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Draft

DRAFT

LECTURE NOTES
CVEN 3525/3535
STUCTURAL ENGINEERING I

c VICTOR


E. SAOUMA

Spring 1999

Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering


University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428

June 5, 2001

02

Draft

Blank Page

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft

03
PREFACE

Whereas there are numerous excellent textbooks covering Structural Analysis, or Structural Design, I
felt that there was a need for a single reference which
Provides a succinct, yet rigorous, coverage of Structural Engineering.
Combines, as much as possible, Analysis with Design.
Presents numerous, carefully selected, example problems.
in a properly type set document.
As such, and given the reluctance of undergraduate students to go through extensive verbage in
order to capture a key concept, I have opted for an unusual format, one in which each key idea is clearly
distinguishable. In addition, such a format will hopefully foster group learning among students who can
easily reference misunderstood points.
Finally, whereas all problems have been taken from a variety of references, I have been very careful
in not only properly selecting them, but also in enhancing their solution through appropriate gures and
LATEX typesetting macros.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

04

Draft

Structural Engineering can be characterized as


the art of molding materials we dont really understand into shapes we cannot really analyze so
as to withstand forces we cannot really assess in
such a way that the public does not really suspect.

-Really Unknown Source

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Contents
I

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I; CVEN 3525

1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Structural Engineering . . . . . . .
1.2 Structures and their Surroundings
1.3 Architecture & Engineering . . . .
1.4 Architectural Design Process . . .
1.5 Architectural Design . . . . . . . .
1.6 Structural Analysis . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Structural Design . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Load Transfer Elements . . . . . .
1.9 Structure Types . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Structural Engineering Courses . .
1.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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11
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110
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2 LOADS
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Dead Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-1 Live Load Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-2 Wind Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-3 Earthquake Load on a Frame . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-4 Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller
2.4 Other Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Hydrostatic and Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-5 Hydrostatic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Thermal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-6 Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996) . .
2.4.3 Bridge Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4 Impact Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Other Important Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1 Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.2 Load Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.3 Structural Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.4 Tributary Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
3.1 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Structural Steel . . . .
3.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . .
3.2 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . .

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02

CONTENTS

Draft
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

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4 EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS


4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Equations of Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Static Determinacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-1 Statically Indeterminate Cable Structure
4.5 Geometric Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-2 Simply Supported Beam . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-3 Parabolic Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-4 Three Span Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-5 Three Hinged Gable Frame . . . . . . . .
E 4-6 Inclined Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.7 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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41
. 41
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. 410
. 411

5 TRUSSES
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Assumptions . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Basic Relations . . . . . .
5.2 Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Determinacy and Stability
5.2.2 Method of Joints . . . . .
E 5-1 Truss, Method of Joints .
5.2.2.1 Matrix Method .
E 5-2 Truss I, Matrix Method .
E 5-3 Truss II, Matrix Method .
5.2.3 Method of Sections . . . .
E 5-4 Truss, Method of Sections
5.3 Case Study: Stadium . . . . . . .

3.7

Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Timber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Section Properties . . . . . . .
3.6.1 ASCII File with Steel Section
Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Properties
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6 CABLES
6.1 Funicular Polygons . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 6-1 Funicular Cable Structure . . . .
6.2 Uniform Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 qdx; Parabola . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2 qds; Catenary . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.2.1 Historical Note . . . . .
E 6-2 Design of Suspension Bridge . . .
6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge
6.3.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.3 Cable Forces . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.4 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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61
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61
63
63
65
66
67
69
69
610
610
611

7 DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES


7.1 Safety Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Ultimate Strength Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.1 The Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.2 Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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71
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72
72
72
74
75

Victor Saouma

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Structural Engineering

CONTENTS

03

Draft
7.4

Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
E 7-1 LRFD vs ASD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

8 DESIGN I
8.1 Case Study: Eiel Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Materials, & Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1 Buildings Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1 Wall Subsystems . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.1.1 Example: Concrete Shear Wall
8.3.1.1.2 Example: Trussed Shear Wall
8.3.1.2 Shaft Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.2.1 Example: Tube Subsystem . .
8.3.1.3 Rigid Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4 Design of a Three Hinged Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.2 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.3 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.5 Internal Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.6 Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches . .

