UNIT1(ANALOGCOMMUNICATION)

1.Definenoise
Noiseisanunwantedelectricalsignalwhichgetsaddedtomatransmittedsignalwhenitistravelling
towardsthereceiver
2.Definenoisefigure
Noisefigureisafigureofmeritandusedtoindicatehowmuchthesignaltonoiseratiogetsdegraded
asasignalpassesthroughaseriesofcircuits
3.Whatismeantbyanalogcommunicationsystem?
Themodulationsystemsortechniquesinwhichoneofthecharacteristicsofthecarrierischangedin
proportionwiththeinstantaneousvalueofmodulatingsignaliscalledanalogcommunicationsystem.

4.Definemodulation
Modulation is defined as changing the characteristics of the carrier signal with respect to the
instantaneouschangeinmessagesignal.
5.Whataretheneedsformodulation
Inordertocarrythelowfrequencymessagesignaltoalongerdistance,thehighfrequencycarrier
signaliscombinedwithit.
a)Reductioninantennaheight
b)Longdistancecommunicationc)Easeofradiation
d)Multiplexing
e)Improvethequalityofreceptionf)Avoidmixingupofothersignals
6.WhataretheadvantagesofAnalogcommunications
TransmittersandReceiversaresimple
Lowbandwidthrequirement
FDMcanbeused
7.Whatarethedisadvantagesofanalogcommunication?
Noiseaffectsthesignalquality
Itisnotpossibletoseparatenoiseandsignal
Repeaterscantbeusedbetweentransmittersandreceivers
Codingisnotpossible
Itisnotsuitableforthetransmissionofsecretinformation
8.DefineAmplitudemodulation.
AmplitudeModulationisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothe
instantaneouschangeinmessagesignal.
9.DefineFrequencymodulation.
FrequencyModulationisdefinedaschangingthefrequencyofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothe
instantaneouschangeinmessagesignal.
10.DefinePhasemodulation.

PhaseModulationisdefinedaschangingthephaseofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothe
instantaneouschangeinmessagesignal.
11.Definemodulationindex
Itisdefinedasratioofamplitudeofthemessagesignaltotheamplitudeofthecarriersignal
12.Definepercentagemodulation
m=Em/Ec
Itsdefinedasthepercentagechangeintheamplitudeoftheoutputwavewhenthecarrierisactedon
byamodulatingsignal.
M=(Em/Ec)*100
13.StateCarsonsrule.
Carsonsrulestatesthatthebandwidthrequiredtotransmitananglemodulatedwaveastwicethesum
ofthepeakfrequencydeviationandthehighestmodulatingsignalfrequency.Mathematicallycarsons
ruleis
B=2(f+fm)Hz.
14.DefineDeviationratio.
Deviationratioistheworstcasemodulationindexandisequaltothemaximumpeakfrequency
deviationdividedbythemaximummodulatingsignalfrequency.Mathematically,thedeviationratiois
DR=f(max)/fm(max)
PARTB
ExplainAmplitudeModulationanddemodulationindetail.

Timedomain
AnAMsignalismadeupofacarrier(withconstantfrequency)inwhichitsamplitudeischanged
(modulated)withrespecttothesignal(modulatingsignal)wewishtotransmit(voice,music,data,binary).In
theexamplebelowthecarrier(ahighfrequencysinewave)isbeingmodulatedbyalowerfrequencysinewave.
Themodulatingsignalcausesthecarriersamplitudetochangewithtime.Thisresultingshapeofthecarrieris
calledtheenvelope.Notetheenvelopehastheshapeofasinewave.

AM signal

Modulating signal (sine wave) and modulated carrier

Modulating signal (Audio) and modulated carrier

Derivation
Acarrierisdescribedby
v

VcSin(2fct+)

Toamplitudemodulatethecarrieritsamplitudeischangedinaccordancewiththeleveloftheaudiosignal,
whichisdescribedby
v

VmSin(2fmt)

TheamplitudeofthecarriervariessinusoidallyaboutameanofV c.Whenthecarrierismodulateditsamplitude
isvariedwiththeinstantaneousvalueofthemodulatingsignal.Theamplitudeofthevariationofthecarrier
amplitudeisVmandtheangularfrequencyoftherateatwhichtheamplitudevariesis2 f m.Theamplitudeofthe
carrieristhen:
Carrieramplitude=Vc+VmSin(2fmt)
andtheinstantaneousvalue(valueatanyinstantintime)is
v

{Vc+VmSin(2fmt)}*Sin(2fct)

VcSin(2fct)+VmSin(2fmt)*Sin(2fct)

Eqn.1

UsingSinA*SinB=Cos(AB)Cos(A+B)thisbecomes
v

VcSin(2fct)+VmCos((2fc2fm)t)VmCos((2fc+2fm)t)

Eqn.2

Thisisasignalmadeupof3signalcomponents
carrierat
2fc(rad/s)
Frequencyis fc=2fc/2Hz
uppersidefrequency
2fc+2fm(rad/s)
Frequencyis (2fc+2fm)/2=fm+fcHz
lowersidefrequency
2fc2fm
Frequencyis (2fc2fm)/2=fmfcHz
(rad/s)
Thebandwidth(thedifferencebetweenthehighestandthelowestfrequency)is
BW=(2fc+2fm)(2fc2fm)

2*2fmRad/s

(=2fm/Hz)

The spectrum of these signals is shown. This is described as the signal in the frequency
domain, as opposed to the signal in the time domain. In this case the audio signal is
made up of a single frequency.
In this example the angular frequencies (expressed in Radians/sec, or kRad/sec, or
Mrad/sec) are show. In most cases however the frequency is shown (expressed in Hz, or
kHz, or MHz).

Carrier

Amplitude (V)

Lower Carrier Upper

side
side
frequency
frequency

Spectrum of
audio signal

f1

Angular
Frequency

c - m

Lower
Sideband
Inverted

f2

fc- f2

fc- f1

Upper
Sideband
Erect

fc fc+ f1

fc+ f2

c + m

Bandwidth
= 2 * m

Iftheaudiosignalismadeupofarangeoffrequenciesfromf1tof2(asisnormallythecase)ratherthanasingle
frequencytheoutputsignalwillbeabandoffrequencies,containedin
theuppersideband(USB),invertedand
thelowersideband(LSB),erect.
AbroadcastAMstationintheMediumWavebandisusuallyallocatedafrequencyslot9kHzwide.Thismeans
thatthecarriersofstationsinthisbandarespaced9kHzapart.
ThemaximumamplitudeinanAMsignalisVc+Vm.TheminimumamplitudeisVcVm.

FrequencyDomainviewofDoubleSidebandFullCarrier

ModulationIndex(orModulationFactororDepthofModulation)
Thisisdefinedasm=
InAM,thisquantity,alsocalledmodulationdepth,indicatesbyhowmuchthemodulatedsignalvariesaround
its'original'level.ForAM,itrelatestothevariationsinthecarrieramplitude.

Soifm=0.5,thecarrieramplitudevariesby50%aboveandbelowitsunmodulatedlevel,andfor
m = 1.0 it varies by 100%. Modulation depth greater than 100% is generally to be avoided as it creates
distortion.
UsingthisEqn.2canberewrittenas
v
=VcSin(2fct)+(VmCos((2fc2fm)t)VmCos((2fc+2fm)t))*Vc/Vc
v
=Vc{Sin(2fct)+m[Cos((2fc2fm)t)+Cos((2fc+2fm)t)]}
Carrier

Eqn.3

50% Modulation
1.5
1

0.5

0.5

0
-0.5

65

57

49

41

33

25

17

65

57

49

41

33

25

17

0
-0.5
-1
-1.5

Modulating Signal

57

65

57

65

49

41

65

57

49

41

-1.5
-2

33

-1

25

-0.5

0
-0.5
-1

17

0
9

1
0.5
1

0.5

33

100% modulation

2
1.5

25

17

-1

150% Modulation

3
2
1

49

41

33

25

17

0
-1
-2
-3

Themaximumallowedvalueofmis1.0.Ifthisisexceedtheenvelopeoftheoutputwaveformisdistorted.This
isknownasOvermodulationandshouldneveroccurinpractice,becausethedistortedenvelopewillresultina
distortedoutputsoundsignalintheradioreceiver.Theeffectofovermodulationcanbeexaminedinthe
laboratory.

Variationsofmodulatedsignalwithpercentagemodulationareshownbelow.Ineachimage,themaximum
amplitudeishigherthaninthepreviousimage.Notethatthescalechangesfromoneimagetothenext.

PowerinanAMwaveform
AssumethattheAMsignalisdissipatedinaloadofR.Thetotalpowerdissipatedwillbethesumofthe
powersinallofthecomponentsofthesignal.
Thepowerinthecarrierwillbe
Pc

Watts

Thepowerineachofthefrequenciesis Ps===Pc
Thetotalpoweris

Pt

=Pc+Ps+Ps=Pc+2Ps=Pc(1+2)=Pc(1+)Watts

Thefractionofthepowerinthecarrieris

Themaximumvalueformis1.0.Thismeansthatatmostonly1/3ofthepowerinthesignalwillbecontainedin
thesidebands.Alloftheaudioinformationiscontainedineitheroneofthesidebands,sothat,ineffect,onlyone
sixthofthepower(16.7%)isusedtocarryinformation.

Alternativeformformodulationindex
IfanAMsignalisbeingdisplayedonanoscilloscopeitcanbedifficulttoreadV mandVc.Instead
theformforexpressingmcanbemodifiedtomakeiteasiertoread.
Modulationindex:m=

=
Itispossibletoreadthemaximumandminimumamplitudeofthesignalfromtheoscilloscopedisplay.

PeakInstantaneousPower
ThemaximumsignalvoltageisVc+Vm =Vc(1+m)sothatthemaximuminstantaneousoutputpoweris(1+
m)2
=
Pc(1+m)2.
Ifthemodulationindexis1.0themaximumoutputpowerwillbe4P c.Thetransmittermustbedesignedtocarry
thislevelofoutputpower.

AMDemodulators
DiodeDetector
ThisisthemostcommonlyusedAMdemodulator.Itischeapandreasonablyaccurate.Itisalsousedasan
integralpartofmanydesignsof(older)FMdetector.Thebasiccircuitisasbelow

C2
AM
in

R1

DC
Block
C1

R2
LPF
C3

Audio
Out

Envelope
Detector

Ithaslimitations.
IfthetimeconstantR1*C1intheenvelopedetectoristoolongrelativetotheperiodofthehighestfrequency
modulatingsignalitwillnotbeitwillnotbeabletofollowthepeaksandtroughsoftheenvelopegivingriseto
diagonalclipping.ItisrequiredthatR1*C1<[(1m2)1/2]/(m2fm)where2fmisthehighestfrequency
componentofthemodulatingsignalandmisthemodulationindex.Thisisderivedbelow.
IfR1*C1istooshortthantherewillexcessiveRFrippleandtheoutputpowerwillbereduced.
Becausethediodeisanonlineardevicetherewillbesomedistortioninthedemodulatedsignal.
IngeneralR1C1mustbealotlongerthantheperiodofthecarrierandalotshorterthantheperiodofthe
modulatingsignal.
R1mustbealotlargerthantheforwardresistanceofthediodetomaintaindetectorefficiency.Itmustalso
providematchingtothenext(audio)stage.
TheDiodedetectoroutputsignalconsistsofthreecomponents

1. Thewanteddemodulatedaudiosignal
2. ADCcomponentproportionaltothepeakamplitudeoftheRFsignal.Thisisremovedbysendingthesignal
throughacapacitorC2(highpassfilter).ItisalsousedtoprovideaninputintoAutomaticGainControl.
3. Anunwantedrippleatthecarrierfrequencyanditsharmonics.Thisisblockedfromlaterstagesbyusingan
RClowpassfilter(R2andC3inthiscircuit).

A1MHzcarrierisamplitudemodulatedbyanaudiosignalwhichcontainsallfrequenciesintherange
300Hzto5kHz.Whatarethefrequencybandswhichareoutput?Whatistheoutputbandwidth?Draw
thespectraldiagramofthesesignals.
Answer:
Thecarrieris1MHz
TheUpperSideBandisallfrequenciesintherange1,000,300to1,005,000Hz
TheLowerSideBandisallfrequenciesintherange995,000to999,700Hz
TheBandwidthis1,005,000995,000=10,000Hz=10kHz.
A1.5MHzcarrierisamplitudemodulatedbythreesinusoidalsignalsoffrequency500

Hz,800Hzand
1,400Hz.WhatarethefrequenciesintheAMspectrum?
Answer:
ConvertallthefrequenciestokHz.1.5MHzis1500kHz.500Hzis0.5kHz.800Hzis0.800
kHz.1400Hzis1.4kHz.
Theoutputfrequenciesare:
1500kHz,

15000.5kHz,

15000.8kHz15001.4kHz

or
1500, 1500.5,1499.5,1500.8,1499.2,1501.4,1498.6kHz
AnAMsignalisrepresentedbytheequation
v=
(15+3Sin(2

*5*10

3t))*

Sin(
2
*0.5*106t)volts
(i) Whatarethevaluesofthecarrierandmodulatingfrequencies?
(ii) Whataretheamplitudesofthecarrierandoftheupperandlowersidefrequencies?
(iii)
Whatisthemodulationindex?
(iv)
Whatisthebandwidthofthissignal?
Answer:

ThislooksthesameasEqn.1abovewith:

2fc

(=2fc)
=2*0.5*106
2fm (=2fm)
=2*5*103

Vc
=
15V
Vm
=
3V
(i)Thereforethecarrierfrequency
fcis0.5*106
andthemodulatingfrequency
fmis5*103
(iii)Thebandwidth
BW=2fm
(ii)Themodulationindex
m=Vm/Vc

=0.5MHz
=5kHz
=10kHz
=3/15=0.2

FromEqn.3theamplitudeofeachsidefrequencyis
m*V c/2

=0.2*15/2

=1.5V

Atransmitterputsoutatotalpowerof25Wattsof30%AMsignal.Howmuchpoweriscontainedinthe
carrierandeachofthesidebands?
Answer:
Totalpower=25=Pc(1+)=Pc(1+)=Pc*1.045
ThereforethecarrierpowerisPc=25/1.045=23.92Watts
Thetotalpowerinthe2sidebandsis2523.92=1.08W
Thepowerineachsidebandis1.08/2=.54W
Thefractionofthepowerinthecarrieris23.92/25=0.957,or95.7%

WithneatblockdiagramexplainGenerationanddetectionofSSBsignals

DSBSCFilteringMethod:SinceSSBmodulationisthetransmissionoftheupperorlowersidebands,
SSBmodulationcanbegeneratedbyfilteringtheundesiredsidebandofaDSBSCsignalandretaining
thedesiredoneusingabandpassfilterwithbandwidthequalthatofthemessagesignal(nottwiceits
bandwidth)andacenterfrequencyequaltothecenterfrequencyofthedesiredsideband(notthe
carrier).

