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Culturalanthropology
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Culturalanthropologyisabranchofanthropologyfocusedonthestudyofculturalvariationamong
humansandisincontrasttosocialanthropologywhichperceivesculturalvariationasasubsetofthe
anthropologicalconstant.
Avarietyofmethodsarepartofanthropologicalmethodology,includingparticipantobservation(often
calledfieldworkbecauseitinvolvestheanthropologistspendinganextendedperiodoftimeattheresearch
location),interviews,andsurveys.[1]
Oneoftheearliestarticulationsoftheanthropologicalmeaningoftheterm"culture"camefromSirEdward
Tylorwhowritesonthefirstpageofhis1897book:"Culture,orcivilization,takeninitsbroad,
ethnographicsense,isthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,art,morals,law,custom,and
anyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety."[2]Theterm"civilization"later
gavewaytodefinitionsbyV.GordonChilde,withcultureforminganumbrellatermandcivilization
becomingaparticularkindofculture.[3]
Theanthropologicalconceptof"culture"reflectsinpartareactionagainstearlierWesterndiscoursesbased
onanoppositionbetween"culture"and"nature",accordingtowhichsomehumanbeingslivedina"stateof
nature".Anthropologistshavearguedthatcultureis"humannature",andthatallpeoplehaveacapacityto
classifyexperiences,encodeclassificationssymbolically(i.e.inlanguage),andteachsuchabstractionsto
others.
Sincehumansacquireculturethroughthelearningprocessesofenculturationandsocialization,people
livingindifferentplacesordifferentcircumstancesdevelopdifferentcultures.Anthropologistshavealso
pointedoutthatthroughculturepeoplecanadapttotheirenvironmentinnongeneticways,sopeopleliving
indifferentenvironmentswilloftenhavedifferentcultures.Muchofanthropologicaltheoryhasoriginated
inanappreciationofandinterestinthetensionbetweenthelocal(particularcultures)andtheglobal(a
universalhumannature,orthewebofconnectionsbetweenpeopleindistinctplaces/circumstances).[4]
Theriseofculturalanthropologyoccurredwithinthecontextofthelate19thcentury,whenquestions
regardingwhichcultureswere"primitive"andwhichwere"civilized"occupiedthemindsofnotonlyMarx
andFreud,butmanyothers.ColonialismanditsprocessesincreasinglybroughtEuropeanthinkersin
contact,directlyorindirectlywith"primitiveothers."[5]Therelativestatusofvarioushumans,someof
whomhadmodernadvancedtechnologiesthatincludedenginesandtelegraphs,whileotherslacked
anythingbutfacetofacecommunicationtechniquesandstilllivedaPaleolithiclifestyle,wasofinterestto
thefirstgenerationofculturalanthropologists.
ParallelwiththeriseofculturalanthropologyintheUnitedStates,socialanthropology,inwhichsocialityis
thecentralconceptandwhichfocusesonthestudyofsocialstatusesandroles,groups,institutions,andthe
relationsamongthemdevelopedasanacademicdisciplineinBritainandinFrance.[6]Anumbrellaterm
socioculturalanthropologymakesreferencetobothculturalandsocialanthropologytraditions.[7]

Contents

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Contents
1Theoreticalfoundations
1.1Thecritiqueofevolutionism
1.2Culturalrelativism
1.3Theoreticalapproaches
2Foundationalthinkers
2.1LewisHenryMorgan
2.2FranzBoas,founderofthemoderndiscipline
2.3Kroeber,MeadandBenedict
2.4Wolf,Sahlins,Mintzandpoliticaleconomy
2.5Geertz,Schneiderandinterpretiveanthropology
2.6Thepostmodernturn
2.7Socioculturalanthropologysubfields
3Methods
3.1Participantobservation
3.2Ethnography
3.3Crossculturalcomparison
3.4Multisitedethnography
4Seealso
5References
6Externallinks

Theoreticalfoundations
Thecritiqueofevolutionism
Anthropologyisconcernedwiththelivesofpeoplewithindifferentpartsoftheworld,particularlyin
relationtothediscourseofbeliefsandpractices.Inaddressingthisquestion,ethnologistsinthe19th
centurydividedintotwoschoolsofthought.Some,likeGraftonElliotSmith,arguedthatdifferentgroups
mustsomehowhavelearnedfromoneanother,howeverindirectlyinotherwords,theyarguedthatcultural
traitsspreadfromoneplacetoanother,or"diffused".
Otherethnologistsarguedthatdifferentgroupshadthecapabilityofcreatingsimilarbeliefsandpractices
independently.Someofthosewhoadvocated"independentinvention",likeLewisHenryMorgan,
additionallysupposedthatsimilaritiesmeantthatdifferentgroupshadpassedthroughthesamestagesof
culturalevolution(Seealsoclassicalsocialevolutionism).Morgan,inparticular,acknowledgedthatcertain
formsofsocietyandculturecouldnotpossiblyhavearisenbeforeothers.Forexample,industrialfarming
couldnothavebeeninventedbeforesimplefarming,andmetallurgycouldnothavedevelopedwithout
previousnonsmeltingprocessesinvolvingmetals(suchassimplegroundcollectionormining).Morgan,
likeother19thcenturysocialevolutionists,believedtherewasamoreorlessorderlyprogressionfromthe
primitivetothecivilized.
20thcenturyanthropologistslargelyrejectthenotionthatallhumansocietiesmustpassthroughthesame
stagesinthesameorder,onthegroundsthatsuchanotiondoesnotfittheempiricalfacts.Some20th
centuryethnologists,likeJulianSteward,haveinsteadarguedthatsuchsimilaritiesreflectedsimilar
adaptationstosimilarenvironments.Although19thcenturyethnologistssaw"diffusion"and"independent
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Intheunilinealevolutionmodelatleft,allcultures
progressthroughsetstages,whileinthemultilineal
evolutionmodelatright,distinctiveculture
historiesareemphasized.

