmium
Cadmium occurs naturally in the earth's crust combined with other elements. It
is usually formed as a mineral such as cadmium oxide, cadmium chloride, or
cadmium sulphate and although these compounds are highly toxic they are less
harmful when bound to rocks. They are present in coal and in the soil.
Cadmium is useful because it doesn't corrode easily. It is used in batteries,
plastics, pigments and metal coatings. Cadmium gets into the environment
through landfills, poor waste disposal methods and leaks at hazardous
waste sites. It is produced by mining and other industrial activities. Cadmium
particles enter our air when we burn coal for energy and incinerate household
waste. The particles can travel far before falling to the ground or water. Each
year many tonnes of cadmium are discharged into our seas and oceans. Animals
and plants take up cadmium when it is in the environment. If we consume food
contaminated with cadmium it can irritate our digestive system and cause
vomiting and diarrhoea. If inhaled it can damage our lungs. Even when levels of
exposure are low, over time, cadmium accumulates in the body and it can be
difficult to get rid of. Accumulated cadmium can cause kidneys and bone disease.
We take cadmium into our body by:
Smoking cigarettes
Conclusion
Potentially dangerous chemicals such as these are being introduced into the
environment all the time. As in the case of PCBs their effect on living things may
not be known until many years after their release. Hundreds of thousands of
different chemicals are marketed worldwide. Of these 5000 are produced in
quantities over 10 tonnes a year and 1500 are produced in quantities over 1000
tonnes year.
We do not have enough information about the environmental effects of these
industrial chemicals and their effects on humans. The balance between human
activity and ecological sustainability is wrong.
What you can do
Use biodegradable products. Make your own cleaning agent using safe materials.
Dispose of chemical waste carefully. Do not put them down the sink. Be wise
with home maintenance and in the garden. Do not burn plastics.
Avoid all organic chemicals that have "chloro" as part of their names including
wood preservatives, herbicides and insecticides. Avoid chlorine bleach (sodium
hypochlorite) and products containing it. Use oxygen bleach instead. Use
unbleached paper products.Avoid "Permethrin" flea sprays for pets. Avoid
products made of or packaged in polyvinyl chloride (PVC). Avoid cling flim plastic
wraps unless they are clearly identified as non-chlorinated plastic.
To minimise your risk of dioxins accumulating in your body avoid all full-fat dairy
products and fatty meats such as beef or pork. Wash all fruits and vegetables to
remove chlorophenol pesticide residue. Avoid grapes and raisins unless they are
clearly labelled as organically grown. Avoid soaps, toothpaste and deodorants
containing "triclosan," a chlorophenol.
We can reduce the dioxins if we stop producing PVCs and other chlorinated
chemicals. If your local government sends its waste to an incinerator, request
that they stop burning plastics and introduce a comprehensive recycling service.
Write to companies and ask them to use safe substitutes to chlorinated plastics.
Ask your supermarket to sell Totally Chlorine Free (TCF) products. Join or form a
local environmental group campaigning against hazardous chemicals.
People who work with cadmium should take care not to inhale cadmiumcontaining dust and should avoid carrying it home from work on their clothes,
skin or hair. Eat from a wide range of foods to prevent the risk of ingesting toxic
levels of cadmium.
Link to Green Sowers solutions for this problem
Retrieve green groups directly addressing Chemical Pollution from the database
Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics
If you're in the habit of reading what supermarkets print on their plastic bags,
you may have noticed a lot of environmentally friendly statements appearing
over the last few years. Some stores now use what are described
as photodegradable, oxydegradable, or just biodegradable bags (in practice,
whatever they're called, it often means the same thing). As the name suggests,
these biodegradable plastics contain additives that cause them to decay more
rapidly in the presence of light and oxygen (moisture and heat help too). Unlike
bioplastics, biodegradable plastics are made of normal (petrochemical) plastics
and don't always break down into harmless substances: sometimes they leave
behind a toxic residue and that makes them generally (but not always)
unsuitable for composting.
Photo: A typical message on a biodegradable bag. This one, made from Eco
Film, is compostable too.
Recycled plastics
One neat solution to the problem of plastic disposal is to recycle old plastic
materials (like used milk bottles) into new ones (such as items of clothing). A
product called ecoplastic is sold as a replacement for wood for use in outdoor
garden furniture and fence posts. Made from high-molecular polyethylene, the
manufacturers boast that it's long-lasting, attractive, relatively cheap, and nice
to look at.
Photo: This "wooden" public bench looks much like any other until you look at
the grain really closely. Then you can see the wood is actually recycled plastic.
The surface texture is convincing, but the giveaway is the ends of the "planks,"
which don't look anything like the grain of wood.
But there are two problems with recycled plastics. First, plastic that's recycled is
generally not used to make the same items the next time around: old recycled
plastic bottles don't go to make new plastic bottles, but lower-grade items such
as plastic benches and fence posts. Second, you can't automatically assume
recycled plastics are better for the environment unless you know they've been
made with a net saving of energy and water, a net reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions, or some other overall benefit to the environment. Keeping waste out
of a landfill and turning it into new things is great, but what if it takes a huge
amount of energy to collect and recycle the plasticmore even than making
brand new plastic products?
Are bioplastics good or bad?
Anything that helps humankind solve the plastics problem has to be a good
thing, right? Unfortunately, environmental issues are never quite so simple.
Actions that seem to help the planet in obvious ways sometimes have major
drawbacks and can do damage in other ways. It's important to see things in the
round to understand whether "environmentally friendly" things are really doing
more harm than good.
Bioplastics and biodegradable plastics have long been controversial.