ThePROBLEMwiththismodulationmethodisthatitissuitableonlyformessagesignalsthathavea
smallguardband(nosignalcomponents)aroundzerofrequency,asitisthecaseforvoicesignals.The
importantcomponentsofhumanvoicestartfromafrequencyaround300Hz.Thereasonisthatideal
filterswithsharpedgesdonotexistandtherefore,filterswithnonsharpedgesmustbeused.Anynon
zerocomponentsofthemessagesignalsclosetozerofrequencymaybelostordistortedbecauseofthe
filteringprocess.

Thefollowingsignalisarepresentationofahumanvoicesignal.Itisseenthatthissignalhasa
guardbandthatseparatesthetwohalvesofthesignal.CratingaSSBsignalfromthismessage
signalispossiblesinceaguardbandof2*300Hzisobtained,whichmeansthatthetransitionof
theedgeoftheBPFcantakeplaceinthis600Hz.

PhaseShiftingMethod:Thebasicideaofequations(12)abovecanbeusedwheretheHilbert
transformofthemessagesignalissimplyobtainedusingaadevicethatshiftsthemessagesignal
by/2asshowninthefollowingblockdiagram.

Infact,eventhephaseshiftershownintheblockdiagrambelowforageneralsignalisan
unrealizableblock.Itonlycanbeapproximated.Therefore,thismodulationtechniqueisonlya
theoreticalmodulationmethod.

Theaboveblockdiagramcanalsobedescribedinfrequencydomain.Thefollowingfigureshowthe
differentsignalsinfrequencydomainatpoints(a),(b),(c),and(d)intheblockdiagram.

DemodulationofSSBsignals
Fordemodulation,thesameblockdiagramofasimpleDSBSCdemodulatorcanbeused.Thesidebandatthe
positiveandnegativefrequenciesmerge(recombine)atzerofrequencywhentheSSBsignalismultipliedbythe
carrier.(TrytheexerciseoffindingtheoutputoftheDSBSCdemodulatorintimeandfrequencydomainwhen
itsinputisaeitheranUSBoraLSBsignal).

IftheSSBsignalincludesaLARGEcarrier,itcanbedemodulatedusinganenvelopedetectorsimilartothat
usedforfullAMsignals.

ExplaintheBandwidthofFMandPMSignals
ThebandwidthofthedifferentAMmodulationtechniquesrangesfromthebandwidthofthemessagesignal(for
SSB)totwicethebandwidthofthemessagesignal(forDSBSCandFullAM).WhenFMsignalswerefirst
proposed,itwasthoughtthattheirbandwidthcanbereducedtoanarbitrarilysmallvalue.Comparedtothe
bandwidthofdifferentAMmodulationtechniques,thiswouldintheorybeabigadvantage.Itwasassumedthat
asignalwithaninstantaneousfrequencythatchangesoverofrangeoffHzwouldhaveabandwidthoff
Hz.Whenexperimentsweredone,itwasdiscoveredthatthiswasnotthecase.Itwasdiscoveredthatthe
bandwidthofFMsignalsforaspecificmessagesignalwasatleastequaltothebandwidthofthecorresponding
AMsignal.Infact,FMsignalscanbeclassifiedintotwotypes:NarrowbandandWidebandFMsignals
dependingonthebandwidthofeachofthesesignals

NarrowbandFMandPM
ThegeneralformofanFMsignalthatresultswhenmodulatingasignalsm(t)is

g FM (t ) A cos c t k f

m ( )d

.
AnarrowbandFMorPMsignalsatisfiesthecondition

k f a (t ) = 1
ForFMand

k p m (t ) = 1
ForPM,where

a (t )

m ( )d

suchthatachangeinthemessagesignaldoesnotresultsinalotofchangeintheinstantaneousfrequencyofthe
FMsignal.

Now,wecanwritetheaboveas

g FM (t ) A cos c t k f a (t )
.
StartingwithFM,toevaluatethebandwidthofthissignal,weneedtoexpanditusingapowerseriesexpansion.
So,wewilldefineaslightlydifferentsignal
j t k a (t )
g FM (t ) A e c f A e j c t ejk f a (t )

Rememberthat
j t k a (t )
g FM (t ) A e c f A
cos c t k f a (t ) jA sin
c t

kf a (t )
,

so

g FM (t ) Re g FM (t )
.

g FM (t )

e jk f a (t )
Nowwecanexpandtheterm

g FM (t ) A e

j c t

in

,whichgives

j 2 k f2a 2 (t ) j 3k f3a 3 (t ) j 4 k f4a 4 (t )

1 jk f a (t )

K
2!
3!
4!

j t

k f2a 2 (t ) j c t jk f3a 3 (t ) j c t k f4a 4 (t ) j ct

j c t
c
A e
jk f a (t )e

e
K
2!
3!
4!

Sincekfanda(t)arereal(a(t)isrealbecauseitistheintegralofarealfunctionm(t)),andsinceRe{ej2fct}=
cos(2fct)andRe{jej2fct}=sin(2fct),then

g FM (t ) Re g FM (t )

k f2a 2 (t )
k f3a 3 (t )
k f4a 4 (t )
A cos(c t ) k f a (t )sin(c t )
cos(c t )
sin(c t )
cos(c t ) K
2!
3!
4!

k f a (t ) = 1
TheassumptionwemadefornarrowbandFMis(

).Thisassumptionwillresultinmakingallthe

k f a (t )
termswithpowersof

greaterthan1tobesmallcomparedtothefirsttwoterms.So,thefollowingisa

g FM (t )
reasonableapproximationfor
g FM ( Narrowband ) (t ) A cos(c t ) k f a (t ) sin(c t )

k f a (t ) = 1
,

when

ItmustbestressedthattheaboveapproximationisonlyvalidfornarrowbandFMsignalsthatsatisfythe

k f a (t ) = 1
condition(
).Theabovesignalissimplytheaddition(oractuallythesubtraction)ofacosine(the
carrier)withaDSBSCsignal(butusingasineasthecarrier).ThemessagesignalthatmodulatestheDSBSC
signalisnotm(t)butitsintegrationa(t).OneofthepropertiesoftheFouriertransforminformsusthatthe
bandwidthofasignalm(t)anditsintegrationa(t)(anditsderivativetoo)arethesame(verifythis).Therefore,
thebandwidthofthenarrowbandFMsignalis
BW FM ( Narrowband ) BW DSBSC 2 BW m (t )

Wewillseelaterthatwhenthecondition(kf<<1)isnotsatisfied,thebandwidthoftheFMsignalbecomes
higherthattwicethebandwidthofthemessagesignal.SimilarrelationshipsholdforPMsignals.Thatis
g PM ( Narrowband ) (t ) A cos(c t ) k p m (t ) sin(c t )

and

k p m (t ) = 1
,

when

BW PM ( Narrowband ) BW DSBSC 2 BW m (t )

ConstructionofNarrowbandFrequencyandPhaseModulators
TheaboveapproximationsfornarrowbandFMandPMcanbeeasilyusedtoconstructmodulatorsforbothtypes
ofsignals.

NarrowbandFMModulator

NarrowbandPMModulator

UNIT2(DIGITALCOMMUNICATION)
1.DefineDigitalmodulation

DigitalModulationisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothebinary
informationordigitalsignal.
2.WhataretheadvantagesofDigitalcommunications
Ithasabetternoiseimmunity
Repeaterscanbeusedbetweentransmittersandreceivers
Itbecomessimplerandcheaperascomparedtotheanalogcommunication
3.WhatarethedisadvantagesofDigitalcommunications
Itrequiresalargerchannelbandwidth
Deltamodulationneedssynchronizationincaseofsynchronousmodulation
4.Definebitrate
Bitrateisdefinedasnumberofbitstransmittedduringonesecondbetweenthetransmitterand
receiver.
5.Definebaudrate.
Baudrateisdefinedastherateofchangeofsignalontransmissionmediumafterencodingand
modulationhaveoccurred.

6.DefineAmplitudeShiftKeying(ASK).
AmplitudeShiftKeyingisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothe
binaryinformationordigitalsignal.
7.DefineFrequencyShiftKeying(FSK).
FrequencyShiftKeyingisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothe
binaryinformationordigitalsignal.

8.DefinePhaseShiftKeying(PSK).
PhaseShiftKeyingisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeofthecarriersignalwithrespecttothebinary
informationordigitalsignal.
9.DefineMinimumShiftKeying(MSK).
Theminimumfrequencyspacethatallowsthe2FSKrepresentingsymbols0sand
1s.ThusCP(ContinuousPhase)FSKsignalwithadeviationratioifonehalfisdefinedasMSK.
10.DefineQuadratureAmplitudemodulation(QAM).
QAMisaformofdigitalmodulationsimilartoPSKexceptthedigitalinformationiscontainedinboth
theamplitudeandphaseofthetransmittedcarrier.
(or)
QAMisdefinedaschangingtheamplitudeaswellasthefrequencyofthecarriersignalwithrespectto
thebinaryinformationordigitalsignal.
11.Definebandwidthefficiency
Bandwidthefficiencyistheratioofthetransmissionbitratetotheminimumbandwidthrequiredfora
particularmodulation

12.WhataretheadvantagesofMSK?
MSKbasebandwaveformaresmoothercomparedwithQPSKMSKsignalshavecontinuousphase
Itdoesnothaveanyamplitudevariation
13.WhataretheadvantagesofQPSK?
Verygoodnoiseimmunity
Effectiveutilizationofavailablebandwidth
Lowerrorprobability
Veryhighbitratedatatransmission

PARTB
ExplainAmplitudeShiftKeying(or)Digitalamplitudemodulation(or)ON
OFFkeying
ThesimplestdigitalmodulationtechniqueisAmplitudeShiftKeying(ASK),whereabinary
informationsignaldirectlymodulatestheamplitudeofananalogcarrier.
ASKissimilartostandardamplitudemodulationexceptthereareonlytwooutputamplitudes
possible.
ASKissometimescalleddigitalamplitudemodulation(DAM).
Mathematically,ASKis
v(ask)(t)=[1+vm(t)][A/2cos(ct)]

(1)

v(ask)(t)=ASKwave
vm(t) =digitalinformation(modulating)signal(volts)
A/2

=unmodulatdcarrieramplitude(volts)

=analogcarrierradianfrequency(radianpersecond,2fct)

Inequ.(1),themodulatingsignal(vm(t))isanormalizedbinarywaveform,where+1V=logic1and1
V=logic0.therefore,
Foralogic1input,vm(t)=+1V,Equ.(1)reducesto

v(ask)(t)=[1+1][A/2cos(ct)]=Acos(ct)
Foralogic0input,vm(t)=1V,Equ.(1)reducesto
v(ask)(t)=[11][A/2cos(ct)]=0
Thus,themodulatedwavev(ask)(t),iseitherAcos(ct)or0.hence,thecarrieriseitheronoroff,
whichwhyASKissometimesreferredtoasonoffkeying(OOK).

Figureshowstheinputandoutputwaveformsfroman
ASKmodulator.

Fromthefigure,itcanbeseenthatforeverychangeintheinputbinarydatastream,thereisonechange
intheASKwaveform,andthetimeofonebit(tb)equalsthetimeofoneanalogsignalingelement(ts).
The bit time is the reciprocal of the bit rate and the time ofone signaling element is the
reciprocalofthebaud.
Therefore,therateofchangeoftheASKwaveform(baud)isthesameastherateofchangeof
thebinaryinput(bps);thus,thebitrateequalsthebaud.
WithASK,thebitrateisalsoequaltotheminimumNyquistbandwidth.
B=fb/1=fb

baud=fb/1=fb

 ExplainPhaseshiftkeying(or)phasereversalkeying(or)biphase
modulation
Binarysymbol(0or1)modulatesthephaseofthecarrier.
Let the
carrier be
s(t) = A
cos2f0t

Apeakvalueofsinusoidalcarrier.
Inthestandard1loadresistor,thepowerdissipatedwillbe
P=1/2

A=P
Whenthesymbol

ischanged,thephaseofthecarrierchangedby180(
radians)

s(t)=2Pcos2f0t
Symbol1

(1)

s(t)=2Pcos(2f0t+)
Symbol0

(2)

cos(2f0t+)=cos
(2)s(t)=2Pcos2f0t
PSKsignals(t)=b(t)2Pcos2f0t

ExplainBPSK(or)phasereversalkeying(or)biphasemodulation
SimplestformofPSKBPSK
N=1,M=2
ON
numberofbitsencoded
1

Mnumberofdiscretesignals.