invention"asmutuallyexclusiveandcompeting
theories,mostethnographersquicklyreacheda
consensusthatbothprocessesoccur,andthatbothcan
plausiblyaccountforcrossculturalsimilarities.But
theseethnographersalsopointedoutthesuperficiality
ofmanysuchsimilarities.Theynotedthateventraits
thatspreadthroughdiffusionoftenweregivendifferent
meaningsandfunctionfromonesocietytoanother.
Analysesoflargehumanconcentrationsinbigcities,in
multidisciplinarystudiesbyRonaldDaus,showhow
newmethodsmaybeappliedtotheunderstandingof
manlivinginaglobalworldandhowitwascausedby
theactionofextraEuropeannations,sohighlighting
theroleofEthicsinmodernanthropology.

Accordingly,mostoftheseanthropologistsshowedless
interestincomparingcultures,generalizingabout
humannature,ordiscoveringuniversallawsofcultural
development,thaninunderstandingparticularculturesinthosecultures'ownterms.Suchethnographers
andtheirstudentspromotedtheideaof"culturalrelativism",theviewthatonecanonlyunderstandanother
person'sbeliefsandbehaviorsinthecontextofthecultureinwhichheorshelivedorlives.
Others,suchasClaudeLviStrauss(whowasinfluencedbothbyAmericanculturalanthropologyandby
FrenchDurkheimiansociology),havearguedthatapparentlysimilarpatternsofdevelopmentreflect
fundamentalsimilaritiesinthestructureofhumanthought(seestructuralism).Bythemid20thcentury,the
numberofexamplesofpeopleskippingstages,suchasgoingfromhuntergathererstopostindustrial
serviceoccupationsinonegeneration,weresonumerousthat19thcenturyevolutionismwaseffectively
disproved.[8]

Culturalrelativism
CulturalrelativismisaprinciplethatwasestablishedasaxiomaticinanthropologicalresearchbyFranz
Boasandlaterpopularizedbyhisstudents.Boasfirstarticulatedtheideain1887:"...civilizationisnot
somethingabsolute,but...isrelative,and...ourideasandconceptionsaretrueonlysofarasour
civilizationgoes."[9]Although,Boasdidnotcointheterm,itbecamecommonamonganthropologistsafter
Boas'deathin1942,toexpresstheirsynthesisofanumberofideasBoashaddeveloped.Boasbelievedthat
thesweepofcultures,tobefoundinconnectionwithanysubspecies,issovastandpervasivethatthere
cannotbearelationshipbetweencultureandrace.[10]Culturalrelativisminvolvesspecificepistemological
andmethodologicalclaims.Whetherornottheseclaimsrequireaspecificethicalstanceisamatterof
debate.Thisprincipleshouldnotbeconfusedwithmoralrelativism.
CulturalrelativismwasinpartaresponsetoWesternethnocentrism.Ethnocentrismmaytakeobvious
forms,inwhichoneconsciouslybelievesthatone'speople'sartsarethemostbeautiful,valuesthemost
virtuous,andbeliefsthemosttruthful.FranzBoas,originallytrainedinphysicsandgeography,andheavily
influencedbythethoughtofKant,Herder,andvonHumboldt,arguedthatone'sculturemaymediateand
thuslimitone'sperceptionsinlessobviousways.Thisunderstandingofcultureconfrontsanthropologists
withtwoproblems:first,howtoescapetheunconsciousbondsofone'sownculture,whichinevitablybias
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ourperceptionsofandreactionstotheworld,andsecond,howtomakesenseofanunfamiliarculture.The
principleofculturalrelativismthusforcedanthropologiststodevelopinnovativemethodsandheuristic
strategies.