Manufacturers like to portray them as a magic-bullet solution to the problem of
plastics that won't go away. Bioplastics, for example, are touted as saving 3080
percent of the greenhouse gas emissions you'd get from normal plastics and they
can give food longer shelf-life in stores. But here are some of the drawbacks:
Bioplastics are made from plants such as corn and maize, so land that
could be used to grow food for the world is being used to "grow plastic"
instead. By 2014, almost a quarter of US grain production is expected to
be turned over to biofuels and bioplastics production, potentially causing a
significant rise in food prices that will hit the poorest people hardest.
Some bioplastics, such as PLA, are made from genetically modified corn.
Most environmentalists consider GM (genetically modified) crops to be
inherently harmful to the environment.
impossible to recycle. There are fears that increasing use of PLA may
undermine existing efforts to recycle plastics.
How to cut down on plastics
Why is life never simple? If you're keen on helping the planet, complications like
this sound completely exasperating. But don't let that put you off. As many
environmental campaigners point out, there are some very simple solutions to
the plastics problem that everyone can bear in mind to make a real difference.
Instead of simply sending your plastics waste for recycling, remember the saying
"Reduce, repair, reuse, recycle". Recycling, though valuable, is only slightly
better than throwing something away: you still have to use energy and water to
recycle things and you probably create toxic waste products as well. It's far
better to reduce our need for plastics in the first place than to have to dispose of
them afterwards.
Photo: Recycling, though sensible, is not always the best option. Generally it's
better to reduce, reuse, and repair if you can and recycle only if you can't do
these things.
You can make a positive difference by actively cutting down on the plastics you
use. For example:
Get a reusable cotton bag and take that with you ever time you go
shopping.
Buy your fruit and vegetables loose, avoiding the extra plastic on prepackaged items.
Use long-lasting items (such as razors and refillable pens) rather than
disposable ones. It can work out far cheaper in the long run.
If you break something, can you repair it simply and carry on using it? Do
you really have to buy a new one?
Can you give unwanted plastic items a new lease of life? Ice cream tubs
make great storage containers; vending machine cups can be turned into
plant pots; and you can use old plastic supermarket bags for holding your
litter.
When you do have to buy new things, why not buy ones made from
recycled materials? By helping to create a market for recycled products,
you encourage more manufacturers to recycle.
One day, we may have perfect plastics that break down in a trice. Until then,
let's be smarter about how we use plastics and how we get rid of them when
we've finished with them.
Dioxin
Chemical compound
Written by: The Editors of Encyclopdia Britannica
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tear gas
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chloral hydrate
Found everywhere, dioxin is public enemy number one. To give you an idea of
how common dioxin exposure is, consider bleached coffee filters. The EPA says
that 40% to 70% of the dioxins contained in bleached coffee filters get
transferred to your coffee. Therefore, the simple routine of using bleached coffee
filters results in a lifetime of unsafe exposure to dioxin.
According to the World Health Organization, dioxins are highly toxic. They cause
reproductive and developmental problems, damage the immune system, disrupt
hormones and cause cancer.
The Skinny Science:
Dioxin is an organic chemical that consists of a pair of benzene rings. Because of
their chemical stability and their ability to be dissolved by fat tissue, they can
exist in the body for years. Highly potent in small quantities, it is measured in
parts per trillion, not the parts per million we usually hear. Dioxins are
categorized as persistent environmental pollutants. This means two things: they
do not degrade in the environment, and they exist indefinitely once released.
Word to the Wise:
Manufacturing processes are the root cause of our dioxin issues today. This
includes smelting, chlorine bleaching of paper pulp, manufacturing of herbicides
and pesticides, and uncontrolled waste incinerators. Sadly they are found
throughout the world, even in hundred-year-old Greenland Sharks that live in
some of the most pristine waters of the Arctic Ocean.
Green your Routine:
How do you avoid this seemingly omnipresent substance? A major source of
dioxin exposure is eating animal products, because of dioxin's ability to persist in
fats. In addition to changing your diet, here are some other strategies you can
incorporate:
When cleaning, avoid chlorine bleach. It forms dioxin after contact with
organic compounds.
both our own and the animals we eat people with diets high in vegetables and
low in animal products have lower dioxin levels.
High dioxin level foods:
dairy products
meat
fish
shellfish
vegetables
fruit
Extra Tidbits:
Alternative names quick list: DLC (dioxin-like compound), TCDD (the most
toxic dioxin), PCDD, PCDF, and some dioxin-like PCBs.
For more information, check out these sources: United States Department
of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency.
As always, stay informed and green your routine to what fits you best.
That is because dioxins are classed as one of the persistant organic pollutants,
POPs, also known as as PBTs (Persistent, Bioaccumulative and Toxic)
or TOMPs (Toxic Organic Micro Pollutants.)
POPs are a small set of toxic chemicals that remain intact in the environment for
long periods and accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. They are extremely
toxic and cause all manner of illnesses. You can find out more about POPS here
The Uk Government states on their website
Burning plastic, rubber or painted materials creates poisonous fumes and can
have damaging health effects for people who have asthmatic or heart conditions.
This is covered under the Environmental Protection Act 1990.
Environmental Protection Act 1990
IN CONCLUSION
Its best not to be burning plastic on an open fire unless you know exactly what it
is made up of.
While there are some plastics that are supposed to be safe to burn, personally I
wont be burning plastic on my bonfire.
But is it safe to send off to my local waste disposal plant where they burn
it in an incinerator?
It is claimed that all plastics can be burnt safely in the modern industrial
incinerators but only those built to high specifications.
Opinions vary wildly as to wether this is the case with environmentalists saying
we are poisoning the very air that we breathe.
Many of these plants generate electricity from the heat produced so in effect the
plastic is recycled.
The resulting ash from incineration plants has to be disposed of and so presnets
yet another waste disposal challenge.