Twophases(2 =2)arepossibleforthecarrier

 Onephaselogic1
Anotherphaselogic0
Asinputchangesstate(0to1(or)1to0),thephaseoftheoutputcarriershift

betweentwoanglesthatareseparatedby180 .
Itisaformofsquarewavemodulationofcontinuouswavesignal.
BPSKTransmitter
Balanced modulator
actsasphasereversing
switch.
Depending on the
logic condition of
digitalinput,the
carrieristransferredto
the output either in
0
phaseor180 outof
phase with the
reference carrier
oscillator.

Internalstructurebalancedringmodulator
Thebalancedmodulatorhas
twoinputs.
1. Carrier that is in
phase

with
referenceoscillator
2. Binarydigitaldata
Forthebalancedmodulatorto
operateproperlythedigitalinputvoltagegreaterthanthepeakcarriervoltage.
DigitalinputinputcontroltheON/OFFstateofdiodeD1toD4.
Condition1:Binaryinput1
Diode D1 and D2
forwardbias(ON).
Diode D3 and D4
reversebias(OFF).
Withthepolaritiesshown,the
carrier voltage is developed across
transformer T2 in phase with the carrier
voltageacrossT1.
Outputsignalisinphasewiththereferenceoscillator.
Condition2:Binaryinput0
DiodeD1andD2reversebias(OFF).
DiodeD3andD4
forwardbias(ON).
With the polarities
shown, the carrier

voltageisdeveloped
across transformer
T2

180 out of phase

with the carrier
voltageacrossT1.

Outputsignalis180 outofphasewiththereferenceoscillator.
Truthtable

 Aconstellationdiagram(or)signalstatespacediagramsimilartophasordiagram
exceptthattheentirephaseisnotdrawnonlythepeakpositionofphasorsare
shown.
BandwidthconsiderationBPSK
Balancedmodulator(productmodulator):ouputsignalistheproductoftwoinput
signal.
InBPSKmodulator,thecarrierinputsignalismultipliedbybinarydata.
Positivelogic1;negativelogic0,inputcarrier(sin2fct)multipliedby
either0(ve)or1(+ve).

Multipliedby(ve)sin2fct180 (outofphase)

Multipliedby(+ve)sin2fct0 (inphase).
Baudrate=bps(bitrate)
Widest bandwidth occurs when the binary input data are an alternating input
sequence.
Thefundamentalfrequency(fa)ofanalternativesequence=onehalfofbit
rate(fb/2).
The output (BPSK modulator)
proportional to BPSK output = [sin
(2fat)][sin(2fct)]

famaximumfundamentalfrequencyofbinary
input(Hz)fcreferencecarrierfrequency(Hz)
productoftwosinefunctions
cos[2(fcfa)t]cos[2(fc+
fa)t]Minimumdoublesidenyquist

bandwidth(B)

fc+fa

or

(fcfa)
fa=fb/2

fcfa
fc+fa/2fa

fbbitrate

B=2fb/2
TimeofoneBPSKsignalingelement(ts)=timeofoneinformationbit(tn).
Indicatesbitrate=baudrate

BPSKreceiver

Theinputsignalmaybesin2fct.
Coherent carrier recovery circuit detects and regenerates the carrier that is both
frequencyandphasecoherentwithoriginaltransmitsignalcarrier.
Thebalancedmodulator,theoutputistheproductofthetwoinputs(theBPSKand
recoveredcarrier).
Thelowpass filter(LPF)separates therecoveredbinarydatafromthecomplex
demodulatedsignal.
ForBPSKsignal+sin2fct(logic1),theoutputofbalanced
2

modulator(sin2fct)(sin2fct)=sin 2fct
Or
2

sin 2fct=(1cos22fct)
= cos22fctcos22fctfilteredbyusinglowpassfilter(<22fc).

Output of the balanced modulator

containsa

+vevoltage(+)andcosinewaveattwicethecarrierfrequency(2fc).
Apositivecomponent(voltage)representademodulatedlogic1
ForaBPSKinputsignalsin2fct(logic0),theoutputofbalancedmodulator

(sin2fct)(sin2fct)=sin 2fct
2

sin 2fct=(1cos22fct)
= + cos22fct cos22fctfilteredbyusinglowpassfilter
(<2fc).

Theoutputofbalancedmodulatorcontainsvevoltage()andcosinewaveat
twicethecarrierfrequency(2fc).
Anegativevoltagerepresentsademodulatedlogic0.

Probabilityoferror

ThegeneralexpressionforthebiterrorprobabilityofanMphasePSKsystem


Explain8PhaseShiftKeyingwithneatdiagram
n

N=3;M=2 =2 =8(possibleo/pphases)groupofthreebitstribits
8

PSKtransmitter
Incomingserialbitstreamentersthebitsplitterconvertedtoaparallel.
Bitrate(threechannel)=fb=3
BitI&CtoIchannel,BitQ&CbartoQchannel.
TheIorQbitdetermineo/p
polarityLogic1=+v
Logic0=v
C&Cbar
determine
Logic1=
1.307v
Logic0=
0.541v.
Tribitcodebetweenanytwoadjacentphasechangesbyonlyonebitgraycode
(or)maximumdistancecode.
Forusetoreducethenumberoftransmissionerrors.

Bandwidthconsiderations

BitrateI&QorCchannel=1/3ofbinaryi/pdatarate(fb/3).
HighestfundamentalfrequencyintheI,Q,Cchannel=1/6ofbitrate(I/p).
Thereisonlyonechangeinphaseattheo/pforeverydatai/pbits.
Baudrate=fb/2.
O/pofthebalancedmodulator
=(Xsinat)(sinct)
and

at=2fb/6t{modulatingsignal}at=2fc{carrier}

X=1.307or0.541

Thus,
=(Xsin2fb/6t)(sin2fct)= X cos2(fcfb/6)t X cos2(fc+fb/6)t
2
2
Theoutputfrequencyspectrumextendsfromfc+fb/4tofcfb/4,andtheminimum
bandwidth(fN)is(fc+fb/6)(fcfb/6)=2fb/6=fb/3.

 Explain8PhaseShiftKeyingreceiver

 Powersplitterdirectsthei/p8PSksignaltotheI&Qproductdetectorandcarrier
recoverycircuits.
Thecarrierrecoverycircuitreproducestheoriginalreferenceoscillatorsignal.

Theincoming8PSKsignalismixedwiththerecoveredcarrierintheIproduct
detectorandwithquadraturecarrierintheQproductdetector.

Theo/pofproductdetectorare4levelPAM

o/pfromIchannelI&C
o/pfromQchannelQ&Cbar.

ParalleltoserialconverterconvertstheI/CandQ/CbarpairstoserialI,Q&C
datastreams.

Explain16PhaseShiftkeyingindetail
n

n=4;M=2 =2 =16(outputphases).
4bitsquadbits.
Minimumbandwidthandbaudequalonefourththebitrate.
N,Mo/pphases.
Angularseparationbetweenadjacento/pphasesis22.5.
16 PSK undergoes 11.25 phase shift during transmission and still retain its
integrity.

LimitationinthelevelofencodingpossiblewithPSK,asapointiseventually
reachedwherereceiverscantdiscernthephaseofthereceivedsignalingelement.

Phaseimpairmentdestroysitsintegrityproducingerrors.

For64PSKn=6;M=2 =64o/pphases,
Angularseparationbetweenadjacentphasesisonly5.6.


ExplainQuaternaryPhaseShiftKeying(Or)QuadraturePSK(Or)Constant
AmplitudeDigitalModulation(16mark/10mark)
QPSKisanMaryencodingschemewhereN=2andM=4
Fourphases(o/p)arepossibleforasinglecarrierfrequency.
Fouro/pphasesfouri/pconditions
Productmodulatorrequiresmorethansinglei/pbittodeterminetheo/pcondition
.
Fourpossibleconditions:00,01,10,11
Thebinaryi/pdataarecombinedintogroupoftwobitscalleddibits.

Inthemodulator,eachdibitcodegeneratesoneofthefourpossibleo/pphases
(+45,+135,45,135).

 Foreachtwodibitclockedintothemodulatorsingleo/pchangeoccurs.
Baudrate=biti/prate(twoi/pbitproduceoneo/pphasechange).
QPSKtransmitter
Twobits(dibit)areclockedintothebitsplitter.
Seriallyinputtedsimultaneouslyparalleloutputted
OnebittoIchannel;otherbittoQchannel
TheIbitmodulatesacarrierthatisinphasewiththereferenceoscillator.
TheQbitmodulatesacarrierthatis90outofphasewiththereferenceoscillator.

TheoperationofQPSKsameasBPSKi.etwoBPSKmodulatorcombinedin
parallel.
Logic1=+ve

I
Q

+sin2fct
cos2fct

Logic0=ve

sin2fc
t

cos2fc
t
Linearsummero/p=+sin2fct+cos2fct,+sin2fctcos2fct,sin2fct+
cos2fct&
sin2fctcos2fct.

Eachofthefourpossibleo/pphasorshasexactlythesameamplitude.

Binaryinformationmustbeencodedentirelyinthephaseoftheo/psignal.
Binaryi/p
Q I
0
0
1

0
1
0

QPSKo/pphase

135
45
+
+
45
(a)

ExplainthebandwidthconsiderationsofQPSKsystem.[
Nov2010]
(6mark)
Bitrate(IorQ)equaltoi/pdatarate(fb/2).
Highestfundamentalfrequencypresentatthedatai/ptoIorQ=ofdata
rate.
Twice(I&Q)fb/4=fb/2(nyquistBW).

BandwidthcompressionisrealizedinQPSK(minBW<incomingbitrate).
QPSKo/psignaldoesnotchangephaseuntiltwobitshavebeenclockedintbit
splitter.o/prate(baud)=ofi/pbitrate.

O/p
of
the

balancedmodulator
Output=(sin at)(sin ct)
at=2fb/4t{modulatingsignal}
Thus,
Output=(sin2fb/4t)(sin2fct)
cos2(fcfb/4)tcos2(fc+fb/4)t

at=2fc{carrier}

Theoutputfrequencyspectrumextendsfromfc+fb/4tofcfb/4,andtheminimum
bandwidth
(fN)is
(fc+fb/4)(fcfb/4)=2fb/4=fb/2

ExplainQPSKreceiverwithnecessaryblockdiagram

Thepowersplitterdirectsthei/pQPSKsignaltotheI&Qproductdetectorsand
carrierrecoverycircuit.

Carrierrecoverycircuitrecover/reproducetheoriginaltransmitcarrier.

QPSKsignalisdemodulatedinI&QproductdetectorgenerateoriginalI&Q
data.

Product detectors (o/p) converted parallel I& Q data channels to a single

binaryo/pdatastream.

Fourpossibleo/pphases(+45

,+135

,45

,135

).

Iproductdetector
ThereceivedQPSKsignal(sin2fct+cos2fct)isoneoftheinputtotheIproduct
detectorotheri/p(recoveredcarrier)sin2fct.

I =(sin2fct+cos2fct)(sin2fct)
= (sin2fct)(sin2fct)+(cos2fct)(sin2fct)
2

= sin 2fct+(cos2fct)(sin2fct)
= (1cos22fct)+sin(2fc+2fc)t+sin(2fc2fc)t
= +cos22fct+sin22fct+sin0
Filteredout
equals0=v(logic
0)
Qproductdetector
Again,thereceiveQPSKsignalisoneoftheinputtotheQproductdetector.theother
inputisrecoveredcarriershifted90 inphase.
I=(sin2fct+cos2fct)(cos2fct)
QPSKsignalcarrier

= cos 2fct(sin2fct)(cos2fct)
=

(1cos22fct)sin(2fc+2fc)tsin(2fc2fc)t

+cos22fctsin22fctsin0
Filtered
outequals0=
v(logic1)

WithblockdiagramexplainOffsetQPSK(or)offsetkeyedQPSK

ThebitwaveformsontheI&Qchannelareoffset/shiftedinphasefromeach
otherbyonehalfofabittime.

Thereisnevermorethan90 shiftino/pphase.
InQPSK,changeini/pdibitfrom00to11or01to10cause180

Adv:

shift.

limitedphaseshift.

Disadvantage:Dataratetwice(o/p).Bandwidth&baudratehightwicethanQPSK.
FrequencyShiftKeying(FSK)
v

Formofconstantamplitudeanglemodulationsimilartostandardfrequency
modulation except the modulating signal is a binary signal that varies
betweentwodiscretevoltagelevels.
FSKsometimescalledbinaryFSK.
Vfsk(t)=Vccos{2P (fc+Vm(t)D f)t}
Vfsk(t) binaryFSK
Vc peakanalogcarrier
amplitude(volts)fc analog
carrierCentrefrequency
(hertz)Vm(t) binaryi/p
D f peakcarrierchange(hertz)

Df

Vm(t)directiondeterminedbythepolarity.

Logic1=+1volt Vm(t)=+1

Logic0=1volt Vm(t)=1.

Logic1
Vfsk(t)=Vccos{2P (fc+D f)t}

Logic0
Vfsk(t)=Vccos{2(fcf)t}

FSKinfrequencydomain

v
v

WithbinaryFSK,thecarriercentrefrequency(f c)isshiftedupanddowninthe
frequencydomainbythebinaryi/p(changesfromlogic0to1orviceversa).

o/pfrequencyLogic1 markfrequency
Logic0 spacefrequency.