Theoreticalapproaches
Actornetworktheory
Culturalmaterialism
Culturetheory
Feminism

Functionalism
Interpretive
PoliticalEconomy
PracticeTheory

Structuralism
Poststructuralism
Systemstheory

Foundationalthinkers
Boasandhisstudentsrealizedthatiftheyweretoconductscientific
researchinothercultures,theywouldneedtoemploymethodsthat
wouldhelpthemescapethelimitsoftheirownethnocentrism.One
suchmethodisthatofethnography:basically,theyadvocatedliving
withpeopleofanothercultureforanextendedperiodoftime,so
thattheycouldlearnthelocallanguageandbeenculturated,atleast
partially,intothatculture.
Inthiscontext,culturalrelativismisoffundamentalmethodological
importance,becauseitcallsattentiontotheimportanceofthelocal
contextinunderstandingthemeaningofparticularhumanbeliefs
andactivities.Thus,in1948VirginiaHeyerwrote,"Cultural
relativity,tophraseitinstarkestabstraction,statestherelativityof
theparttothewhole.Thepartgainsitsculturalsignificancebyits
placeinthewhole,andcannotretainitsintegrityinadifferent
situation."[11]
EdwardBurnettTylor

LewisHenryMorgan

LewisHenryMorgan(18181881),alawyerfromRochester,NewYork,becameanadvocateforand
ethnologicalscholaroftheIroquois.Hiscomparativeanalysesofreligion,government,materialculture,
andespeciallykinshippatternsprovedtobeinfluentialcontributionstothefieldofanthropology.Like
otherscholarsofhisday(suchasEdwardTylor),Morganarguedthathumansocietiescouldbeclassified
intocategoriesofculturalevolutiononascaleofprogressionthatrangedfromsavagery,tobarbarism,to
civilization.Generally,Morganusedtechnology(suchasbowmakingorpottery)asanindicatorofposition
onthisscale.

FranzBoas,founderofthemoderndiscipline
FranzBoasestablishedacademicanthropologyintheUnitedStatesinoppositiontothissortofevolutionary
perspective.Hisapproachwasempirical,skepticalofovergeneralizations,andeschewedattemptsto
establishuniversallaws.Forexample,Boasstudiedimmigrantchildrentodemonstratethatbiologicalrace
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wasnotimmutable,andthathumanconductandbehaviorresultedfromnurture,ratherthannature.
InfluencedbytheGermantradition,Boasarguedthattheworldwasfullofdistinctcultures,ratherthan
societieswhoseevolutioncouldbemeasuredbyhowmuchorhow
little"civilization"theyhad.Hebelievedthateachculturehastobe
studiedinitsparticularity,andarguedthatcrosscultural
generalizations,likethosemadeinthenaturalsciences,werenot
possible.
Indoingso,hefoughtdiscriminationagainstimmigrants,blacks,
andindigenouspeoplesoftheAmericas.[12]ManyAmerican
anthropologistsadoptedhisagendaforsocialreform,andtheoriesof
racecontinuetobepopularsubjectsforanthropologiststoday.The
socalled"FourFieldApproach"hasitsoriginsinBoasian
Anthropology,dividingthedisciplineinthefourcrucialand
interrelatedfieldsofsociocultural,biological,linguistic,andarchaic
anthropology(e.g.archaeology).AnthropologyintheUnitedStates
continuestobedeeplyinfluencedbytheBoasiantradition,
especiallyitsemphasisonculture.

Kroeber,MeadandBenedict
BoasusedhispositionsatColumbiaUniversityandtheAmerican
MuseumofNaturalHistorytotrainanddevelopmultiple
generationsofstudents.Hisfirstgenerationofstudentsincluded
AlfredKroeber,RobertLowie,EdwardSapirandRuthBenedict,
whoeachproducedrichlydetailedstudiesofindigenousNorth
Americancultures.Theyprovidedawealthofdetailsusedtoattack
thetheoryofasingleevolutionaryprocess.KroeberandSapir's
focusonNativeAmericanlanguageshelpedestablishlinguisticsas
atrulygeneralscienceandfreeitfromitshistoricalfocusonIndo
Europeanlanguages.
ThepublicationofAlfredKroeber'stextbook,Anthropology,
markedaturningpointinAmericananthropology.Afterthree
decadesofamassingmaterial,Boasiansfeltagrowingurgeto
generalize.Thiswasmostobviousinthe'CultureandPersonality'
studiescarriedoutbyyoungerBoasianssuchasMargaretMeadand
RuthBenedict.Influencedbypsychoanalyticpsychologists
includingSigmundFreudandCarlJung,theseauthorssoughtto
understandthewaythatindividualpersonalitieswereshapedbythe
widerculturalandsocialforcesinwhichtheygrewup.