For more information go to
Wikkipedia
Waste Plastic Blogspot about the technology behind waste incinerators.
Zero Waste America a crtiqua of waste incinerators.
Burning Bins the problems of trash being burnt on open fires
PLASTICS
The quality of plasticity is one that had been used to great effect in the crafts of
metallurgy and ceramics. The use of the word plastics as a collective noun,
however, refers not so much to the traditional materials employed in these crafts
as to new substances produced by chemical reactions and molded or pressed to
take a permanent rigid shape. The first such material to be manufactured
was Parkesine, developed by the British inventor Alexander Parkes. Parkesine,
made from a mixture of chloroform and castor oil, was a substance hard as
horn, but as flexible as leather, capable of being cast or stamped, painted, dyed
or carved. The words are from a guide to the International Exhibition of 1862 in
London, at which Parkesine won a bronze medal for its inventor. It was soon
followed by other plastics, butapart from celluloid, a cellulose nitrate
composition using camphor as a solvent and produced in solid form (as imitation
horn for billiard balls) and in sheets (for mens collars and photographic film)
these had little commercial success until the 20th century.
The early plastics relied upon the large molecules in cellulose, usually derived
from wood pulp. Leo H. Baekeland, a Belgian American inventor, introduced a
new class of large molecules when he took out his patent for Bakelite in 1909.
Bakelite is made by the reaction between formaldehyde and phenolic materials
at high temperatures; the substance is hard, infusible, and chemically resistant
(the type known as thermosetting plastic). As a nonconductor of electricity, it
proved to be exceptionally useful for all sorts of electrical appliances. The
success of Bakelite gave a great impetus to the plastics industry, to the study
of coal tar derivatives and other hydrocarbon compounds, and to the theoretical
understanding of the structure of complex molecules. This activity led to new
dyestuffs and detergents, but it also led to the successful manipulation of
molecules to produce materials with particular qualities such as hardness or
flexibility. Techniques were devised, often requiring catalysts and elaborate
equipment, to secure these polymersthat is, complex molecules produced by
the aggregation of simpler structures. Linear polymers give strong fibres, filmforming polymers have been useful in paints, and mass polymers have formed
solid plastics.
SYNTHETIC FIBRES
The possibility of creating artificial fibres was another 19th-century discovery
that did not become commercially significant until the 20th century, when such
fibres were developed alongside the solid plastics to which they are closely
related. The first artificial textiles had been made from rayon, a silklike material
produced by extruding a solution of nitrocellulose in acetic acid into a
coagulating bath of alcohol, and various other cellulosic materials were used in
this way. But later research, exploiting the polymerization techniques being used
in solid plastics, culminated in the production of nylon just before the outbreak of
World War II.Nylon consists of long chains of carbon-based molecules, giving
fibres of unprecedented strength and flexibility. It is formed by melting the
component materials and extruding them; the strength of the fibre is greatly
increased by stretching it when cold. Nylon was developed with the womens
stocking market in mind, but the conditions of war gave it an opportunity to
demonstrate its versatility and reliability as parachute fabric and towlines. This
and other synthetic fibres became generally available only after the war.
SYNTHETIC RUBBER
The chemical industry in the 20th century put a wide range of new materials at
the disposal of society. It also succeeded in replacing natural sources of some
materials. An important example of this is the manufacture of artificial rubber to
meet a world demand far in excess of that which could be met by the existing
rubber plantations. This technique was pioneered in Germany during World War I.
In this effort, as in the development of other materials such as high explosives
and dyestuffs, the consistent German investment in scientific and technical
education paid dividends, for advances in all these fields of chemical
manufacturing were prepared by careful research in the laboratory.
PLASTICS
Cell wall plastics such as lignin, cutin, and suberin all contain a variety of organic
compounds cross-linked into tight three-dimensional networks that strengthen
cell walls and make them more resistant to fungal and bacterial attack. Lignin is
the general name for a diverse group of polymers of aromatic alcohols.
Deposited mostly in secondary cell walls and providing the rigidity of terrestrial
vascular plants, it accounts for up to 30 percent of a plants dry weight. The
diversity of cross-links between the polymersand the resulting tightness
makes lignin a formidable barrier to the penetration of most microbes.
Cutin and suberin are complex biopolyesters composed of fatty acids and
aromatic compounds. Cutin is the major component of the cuticle, the waxy,
water-repelling surface layer of cell walls exposed to the environment
aboveground. By reducing the wetability of leaves and stemsand thereby
affecting the ability of fungal spores to germinateit plays an important part in
the defense strategy of plants. Suberin serves with waxes as a surface barrier of
underground parts. Its synthesis is also stimulated in cells close to wounds,
thereby sealing off the wound surfaces and protecting underlying cells from
dehydration
Plastic pollution, accumulation in the environment of manmade plastic products to the point where they create problems for wildlife and
their habitats as well as for human populations. In 1907 the invention
of Bakelite brought about a revolution in materials by introducing truly
synthetic plastic resins into world commerce. By the end of the 20th century,
however, plastics were found to be persistent polluters of many environmental
niches, from Mount Everest to the bottom of the sea. Whether being mistaken
for food by animals, flooding low-lying areas by clogging drainage systems, or
simply causing significant aesthetic blight, plastics have attracted increasing
attention as a large-scale pollutant.