Mark and space frequencies separated from carrier frequency by the peak
frequencydeviation(D f).
FrequencydeviationD f=|fmfs|/2
|fmfs| absolutedifferencebetweenmarkandspacefrequency(hertz).
FSKintimedomain

Spacefrequency(lowerfrequency)=fcD f
Time frequency

Markfrequency(highfrequency)=fc+D f
Time frequency
Relatedbyequation
f=1/t

frequency

ttime

FSKbitrate,baudrateandbandwidth
Bitrate=baudrate tb=ts
i/p=o/p
v

baudrateofBFSKcanbedeterminedbysubstituting
N=1
Baudrate=fb/N
= fb/1

writeanoteonbandwidthconsiderationinFSK[April2014]

(6marks)

B=|(fsfb)(fmfb)|
=|fsfm|+2fb
|fs fm|=2D fusing Carsonsrule(getmin
bandwidth)
Bminimumbandwidth. D f frequencydeviation(|fsfm|)
fb i/pbitrate

Thefastestratesofchange(highestfundamentalfrequency)inNRZbinarysignal
occurwhenalternate1sand0sareoccurring(squarewave).

Ittakehighandlowtoproduceacycle,thehighestfundamentalfrequencypresentin
asquarewaveequalstherepetitionrateofthesquarewave.
Fundamentalfrequencybinarysignal=halfofthebitrate

fa=fb/2
v Modulationindexh= D f/fa
h FMmodulationindex(hfactor).
v WorstcasemodulationindexyieldswidestBW
1. D f/fmatmaximumvalue
2. fa=fb/2
h=|fm

f
s

f
b

2
h=|fmfs|/fb
DiscusstheprincipleofoperationofFSKtransmitter.[April2014][Nov
2011][Nov2009](8marks)

v
v
v

Vco voltagecontrolledoscillator
logic1 shiftsthevcoo/ptothemarkfrequency.
logic0 shiftsthevcoo/ptothespacefrequency.
Binaryi/pchangesbackandforthbetweenlogic1andlogic0

v
v

Vcoo/pshift/deviatesbackandforthbetweenmarkandspacefrequency.
D f is the difference between carrier rest frequency and either mark or space
frequency(ordifferencebetweencarrierrestfrequencyandmarkandspacefrequency).
v D f=Vm(t)kl
kldeviationsensitivity
v D f peakvoltage(binarysignal).

v Peakvoltagesameforlogic1and0,magnitude(D f)sameforlogic1and0.
DiscusstheprincipleofoperationofFSKreceiver.[April2013]Nov2009]
(8marks)
NoncoherentFSK
v FSKi/psignaltoBPF(BandPassFilter)throughpowersplitter.
v BPFallowsonlymarkorspacefrequencytoenvelopedetector.
v Envelopedetectorfindtotalpowerineachpassband.
v Comparatorrespondstolargestpower.
v Nofrequencyinvolvement.

CoherentFSK
v

FSKismultipliedbyarecoveredcarriersignalthathastheexactsamefrequency
&phaseasthetransmitterreference.

Twotransmittedfrequencies(fm andfs)arenotgenerallycontinuous,itisnot
practicaltoreproducealocalreferencethatiscoherentwithbothofthem.

PLLPhaseLockedLoop
v
v
v

InputtoPLLshiftsbetweenfmandfs,thedcerrorvoltageattheo/pofthe
phasecomparatorfollowsthefrequencyshifts.
Twoo/perrorvoltage onerepresentslogic1anotherrepresentlogic0
Naturalfrequency(PLL)=frequency(FSK).

Twofrequencymatches dcerrorvoltage0.

Probabilityoferror
TheprobabilityoferrorfornoncoherentFSK
TheprobabilityoferrorforcoherentFSK

PhasecontinuousFSK(CPFSk)
v
v
v

WithCPFSK,fmandfsareseparatedbyanexactmultipleofonehalfofthebit
ratefmandfs=nfb/2.
Betterbiterrorperformance.
DisadvantagesofCPFSk:requiressynchronizationcircuit,moreexpensive.

Explainminimumshiftkeyingindetail:

Minimumshift keying (MSK) is a type of continuousphase frequencyshift

keying,Withafrequencyseparationofonehalfthebitrate(0r)Withh=(1/2)the
frequencydeviationishalfthebitrate.

This minimum frequency spacing allows the two FSK signals corresponding to
symbols1and0tobecoherentlyorthogonal,
SoThattheydonotinterferewitheachotherintheprocessofdetection.

Cpfsk signal with the deviation ratio as (1/2) is commonly referred to as

minimumshiftkeying.

TheMSKsignalisexpressedasS(t)=S1
=

Where1(t)=TbtTb
?2(t)=
S1

S2

TbtTb

0tTb

0t2Tb

SIGNALSPACEREPRSENTATIONOFMSK:

Transmitted

Phasestates

message

binarysymbol
0tTb

+2f/2

2f

+2f/2

2f

2f/2

2f/2

S1

S2

+
+

TheMSKcansignalmayassumeoneofthefourpossiblestatesdependingonthevalues
of(0)

and (Tb).
MSKTRANSMITTER:
Twosinei/ps,oneoffrequency
=

andtheotheroffrequency
,areappliedtoaproduct

modulator.

This produces two phase

coherent sine waves are
separatedatfrequencies and
.

ThetopmostBPFallowsonly
thesignalf1.

ThebottommostBPFallowsonlythesignalf2.

Thentheresultingfilteroutputsaresummedtoproduce

Then
rateof

and

aremultipliedbymessagesignal

.ThisproducesMSKwaveforms.
MSKRECEIVER

Thereceivedsignalx

is

correlated with locally

generated carrier,

and
.
ThenitisintegratedoverTb
secondsin inphasechannel

and
and

.
,withabit

seconds in

quadrature

channel.

Then the correlator

outputs,

and
, are compared
with a threshold of
zerovolts,

Theestimatesofthephase

Thenthisphaseestimatesisgiventothelogiccircuitandoriginalbinarywavesare
reconstructed.

and

areobtained.

ProbabilityofError
Pe=(1/2)erfc(Eb/N0)
ExplainQAMQuadratureAmplitudeModulation(Amplitude
andPSKarecombined)8QAM
M=8possibleMary
encoding.Nota
constantamplitudesignal.

8QAMtransmitter
v

Theonlydifferencebetweenthe8QAMtransmitterand8PSKtransmitter,the
omissionoftheinverterbetweenCchannelandQproductmodulator.
v
Incomingdataaredividedintogroupsofthreebit(tribits),theI,QandCbit
stream.

Eachwithabitrateequalto1/3oftheincomingdatarate.

TheIandQbitsdeterminethepolarityofthePAMsignalattheo/pof2to4level
convertersandCchanneldeterminesthemagnitude.
Magnitudeequal,logicconditionsdifferent.

Bandwidthconsiderationsof8QAM
v

In8QAM,thebitrateintheIandQchannelisonethirdofthei/pbinaryrate
sameas8PSK.

Thehighestfundamentalmodulatingfrequencyandfastesto/prateofchangein
the8QAMaresameasthe8PSk.

Minimumbandwidth=fb/3.

8QAMreceiver
v
v

v
v

ThedifferencesarethePAMlevelsattheo/poftheproductdetectorandbinary
signalsattheo/poftheanalogtodigitalconverter.
Modulatedo/p 8PSK=8
QAM.Demodulatedo/p 8
PSK 8QAM.
Binaryo/pfromIchannel I&Cbits.
Binaryo/pfromQchannel Q&Cbits.

(8/10
mark)

 Explain16QuadratureAmplitudeModulation
n

n=4;M=2 =2 =16possiblecombinations.
QAMtransmitter

v
v
v
v
v
v
v

TheinputbinarydataaredividedintofourchannelsI,I ,QandQ .

Thebitrateineachchannelisequaltoonefourthofi/pbitrate(fb/4).

Fourbitsareseriallyclockedintobitsplittertheyareoutputtedsimultaneously
andinparallelwithI,I ,QandQ channel.
IandQbit polarity(logic1==+ve,logic0=ve)
I andQ bit magnitude(I (logic1)=0.821vandQ (logic0)=0.22v).
2to4levelconvertersgeneratesa4levelPAMlevels(amplitude)signals.
Twopolaritiesandtwomagnitudes(0.22v&0.821v).
PAM signal modulates the inphase and quadrature carrier in the product
modulator.
Fouro/ppossibleforeachproductmodulator.
Iproductmodulator 0.821sin ct,0.22
sin ctQproductmodulator 0.821
cos ct,0.22cos ct.

v
v

ThelinearsummercombinestheoutputfromI&Qproductmodulator.
Producesthe16o/pconditionsnecessaryfor16QAM.

Bandwidthconsiderationsof16QAM
v

Thei/pdataaredividedintofourchannels.
v ThebitrateinI,I ,QandQ channelisequaltoonefourthofthebinaryinput
datarate(fb/4).
v
ThebitsplitterstretchestheI,I ,QandQ bitstofourtimestheirinputbit
length.
v
BecausetheI,I ,QandQ bitsareoutputtedsimultaneouslyandinparallel,
the2to4
levelconverterschangeintheiri/pando/psatarateequaltoonefourthofthe
i/pdatarate.

v Thebittimingrelationshipbetweenthebinaryi/pdata,theI,I ,QandQ channel

dataandtheIPAMsignal.
v ThehighestfundamentalfrequencyintheI,I ,QandQ channelisequaltoone
eighthofthebitrateofthebinaryi/pdata.
v OnecycleintheI,I ,QandQ channeltakethesameamountofthetimeaseight
inputbits.
v AlsothehighestfundamentalfrequencyofeitherPAMsignalisequaltooneeighth
ofbinaryi/pbitrate.
v With16QAMmodulator,thereisonechangeintheo/psignal(phaseoramplitude)
for
everyfour
i/pdata
bits.

Baud rate = fb / 4 as
same as minimum
bandwidth.Thebalanced

modulator are product

modulator and their
outputs can be
represented
mathematicallyas
Output=(Xsin at)(sin ct) at=2P fb/8t

ct=2fct

X=0.22or0.821

Output=(Xsin2P fb/8t)(sin2P fct)

Output

=X/2cos2P (fc(fb/8))tX/2cos2P(fc+(fb/8))t

v Theoutputfrequencyspectrumextendsfromf c+(fb/8)to(fc(fb/8)andminimum

bandwidth(fN)(fc+(fb/8))(fc(fb/8))=fN

 ComparevariousmodulationtechniquesASK,FSK,PSK,QPSK,QAM
Parameter
ASK
Variable
Amplitudeof
characteristic carrieris
s
varied

FSK
Frequencyof
carrieris
varied

2.

Logic1
Logic0

CarrierON
CarrierOFF

Freqshifted
tofm
Freqshifted
tofs

0(nophase
shift)
180degphase
shift

00>135deg
01>45deg
10>+135deg
11>+45deg

3.

o/p
waveform

BitRate

Coherent

Non
Coherent

Coherent

Coherent

Coherent

Tb

Tb

Tb

2Tb

Tb/N

fb

fb

fb

fb/2

fb/N

S.NO

1.

PSK
Phaseofthe
carrierisvaried

QPSK
Phaseofthe
carrieris
varied

QAM
Amplitudean
phaseofthe
carrierisvarie
ForNinputs

Amplitude(Vo
s)
PhaseDegree

7.

Detection
method
Symbol
duration(Tb)
Baudrate

Bandwidth

fb

2(f+fb)

fb

fb/2

2fb/N

No.ofo/p
Bandwidth
efficiency
Relation
between
bandwidth&
bitrate

BW=fb

BW=2(f+
BW=2fb
fb)

BW=fb/2

BW=fb/N

noise
immunity

Noise&BW

Noise&Error
probability

efficiencyof
transmission

High
bandwidth
requirement
CallerID

Generation&
detectionis
complex
Lowcost

Generation&
detectionis
complex
modems

moresuscepti
tonoise

5
6

10

11

Easyto
generate&
detect

12

Advantages

13

Noise&Low
Disadvantage bitrate
Optical

Radio

14

Applications

communication Audio
cassettes

transmitter&
RFID

communicatio

UNIT3(DATAANDPULSECOMMUNICATION)
1.Whatismeantbydatacommunication
DatacommunicationcanbedefinedastwopersonalcomputersconnectedthroughaPublic
TelecommunicationNetwork(PTN)
2.Whataretheapplicationsofdatacommunication?
UsedinAutomaticTellerMachine(ATM)Internet
AirlineandHotelreservationsystem
Massmedia
NEWSnetwork
3.WhataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofParallelcommunication
Advantages:
Paralleltransmissionisspeed
Usedforshortdistancecommunication
Disadvantages:
Requiremorelinesbetweensourceanddestination
Morecost
4.Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofseriescommunication
Advantages:
NumberoftransmissionlinesislessUsedforlongdistancecommunicationLowcost
Disadvantages:Speedislow
5.Whatismeantbypointtopointcommunication?
PointtopointcommunicationisthelinkbetweentwostationsAandBie).,information
istransferredbetweenamainframecomputerandaremotecomputerterminal
6.Whatismultipointcommunication?
Amultipointlineconfigurationisoneinwhichmorethantwospecificdevicesshareasinglelink
7.DefineMorsecode.
ItisusedtosendmessagesAkeywhichturnedthecarrierofatransmitterONandOFFto
producethedotsanddashes
Thesedotsanddashesweredetectedatthereceiveranditisconverterbackintolettersand
numbersmakestheoriginalmessage
8.Whatarethedifferenttypesoferrordetectiontechniques?
a.Redundancy
b.Echoplex
c.Exactcountencodingd.Parity
e.Checksum
f.VerticalRedundancyCheck
g.HorizontalRedundancyCheck
h.CyclicRedundancyCheck
9.WhatismeantbyForwardErrorCorrection(FEC)?

FEC,areceivercanuseanerrorcorrectingcode,whichautomaticallycorrectcertainerrors
withoutanyretransmissions
InFEC,bitsareaddedtothemessagebeforethetransmission
PurposeofFECcodeistoreducethewastedtimeofretransmission
10.DefinePulseAmplitudemodulation
Theamplitudeofacarrierpulseisalteredinaccordancetothatofamplitudeofmessagesignalto
makeitaccommodatetheinformationsignal.
11.DefinePulsewidthmodulation
InPWMsystem,themessagesignalsareusedtovarythedurationofcarrierpulse.Themessage
signalmayvaryeitherthetrailingedgeorleadingedgeorbothofthecarrierpulsesnorderto
accommodatetheintelligenceofinformationsystem.
12.DefinePulsepositionmodulation
Thepositionofacarrierpulseisalteredinaccordancewithinformationcontainedinsampled
waveform.