FranzBoas,oneofthepioneersof
modernanthropology,oftencalled
the"FatherofAmerican
Anthropology"

MargaretMead(19011978)

ThoughsuchworksasComingofAgeinSamoaandTheChrysanthemumandtheSwordremainpopular
withtheAmericanpublic,MeadandBenedictneverhadtheimpactonthedisciplineofanthropologythat
someexpected.BoashadplannedforRuthBenedicttosucceedhimaschairofColumbia'santhropology
department,butshewassidelinedbyRalphLinton,andMeadwaslimitedtoherofficesattheAMNH.
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Wolf,Sahlins,Mintzandpoliticaleconomy
Inthe1950sandmid1960santhropologytendedincreasinglytomodelitselfafterthenaturalsciences.
Someanthropologists,suchasLloydFallersandCliffordGeertz,focusedonprocessesofmodernizationby
whichnewlyindependentstatescoulddevelop.Others,suchasJulianStewardandLeslieWhite,focused
onhowsocietiesevolveandfittheirecologicalnicheanapproachpopularizedbyMarvinHarris.
EconomicanthropologyasinfluencedbyKarlPolanyiandpracticed
byMarshallSahlinsandGeorgeDaltonchallengedstandard
neoclassicaleconomicstotakeaccountofculturalandsocial
factors,andemployedMarxiananalysisintoanthropologicalstudy.
InEngland,BritishSocialAnthropology'sparadigmbeganto
fragmentasMaxGluckmanandPeterWorsleyexperimentedwith
MarxismandauthorssuchasRodneyNeedhamandEdmundLeach
incorporatedLviStrauss'sstructuralismintotheirwork.
Structuralismalsoinfluencedanumberofdevelopmentsin1960s
and1970s,includingcognitiveanthropologyandcomponential
analysis.
Inkeepingwiththetimes,muchofanthropologybecamepoliticized
throughtheAlgerianWarofIndependenceandoppositiontothe
VietnamWar[13]Marxismbecameanincreasinglypopular
theoreticalapproachinthediscipline.[14]Bythe1970stheauthors
ofvolumessuchasReinventingAnthropologyworriedabout
anthropology'srelevance.

RuthBenedictin1937

Sincethe1980sissuesofpower,suchasthoseexaminedinEricWolf'sEuropeandthePeopleWithout
History,havebeencentraltothediscipline.Inthe1980sbookslikeAnthropologyandtheColonial
Encounterponderedanthropology'stiestocolonialinequality,whiletheimmensepopularityoftheorists
suchasAntonioGramsciandMichelFoucaultmovedissuesofpowerandhegemonyintothespotlight.
Genderandsexualitybecamepopulartopics,asdidtherelationshipbetweenhistoryandanthropology,
influencedbyMarshallSahlins(again),whodrewonLviStraussandFernandBraudeltoexaminethe
relationshipbetweensymbolicmeaning,socioculturalstructure,andindividualagencyintheprocessesof
historicaltransformation.JeanandJohnComaroffproducedawholegenerationofanthropologistsatthe
UniversityofChicagothatfocusedonthesethemes.AlsoinfluentialintheseissueswereNietzsche,
Heidegger,thecriticaltheoryoftheFrankfurtSchool,DerridaandLacan.[15]

Geertz,Schneiderandinterpretiveanthropology
Manyanthropologistsreactedagainsttherenewedemphasisonmaterialismandscientificmodelling
derivedfromMarxbyemphasizingtheimportanceoftheconceptofculture.AuthorssuchasDavid
Schneider,CliffordGeertz,andMarshallSahlinsdevelopedamorefleshedoutconceptofcultureasaweb
ofmeaningorsignification,whichprovedverypopularwithinandbeyondthediscipline.Geertzwasto
state:
"Believing,withMaxWeber,thatmanisananimalsuspendedinwebsofsignificancehe
himselfhasspun,Itakeculturetobethosewebs,andtheanalysisofittobethereforenot
anexperimentalscienceinsearchoflawbutaninterpretiveoneinsearchofmeaning."
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anexperimentalscienceinsearchoflawbutaninterpretiveoneinsearchofmeaning."
CliffordGeertz[16]

Geertz'sinterpretivemethodinvolvedwhathecalled"thickdescription."Theculturalsymbolsofrituals,
politicalandeconomicaction,andofkinship,are"read"bytheanthropologistasiftheyareadocumentina
foreignlanguage.Theinterpretationofthosesymbolsmustbereframedfortheiranthropologicalaudience,
i.e.transformedfromthe"experiencenear"butforeignconceptsoftheotherculture,intothe"experience
distant"theoreticalconceptsoftheanthropologist.Theseinterpretationsmustthenbereflectedbacktoits
originators,anditsadequacyasatranslationfinetunedinarepeatedway,aprocesscalledthehermeneutic
circle.Geertzappliedhismethodinanumberofareas,creatingprogramsofstudythatwerevery
productive.Hisanalysisof"religionasaculturalsystem"wasparticularlyinfluentialoutsideof
anthropology.DavidSchnieder'sculturalanalysisofAmericankinshiphasprovenequallyinfluential.[17]
SchneiderdemonstratedthattheAmericanfolkculturalemphasison"bloodconnections"hadanundue
influenceonanthropologicalkinshiptheories,andthatkinshipisnotabiologicalcharacteristicbuta
culturalrelationshipestablishedonverydifferenttermsindifferentsocieties.[18]
ProminentBritishsymbolicanthropologistsincludeVictorTurnerandMaryDouglas.