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density
(g/cm3)
degree of
crystallinit
y
glass
transition
temperat
ure
(C)
crystal
melting
temperature
(C)
deflection
temperature
at 1.8 MPa
(C)
high-density
polyethylene (HDPE)
0.95
0.97
high
120
137
low-density
polyethylene (LDPE)
0.92
0.93
moderate
120
110
polypropylene (PP)
0.90
0.91
high
20
176
polystyrene (PS)
1.01.1
nil
100
acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene
(ABS)
1.01.1
nil
90120
polyvinyl chloride,
unplasticized (PVC)
1.31.6
nil
85
polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA)
1.2
nil
115
Thermoplastics
Carbon-chain
polytetrafluoroethyle
ne (PTFE)
2.12.2
moderatehigh
126
327
polyethylene
terephthalate (PET)
1.31.4
moderate
69
265
polycarbonate (PC)
1.2
low
145
230
polyacetal
1.4
moderate
50
180
polyetheretherketone
(PEEK)
1.3
nil
185
polyphenylene sulfide
(PPS)
1.35
moderate
88
288
cellulose diacetate
1.3
low
120
230
polycaprolactam
(nylon 6)
1.11.2
moderate
50
210220
polyester
(unsaturated)
1.32.3
nil
200
epoxies
1.11.4
nil
110250
phenol formaldehyde
1.72.0
nil
175300
1.52.0
nil
190200
polyurethane
1.05
low
90100
tensile
strengt
h
(MPa)
elongation
at break
(%)
flexural
modulus
(GPa)
Heterochain
Thermosets*
Heterochain
Thermoplastics
Carbon-chain
high-density
polyethylene (HDPE)
2030
101,000
11.5
low-density
polyethylene (LDPE)
830
100650
0.250.35
polypropylene (PP)
3040
100600
1.21.7
polystyrene (PS)
3550
12
2.63.4
acrylonitrilebutadiene-styrene
(ABS)
1555
30100
0.93.0
polyvinyl chloride,
unplasticized (PVC)
4050
280
2.13.4
polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA)
5075
210
2.23.2
impact-resistant windows,
skylights, canopies
polytetrafluoroethyle
ne (PTFE)
2035
200400
0.5
self-lubricated bearings,
nonstick cookware
polyethylene
terephthalate (PET)
5075
50300
2.43.1
polycarbonate (PC)
6575
110120
2.32.4
polyacetal
70
2575
2.63.4
polyetheretherketone
(PEEK)
70105
30150
3.9
polyphenylene sulfide
(PPS)
5090
110
3.84.5
cellulose diacetate
1565
670
1.5
photographic film
polycaprolactam
(nylon 6)
40170
30300
1.02.8
Heterochain
Thermosets*
Heterochain
polyester
(unsaturated)
2070
<3
714
epoxies
35140
<4
1430
phenol formaldehyde
50125
<1
823
electrical connectors,
appliance handles
3575
<1
7.5
countertops, dinnerware
polyurethane
70
36
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STABILIZERS
In order for a plastic to have a long and useful life in any application, the
properties of that plastic should change as little as possible with time. Stabilizers
are added, usually in small quantities, to counter the effects of aging.
Because all carbon-based polymers are subject to oxidation, the most common
stabilizers are antioxidants. Hindered phenols and tertiary amines are used in
plastics in concentrations as low as a few parts per million. For example,
butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) is used in polyolefin packaging films for foods
and pharmaceuticals. PVC requires the addition of heat stabilizers in order to
reduce dehydrohalogenation (loss of hydrogen chloride [HCl]) at processing
temperatures. Zinc and calcium soaps, organotin mercaptides, and organic
phosphites are among the many additives found to be effective. Other stabilizers
are designed specifically to reduce degradation by sunlight, ozone, and biological
agents.
The processing and fabrication of plastics
The processing of raw materials into usable forms is termed fabrication or
conversion. An example from the plastics industry would be the conversion of
plastic pellets into films or the conversion of films into food containers. In this
section the mixing, forming, finishing, and fibre reinforcing of plastics are
described in turn.
Compounding
The first step in most plastic fabrication procedures is compounding,
the mixingtogether of various raw materials in proportions according to a specific
recipe. Most often the plastic resins are supplied to the fabricator as cylindrical
pellets (several millimetres in diameter and length) or as flakes and powders.
Other forms include viscous liquids, solutions, and suspensions.
Mixing liquids with other ingredients may be done in conventional stirred tanks,
but certain operations demand special machinery. Dry blending refers to the
mixing of dry ingredients prior to further use, as in mixtures of pigments,
stabilizers, or reinforcements. However, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as a porous
powder can be combined with a liquid plasticizer in an agitated trough called a
ribbon blender or in a tumbling container. This process also is called dry
blending, because the liquid penetrates the pores of the resin, and the final
mixture, containing as much as 50 percent plasticizer, is still a free-flowing
powder that appears to be dry.
The workhorse mixer of the plastics and rubber industries is the internal mixer, in
which heat and pressure are applied simultaneously. The Banbury
mixer resembles a robust dough mixer in that two interrupted spiral rotors move
in opposite directions at 30 to 40 rotations per minute. The shearing action is
intense, and the power input can be as high as 1,200 kilowatts for a 250-kg (550pound) batch of molten resin with finely divided pigment.
In some cases, mixing may be integrated with the extrusion or molding step, as
in twin-screw extruders.
Forming
The process of forming plastics into various shapes typically involves the steps of
melting, shaping, and solidifying. As an example, polyethylene pellets can be
heated above Tm, placed in a mold under pressure, and cooled to below Tm in
order to make the final product dimensionally stable. Thermoplastics in general
are solidified by cooling below Tg or Tm. Thermosets are solidified by heating in
order to carry out the chemical reactions necessary for network formation.
EXTRUSION
In extrusion, a melted polymer is forced through an orifice with a particular cross
section (the die), and a continuous shape is formed with a constant cross section
similar to that of the orifice. Although thermosets can be extruded and crosslinked by heating the extrudate, thermoplastics that are extruded and solidified
by cooling are much more common. Among the products that can be produced
by extrusion arefilm, sheet, tubing, pipes, insulation, and home siding. In each
case the profile is determined by the die geometry, and solidification is by
cooling.
figureMost plastic grocery bags and similar items are made by the continuous
extrusion of tubing. In blow extrusion, the tube is expanded before being cooled
by being made to flow around a massive air bubble. Air is prevented from
escaping from the bubble by collapsing the film on the other side of the bubble.