13.DefinePulsecodemodulation
Pulsecodemodulationrefersaformofsourcecoding.Itisaformofdigitalmodulation
techniquesinwhichthecoderefersabinarywordthatrepresentdigitaldata.WithPCM,the
pulsesareoffixedlengthandfixedamplitude.
14.Definesamplingrate
Thesamplingratefsmustbeatleasttwotimesthehighestfrequencycomponentoftheoriginal
signaltobeaccuratelyrepresented
fs>=2fm

PARTB
Explain digital Pulse-code modulation in detail.
A form of digital pulse modulation where a message signal is represented in discrete
form in both time and amplitude. This form of signal representation permits the transmission of
the message signal as a sequence of coded binary pulses.
- PCM is essentially analog-to-digital conversion of a special type where the information
contained in the instantaneous samples of an analog signal is represented by digital words in a
serial bit stream. Hence, if we assume that each of the digital words has n binary digits, there are
n
M = 2 unique code words that are possible.
- Two fundamental processes are involved in the generation of a binary PCM wave: sampling
and quantization.
Advantages of PCM:
1. Relatively inexpensive digital circuitry may be used extensively in the system.
2. PCM signals derived from all types of analog sources (audio, video, etc.) may be merged with
data signals (like from digital computers) and transmitted over a common high-speed digital
communication system.
3. In long-distance digital telephone systems requiring repeaters, a clean PCM waveform can be
regenerated at the output of each repeater, where the input consists of a noisy PCM waveform.
4. The noise performance of a digital system can be superior to that of an analog system.
Main disadvantage: A much wider bandwidth than that of the corresponding analog signal
Quantization
It is not necessary to transmit the exact amplitude of the samples. The receiver (like
the human ear) can detect only finite intensity differences. This means that the original
continuous signal may be approximated by a signal constructed of discrete amplitudes detected
on a minimum error basis from an available set. The existence of a finite number discrete
amplitude levels is a basic condition of PCM.

Amplitude quantization - The process of transforming the sample amplitude of a message

signal at a time into discrete amplitude taken from a finite set of possible values.
Decision levels (or decision thresholds) discrete amplitudes at the quantizer input.
Representation levels or reconstruction levels discrete amplitudes at the quantizer output.
Quantum or step size spacing between two adjacent representation levels.

- Quantizers can be of a uniform or nonuniform type. In a uniform

quantizer, the representation levels are uniformly spaced; otherwise the quantizer is nonuniform.
quantization noise an error defined as the difference between the input signal and the output
signal.
Elements of a PCM system
Basic operations performed in the transmitter: sampling, quantizing, encoding
LPF prior to sampling is included to prevent aliasing of the message signal; the
quantizing and encoding operations are usually performed by a circuit known as analogto-digital converter..
Basic operations in the receiver are regeneration of impaired signals, decoding and
reconstruction of the train of quantized pulses. Regeneration also occurs at intermediate
points along the transmission path as necessary

Transmitter:
Low pass aliasing filter used at the front-end of the sampler to exclude frequencies greater
than B before sampling.
Sampler permits the reduction of the continuously varying message signal (of some finite
duration) to a limited number of discrete values per second.
Quantizer provides a new representation of the signal that is discrete in both time and
amplitude.
In telephonic communication, it is preferable to use a variable separation between separation
levels
The use of a nonuniform quantizer is equivalent to passing the baseband signal through a
compressor and then applying the compressed signal to a uniform quantizer.
compander.

SNR for low-level signals increases at the expense of the SNR for high-level signals. As a
compromise, values of and A are adopted in practice. Typical values are = 255 and A = 87.6
Encoding
To exploit the advantages of sampling and quantizing for the purpose of making the transmitted
signal more robust to noise and interference, we require the use of encoding to translate the
discrete set of sample values to a more appropriate form of signal.
code any plan for representing each of the discrete set of values as a particular arrangement of
discrete events
code element or symbol one of the discrete events in a code.
code word or character a particular arrangement of symbols used in a code to represent a
single value.
R
Using a code word of R bits, we may represent a total of 2 distinct numbers.
The maximum advantage over the effects of noise in a transmission medium is obtained by using
a binary code, because a binary symbol withstands relatively high level of noise and is easy to
generate

Write a short notes on PAM, PWM and PTM.

Pulse-Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
The simplest and most basic form of analog pulse modulation.
In PAM, the amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are varied in proportion to the
corresponding sample values of a continuous message signal; the pulses can be of a
rectangular form or some other appropriate shape.
Dashed curve depicts the waveform of the message signal m(t) and the sequence of
amplitude-modulated rectangular pulses represent the corresponding PAM signal, s(t).

PAM Generation

1. Instantaneous sampling of the message signal m(t) every Ts seconds, where the sampling rate
fs = 1/Ts is chosen in accordance with the sampling theorem.
2. Lengthening the duration of each sample so obtained to some constant value T.
Note: In digital circuit technology, these two operations are jointly called sample and hold.
Recovering the message signal from the PAM signal
Assumption: The message signal is limited to bandwidth B and the sampling rate f s is larger than
the Nyquist rate.
By using flat-top samples to generate a PAM signal, amplitude distortion is introduced.
Aperture effect the distortion caused by the use of PAM to transmit an analog-information
bearing signal
Other Forms of Pulse Modulation
1. Pulse-duration modulation (PDM), also referred to as pulse-width modulation (PWM, where
samples of the message signal are used to vary the duration of the individual pulses in the carrier.
2. Pulse-position modulation (PPM), where the position of a pulse relative to its unmodulated
time of occurrence is varied in accordance with the message signal.

Notes:
- In PDM, long pulses expend considerable power while bearing no additional information.
- Accordingly, PPM is a more efficient form of pulse modulation than PDM.

 Explainparallelandserialdatatransmission.
Data transmission
The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished either in parallel
mode or serial mode. In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock pulse. In serial mode,
one bit is sent with each clock pulse. While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are two
subclasses of serial transmission; synchronous and asynchronous.

Parallel Transmission
Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organised into groups of n bits each. By
grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of one. This is called parallel
transmission.
We use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of
one group can be transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another. The Figure
bellow shows how parallel transmission works for n = 8. Typically, the eight wires are
bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.

The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission
can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission. A significant
disadvantage of parallel transmission is cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication
lines (wires in the example) just to transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive,
parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices.

The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication
channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor
of n.
Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the
interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the
receiver (serial-to-parallel).

Serial transmission occurs in one of two ways; asynchronous or synchronous.

Asynchronous Transmission
Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant.
Instead, information is received and translated by agreed-upon patterns. Patterns are based on
grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually eight bits, is sent along the link as a
unit.
To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, an extra bit is added to the beginning of
each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is
finished, one or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually
1s, are called stop bits. By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of
which 8 are information and 2 or more are signals to the receiver. In addition, the
transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying duration. This gap can be
represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
In asynchronous transmission, we send one start bit (0) at the beginning and one or more stop
bits (1s) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of each byte
and allow it to synchronise with the data stream. This mechanism is called asynchronous
because, at the byte level, sender and receiver do not have to be synchronised. But within
each byte, the receiver must still be synchronised with the incoming bit stream. That is, some
synchronisation is required, but only for the duration of a single byte. The receiving device
resynchronises at the onset of each new byte. When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a
timer and begins counting bits as they come in. After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit.
As soon as it detects the stop bit it ignores any received pulses until it detects the next start
bit.
Asynchronous here means asynchronous at the byte level, but the bits are still synchronised;
their durations are the same.
The following Figure is a schematic illustration of asynchronous transmission. In this example, the
start bits are 0s, the stop bits are 1s, and the gap is represented by an idle line rather than by
additional stop bits.

Asynchronous transmission is slower than other forms of transmission because of the

addition of control information. But it is cheap and effective, two advantages that make it an
attractive choice for situations like low-speed communication. For example, the connection
of a terminal to a computer is a natural application for asynchronous transmission. A user
types only one character at a time, types extremely slowly in data processing terms, and
leaves unpredictable gaps of time between each character.
Synchronous Transmission
In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may
contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a
gap between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes
for decoding purposes. In other words, data are transmitted as an unbroken string of 1s and
0s, and the receiver separates that string into the bytes, or characters, it needs to reconstruct
the information.
In synchronous transmission, we send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It
is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
The following Figure gives a schematic illustration of synchronous transmission. We have
drawn in the divisions between bytes. In reality, those divisions do not exist; the sender puts
its data onto the line as one long string. The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups
them in eight-bit units.

The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or gaps to introduce
at the sending end and remove at the receiving end and, by extension, with fewer bits to
move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission. For
this reason, it is more useful for high-speed applications like the transmission of data from
one computer to another.

UNIT4(SOURCEANDERRORCONTROLCODING)
1.What is prefix coding?
Prefix coding is variable length coding algorithm. In assigns binary digits to the
messages as per their probabilities of occurrence. Prefix of the codeword means any sequence
which is initial part of the codeword. In prefix code, no codeword is the prefix of any other
codeword.
2. State the channel coding theorem for a discrete memory-less channel.
Given a source of M equally likely messages, with M>>1, which is generating
information t a rate R. Given channel with capacity C. Then if,
RC
There exists a coding technique such that the output of the source may be transmitted
over the channel with probability of error in the received message which may be made arbitrarily
small.
3. Explain channel capacity theorem.
The channel capacity of the discrete memory less channel is given as maximum
average mutual information. The maximization is taken with respect to input probabilities P (xi)
C = B log2(1+S/N) bits/sec
Here,
B is channel bandwidth.
4. Define channel capacity of the discrete memory-less channel.
The channel capacity of the discrete memory-less channel is given as maximum
average mutual information. The maximization is taken with respect to input probabilities
C = MAX I(X: Y)
P (x i)

5. Define mutual information.

The mutual information is defined as the amount of information transferred when x i is
transmitted and yi is received.It is represented by I(xi,yi)and given as,
I (xi,yi) = log P (xi/yi)bits
P(xi)
6. State its two properties of mutual information
The mutual information is symmetric.
I(X; Y) = I(X: Y)
The mutual information is always positive
I(X; Y) 0
7. Define efficiency of the source encoder.
Efficiency of the source encoder is given as,
=
Entropy( H )

Avg. no. of bits in codeword(N)

8. Define code redundancy.
It is the measure of redundancy of bits in the encoded message sequence. It is given
as,
Redundancy = 1 code efficiency
=1
It should be as low as possible.
9. Define rate of information transmission across the channel.
Rate of information transmission across the channel is given as,
D = [H(X) H(X/Y)]r bits/sec
Here,
H(X) is the entropy of the source.
H(X/Y) is the conditional entropy.
10. Define bandwidth efficiency.
The ratio of channel capacity to bandwidth is called bandwidth efficiency
Bandwidth efficiency = Channel capacity (C)
Bandwidth (B)
11. What is the capacity of the channel having infinite bandwidth?
The capacity of such channel is given as,
C = 1.44 (S/N0)
Here,
S/N0 is signal to noise ratio
12. Define a discrete memory-less channel.
For the discrete memory-less channels, input and output, both are discrete random
variables. The current output depends only upon current input for such channel.
13. Find entropy of a source emitting symbols x, y, z with probabilities of 1/5, 1/2, 1/3
respectively.
p1 = 1/5, p2 = 1/2, p3 = 1/3.
k=3

H = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1

= 1/5 log25 + 1/2 log22 +1/3 log23

= 1.497 bits/symbol
14. An alphabet set contains 3 letters A, B, C transmitted with probabilities of 1/3, , 1/4.
Find entropy.
p1 = 1/3, p2 = 1/4, p3 = 1/4.
k=3

H = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1

= 1/3 log23 + 1/4 log2 4 +1/4 log24

= 1.52832 bits/symbol
15. Define information
Amount of information (Ik) = log2 (1/pk)
16. Write the properties of information
If there is more uncertainty about the message, information carried is also more.

If receiver knows the message being transmitted; the amount of information carried is
zero.

If I1 is the information carried by message m1, and I2 is the information carried by m2,
then amount of information carried compontely due to m1 and m2 is I1+I2
17. What is entropy?
Average information is represented by entropy. It is represented by H.
k= K-1

H = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1

18. Properties of entropy:

Entropy is zero if the event is sure or it is impossible

H = 0 if pk= 0 or 1

When pk= 1/M for all the M symbols, then the symbols are equally likely for such
source entropy is given as H = log2M

Upper bound on entropy is given as,

Hmax = log2M
19. Define code variance
Variance is the measure of variability in codeword lengths. It should be as small as possible.
k=K-1

= P k(nk - N)
2

k=1

Here
2 - variance code
P k probability of Kth symbol
nk no. of bits assigned to Kth symbol
N avg. code word length
20. Give Kraft-me Milan inequality for instantaneous code.
Prefix codes also satisfies Kraft-McMillan inequality which is given by,

Kraft-McMillan inequality maps codewords to a binary tree.