Thepostmodernturn
Inthelate1980sand1990sauthorssuchasGeorgeMarcusandJamesCliffordponderedethnographic
authority,inparticularhowandwhyanthropologicalknowledgewaspossibleandauthoritative.Theywere
reflectingtrendsinresearchanddiscourseinitiatedbyFeministsintheacademy,althoughtheyexcused
themselvesfromcommentingspecificallyonthosepioneeringcritics.[19]Nevertheless,keyaspectsof
feministtheorizingandmethodsbecamederigueuraspartofthe'postmodernmoment'inanthropology:
Ethnographiesbecamemoreinterpretativeandreflexive,[20]explicitlyaddressingtheauthor'smethodology,
cultural,genderandracialpositioning,andtheirinfluenceonhisorherethnographicanalysis.Thiswaspart
ofamoregeneraltrendofpostmodernismthatwaspopularcontemporaneously.[21]Currently
anthropologistspayattentiontoawidevarietyofissuespertainingtothecontemporaryworld,including
globalization,medicineandbiotechnology,indigenousrights,virtualcommunities,andtheanthropologyof
industrializedsocieties.

Socioculturalanthropologysubfields
Appliedanthropology
Anthropologyofart
Cognitiveanthropology
Anthropologyof
development
Ecologicalanthropology
Economicanthropology
Anthropologyofgenderand
sexuality
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Historicalanthropology
Kinshipandfamily
Legalanthropology
Mediaanthropology
Medicalanthropology
Politicalanthropology
PoliticalEconomy

Psychologicalanthropology
Publicanthropology
Anthropologyofreligion
Cyborganthropology
Transpersonalanthropology
Urbananthropology
Visualanthropology

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Methods
Modernculturalanthropologyhasitsoriginsin,anddevelopedinreactionto,19thcentury"ethnology",
whichinvolvestheorganizedcomparisonofhumansocieties.ScholarslikeE.B.TylorandJ.G.Frazerin
Englandworkedmostlywithmaterialscollectedbyothersusuallymissionaries,traders,explorers,or
colonialofficialsearningthemthemonikerof"armchairanthropologists".

Participantobservation
Participantobservationisawidelyusedmethodologyinmanydisciplines,particularlycultural
anthropology,lesssoinsociology,communicationstudies,andsocialpsychology.Itsaimistogainaclose
andintimatefamiliaritywithagivengroupofindividuals(suchasareligious,occupational,subcultural
group,oraparticularcommunity)andtheirpracticesthroughanintensiveinvolvementwithpeopleintheir
culturalenvironment,usuallyoveranextendedperiodoftime.Themethodoriginatedinthefieldresearch
ofsocialanthropologists,especiallyBronislawMalinowskiinBritain,thestudentsofFranzBoasinthe
UnitedStates,andinthelaterurbanresearchoftheChicagoSchoolofsociology.
Suchresearchinvolvesarangeofwelldefined,thoughvariablemethods:informalinterviews,direct
observation,participationinthelifeofthegroup,collectivediscussions,analysesofpersonaldocuments
producedwithinthegroup,selfanalysis,resultsfromactivitiesundertakenofforonline,andlifehistories.
Althoughthemethodisgenerallycharacterizedasqualitativeresearch,itcan(andoftendoes)include
quantitativedimensions.Traditionalparticipantobservationisusuallyundertakenoveranextendedperiod
oftime,rangingfromseveralmonthstomanyyears,andevengenerations.Anextendedresearchtime
periodmeansthattheresearcherisabletoobtainmoredetailedandaccurateinformationaboutthe
individuals,community,and/orpopulationunderstudy.Observabledetails(likedailytimeallotment)and
morehiddendetails(liketaboobehavior)aremoreeasilyobservedandinterpretedoveralongerperiodof
time.Astrengthofobservationandinteractionoverextendedperiodsoftimeisthatresearcherscan
discoverdiscrepanciesbetweenwhatparticipantssayandoftenbelieveshouldhappen(theformal
system)andwhatactuallydoeshappen,orbetweendifferentaspectsoftheformalsystemincontrast,a
onetimesurveyofpeople'sanswerstoasetofquestionsmightbequiteconsistent,butislesslikelyto
showconflictsbetweendifferentaspectsofthesocialsystemorbetweenconsciousrepresentationsand
behavior.[22]