For some applications, laminated structures may be made by extruding more
than one material at the same time through the same die or through multiple
dies. Multilayer films are useful since the outer layers may contribute strength
and moisture resistance while an inner layer may control oxygen permeability
an important factor in food packaging. The layered films may be formed through
blow extrusion, or extrudates from three machines may be pressed together in a
die block to form a three-layer flat sheet that is subsequently cooled by contact
with a chilled roll.
The flow through a die in extrusion always results in some orientation of the
polymer molecules. Orientation may be increased by drawingthat is, pulling on
the extrudate in the direction of polymer flow or in some other direction either
before or after partial solidification. In the blow extrusion process, polymer
molecules are oriented around the circumference of the bag as well as along its
length, resulting in a biaxially oriented structure that often has superior
mechanical properties over the unoriented material.
COMPRESSION MOLDING
In the simplest form of compression molding, a molding powder (or pellets, which
are also sometimes called molding powder) is heated and at the same time
compressed into a specific shape. In the case of a thermoset, the melting must
be rapid, since a network starts to form immediately, and it is essential for the
melt to fill the mold completely before solidification progresses to the point
where flow stops. The highly cross-linked molded article can be removed without
cooling the mold. Adding the next charge to the mold is facilitated by
compressing the exact required amount of cold molding powder into a preformed
biscuit. Also, the biscuit can be preheated by microwave energy to near the
reaction temperature before it is placed in the mold cavity. A typical heater,
superficially resembling a microwave oven, may apply as much as 10 kilovolts at
a frequency of one megahertz. Commercial molding machines use high pressures
and temperatures to shorten the cycle time for each molding. The molded article
is pushed out of the cavity by the action of ejector pins, which operate
automatically when the mold is opened.
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In some cases, pushing the resin into the mold before it has liquefied may cause
undue stresses on other parts. For example, metal inserts to be molded into a
plastic electrical connector may be bent out of position. This problem is solved
by transfer molding, in which the resin is liquefied in one chamber and then
transferred to the mold cavity.
In one form of compression molding, a layer of reinforcing material may be laid
down before the resin is introduced. The heat and pressure not only form the
mass into the desired shape but also combine the reinforcement and resin into
an intimately bound form. When flat plates are used as the mold, sheets of
various materials can be molded together to form a laminated sheet.
Ordinary plywood is an example of a thermoset-bound laminate. In plywood,
layers of wood are both adhered to one another and impregnated by a thermoset
such as urea-formaldehyde, which forms a network on heating.
INJECTION MOLDING
It is usually slow and inefficient to mold thermoplastics using the compression
molding techniques described above. In particular, it is necessary to cool a
thermoplastic part before removing it from the mold, and this requires that the
mass of metal making up the mold also be cooled and then reheated for each
part. Injection molding is a method of overcoming this inefficiency. Injection
molding resembles transfer molding in that the liquefying of the resin and the
regulating of its flow is carried out in a part of the apparatus that remains hot,
while the shaping and cooling is carried out in a part that remains cool. In
a reciprocating screw injection molding machine, material flows under gravity
from the hopper onto a turning screw. The mechanical energy supplied by the
screw, together with auxiliary heaters, converts the resin into a molten state. At
the same time the screw retracts toward the hopper end. When a sufficient
amount of resin is melted, the screw moves forward, acting as a ram and forcing
the polymer melt through a gate into the cooled mold. Once the plastic has
solidified in the mold, the mold is unclamped and opened, and the part is pushed
from the mold by automatic ejector pins. The mold is then closed and clamped,
and the screw turns and retracts again to repeat the cycle of liquefying a new
increment of resin. For small parts, cycles can be as rapid as several injections
per minute.
REACTION INJECTION MOLDING
One type of network-forming thermoset, polyurethane, is molded into parts such
as automobile bumpers and inside panels through a process known as reaction
injection molding, or RIM. The two liquid precursors of a polyurethane are a
multifunctional isocyanate and a prepolymer, a low-molecularweight polyether orpolyester bearing a multiplicity of reactive end-groups such
as hydroxyl, amine, oramide. In the presence of a catalyst such as a tin soap, the
two reactants rapidly form a network joined mainly by urethane groups. The
reaction takes place so rapidly that the two precursors have to be combined in a
special mixing head and immediately introduced into the mold. However, once in
the mold, the product requires very little pressure to fill and conform to the mold
especially since a small amount of gas is evolved in the injection process,
expanding the polymer volume and reducing resistance to flow. The low molding
pressures allow relatively lightweight and inexpensive molds to be used, even
when large items such as bumper assemblies or refrigerator doors are formed.
BLOW MOLDING
The popularity of thermoplastic containers for products previously marketed in
glass is due in no small part to the development of blow molding. In this
technique, a thermoplastic hollow tube, the parison, is formed by injection
molding or extrusion. In heated form, the tube is sealed at one end and then
blown up like a balloon. The expansion is carried out in a split mold with a cold
surface; as the thermoplastic encounters the surface, it cools and becomes
dimensionally stable. The parison itself can be programmed as it is formed with
varying wall thickness along its length, so that, when it is expanded in the mold,
the final wall thickness will be controlled at corners and other critical locations. In
the process of expansion both in diameter and length (stretch blow molding), the
polymer is biaxially oriented, resulting in enhanced strength and, in the case
of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) particularly, enhanced crystallinity.