21.What is the difference between block codes and convolutional codes?
Block codes take k number of message bit simultaneously and form n bit code vector is also
called block. Convolutional code takes one message bit at a time and generates two or more
encoded bits. Thus convolutional codes generate a string
22.Define constraint length in convolutional codes.
Constraint length is the number of shifts over which the single message bit can influence the
encoder output. It is expressed in terms of message bits.
23.Define free distance and coding gain.
Free distance is the minimum distance between code vectors. It is also equal to minimum weight
of the code vectors.
Coding gain is used as a basis of comparison for different coding methods. To achieve the same
bit error rate the coding gain is defined as,
A = [Eb/No] encoded

[Eb/No] coded
24.Why cyclic codes are extremely well suited for error detection?
They are easy to encode
They have well defined mathematical structure. Therefore efficient decoding schemes are
available.
25. What is syndrome?
Syndrome gives an indication of errors present in received vector Y . If YHT = 0,
then there are no errors in Y and it is valid code vector. The non zero value of YHT is called
syndrome. Its non-zero value indicates that Y is not a valid code vector and it contains
errors.
26.Write syndrome properties of liner block codes.
Syndrome is obtained by S = YHT .
If Y = X, then S = 0 ie. No error in output.
If Y X, then S 0 ie. There is an error in output.
Syndrome depends upon the error pattern only, ie. S = EHT
27. What is Hamming code? Write its conditions
Hamming codes are (n,k) liner block codes with following conditions:
Number of check bits q 3
Block length n = 2q 1
Number of message bits k = n q
Minimum distance dmin= 3
28. List the properties of generator polynomial of cyclic codes.
Generator polynomial is a factor x(p) and (pn+1)
Code polynomial, message polynomial and generator polynomial are related by,
X(p) = M(p)G(p)
Generator polynomial is of degree q

PART-B

Explain Shannon-Fano algorithm.

Shannon Fano Encoding Algorithm:

Shannon-Fano source encoding follows the steps
Step1: Order symbols mi in descending order of probability
Step2: Divide symbols into subgroups such that the subgroups probabilities
(i.e. information contests) are as close as possible can be two symbols as a subgroup if there are
two close probabilities (i.e. information contests), can also be only one symbol as a subgroup if
none of the probabilities are close
Step3: Allocating codewords: assign bit 0 to top subgroup and bit 1 to bottom subgroup
Step4: Iterate steps 2 and 3 as long as there is more than one symbol in any subgroup
Step5: Extract variable-length codewords from the resulting tree (top-down)
Note: Codewords must meet condition: no codeword forms a prefix for any other codeword, so
they can be decoded unambiguously
Example
Consider the message ensemble S = {s1, s2, s3, s4, s5, s6, s7, s8} with
P ={1/4,1/4,1/8,1/8,1/16,1/16}
k=8

Entropy (H) = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1
k=8

Average codeword length (L) = P k Nk

k=1

=H
L

H = 21/4 log 4+ 21/8log 8+ 41/16 log 16= 2.75 bits/symbol.

L = 21/4+ 21/4+ 31/8+ 31/8+ 41/16+ 41/16+ 41/16+ 41/16= 2.75 binits / symbol.
%= H/N = 100%
A discrete memory less source X has five symbols m1,m2,m3,m4,m5,m6,m7 and m8
with probabilities p(m1) = 0.27, p(m2) = 0.2, p(m3) = 0.17, p(m4) = 0.16, p(m5) =
0.06, p(m6) = 0.06, p(m7) = 0.04 and p(m8) = 0.04 .Construct a Shannon Fano code
for X and calculate the efficiency of the code.
Solution:

Less probable symbols are coded by longer code words, while higher probable
symbols are assigned short codes.
Assign number of bits to a symbol as close as possible to its information content
and no codeword forms a prefix for any other codeword.

k=8

Entropy (H) = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1

H = 2.6906 (bits/symbol)
k=8

Average codeword length (L) = P k Nk

k=1

L= 0.47 2 + 0.33 3 + 0.2 4 = 2.73 (bits/symbol)

Code efficiency () = H
L
=2.6906/2.73= 98.56%
A discrete memory less source X has five symbols A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H with
probabilities A = 1/2, B = 1/4, C = 1/8, D= 1/16,E =1/32, F = 1/64, G = 1/128 and H
=1/128.
Construct a Shannon Fano code for X and calculate the efficiency of the code.
Solution:

k=8

Entropy (H) = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1

H = 1/21 +1/4 2 +1/8 3 +1/16 4 +1/32 5 +1/64 6 + 21/128 7

=127/64(bits/symbol)
k=8

Average codeword length (L) = P k Nk

k=1

L= 1/2 1 +1/4 2 +1/8 3 +1/164 +1/32 5 +1/64 6 + 21/128 7

=127/64(bits/symbol)
=H
L
Coding efficiency =100%
Note: (Coding efficiency is 66% if codewords of equal length of 3-bits are used)

Explain Huffman encoding algorithm with example.

Huffman source encoding follows the steps
Step1: Arrange symbols in descending order of probabilities
Step2: Merge the two least probable symbols (or subgroups) into one subgroup
Step3: Assign 0 and 1 to the higher and less probable branches, respectively, in the subgroup
Step4: If there is more than one symbol (or subgroup) left, return to step 2
Step5: Extract the Huffman code words from the different branches (bottom-up)
EXAMPLE: Consider 8 symbols with respective probabilities.

 Intermediate probabilities: m7,8 = 0.08; m5,6 = 0.12; m5,6,7,8 = 0.2; m3,4 = 0.33;
m2,5,6,7,8 = 0.4; S1,3,4 = 0.6.
When extracting codewords, remember reverse bit order - This is important as
it ensures no codeword forms a prefix for any other codeword.

k=6

Entropy (H) = P k log

(1/pk)

k=1
k=6

Average codeword length (L) = P k Nk

k=1

=H
L
Average code word length with Huffman coding for the given example is also 2.73
(bits/symbol), and coding efficiency is also 98.56%.

Explainindetailaboutconvolutionencoderwithneatdiagram.(16)
Nov/dec2012

May/Jun2013
Convolutionalencoder

Theperformanceofaconvolutionalcodedependsonthecodingrateandtheconstraintlength
LongerconstraintlengthK
Morepowerfulcode
Morecodinggain
Codinggain:themeasurein thedifferencebetweenthesignaltonoiseratio(SNR)
levelsbetweentheuncodedsystemandcodedsystemrequiredtoreachthesamebiterrorrate(BER)level
Morecomplexdecoder
Moredecodingdelay
SmallercodingrateRc=k/n
Morepowerfulcodeduetoextraredundancy
Lessbandwidthefficiency

AnExampleofConvolutionalCodes:
Convolutionalencoder(rate,K=3)withmessagesequence(101)
3shiftregisters,wherethefirstonetakestheincomingdatabitandtherest
formthememoryoftheencoder.

Inputmessage(M)=(101);Encodedoutput(U)=(1110001011)
Effectivecoderate(Reff)

Initializethememorybeforeencodingthefirstbit(allzero)
Clearoutthememoryafterencodingthelastbit(allzero)
Hence,atailofzerobitsisappendedtodatabits.
Listhenumberofdatabits,Lshouldbedivisiblebyk
Reff=L/n[L/k+(K1)]

Example:m=[101];
n=2,K=3,k=1,L=3
Reff=3/[2(3+31)]=0.3
Vectorrepresentation:
Definenvectors,eachwithKkelements(onevectorforeachmodulo2adder).Theith
elementineachvector,is1ifthe ithstageintheshiftregisterisconnectedtothecorresponding
modulo2adder,and0otherwise.

Polynomialrepresentation(1):

Definengeneratorpolynomials,oneforeachmodulo2adder.EachpolynomialisofdegreeKk1orless
anddescribestheconnectionoftheshiftregisterstothecorrespondingmodulo
2adder.
Examples:k=1

Polynomialrepresentation(2):
Example:m=(101)

Treediagramtodescribeaconvolutionalcode:

Aconvolutionalencoderisafinitestatemachine:
Thestateisrepresentedbythecontentofthememory,i.e.,the (K1)kpreviousbits,
namely,the(K1)kbitscontainedinthefirst(K1)kstagesoftheshiftregister.Hence,thereare2(K1)k
states.
Example:4stateencoder

Astatediagramissimplyagraphofthepossiblestatesoftheencoderandthepossibletransitions
fromonestatetoanother.Itcanbeusedtoshow therelationshipbetweentheencoderstate,

input,andoutput.
Thestagediagramhas2(K1)knodes,eachnodestandingforoneencoderstate.
Nodesareconnectedbybranches
Everynodehas2kbranchesenteringitand2kbranchesleavingit.
Thebranchesarelabelledwithc,wherecistheoutput.

Whenk=1
Thesolidbranchindicatesthattheinputbitis0.
Thedottedbranchindicatesthattheinputbitis1.

TrellisDiagram:

 ExplainindetailtheViterbialgorithmfordecodingofconvolutioncodeswithasuitable
example.
Thetrellisdiagramofaconvolutionalcodeisobtainedfromitsstatediagram.Allstate
transitionsateachtimestepareexplicitlyshowninthediagramtoretainthetimedimension,asispresent
inthecorrespondingtreediagram.Usually,supportingdescriptionsonstatetransitions,corresponding
inputandoutputbitsetc.arelabelledinthetrellisdiagram.Itisinterestingtonotethatthetrellisdiagram,
whichdescribestheoperationoftheencoder,isveryconvenientfordescribingthebehaviourofthe
corresponding decoder, especially when the famous Viterbi Algorithm (VA) is followed. Figure 2
showsthetrellisdiagramfortheencoderinFigure1.

Fig.1Aconvolutionalencoderwithk=1,n=2andr=1/2

HardDecisionandSoftDecisionDecoding

Harddecisionandsoftdecisiondecodingarebasedonthetypeofquantization
usedonthereceivedbits.Harddecisiondecodinguses1bitquantizationonthereceivedsamples.Soft
decisiondecodingusesmultibitquantization(e.g.3bits/sample)onthereceivedsamplevalues.
HardDecisionViterbiAlgorithm
TheViterbiAlgorithm(VA)findsamaximumlikelihood(ML)estimateofa
transmittedcodesequencecfromthecorrespondingreceivedsequencerbymaximizingtheprobability
p(r|c)thatsequencerisreceivedconditionedontheestimatedcodesequence c. Sequence c mustbea
validcodedsequence.
TheViterbialgorithmutilizesthetrellisdiagramtocomputethepathmetrics.The
channelisassumedtobememoryless,i.e.thenoisesampleaffectingareceivedbitisindependentfrom

thenoisesampleaffectingtheotherbits.Thedecodingoperationstartsfromstate00,i.e.withthe
assumptionthattheinitialstateoftheencoderis00.Withreceiptofonenoisycodeword,thedecoding
operationprogressesbyonestepdeeperintothetrellisdiagram.Thebranches,associatedwithastateof
thetrellistellusaboutthecorrespondingcodewordsthattheencodermaygeneratestartingfromthis
state.Hence,uponreceiptofacodeword,itispossibletonotethebranchmetricofeachbranchby
determiningtheHammingdistanceofthereceivedcodewordfromthevalidcodewordassociatedwith
thatbranch.Pathmetricofallbranches,associatedwithallthestatesarecalculatedsimilarly.
Now,ateachdepthofthetrellis,eachstatealsocarriessomeaccumulatedpath
metric,whichistheadditionofmetricsofallbranchesthatconstructthemostlikelypathtothatstate.
Asanexample,thetrellisdiagramofthecodeshownin Fig.1,hasfourstatesandeachstatehastwo
incomingandtwooutgoingbranches.Atanydepthofthetrellis,eachstatecanbereachedthroughtwo
pathsfromthepreviousstageandaspertheVA,thepathwithloweraccumulatedpathmetricischosen.
Intheprocess,theaccumulatedpathmetricisupdatedbyaddingthemetricoftheincomingbranchwith
theaccumulatedpathmetricofthestatefromwherethebranchoriginated.Nodecisionaboutareceived
codewordistakenfromsuchoperationsandthedecodingdecisionisdeliberatelydelayedtoreducethe
possibilityoferroneousdecision.
ThebasicoperationswhicharecarriedoutaspertheharddecisionViterbiAlgorithm
afterreceivingonecodewordaresummarizedbelow:
1

1.Allthebranchmetricsofallthestatesaredetermined;

2.Accumulatedmetricsofallthepaths(twoinourexamplecode)leadingtoastatearecalculated
takingintoconsiderationtheaccumulatedpathmetricsofthestatesfromwherethemostrecent
branchesemerged;

3.Onlyoneofthepaths,enteringintoastate,whichhasminimumaccumulatedpathmetricis
chosenasthesurvivorpathforthestate(or,equivalentlynode);

4.So,attheendofthisprocess,eachstatehasonesurvivorpath.Thehistoryofasurvivor
path is also maintained by the node appropriately ( e.g. by storing the codewords or the
informationbitswhichareassociatedwiththebranchesmakingthepath);

Steps(1)to(2)arerepeatedanddecodingdecisionisdelayedtillsufficientnumberofcodewords
hasbeenreceived.Typically,thedelayindecisionmaking=LxkcodewordswhereLisan
integer,e.g.5or6.Forthecodein Fig.1,thedecisiondelayof5x3=15codewordsmaybe
sufficientformostoccasions.Thismeans,wedecideaboutthefirstreceivedcodewordafter
receivingthe16thcodeword.Thedecisionstrategyissimple.Uponreceivingthe16thcodeword
andcarryingoutstepsa)tod),wecomparetheaccumulatedpathmetricsofallthestates(four

inour example)andchosethestate withminimumoverallaccumulatedpathmetricasthe

winningnodeforthefirstcodeword.Thenwetracebackthehistoryofthepathassociatedwith
thiswinningnodetoidentifythecodewordtaggedtothefirstbranchofthepathanddeclarethis
codewordasthemostlikelytransmittedfirstcodeword.
Theaboveprocedureisrepeatedforeachreceivedcodewordhereafter.Thus,the
decisionforacodewordisdelayedbutoncethedecisionprocessstarts,wedecideonceforeveryreceived
codeword. For most practical applications, including delaysensitive digital speech coding and
transmission,adecisiondelayofLxkcodewordsisacceptable.
SoftDecisionViterbiAlgorithm
Insoftdecisiondecoding,thedemodulatordoesnotassigna0ora1toeachreceived
bitbutusesmultibitquantizedvalues.ThesoftdecisionViterbialgorithmisverysimilartoitshard
decisionalgorithmexceptthatsquaredEuclideandistanceisusedinthebranchmetricsinsteadofsimpler
Hammingdistance.However,theperformanceofasoftdecisionVAismuchmoreimpressivecompared
toitsHDD(HardDecisionDecoding)Fig3(a)and(b)].ThecomputationalrequirementofaViterbi
decodergrowsexponentiallyasafunctionoftheconstraintlengthandhenceitisusuallylimitedin
practicetoconstraintlengthsofK=9.