Ethnography
Inthe20thcentury,mostculturalandsocialanthropologiststurnedtothecraftingofethnographies.An
ethnographyisapieceofwritingaboutapeople,ataparticularplaceandtime.Typically,the
anthropologistlivesamongpeopleinanothersocietyforaperiodoftime,simultaneouslyparticipatingin
andobservingthesocialandculturallifeofthegroup.
Numerousotherethnographictechniqueshaveresultedinethnographicwritingordetailsbeingpreserved,
asculturalanthropologistsalsocuratematerials,spendlonghoursinlibraries,churchesandschoolsporing
overrecords,investigategraveyards,anddecipherancientscripts.Atypicalethnographywillalsoinclude
informationaboutphysicalgeography,climateandhabitat.Itismeanttobeaholisticpieceofwritingabout
thepeopleinquestion,andtodayoftenincludesthelongestpossibletimelineofpasteventsthatthe
ethnographercanobtainthroughprimaryandsecondaryresearch.
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BronisawMalinowskidevelopedtheethnographicmethod,andFranzBoastaughtitintheUnitedStates.
Boas'studentssuchasAlfredL.Kroeber,RuthBenedictandMargaretMeaddrewonhisconceptionof
cultureandculturalrelativismtodevelopculturalanthropologyintheUnitedStates.Simultaneously,
MalinowskiandA.R.RadcliffeBrownsstudentsweredevelopingsocialanthropologyintheUnited
Kingdom.Whereasculturalanthropologyfocusedonsymbolsandvalues,socialanthropologyfocusedon
socialgroupsandinstitutions.Todaysocioculturalanthropologistsattendtoalltheseelements.
Intheearly20thcentury,socioculturalanthropologydevelopedindifferentformsinEuropeandinthe
UnitedStates.European"socialanthropologists"focusedonobservedsocialbehaviorsandon"social
structure",thatis,onrelationshipsamongsocialroles(forexample,husbandandwife,orparentandchild)
andsocialinstitutions(forexample,religion,economy,andpolitics).
American"culturalanthropologists"focusedonthewayspeopleexpressedtheirviewofthemselvesand
theirworld,especiallyinsymbolicforms,suchasartandmyths.Thesetwoapproachesfrequently
convergedandgenerallycomplementedoneanother.Forexample,kinshipandleadershipfunctionbothas
symbolicsystemsandassocialinstitutions.Todayalmostallsocioculturalanthropologistsrefertothe
workofbothsetsofpredecessors,andhaveanequalinterestinwhatpeopledoandinwhatpeoplesay.

Crossculturalcomparison
Onemeansbywhichanthropologistscombatethnocentrismistoengageintheprocessofcrosscultural
comparison.Itisimportanttotestsocalled"humanuniversals"againsttheethnographicrecord.
Monogamy,forexample,isfrequentlytoutedasauniversalhumantrait,yetcomparativestudyshowsthat
itisnot.TheHumanRelationsAreaFiles,Inc.(HRAF)isaresearchagencybasedatYaleUniversity.
Since1949,itsmissionhasbeentoencourageandfacilitateworldwidecomparativestudiesofhuman
culture,society,andbehaviorinthepastandpresent.ThenamecamefromtheInstituteofHuman
Relations,aninterdisciplinaryprogram/buildingatYaleatthetime.TheInstituteofHumanRelationshad
sponsoredHRAFsprecursor,theCrossCulturalSurvey(seeGeorgePeterMurdock),aspartofaneffortto
developanintegratedscienceofhumanbehaviorandculture.ThetwoeHRAFdatabasesontheWebare
expandedandupdatedannually.eHRAFWorldCulturesincludesmaterialsoncultures,pastandpresent,
andcoversnearly400cultures.Theseconddatabase,eHRAFArchaeology,coversmajorarchaeological
traditionsandmanymoresubtraditionsandsitesaroundtheworld.
Comparisonacrossculturesincludiestheindustrialized(ordeindustrialized)West.Culturesinthemore
traditionalstandardcrossculturalsampleofsmallscalesocietiesare:

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Africa

CulturalanthropologyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Nama(Hottentot)Kung(San)ThongaLoziMbunduSukuBembaNyakyusa
(Ngonde)HadzaLuguruKikuyuGandaMbuti(Pygmies)Nkundo(Mongo)
BanenTivIgboFonAshanti(Twi)MendeBambaraTallensiMassa
AzandeOtoroNubaShillukMaoMaasai