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Even without heating, some thermoplastics can be formed into new shapes by
the application of sufficient pressure. This technique, called cold molding, has
been used to make margarine cups and other refrigerated food containers from
sheets ofacrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer.
FOAMING
Foams, also called expanded plastics, possess inherent features that make them
suitable for certain applications. For instance, the thermal conductivity of a foam
is lower than that of the solid polymer. Also, a foamed polymer is more rigid than
the solid polymer for any given weight of the material. Finally, compressive
stresses usually cause foams to collapse while absorbing much energy, an
obvious advantage in protective packaging. Properties such as these can be
tailored to fit various applications by the choice of polymer and by the manner of
foam formation or fabrication. The largest markets for foamed plastics are in
home insulation (polystyrene, polyurethane, phenol formaldehyde) and in
packaging, including various disposable food and drink containers.
FOAMED THERMOPLASTICS
Polystyrene pellets can be impregnated with isopentane at room temperature
and modest pressure. When the pellets are heated, they can be made to fuse
together at the same time that the isopentane evaporates, foaming the
polystyrene and cooling the assembly at the same time. Usually the pellets are
prefoamed to some extent before being put into a mold to form a cup or some
form of rigid packaging. The isopentane-impregnated pellets may also be heated
under pressure and extruded, in which case a continuous sheet of foamed
polystyrene is obtained that can be shaped into packaging, dishes, or egg
cartons while it is still warm.
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Structural foams can also be produced by injecting nitrogen or some other gas
into a molten thermoplastic such as polystyrene or polypropylene under pressure
in an extruder. Foams produced in this manner are more dense than the ones
described above, but they have excellent strength and rigidity, making them
suitable forfurniture and other architectural uses.
One way of making foams of a variety of thermoplastics is to incorporate a
material that will decompose to generate a gas when heated. To be an
effective blowing agent, the material should decompose at about the molding
temperature of the plastic, decompose over a narrow temperature range, evolve
a large volume of gas, and, of course, be safe to use. One commercial agent
is azodicarbonamide, usually compounded with some other ingredients in order
to modify the decomposition temperature and to aid in dispersion of the agent in
the resin. One mole (116 grams) of azodicarbonamide generates about 39,000
cubic cm of nitrogen and other gases at 200 C. Thus, 1 gram added to 100
grams of polyethylene can result in foam with a volume of more than 800 cubic
cm. Polymers that can be foamed with blowing agents
include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyamides, and
plasticized PVC.
FOAMED THERMOSETS
The rapid reaction of isocyanates with hydroxyl-bearing prepolymers to make
polyurethanes is mentioned above in Reaction injection molding. These materials
also can be foamed by incorporating a volatile liquid, which evaporates under
the heat of reaction and foams the reactive mixture to a high degree. The rigidity
of the network depends on the components chosen, especially the prepolymer.
Hydroxyl-terminated polyethers are often used to prepare flexible foams, which
are used in furniture cushioning. Hydroxyl-terminated polyesters, on the other
hand, are popular for making rigid foams such as those used in custom
packaging of appliances. The good adhesion of polyurethanes to metallic
surfaces has brought about some novel uses, such as filling and making rigid
certain aircraft components (rudders and elevators, for example).
Another rigid thermoset that can be foamed in place is based on phenolformaldehyde resins. The final stage of network formation is brought about by
addition of an acid catalyst in the presence of a volatile liquid.
Finishing
JOINING
Some plastics can be joined by welding, in the same manner as metalsPVC and
polyethylene tanks and ductwork being prime examples. More commonly,
surfaces are joined by being brought into contact with one another
and heated by conduction or by dielectric heating. Heat sealing of bags made
from tubes of blow-extruded polyolefins such as polyethylene and polypropylene
usually requires contact with a hot sealing bar. PVC has a high enough dielectric
loss that heat can be generated throughout the material by exposure to a highfrequency, high-voltage electric field.
MACHINING
Rigid thermoplastics and thermosets can be machined by conventional processes
such as drilling, sawing, turning on a lathe, sanding, and other operations. Glassreinforced thermosets are machined into gears, pulleys, and other shapes,
especially when the number of parts does not justify construction of a metal
mold. Various forms can be stamped out (die-cut) from sheets of thermoplastics
and thermosets. The cups made by vacuum forming, for instance, are cut out of
the mother sheet using a sharp die. In the case of a thermoplastic such as
polystyrene, the scrap sheet left over can be reground and remolded.
COATING
Although colour may be added in the form of a pigment or dye throughout a
plastic article, there are many applications where a surface coating is valuable
for protective or decorative purposes. The automobile bumpers produced by
reaction injection molding can be painted to match the rest of the body. It is
important in applying coatings to plastics that the solvent used does not cause
swelling of the underlying substrate. For this reason, latex dispersion paints have
found favour, although surface treatment is necessary to provide good bonding
with these materials.
Fibre reinforcement
The term polymer-matrix composite is applied to a number of plastic-based
materials in which several phases are present. It is often used to describe
systems in which a continuous phase (the matrix) is polymeric and another
phase (the reinforcement) has at least one long dimension. The major classes of
composites include those made up of discrete layers (sandwich laminates) and
those reinforced by fibrous mats, woven cloth, or long, continuous filaments of
glass or other materials.
SANDWICH LAMINATES
Plywood is a form of sandwich construction of natural wood fibres with plastics.
The layers are easily distinguished and are both held together and impregnated
with a thermosetting resin, usually urea formaldehyde. A decorative laminate can
consist of a half-dozen layers of fibrous kraft paper (similar to paper used for
grocery bags) together with a surface layer of paper with a printed designthe
entire assembly being impregnated with a melamine-formaldehyde resin. For
both plywood and the paper laminate, the cross-linking reaction is carried out
with sheets of the material pressed and heated in large laminating presses.