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81
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. 810
. 811
. 812
. 812
. 812
. 813
. 815
. 815
. 816
. 817
. 817
. 818
. 818
. 820
. 821
. 821
. 824
. 825

9 STEEL TENSION MEMBERS


9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2 Geometric Considerations . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1.1 Net Area, An . . . . . . . . .
E 9-1 Net Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-2 Net Area, Angle . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1.2 Eective Net Area, Ae . . . .
E 9-3 Reduction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Stiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members . . . . . .
9.3.1 Tension Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Block Shear Failure . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-4 Load Capacity of Angle . . . . . . . .
E 9-5 Shear Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-6 Shear Rupture . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-7 Complete Analysis/Design of a Truss .
9.4 Computer Aided Analysis . . . . . . . . .

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91
91
91
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95
96
96
96
98
98
99
910
910
912
913
914
920

Structural Engineering

04

CONTENTS

Draft

10 INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES


10.1 Design Sign Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3 Moment Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.4.1 Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-1 Simple Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-2 Sketches of Shear and Moment Diagrams . . . . . . .
10.4.2 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-3 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-4 Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load
E 10-5 Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-6 Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame . . . . . .
10.4.3 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 10-7 3D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.5 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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101
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. 1015
. 1015
. 1018

11 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES


11.1 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-1 Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-2 Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-3 Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Curved Space Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-4 Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2.1.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 11-5 Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

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. 1111
. 1111
. 1112

12 DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods


12.1 Flexural Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.1 Curvature Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.1.2 Dierential Equation of the Elastic Curve . . . .
12.1.3 Moment Temperature Curvature Relation . . . .
12.2 Flexural Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.1 Direct Integration Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-1 Double Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.2.2 Curvature Area Method (Moment Area) . . . . .
12.2.2.1 First Moment Area Theorem . . . . . .
12.2.2.2 Second Moment Area Theorem . . . . .
E 12-2 Moment Area, Cantilevered Beam . . . . . . . .
E 12-3 Moment Area, Simply Supported Beam . . . . .
12.2.2.3 Maximum Deection . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-4 Maximum Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-5 Frame Deection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 12-6 Frame Subjected to Temperature Loading . . . .
12.2.3 Elastic Weight/Conjugate Beams . . . . . . . . .
E 12-7 Conjugate Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.3 Axial Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12.4 Torsional Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. 125
. 125
. 128
. 128
. 1210
. 1210
. 1211
. 1212
. 1214
. 1215
. 1217
. 1217

Victor Saouma

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Structural Engineering

CONTENTS

05

Draft

13 ENERGY METHODS; Part I


13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2 Real Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.1 External Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.2.2 Internal Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-1 Deection of a Cantilever Beam, (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.3 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3.1 External Virtual Work W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.3.2 Internal Virtual Work U


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13.3.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-2 Beam Deection (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-3 Deection of a Frame (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-4 Rotation of a Frame (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-5 Truss Deection (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-6 Torsional and Flexural Deformation, (Chajes 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-7 Flexural and Shear Deformations in a Beam (White, Gergely and Sexmith 1976)
E 13-8 Thermal Eects in a Beam (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-9 Deection of a Truss (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-10Thermal Defelction of a Truss; I (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-11Thermal Deections in a Truss; II (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-12Truss with initial camber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 13-13Prestressed Concrete Beam with Continously Variable I (White et al. 1976) . . .
13.4 *Maxwell Bettis Reciprocal Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.5 Summary of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