WolofSonghaiWodaabeFulaniHausaFurKaffaKonsoSomaliAmhara
Circum
Mediterranean BogoKenuziNubianTedaTuaregRiffiansEgyptians(Fellah)Hebrews
BabyloniansRwalaBedouinTurksGheg(Albanians)RomansBasquesIrish
Sami(Lapps)RussiansAbkhazArmeniansKurd
Yurak(Samoyed)BasseriWestPunjabiGondTodaSantalUttarPradesh
EastEurasia BurushoKazakKhalkaMongolsLoloLepchaGaroLakherBurmese
LametVietnameseRhadeKhmerSiameseSemangNicobareseAndamanese
VeddaTanalaNegeriSembilanAtayalChineseManchuKoreansJapanese
AinuGilyakYukaghir
Javanese(Miao)BalineseIbanBadjauTorajaTobeloreseAloreseTiwi
InsularPacific ArandaOrokaivaKimamKapaukuKwomaManusNewIrelandTrobrianders
SiuaiTikopiaPentecostMbauFijiansAjieMaoriMarquesansWestern
SamoansGilberteseMarshalleseTrukeseYapesePalauansIfugaoChukchi
IngalikAleutCopperEskimoMontagnaisMi'kmaqSaulteaux(Ojibwa)Slave
NorthAmerica Kaska(Nahane)EyakHaidaBellacoolaTwanaYurokPomoYokutsPaiute
(Northern)KlamathKutenaiGrosVentresHidatsaPawneeOmaha(Dhegiha)
HuronCreekNatchezComancheChiricahuaZuniHavasupaiTohono
O'odhamHuicholAztecPopoluca
QuichMiskito(Mosquito)Bribri(Talamanca)CunaGoajiroHaitians
SouthAmerica CalinagoWarrau(Warao)YanomamoKalina(Caribs)SaramaccaMunduruku
Cubeo(Tucano)CayapaJivaroAmahuacaIncaAymaraSirionoNambikwara
TrumaiTimbiraTupinambaBotocudoShavanteAweikomaCayua(Guarani)
LenguaAbiponMapucheTehuelcheYaghan

Multisitedethnography
Ethnographydominatessocioculturalanthropology.Nevertheless,manycontemporarysociocultural
anthropologistshaverejectedearliermodelsofethnographyastreatinglocalculturesasboundedand
isolated.Theseanthropologistscontinuetoconcernthemselveswiththedistinctwayspeopleindifferent
localesexperienceandunderstandtheirlives,buttheyoftenarguethatonecannotunderstandthese
particularwaysoflifesolelyfromalocalperspectivetheyinsteadcombineafocusonthelocalwithan
efforttograsplargerpolitical,economic,andculturalframeworksthatimpactlocallivedrealities.Notable
proponentsofthisapproachincludeArjunAppadurai,JamesClifford,GeorgeMarcus,SidneyMintz,
MichaelTaussig,EricWolfandRonaldDaus.
Agrowingtrendinanthropologicalresearchandanalysisistheuseofmultisitedethnography,discussedin
GeorgeMarcus'article,"EthnographyIn/OftheWorldSystem:theEmergenceofMultiSited
Ethnography".Lookingatcultureasembeddedinmacroconstructionsofaglobalsocialorder,multisited
ethnographyusestraditionalmethodologyinvariouslocationsbothspatiallyandtemporally.Throughthis
methodology,greaterinsightcanbegainedwhenexaminingtheimpactofworldsystemsonlocaland
globalcommunities.

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Alsoemerginginmultisitedethnographyaregreaterinterdisciplinaryapproachestofieldwork,bringingin
methodsfromculturalstudies,mediastudies,scienceandtechnologystudies,andothers.Inmultisited
ethnography,researchtracksasubjectacrossspatialandtemporalboundaries.Forexample,amultisited
ethnographymayfollowa"thing,"suchasaparticularcommodity,asitistransportedthroughthenetworks
ofglobalcapitalism.
Multisitedethnographymayalsofollowethnicgroupsindiaspora,storiesorrumoursthatappearin
multiplelocationsandinmultipletimeperiods,metaphorsthatappearinmultipleethnographiclocations,
orthebiographiesofindividualpeopleorgroupsastheymovethroughspaceandtime.Itmayalsofollow
conflictsthattranscendboundaries.AnexampleofmultisitedethnographyisNancyScheperHughes'work
ontheinternationalblackmarketforthetradeofhumanorgans.Inthisresearch,shefollowsorgansasthey
aretransferredthroughvariouslegalandillegalnetworksofcapitalism,aswellastherumoursandurban
legendsthatcirculateinimpoverishedcommunitiesaboutchildkidnappingandorgantheft.
Socioculturalanthropologistshaveincreasinglyturnedtheirinvestigativeeyeonto"Western"culture.For
example,PhilippeBourgoiswontheMargaretMeadAwardin1997forInSearchofRespect,astudyofthe
entrepreneursinaHarlemcrackden.Alsogrowingmorepopularareethnographiesofprofessional
communities,suchaslaboratoryresearchers,WallStreetinvestors,lawfirms,orinformationtechnology
(IT)computeremployees.[23]

Seealso
Ageareahypothesis
Communitystudies
Communitas
Crossculturalstudies
Crossculturalpsychology
Culturalpsychology
Cyberanthropology
Dualinheritancetheory
Engagedtheory
Ethnobotany
Ethnography
Ethnomusicology
Ethnozoology
Humanbehavioralecology
HumanRelationsAreaFiles
Huntergatherers
IntangibleCulturalHeritage
Listofimportantpublicationsinanthropology
Nomads
ShamesocietyvsGuiltsociety
Sociology