Fig.3(a)DecodedBERvsinputBERfortheratehalfconvolutionalcodeswithViterbi
Algorithm;1)k=3(HDD),2)k=5(HDD),3)k=3(SDD),and4)k=5(SDD).HDD:Hard
DecisionDecoding;SDD:SoftDecisionDecoding.

Algorithm;1)Uncodedsystem;2)withk=3(HDD)and3)k=3(SDD).
HDD:HardDecisionDecoding;SDD:SoftDecisionDecoding

UNIT5(MULTIUSERRADIOCOMMUNICATION)
1.DefineAdvancedMobilePhoneServices(AMPS).
AMPSisaStandardCellularTelephoneService(CTS).TheAMPSsystemusesasevencell
reusepatternwithprovisionsforsectoringandcellsplittingtoincreasechannelwhenneeded.
AMPSusesfrequencymodulationandfrequencydivisionduplexforradiotransmission.
2.Whatismeantbysuperaudiotone(SAT)?
SATissuperimposedonthevoicesignalonboththeforwardandreverselinkandisbarely
audibletotheuser
TheparticularfrequencyoftheSATdenotestheparticularbasestationlocationforagiven
channelandisassignedbytheMSCforeachcall.
3.Whatismeantbysignalingtone?
Thesignalingtoneisa10kbpsdatabasewhichsignalscallterminationbythesubscriber.Itisa
specialendofcallmessageconsistingofalternating1sand0swhichissentontheRVCbythe
subscriberunitfor200ms.Thesignalingtonealertsthebasestationthatasubscriberhasended
thecall.
4.DefineGSM.
Globalsystemformobilecommunication(GSM)isagloballyacceptedstandardfordigital
cellularcommunication.GSMisthenameofastandardizationgroupestablishedin1982to
createacommonEuropeanmobiletelephonestandardthatwouldformulatespecificationsfora
panEuropeanmobilecellularradiosystemoperatingat900
MHz.ItisestimatedthatmanycountriesoutsideofEuropewilljointheGSM
partnership.
5.WhatismeantbyTelephoneservicesinGSM?
Teleservicesprovidescommunicationbetweentwoenduserapplicationsaccordingtoastandard
protocol.GSMmainlyfocusesonvoiceorientedteleservices.Thisserviceincludesemergency
callingandfacsimile.GSMalsosupportsvideotextandteletext.
6.NamethedifferenttypesofGSMservices
Telephoneservices
Dataservices

Supplementaryservices
7.DefineSubscriberIdentityModule(SIM).
Itisamemorydevicethatstoresinformationsuchasthesubscribersidentificationnumber,the
networksandcountrieswherethesubscriberisentitledtoservice,privacytaxandotheruser
specificinformation
AsubscriberusestheSIMwithafourdigitpersonalIDnumbertoactivateservicefrom
GSMphone.
8.DefineHLR.
Homelocationregister(HLR)TheHLRisadatabaseusedforstorageandmanagementof
subscriptions.TheHLRisconsideredthemostimportantdatabase,asitstorespermanentdata
aboutsubscribers,includingasubscriber'sserviceprofile,locationinformation,andactivity
status.WhenanindividualbuysasubscriptionfromoneofthePCSoperators,heorsheis
registeredintheHLRofthatoperator.
9.DefineVLR.
Visitorlocationregister(VLR)TheVLRisadatabasethatcontainstemporaryinformation
aboutsubscribersthatisneededbytheMSCinordertoservicevisitingsubscribers.TheVLRis
alwaysintegratedwiththeMSC.WhenamobilestationroamsintoanewMSCarea,theVLR
connectedtothatMSCwillrequestdataaboutthemobilestationfromtheHLR.Later,ifthe
mobilestationmakesacall,theVLRwillhavetheinformationneededforcallsetupwithout
havingtointerrogatetheHLReachtime.
10.DefineMSC.
Mobileservicesswitchingcenter(MSC)TheMSCperformsthetelephonyswitching
functionsofthesystem.Itcontrolscallstoandfromothertelephoneanddatasystems.Italso
performssuchfunctionsastollticketing,networkinterfacing,commonchannelsignaling,and
others.
11.WhatisBluetooth?
Bluetoothisastandarddevelopedbyagroupofelectronicsmanufacturersthatallowsanysortof
electronicequipmentfromcomputersandcellphonestokeyboardsandheadphonestomakeits
ownconnections,withoutwires,cablesoranydirectactionfromauser.Bluetoothisintendedto
beastandardthatworksattwolevels.
12.Whatarethethreeorbitsofsatellite?LowEarthorbit
MediumEarthorbit
GeosynchronousEarthorbit
13.StateKeplerslawsofplanetarymotion
1.Asatellitewillorbitaprimarybodyfollowinganellipticalpath
2.Forequalintervalsoftimeasatellitewillsweepoutequalareasinorbitalplane
3.Thesquareoftheperiodictimeoforbitisproportionaltothecubeofthemeandistance
betweentheprimaryandthesatellite
14.Whatarethelinksinsatellitecommunication?
i)Uplink
ii)Downlinkiii)Crosslink
15.DefineHandoff.

Whenauser/callmovestoanewcell,thenanewbasestationandnewchannelshouldbe
assigned(handoff)
Handoffsshouldbetransparenttousers,whiletheirnumbershouldbekepttominimum
Athresholdinthereceivedpower(Pr,handoff)shouldbedeterminedtotriggerthehandoff
process.Thisthresholdvalueshouldbelargerthantheminimumacceptablereceivedpower(Pr,
acceptable)
Define:=Pr,handoffPr,acceptable
Ifislargethentoomanyhandoffs
Ifissmalltheninsufficienttimetocompleteahandoff.

PARTB
Compare and contrast SDMA, FDMA, TDMA and CDMA?
Approach

SDMA

Idea

TDMA

FDMA

CDMA

Segment
space Segment sending
into cells/sectors
time into disjoint
time
slots,
demand driven
or fixed patterns

Segment the
band frequency
into
disjoint
sub-bands

Spread the spectrum

using
orthogonal
codes

Terminals

Only
one
terminal
be
active in one
cell/one sector

All terminals
are active for
short periods of
time on the
frequency

Every terminal
has its own
frequency,
uninterrupted

All terminals can be

active at the same
place at the same
moment,
uninterrupted

Signal
separation

Cell structure
directed
antenna

Synchronizatio
n in the time
domain

Filtering in the
frequency
domain

Code plus special

receivers

Advantages

Very
simple,
increases
capacity
per
km2

Established
,fully digital,
very flexible

Simple,
established,
robust

Flexible,
less
planning
needed,
soft handover

Disadvantages

Inflexible,
antennas
typically fixed

Guard
needed

space

Inflexible
frequencies are
a scare resource

Complex receivers,
needs
more
complicated power
control for senders

Comments

Only
in
combination with
TDMA, FDMA or
CDMA

Standard
in
fixed networks,
together with
SDMA/FDMA
used in many
mobile
networks

Typically
combined with
TDMA
and
SDMA

Used in many 3G
systems,
higher
complexity, lowered
expectations;
integrate
with
TDMA/FDMA

Explain the concept of frequency reuse and handoff in cellular network.

Frequency Re-use:
The design is done in two steps
Area coverage planning
Channel (Frequency) allocation
An efficient way of managing the radio spectrum is by reusing the same frequency, within the
service area, as often as possible
The concept of simultaneous use of same frequency at different cells that are sufficiently
placed at a distance from each other. Re-use distance and re-use factor are the two
elements determine the frequency reuse.
We form a cluster of cells
Divide the total number of channels (frequencies) between the cells of the cluster.
All the channels within the cluster are orthogonal
We repeat the cluster over the service area
No interference between cells of the same cluster
The distance between the clusters is called the reuse distance D
The design reduces to finding D!
For hexagonal cells, the number of cells in the cluster is given by

N I 2 J 2 ( I J ), I , J 1,2,3,4...
N {1,3,4,7,9,12,16,19,21,...}
D R 3N

Handoff
The mobile unit moves, they pass from cell to cell, which require transferring of call from one
BS to another BS. This process is called handoff
Handoff is the procedure for changing the channel assignments of MS from one BS to another as
the MS moves from one cell to another.
Handoff is classified as
Hard handoff (break-before-make): MS connects to single BS at a time. It is employed by
disconnecting with the base station before switching to another base station in a communication
network.
Applications: VoIP
Soft handoff (make-before-make): MS connects to multiple BS at a time. It is employed by
establishing connection with another base station before disconnecting from the Existing BS in the
network.
Handover decision:
Network controlled handoff: both the measurements of performance metrics such as BER, block error
rate, received signal strength, signal to noise ratio, distance between the BS and MS are taken by
network element and the decision is also made by network. Duration is about the 100ms-200ms.
Mobile-assisted handoff: measurements are taken by MS and decisions are taken by BS.Duration is
about 1second and GSM is example for this.
Mobile controlled handoff: both the measurements and decisions are taken by mobile itself with
handoff duration of 0.1 sec.
= Phandoff-Pmin-usable.
Phandoff- Received signal threshold at which handoff initiated.
Pmin-usable.- minimum usable signal level.
Ways to improve handoff:

Optimize .
Prioritize handoff.
Minimize delay at MSC.
Mobile assisted handoff

Handover Performance Metrics

Cell blocking probability probability of a new call being blocked

Call dropping probability probability that a call is terminated due to a handover
Call completion probability probability that an admitted call is not dropped before it terminates
Probability of unsuccessful handover probability that a handover is executed while the
reception conditions are inadequate
Handoff blocking probability probability that a handoff cannot be successfully completed
Handoff probability probability that a handoff occurs before call termination
Rate of handoff number of handoffs per unit time
Interruption duration duration of time during a handoff in which a mobile is not connected to
either base station
Handoff delay distance the mobile moves from the point at which the handoff should occur to
the point at which it does occur
Power Control
Why transmitter power control?
Reduce terminal power consumption
Reduce interference within the cellular system and improve quality
Efficient handling of mobility
In SS systems using CDMA, its desirable to equalize the received power level from all
mobile units at the BS
Reduce near-far problem
Open-loop power control
Depends solely on mobile unit
No feedback from BS
Not as accurate as closed-loop, but can react quicker to fluctuations in signal strength
Closed-loop power control
Adjusts signal strength in reverse channel based on metric of performance
BS makes power adjustment decision and communicates to mobile on control channel
Explain SDMA,FDMA, TDMA and CDMA?
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space to
users in wireless networks. It involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different quality.

A MAC algorithm decides which base station is best, taking into account which
frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still available (depending on
the technology).
Typically, SDMA is never used in isolation but always in combination with one or more
other schemes. The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized
antennas which constitute the infrastructure (SDM) .

The channels k1 to k3 can be mapped onto the three spaces s1

to s3 which clearly separate the channels and prevent the
interference ranges from overlapping. The space between the
interference ranges is sometimes called guard space.

Each subscriber is given a separate pair of copper wires to the local exchange
Countermeasures- Interference is overlapping of cells,leaving the protective distance
between MS and devices solves the problem

Frequency division Multiple Access (FDMA)

Frequency division Multiple Access (FDMA) is a technology where the total amount of
spectrum is divided in a number of channels. Each channel can be
assigned to a different user.
FDMA is commonly used in analog mobile radio, including analogue cellular mobile
telephone systems like AMPS, NMT and TACS.
Between the different used frequency channels is a small amount of bandwidth not used.
This space is called a guard band. This bandwidth is necessary to cater for instability of
the sender, frequency shifts due to movement (the Doppler effect) and no-ideal filtering.
Guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping ( adjacent channel
interference). This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where each
radio station has its own frequency
FDMA is usually implemented either in narrowband systems or to produce few
subchannels. It combined with other multiple access techniques (e.g., TDMA,CDMA).
FDMA systems have to cope with intermodulation (IM) products interference.
In cellular systems, the two directions, base to mobile station and vice versa, are usually
separated in frequency. This scheme is called FDD.

Both receiver and transmitter have to know the frequencies in advance since the receiver
must be able to tune properly. few bits are needed for overhead purposes such as
synchronization and framing as compared to TDMA.

TDMA

A channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time, i.e., all senders
use the same frequency but at different points in time.

Guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the different periods when the
senders use the medium.
If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel interference.
To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between different

Senders is necessary.
Disadvantage- as all senders need precise clocks

Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Code division multiple access (CDMA) systems use exactly these codes to separate
different users in code space and to enable access to a shared medium without
interference.

CDMA is a method in which users occupy the same time and frequency allocations, and
are channelized by unique assigned codes. The signals are separated at the receiver by
using a correlator that Access
It accepts only signal energy from the desired channel. Undesired signals contribute only
to the noise.
A CDMA system uses effective power control process.
The main problem is how to find good codes and how to separate the signal from noise
generated by other signals and the environment.
A code for a certain user should have a good autocorrelation and should be orthogonal to other
codes.
Orthogonal- Two vectors are called orthogonal if their inner product is 0, as is the case for the
two vectors (2, 5, 0) and (0, 0, 17): (2, 5, 0)*(0, 0, 17) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
The Barker code (+1, 1, +1, +1, 1, +1, +1, +1, 1, 1, 1) has a good autocorrelation, i.e., the
inner product with itself is large, the result is 11. This code is used for ISDN and IEEE 802.11.