FIBREGLASS
Fibrous reinforcement in popular usage is almost synonymous with fibreglass,
although other fibrous materials (carbon, boron, metals, aramid polymers) are
also used. Glass fibre is supplied as mats of randomly oriented microfibrils, as
woven cloth, and as continuous or discontinuous filaments.
Hand lay-up is a versatile method employed in the construction of large
structures such as tanks, pools, and boat hulls. In hand lay-up mats of glass
fibres are arranged over a mold and sprayed with a matrix-forming resin, such as
a solution of unsaturated polyester (60 parts) in styrene monomer (40 parts)
together with free-radical polymerization initiators. The mat can be supplied
already impregnated with resin. Polymerization and network formation may
require heating, although free-radical redox systems can initiate polymerization
at room temperature. The molding may be compacted by covering the mold with
a blanket and applying a vacuum between the blanket and the surface or, when
the volume of production justifies it, by use of a matching metal mold.
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plastic name
can be found in
can be recycled
into
PET, or PETE
(polyethylene
terephthalate)
carbonated beverage
bottles, food and
condiment jars, oven-ready
and microwavable meal
trays, textiles, carpet,
straps, films
HDPE (highdensitypolyethyle
bottles for
shampoo and
ne)
household
cleaners, plastic
lumber, floor tiles,
buckets, crates,
film and sheet,
recycling bins
V, or PVC
(polyvinyl
chloride)
decking, mudflaps,
flooring, cables,
carpet backing,
traffic cones, film
and sheet
LDPE (lowdensitypolyethyle
ne)
PP (polypropylene)
margarine tubs,
microwavable meal trays,
yogurt containers, bottle
caps, medicine bottles,
durable consumer and
automobile parts,
carpeting
automobile signal
lights, battery
cables, battery
cases, ice scrapers,
garden rakes,
storage bins,
pallets, sheeting
PS (polystyrene)
electric
switchplates, egg
cartons, foam
packing material,
carryout
containers, rulers,
plastic decorative
molding
other
plastic lumber,
bottles
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such as labels, caps, and adhesives. If the material comes from a narrowly
defined source, it may be possible to dry the washed chips and immediately
extrude them into molding pellets or even to extrude them directly into fibres.
For mixed-waste polymers, automatic separation processes based on
differences in density or solubility have been used to some extent.
Degradable plastics
None of the commodity plastics degrades rapidly in the environment.
Nevertheless, some scientists and environmentalists have seen biodegradable
and photodegradable plastics as a solution to the problem of litter. Some
bioplastics have been developed, but they have not been successful on a large
scale primarily because of high production costs and problems of stability during
their processing and use.
On the other hand, the plastic rings that hold six-packs of soft-drink and beer
cans together represent an application where photodegradation has been used
effectively. A copolymer of ethylene with some carbon monoxide contains ketone
groups that absorb sufficient energy from sunlight to cause extensive scissioning
of the polymer chain. The photodegradable plastic, very similar in appearance
and properties to low-density polyethylene (LDPE), decomposes to a powder
within a few months of exposure in sunny climates.
Plastic pollution in oceans and on land
Since the ocean is downstream from nearly every terrestrial location, it is the
receiving body for much of the plastic waste generated on land. It has been
estimated that 6.4 million tons of debris end up in the worlds oceans every year
and that some 60 to 80 percent of that debris, or 3.8 to 5 million tons, is
improperly discarded plastic litter. The first oceanographic study to examine the
amount of near-surface plastic debris in the worlds oceans was published in
2014. It estimated that at least 5.25 trillion individual plastic particles weighing
roughly 244,000 tonnes (269,000 tons) were floating on or near the surface.
Plastic pollution was first noticed in the ocean by scientists carrying
out plankton studies in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and oceans and beaches
still receive most of the attention of those studying and working to abate plastic
pollution. Floating plastic waste has been shown to accumulate in
five subtropical gyres that cover 40 percent of the worlds oceans. Located at
Earths midlatitudes, these gyres include the North and South Pacific Subtropical
Gyres, whose eastern garbage patches (zones with high concentrations of
plastic waste circulating near the ocean surface) have garnered the attention of
scientists and the media. The other gyres are the North and South Atlantic
Subtropical Gyres and the Indian Ocean Subtropical Gyre.
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In the ocean, plastic pollution can kill marine mammals directly through
entanglement in objects such as fishing gear, but it can also kill through
ingestion, by being mistaken for food. Studies have found that all kinds of
species, including smallzooplankton, large cetaceans, most seabirds, and all
marine turtles, readily ingest plastic bits and trash items such
as cigarette lighters, plastic bags, and bottle
caps.Sunlight and seawater embrittle plastic, and the eventual breakdown of
larger objects makes it available to zooplankton and other small marine animals.
In addition to being nonnutritive and indigestible, plastics have been shown to
concentrate pollutants up to a million times their level in the surrounding
seawater and then deliver them to the species that ingest them. In one study,
levels ofpolychlorinated biphenyl (PCB), a lubricant and insulating material that
is now widely banned, were shown to have increased significantly in the preen
gland oil of streaked shearwaters (Calonectris leucomelas) after these seabirds
had been fed plastic pellets culled from Tokyo Bay for only one week.
There are also terrestrial aspects to plastic pollution. Drainage systems become
clogged with plastic bags, films, and other items, causing flooding. Land birds,
such as the reintroduced California condor, have been found with plastic in their
stomachs, and animals that normally feed in waste dumpsfor instance, the
sacredcows of Indiahave had intestinal blockages from plastic packaging. The
mass of plastic is not greater than that of other major components of waste, but
it takes up a disproportionately large volume. As waste dumps expand in
residential areas, the scavenging poor are often found living near or even on
piles of residual plastics.