131
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. 1316
. 1317
. 1318
. 1319
. 1320
. 1321
. 1324
. 1324

14 BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS


14.1 Review from Strength of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.1 Flexure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.1.2 Shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.2 Nominal Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3 Flexural Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1 Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams
14.3.1.1 Compact Sections . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.1.2 Partially Compact Section . . . . . . .
14.3.1.3 Slender Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.3.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 14-1 Shape Factors, Rectangular Section . . . . . . .
E 14-2 Shape Factors, T Section . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 14-3 Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.4 Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.5 Deections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 Complete Design Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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141
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. 145
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. 147
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. 148
. 149
. 1411
. 1411
. 1412

15 COLUMN STABILITY
15.1 Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars . . . . .
15.1.1 Single Bar System . . . . . . . . .
15.1.2 Two Bars System . . . . . . . . . .
15.1.3 Analogy with Free Vibration . . .
15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems . . . .
15.2.1 Lower Order Dierential Equation
15.2.2 Higher Order Dierential Equation
15.2.2.1 Derivation . . . . . . . .
15.2.2.2 Hinged-Hinged Column .
15.2.2.3 Fixed-Fixed Column . . .
15.2.2.4 Fixed-Hinged Column . .
15.2.3 Eective Length Factors K . . . .
15.3 Inelastic Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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151
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. 151
. 152
. 154
. 155
. 156
. 156
. 156
. 158
. 158
. 159
. 1510
. 1512

Victor Saouma

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Structural Engineering

06

CONTENTS

Draft

16 STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS


16.1 AISC Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.2 LRFD Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16.3.1 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-1 Unbraced Column Evaluation, (?) . . .
E 16-2 Braced Column Evaluation, (?) . . . . .
E 16-3 Braced Column Evaluation, (?) . . . . .
16.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-4 Column Design, (?) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 16-5 Design of Braced Column, (?) . . . . . .
E 16-6 Design of a Column, (?) . . . . . . . . .
E 16-7 Column Design Using AISC Charts, (?)

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161
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. 166
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. 167
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. 169
. 169
. 1610

17 STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1 Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.1 Types of Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.2 Types of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.3 Nominal Strength of Individual Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4 Concentric Loads (Tension Connections) . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.1 AISC Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17.1.4.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 17-1 Analysis of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)
E 17-2 Design of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990) .
17.1.5 Eccentric Connection (Shear Connections) . . . . . . . . . .
17.2 Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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171
. 171
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. 174
. 175
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. 176
. 176
. 178
. 179
. 179

18 UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS


18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.2 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3 AISC Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.1 Dividing values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.3.2 Governing Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18.4.1 Verication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 18-1 Adequacy of an unbraced beam, (?) . . . .
E 18-2 Adequacy of an unbraced beam, II (?) . . .
18.4.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 18-3 Design of Laterally Unsupported Beam, (?)
18.5 Summary of AISC Governing Equations . . . . . .

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181
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. 186
. 187
. 1811

19 Beam Columns, (Unedited)


19.1 Potential Modes of Failures . . . . . . . .
19.2 AISC Specications . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.1 Verication . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-1 Verication, (?) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-2 8.2, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19.3.2 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 19-3 Design of Steel Beam-Column, (?)

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STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING II; CVEN 3235

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1911

20 ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES


20.1 Arches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.1.1 Statically Determinate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-1 Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Structural Engineering

CONTENTS

07

Draft

E 20-2 Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


20.1.2 Statically Indeterminate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-3 Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Curved Space Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-4 Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1.1 Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2.1.2 Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 20-5 Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)

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21 STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD


21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.2 The Force/Flexibility Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3 Short-Cut for Displacement Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-1 Steel Building Frame Analysis, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-2 Analysis of Irregular Building Frame, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . .
E 21-3 Redundant Truss Analysis, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-4 Truss with Two Redundants, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-5 Analysis of Nonprismatic Members, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . .
E 21-6 Fixed End Moments for Nonprismatic Beams, (White et al. 1976) . . .
E 21-7 Rectangular Frame; External Load, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . .
E 21-8 Frame with Temperature Eects
and Support Displacements, (White et al. 1976) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 21-9 Braced Bent with Loads and Temperature Change, (White et al. 1976)
22 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
22.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 22-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected

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to Vertical and Horizontal

23 KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD


23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1.1 Stiness vs Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.1.2 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2 Degrees of Freedom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.2.1 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3 Kinematic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.1 Force-Displacement Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2 Fixed End Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2.1 Uniformly Distributed Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.3.2.2 Concentrated Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4 Slope Deection; Direct Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.1 Slope Deection Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.3 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.4.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-1 Propped Cantilever Beam, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-2 Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-3 Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection, Initial Deection, (Arbabi 1991)
E 23-4 dagger Frames, Slope Deection, (Arbabi 1991) . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.1 Sign Convention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.2 Fixed-End Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.1.3 Stiness Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Victor Saouma

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Loads

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Structural Engineering

08

CONTENTS

Draft

23.5.1.4 Distribution Factor (DF) . . . . . . . . . . .


23.5.1.5 Carry-Over Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.2 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.3 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23.5.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-5 Continuous Beam, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-6 Continuous Beam, Simplied Method, (Kinney 1957) .
E 23-7 Continuous Beam, Initial Settlement, (Kinney 1957) .
E 23-8 Frame, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 23-9 Frame with Side Load, (Kinney 1957) . . . . . . . . .
E 23-10Moment Distribution on a Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . .

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2316
2316
2317
2317
2318
2318
2320
2322
2323
2327
2329

24 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I


24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.1 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.2 Modes of Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . .
24.1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method .
24.2.1 Equivalent Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.2 Balanced Steel Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.3 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.2.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-1 Ultimate Strength Capacity . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-2 Beam Design I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 24-3 Beam Design II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24.3 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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25 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II


25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.1.2 Design, (balanced) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 25-1 T Beam; Moment Capacity I . . . . . . . .
E 25-2 T Beam; Moment Capacity II . . . . . . . .
E 25-3 T Beam; Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams . . . . . . .
25.2.1 Tests for fs and fs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25.2.2 Moment Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 25-4 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review
E 25-5 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design .

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251
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. 2511

26 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD


26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.1.1 Structural Idealization . . . .
26.1.2 Structural Discretization . . .
26.1.3 Coordinate Systems . . . . .
26.1.4 Sign Convention . . . . . . .
26.1.5 Degrees of Freedom . . . . .
26.2 Stiness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . .
26.2.1 Truss Element . . . . . . . .
26.2.2 Beam Element . . . . . . . .
26.2.3 2D Frame Element . . . . . .
26.2.4 Remarks on Element Stiness
26.3 Direct Stiness Method . . . . . . .
26.3.1 Orthogonal Structures . . . .
E 26-1 Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Victor Saouma

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Structural Engineering

CONTENTS

09

Draft

26.3.2 Local and Global Element Stiness Matrices ([k(e) ] [K(e) ])


26.3.2.1 2D Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3 Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3.1 Structural Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.3.2 Augmented Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.4 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.5 Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.6 LM Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.7 Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-2 Assembly of the Global Stiness Matrix . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3.8 Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-3 Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-4 Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 26-5 Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements . . .
26.4 Computer Program Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1 Program Input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.1 Input Variable Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.2 Sample Input Data File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.1.3 Program Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2 Program Listing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.1 Main Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.2 Assembly of ID Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.3 Element Nodal Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.4 Element Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.5 Element Stiness Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.6 Transformation Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.7 Assembly of the Augmented Stiness Matrix . . .
26.5.2.8 Print General Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.9 Print Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.10 Load Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.11 Nodal Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.12 Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.13 Internal Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.14 Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.5.2.15 Sample Output File . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27 COLUMNS
27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . .
27.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . .
27.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . .
27.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . .
27.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . .
27.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . .
27.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . .
27.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . .
E 27-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . .
E 27-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . .
E 27-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts

Victor Saouma

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. 2612
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. 2714

Structural Engineering

010

CONTENTS

Draft

28 DESIGN II
28.1 Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.1.1 Beam Column Connections . . . . . . . .
28.1.2 Behavior of Simple Frames . . . . . . . .
28.1.3 Eccentricity of Applied Loads . . . . . . .
28.1.4 Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch
28.1.5 Temperature Changes in an Arch . . . . .

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29 INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)


30 ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY
30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.2 Elements of Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3 Distributions of Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.1 Uniform Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.2 Normal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.3 Lognormal Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.4 Beta Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.3.5 BiNormal distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4 Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.1 Performance Function Identication . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.2 Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3 Mean and Standard Deviation of a Performance Function
30.4.3.1 Direct Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.2 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.3 Point Estimate Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.3.4 Taylors Series-Finite Dierence Estimation . . .
30.4.4 Overall System Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.4.5 Target Reliability Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30.5 Reliability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Structural Engineering

Draft
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10

Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D) .


Basic Aspects of Cable Systems . . . . . . . .
Basic Aspects of Arches . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variations in Post and Beams Congurations
Dierent Beam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Forms of Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Air Supported Structures . . . .
Basic Forms of Shells . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sequence of Structural Engineering Courses .

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13
14
15
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18
19
110
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111

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

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22
24
25
25
26
27

2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18

Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Snow Map of the United States, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loads on Projected Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical and Normal Loads Acting on Inclined Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vibrations of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Truck Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Placement to Maximize Moments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concept of Tributary Areas for Structural Member Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
One or Two Way actions in Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Transfer in R/C Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Way Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Load Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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210
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224

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9

Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel . . . . . .


Standard Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections . . . . . . . . .
Residual Stresses in Welded Sections . . . . . . . . .
Inuence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain
Concrete Stress-Strain curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Concrete microcracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W and C sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
prefabricated Steel Joists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4

Types of Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inclined Roller Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures .
Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions . . . . .

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Curve of a Rolled Section
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31
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38
320

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41
43
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45

02

Draft

LIST OF FIGURES

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10

Types of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bridge Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Statically Indeterminate Truss . . . . .
X and Y Components of Truss Forces . .
Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces
Direction Cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Forces Acting on Truss Joint . . . . . . .
Complex Statically Determinate Truss . .
Florence Stadium, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) . .
Florence Stadioum, Pier Luigi Nervi (?) .

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52
52
54
54
55
58
58
59
514
515

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11

Cable Structure Subjected to q(x) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Catenary versus Parabola Cable Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leipnizs Figure of a catenary, 1690 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge
Truck Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dead and Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Location of Cable Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load . . . . .
Cable Reactions in Side Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cable Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . .

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63
66
67
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610
611
611
612
613
613
614

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

Load Life of a Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function
Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R . . . . . . . . . .
Denition of Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Probability of Failure in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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72
73
74
75
75

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16

Eiel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Eiel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . .
Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trussed Shear Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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81
83
83
84
84
85
86
86
87
88
89
89
89
810
810

8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
8.25
8.26

Victor Saouma

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. 811
. 811
. 812
. 813
. 815
. 816
. 817
. 819
. 819
. 819
. 820

Structural Engineering

LIST OF FIGURES

03

Draft
8.27
8.28
8.29
8.30
8.31
8.32
8.33

Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . .


Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . . . . .
Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983) . . . . . . . .
Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983) .
Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979) . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. 820
. 822
. 823
. 823
. 823
. 824
. 825

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6

Stress Concentration Around Circular Hole


Hole Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eect of Staggered Holes on Net Area . . .
Gage Distances for an Angle . . . . . . . . .
Net and Gross Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tearing Failure Limit State . . . . . . . . .