Salient Features of CDMA

It is an advanced comm. Technology.
It has Anti-jam and security features.
Large capacity as compared to other Technology like FDMA and TDMA.
It uses spread spectrum technology.
Better use of the multipath.
In CDMA reuse patterns are not required.
The main advantages of this technology are:
Fast Network deployment.
Reduced service interruptions.
Low Maintenance & operational cost.
Better system coverage flexibility
Higher capacity
Easy transition to mobile services.
Disadvantages of CDMA
DSSS is more complex than techniques used in TDMA/FDMA.

Power control in CDMA is more complicated.

The bandwidth obtained by each user is limited due to spread spectrum. (The signal will
occupy a large bandwidth but the actual spectrum is only a fraction of it. It is fine for voice
and low data speed applications but not for 4G

Explain in detail about Bluetooth

Simple, cheap, replacement of IrDA, low range, lower data rates, low-power
Worldwide operation: 2.4 GHz
Resistance to jamming and selective frequency fading:
FHSS over 79 channels (of 1MHz each), 1600hops/s
Coexistence of multiple piconets like CDMA
Links: synchronous connections and asynchronous connectionless
Interoperability: protocol stack supporting TCP/IP, OBEX, SDP

Range: 10 meters, can be extended to 100 meters

Bluetooth Application Areas:
Data and voice access points
Real-time voice and data transmissions
Cable replacement
Eliminates need for numerous cable attachments for connection
Low cost < $5
Ad hoc networking
Device with Bluetooth radio can establish connection with another when
in range
Protocol Architecture
Bluetooth is a layered protocol architecture
Core protocols
Cable replacement and telephony control protocols
Adopted protocols
Core protocols
Radio
Baseband
Link manager protocol (LMP)
Logical link control and adaptation protocol (L2CAP)
Service discovery protocol (SDP)

Piconets and Scatternets

Piconet
Basic unit of Bluetooth networking
Master and one to seven slave devices
Master determines channel and phase
Scatternet
Device in one piconet may exist as master or slave in another piconet
Allows many devices to share same area
Makes efficient use of bandwidth
Network Topology
Piconet = set of Bluetooth nodes synchronized to a master node
The piconet hopping sequence is derived from the master MAC address
(BD_ADDR IEEE802 48 bits compatible address)
Scatternet = set of piconet
Master-Slaves can switch roles

Radio Specification
Classes of transmitters
o Class 1: Outputs 100 mW for maximum range
Power control mandatory
Provides greatest distance
o Class 2: Outputs 2.4 mW at maximum
Power control optional
o Class 3: Nominal output is 1 mW
Lowest power

Baseband layer:
FH occurs by jumping from one channel to another in pseudorandom sequence
Hopping sequence shared with all devices on piconet
Piconet access:
o Bluetooth devices use time division duplex (TDD)
o Access technique is TDMA
o FH-TDD-TDMA
Physical Links
Synchronous connection oriented (SCO)
o Allocates fixed bandwidth between point-to-point connection of master and
slave
o symmetrical, circuit switched, point-to-point
o Master maintains link using reserved slots
o Master can support three simultaneous links
o No retransmission
Asynchronous connectionless (ACL)
o Point-to-multipoint link between master and all slaves.
o packet switched, point-to-multipoint, master-polls
o Only single ACL link can exist
o Retransmission by FEC
Bluetooth Packet Fields
Access code used for timing synchronization, offset compensation, paging, and inquiry
Header used to identify packet type and carry protocol control information
Payload contains user voice or data and payload header, if present
Packet Format:
Access code: synchronization, when piconet active derived from master
Packet header (for ACL): 1/3-FEC, MAC address (1 master, 7 slaves), link type,
alternating bit ARQ/SEQ, checksum

Types of Access Codes

Channel access code (CAC) timing synchronization and identifies a piconet.
Device access code (DAC) used for paging and subsequent responses
Inquiry access code (IAC) used for inquiry purposes
Preamble+sync+trailer .
Packet Header Fields
AM_ADDR contains active mode address of one of the slaves
Type identifies type of packet
ACL: Data Medium (DM) or Data High (DH), with different slot lengths (DM1, DM3,
DM5, DH1, DH3, DH5)
SCO: Data Voice (DV) and High-quality voice (HV)
Flow 1-bit flow control
ARQN 1-bit acknowledgment
SEQN 1-bit sequential numbering schemes
Header error control (HEC) 8-bit error detection code

Payload Format
Payload header
L_CH field identifies logical channel
Flow field used to control flow at L2CAP level
Length field number of bytes of data
Payload body contains user data
CRC 16-bit CRC code
States of a Bluetooth Device

STANDBY

unconnected

inquiry
transmit
PARK

page
connected

HOLD

SNIFF

connecting
active
low power

Inquiry-aims at discovering other neighboring devices

Page-setsup the piconet
Active participates in piconet
Listens, transmits and receives packets
Sniff only listens on specified slots(reduced no of slots)
o Keeps AMA
Hold does not support ACL packets but keeps AMA.
o Reduced power status
o May still participate in SCO exchanges
Park does not participate on piconet
o Still retained as part of piconet and it as FH synchronization message it wakes up
after sometime for re-synchronization.
Link Management
Manages master-slave radio link
It transfers LMP messages with two nodes participated in network. The messages
contains
Security Service: authentication, encryption, and key distribution
Clock synchronization-packet contains the data and timing information for clock update.
Exchange station capability information.
QOS negotiation for a latency and data transfer.
Power control: It measures the power and determines the whether to increase or decrease
the required power for communication.
Link supervision: to controls the links i.e for assigning the SCO links and declare the link
failure
Mode management: switch master/slave role change hold, sniff, park modes QoS
L2CAP
Provides a link-layer protocol between entities with a number of services
Relies on lower layer for flow and error control
Makes use of ACL links, does not support SCO links

 Provides two alternative services to upper-layer protocols

Connectionless service: unidirectional dataflow from master to slave.
Connection-oriented service: A QoS flow specification is assigned in each direction
Exchange of signaling messages to establish and configure connection parameters
TCS-BIN:
It is a bit orientated protocol.
Call control signaling protocol for sets up the speech and data signals for communication.
AT-COMMANDS:
In this mobile phones are used and its acts as control element for modem and data
transfer.
Computer is used as DTE and mobile phones are used as DCE.
OBEX:

It is session protocol.
Folder listing objects: to browse the folders from remote devices.
ITU recommendations V.250
It also supports Vmessage and Vcal.

Explain the GSM service architecture in detail?(16)

A GSM system consists of three subsystems, the radio sub system (RSS), the
network and switching subsystem (NSS), and the operation subsystem (OSS).

Radio subsystem

Base station subsystem (BSS):

A GSM network comprises many BSSs, each controlled by a base station controller
(BSC). The BSS performs all functions necessary to maintain radio connections to an MS,
coding/decoding of voice, and rate adaptation to/from the wireless network part. the BSS
contains several BTSs.
Base transceiver station (BTS):
A BTS comprises all radio equipment, i.e., antennas, signal processing, amplifiers
necessary for radio transmission. A BTS can form a radio cell or, using sectorized
antennas, several cells.
BTS is connected to MS via the Um interface and to the BSC via the Abis interface
The Abis interface consists of 16 or 64 kbit/s connections.
Base station controller (BSC):
The BSC basically manages the BTSs. It reserves radio frequencies, handles the handover
from one BTS to another within the BSS, and performs paging of the MS. The BSC also
multiplexes the radio channels onto the fixed network connections at the A interface.
Mobile station (MS):
The MS comprises all user equipment and software needed
Subscriber identity module (SIM), which stores all user-specific data MS can be
identified via the international mobile equipment identity (IMEI).
The SIM card contains many identifiers and identity number (PIN), a PIN unblocking key
(PUK), an authentication key Ki, and the inter-national mobile subscriber identity tables,
such as card-type, serial number, a list of subscribed services, a personal (IMSI).
The MS stores dynamic information while logged onto the GSM system, such as the
cipher key Kc and he location information consisting of a temporary mobile subscriber
identity (TMSI) and the location area identification (LAI).
Network and switching subsystem
The NSS connects the wireless network with standard public networks, performs
handovers between different BSSs, comprises functions for worldwide localization of users and
supports charging, accounting, and roaming of users.
Mobile services switching center (MSC):
MSCs are high-performance digital ISDN switches. They set up connections to other
MSCs and to the BSCs via the A interface.
A gateway MSC (GMSC) has connections to other fixed networks, such as PSTN and
ISDN. Using interworking functions (IWF), an MSC can connect to PDN such as X.25.
SS7 covers all aspects of control signaling for digital networks (reliable routing and
delivery of control messages, establishing and monitoring of calls).
Features of SS7 are number portability, free phone/toll/collect/credit calls, call
forwarding, three-way calling etc.
An MSC also performs all functions needed for supplementary services such ascall
forwarding, multi-party calls, reverse charging etc
Home location register (HLR):
The HLR is the database in a GSM system as it stores all user-relevant information. This
comprises static information, such as the mobile subscriber ISDN number (MSISDN),
international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI).

Dynamic information is also needed, e.g., the current location area (LA) of the MS, the
mobile subscriber roaming number (MSRN), the current VLR and MSC.
As soon as an MS leaves its current LA, the information in the HLR is updated.

Visitor location register (VLR)

The VLR associated to each MSC is a dynamic database which stores all important
information needed for the MS users currently in the LA
If a new MS comes into an LA the VLR is responsible for, it copies all relevant
information for this user from the HLR.
Operation subsystem
The operation subsystem (OSS), contains the functions for network operation and maintenance.
Operation and maintenance center (OMC):
The OMC monitors and controls all other network entities via the O interface (SS7 with
X.25). OMC management functions are traffic monitoring, status reports of network
entities, subscriber and security management, or accounting and billing.
Authentication centre (AuC):
Radio interface and mobile stations interface are securityless.
A separate AuC has been defined to protect user identity and data transmission.
The AuC contains the algorithms for authentication as well as the keys for encryption
Equipment identity register (EIR):
The EIR is a database for all IMEIs.
As MSs are mobile, they can be easily stolen.
With a valid SIM, anyone could use the stolen MS. The EIR has a blacklist of stolen (or
locked) devices, a list of valid IMEIs (white list), and a list of malfunctioning devices
(gray list).
GSM radio interface-TDMA/FDMA

Media access combines TDMA and FDMA

In GSM 900, 124 channels, each 200 kHz wide, are used for FDMA.
Each of the 248 channels is additionally separated in time via a GSM TDMA frame, i.e.,
each 200 kHz carrier is subdivided into frames that are repeated continuously. The
duration of a frame is 4.615 ms. A frame is again subdivided into 8 GSM time slots,
where each slot represents a physical TDM channel and lasts for 577 s.

Data is transmitted in small portions, called bursts. normal burst as used for data
transmission inside a time slot (user and signaling data).
The burst is only 546.5 s long and contains 148 bits. The remaining 30.5 s are used as
guard space to avoid overlapping.
The first and last three bits of a normal burst (tail) are all set to 0 and can be used to
enhance the receiver performance. The training sequence in the middle of a slot is used
to adapt the parameters of the receiver and to select the strongest signal in case of multipath propagation.
A flag S indicates whether the data field contains user or network control data.
frequency correction burst allows the MS to correct the local oscillator to avoid
interference with neighboring channels,
synchronization burst with an extended training sequence synchronizes the MS with the
BTS in time,
Access burst is used for the initial connection setup between MS and BTS, and finally a
dummy burst is used if no data is available for a slot.

Protocol architecture for signaling

Physical layer

Physical layer handles all radio-specific functions.

Multiplexing of bursts into a TDMA frame,
Synchronization with the BTS.
Detection of idle channels, and measurement of the channel quality.
The physical layer at Um uses GMSK for digital modulation.
Performs encryption/decryption of data.

The main tasks of the physical layer comprise channel coding and error
detection/correction, which is combined with the coding mechanisms.
Channel coding makes extensive use of different forward error correction
(FEC) schemes. FEC adds redundancy to user data, allowing for the detection and
correction of selected errors special functions, such as voice activity detection
(VAD), which transmits voice data only when there is a voice signal. This
mechanism helps to decrease interference as a channel might be silent
approximately 60 per cent of the time.
During periods of silence ( if a user needs time to think before talking), the physical
layer generates a comfort noise to fake a connection (complete silence would
probably confuse a user).
Layer 2
LAPDm is a lightweight LAPD, no need of synchronization flags or check
summing for error detection.
LAPDm offers reliable data transfer over connections, re-sequencing of data
frames, and flow control.
LAPDm
include
segmentation
and
reassembly
of
data
and
acknowledged/unacknowledged data transfer.
Layer 3
The lowest sub layer is the radio resource management (RR).
A part of RR is implemented in the BTS, the remainder is situated in the BSC.
The functions of RR are supported by the BSC via the BTS management
(BTSM). The main tasks of RR are setup, maintenance, and release of radio
channels
Mobility management (MM) contains functions for registration, authentication,
identification, location updating, and the provision of a temporary mobile
subscriber identity (TMSI) that replaces the international mobile subscriber
identity (IMSI)
Call management (CM) layer contains three entities: call control (CC), short
message service (SMS), and supplementary service (SS). SMS allows for
message transfer using the control channels SDCCH and SACCH (if no signaling
data is sent), CC provides a point-to-point connection between two terminals and
is used by higher layers for call establishment, call clearing and change of call
parameters.
This layer also provides functions to send in-band tones, called dual tone
multiple frequency (DTMF).