Pollution by plastics additives
Plastic also pollutes without being litteredspecifically, through the release of
compounds used in its manufacture. Indeed, pollution of the environment by
chemicals leached from plastics into air and water is an emerging area of
concern. As a result, some compounds used in plastics, such
as phthalates, bisphenol A (BPA), and polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE),
have come under close scrutiny and regulation. Phthalates are plasticizers
softeners used to make plastic products less brittle. They are found in medical
devices, food packaging, automobile upholstery, flooring materials, and
computers as well as in pharmaceuticals, perfumes, and cosmetics. BPA, used in
the manufacture of clear, hard polycarbonate plastics and strong epoxy coatings
and adhesives, is present in packaging, bottles, compact discs, medical devices,
and the linings of food cans. PBDE is added to plastics as a flame retardant. All
these compounds have been detected in humans and are known to disrupt
the endocrine system. Phthalates act against male hormones and are therefore
known as anti-androgens; BPA mimics the natural female hormoneestrogen; and
PBDE has been shown to disrupt thyroid hormones in addition to being an antiandrogen. The people most vulnerable to such hormone-disrupting chemicals are
children and women of reproductive age.
These compounds have also been implicated in hormone disruption of animals in
terrestrial, aquatic, and marine habitats. Effects are seen in laboratory animals
atblood levels lower than those found in the average resident of a developed
country.Amphibians, mollusks, worms, insects, crustaceans, and fish show effects
on their reproduction and development, including alterations in the number of
offspring produced, disruption of larval development, and (in insects) delayed
emergencethough studies investigating resulting declines in those populations
have not been reported. Studies are needed to fill this knowledge gap, as are
studies of the effects of exposure to mixtures of those compounds on animals
and humans.
The Danger of Burning Plastic
It is important for your own health and the health of your family to be
environmentaly conscious. Of course we need to reduce, reuse and recycle
however, the answer is not to weigh the rubbish. This only creates a burn it to
save money mentality. The education just isn't in the schools to warn about the
dangers of burning rubbish and meanwhile the cancer rates are on the rise and
burning plastic is one of many reasns why.
Why are cancer rates so high?
Open burning of plastic waste is simply dangerous to your health and the health
of the environment. Plastic such as PVC (polyvinylchloride) is common in such
things as bottles and jugs, plastic packaging and blister packs, etc. When these
are burnt in the house, carbon monoxide, dioxins and furans are released into
your air. Whilst carbon monoxide is a pretty well known poison, dioxins and
furans are not. Studies have linked dioxins and furans to cancer and respiratory
disease.
Dioxin is a toxic organic chemical that contains chlorine and is produced when
chlorine and hydrocarbons are heated at high temperatures. To inhale dioxin or
to be exposed to its fumes can cause many deadly results. Toxic components
inhaled through smoke from burning plastic materials may cause hormonal
imbalance and sex behavioural orientation of your newborn baby. As a result, the
child could begin exhibiting behaviour, in total contrast to his or her sex changes from male to female sexual characters or vice versa. Researchers have
established that inhaling burnt plastic materials have altered sexual characters
of birds (from male to female). They have discovered the same defects can easily
occur in human beings. Plastic should never be burned in the open air. There are
recycling options available for many of these products.
Toxic gases emitted by burning plastic materials - dioxins and furans - can also
cause cancer, impotence, asthma and a myriad other allergies to human beings.
Young Danes have reported exceptionally low sperm counts compared to the
previous generations, testicular cancer has increased by 55 per cent between
1979 and 1991 in England and Wales. Fewer boys are being born in Seveso, Italy,
where toxic dioxin was released. Some girls are achieving puberty earlier than
others.
Oil fired or wood stoves simply do not reach high enough temperatures to
destroy many of the dangerous chemicals created when plastic burns. Municipal
solid waste incinerators such as the double chambered incinerators at the Energy
from Waste Plant can reach a temperature of 1800 degrees Fahrenheit (982 C),
providing plenty of oxygen to complete the burning process. Oiled fired and wood
stoves only tend to smoulder and smoke, releasing plumes of toxic fallout into
your backyard and the surrounding community making your street as polluted as
down town Tokyo! The ash is also potentially hazardous and not appropriate to
spread on the soil. Do yourself and the world a favour. STOP BURNING PLASTIC
NOW! If your neighbours burn plastic, report them to your local council.
Remember, good health is about good food, clean water and clean air. This is not
mamby, pamby, hippy rubbish!
Carina is available to lecture for your group or institution on this
subject.
Carina Harkin BHSc.Nat.BHSc.Hom.BHSc.Acu. is a practitioner of 11 years,
complementary medicine lecturer of 4 years and mother of six in Galway, Ireland
who practices what she teaches.
For an appointment call Carina directly on 083 34 66 333.
All products are available through www.carahealth.ie. Remember, we are here for
a good time not a long time, enjoy your food life!
keeps switching back and forth between the two chambers and hence the
amount of copper on the electrodes is maintained.
The electric current is produced because of the formation of copper-ammonia
complex, this is how ammonia liquid stream converts thermal energy into
electrical energy. Note that heat is needed here to form distill ammonia and
without it the battery will not work, there will be no copper-ammonia complex.
Hence these type of battery have to absorb heat in some way to generate
electrical energy.
So far researchers have produced power density of about 60 Watts per square
meter, this is six times higher than the power density produced by other liquidbased thermal batteries. Researchers believe that there is a large room of
optimization in these batteries and hence its power density can be increased.
They will be a perfect substitute for the batteries in cars and other automobiles,
and can make these automobiles highly efficient since no energy will be wasted
then.
#waste heat to electricity
Read more at http://dailytwocents.com/batteries-will-convert-waste-heatelectricity/#MjvHV8PG6oorKQsT.99