References
1. "Inhisearlierwork,likemanyanthropologistsofthisgeneration,LeviStraussdrawsattentiontothenecessary
andurgenttaskofmaintainingandextendingtheempiricalfoundationsofanthropologyinthepracticeof
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CulturalanthropologyWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

andurgenttaskofmaintainingandextendingtheempiricalfoundationsofanthropologyinthepracticeof
fieldwork.":InChristopherJohnson,ClaudeLeviStrauss:theformativeyears(http://books.google.co.uk/books?
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Tylor,Edward.1920[1871].PrimitiveCulture(http://books.google.co.uk/books?
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Sherratt,AndrewV."GordonChilde:ArchaeologyandIntellectualHistory",PastandPresent,No.125.
GiulioAngioni(2011).Farediresentire:l'identicoeildiversonelleculture.Nuoro:ilMaestrale
Rosaldo,Renato.CultureandTruth.1993.BeachPress.
Dianteill,Erwan,"CulturalAnthropologyorSocialAnthropology?ATransatlanticDispute",LAnne
sociologique1/2012(Vol.62),p.93122(http://cairnint.info/abstractE_ANSO_121_0093cultural
anthropologyorsocialanthropo.htm#anchor_cite).
Campbell,D.T.(1983)Thetwodistinctroutesbeyondkinselectiontoultrasociality:Implicationsforthe
HumanitiesandSocialSciences.In:TheNatureofProsocialDevelopment:TheoriesandStrategiesD.Bridgeman
(ed.),pp.1139,AcademicPress,NewYork
Diamond,Jared.Guns,GermsandSteel.
FranzBoas1887"MuseumsofEthnologyandtheirclassification"Science9:589
http://www.utpa.edu/faculty/mglazer/theory/cultural_relativism.htm
Heyer,Virginia1948"InReplytoElginWilliams"inAmericanAnthropologist50(1)163166
Stocking,GeorgeW.(1968)Race,Culture,andEvolution:Essaysinthehistoryofanthropology.London:The
FreePress.
Fanon,Frantz.(1963)TheWretchedoftheEarth,transl.ConstanceFarrington.NewYork,GroveWeidenfeld.
Nugent,StephenSomereflectionsonanthropologicalstructuralMarxism
(http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?
title=anthropology&title_type=tka&year_from=1998&year_to=2007&database=1&pageSize=20&index=4)The
JournaloftheRoyalAnthropologicalInstitute,Volume13,Number2,June2007,pp.419431(13)
Lewis,HerbertS.(1998)TheMisrepresentationofAnthropologyanditsConsequences
(http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=00027294(199809)2%3A100%3A3%3C716%3ATMOAAI%3E2.0.CO%3B23)
AmericanAnthropologist100:"716731
Geertz,Clifford(1973).TheInterpretationofCultures.BasicBooks.p.5.
Roseberry,William(1989)."BalineseCockfightsandtheSeductionofAnthropology"inAnthropologiesand
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pp.1728.
Carsten,Janet(2004).AfterKinship.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.pp.1820.
Clifford,JamesandGeorgeE.Marcus(1986)Writingculture:thepoeticsandpoliticsofethnography.Berkeley:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
DoloresJaniewski,LoisW.Banner(2005)ReadingBenedict/ReadingMead:Feminism,Race,andImperial
Visions,p.200(http://books.google.com/books?id=rUHcVdEuIkC&pg=PA200)quotation:
Withinanthropology's"twocultures"thepositivist/objectiviststyleofcomparative
anthropologyversusareflexive/interpretativeanthropologyMeadhasbeencharacterizedasa
"humanist"heirtoFranzBoas'shistoricalparticularismhence,associatedwiththepractices
ofinterpretationandreflexivity[...]

21. Gellner,Ernest(1992)Postmodernism,Reason,andReligion.London/NewYork:Routledge.Pp:2650
22. DeWalt,K.M.,DeWalt,B.R.,&Wayland,C.B.(1998)."Participantobservation."InH.R.Bernard(Ed.),
Handbookofmethodsinculturalanthropology.Pp:259299.WalnutCreek,CA:AltaMiraPress.
23. DissertationAbstract(http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/expand?
pub=infobike://mcb/161/1995/00000008/00000003/art00003&unc=)

Externallinks
Template:WikibooksinlineCulturalAnthropology
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HumanRelationsAreaFiles(http://hraf.yale.edu)
ABasicGuidetoCrossCulturalResearch(http://hraf.yale.edu/resources/guides/basicguideto
crossculturalresearch/)
Webpage"HistoryofGermanAnthropology/Ethnology1945/491990
(http://www.germananthropology.com/)
TheMovingAnthropologyStudentNetworkwebsite(http://www.movinganthropology.org)The
siteofferstutorials,informationonthesubject,discussionforumsandalargelinkcollectionforall
interestedscholarsofculturalanthropology
HungarianmilitaryforcesinAfricapastandfuture.Recoveringlostknowledge,exploitingcultural
anthropologyresources,creatingacomprehensivesystemoftrainingandpreparation
(http://www.scribd.com/doc/161017303/HungarianmilitaryforcesinAfrica%E2%80%93past
andfutureRecoveringlostknowledgeexploitingculturalanthropologyresourcescreatinga
comprehensive)
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