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10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6

Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam . . . . . . . . .
Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Inclined Loads on Inclined Members . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. 102
. 102
. 103
. 104
. 105
. 108

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92
93
93
94
99
99

11.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.4 Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . .
11.5
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11.6 Semi-Circular three hinged arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.7 Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.8 Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.9 Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10Semi-Circular Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.11Geometry of Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.12Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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112
112
113
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
1111
1112
1113

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

Curvature of a exural element . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Moment Area Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sign Convention for the Moment Area Method . . . .
Areas and Centroid of Polynomial Curves . . . . . . .
Maximum Deection Using the Moment Area Method
Conjugate Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Torsion Rotation Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13.1 Load Deection Curves . . .


13.2 Strain Energy Denition . . .
13.3 Deection of Cantilever Beam
13.4 Real and Virtual Forces . . .
13.5 Torsion Rotation Relations .
13.6
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13.7
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13.8
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13.9
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13.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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122
126
127
127
1210
1215
1217

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132
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135
137
1310
1310
1311
1312
1313
1314
1315
1317

Structural Engineering

04

LIST OF FIGURES

Draft

13.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318
13.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1319
13.16*(correct 42.7 to 47.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5

Bending of a Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels . . . . . . . . . . .
Flexural and Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam . .
Local (ange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes
(Lulea University) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.6 W Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14.7 Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections . .
14.8 AISC Requirements for Shear Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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144

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145
146
147
1412

15.1 Stability of a Rigid Bar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151


15.2 Stability of a Rigid Bar with Initial Imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
15.3 Stability of a Two Rigid Bars System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
15.4 Two DOF Dynamic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
15.5 Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
15.6 Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P . . . . . . 157
15.7 Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged Column 1510
15.8 Column Eective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511
15.9 Frame Eective Lengths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511
15.10Column Eective Length in a Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1512
15.11Standard Alignment Chart (AISC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
15.12Inelastic Buckling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1513
15.13Euler Buckling, and SSRC Column Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1514
16.1 SSRC Column Curve and AISC Critical Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
16.2 Fcr versus KL/r According to LRFD, for Various Fy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
17.6
17.7

Examples of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Stress Transfer by Shear and Bearing in a Bolted Connection
Stress Transfer in a Friction Type Bolted Connection . . . . .
Modes of Failure of Bolted Connections . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of Shearing Planes m in Bolted Connections . . . . .
Bearing Strength Related to End Distance . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Types of Weld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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18.1 I Shaped Beam in Slightly Buckled Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181


18.2 Nominal Strength Mn of Compact Sections as Aected by Lateral-Torsional Buckling . 183
18.3 Design of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
19.1 Rigid Frame Subjected to Lateral Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
20.1 Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.2 Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.3 Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.4 Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . .
20.5
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20.6 Semi-Circular three hinged arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.7 Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.8 Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.9 Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.10Semi-Circular Box Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.11Geometry of Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20.12Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Victor Saouma

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202
202
203
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
2011
2012

Structural Engineering

LIST OF FIGURES

05

Draft

20.13Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2013


21.1 Statically Indeterminate 3 Cable Structure . . . .
21.2 Propped Cantilever Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.3
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21.4
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21.5
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21.6
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21.7
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21.8
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21.9
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21.10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.16Denition of Flexibility Terms for a Rigid Frame
21.17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21.18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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22.1 Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint . . . . . . . . . . 222
22.2 Uniformly Loaded Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
22.3 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . . . . . . 224
22.4 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces . . . . 225
22.5 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments . . . . . 226
22.6 Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points . . . . . . 227
22.7 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . . . . . . 228
22.8 ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . . . . 229
22.9 Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force . . . . 2210
22.10Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2210
22.11Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads 2211
22.12Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 2213
22.13Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2215
22.14Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2216
22.15Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . 2217
22.16Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads 2218
22.17Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 2220
22.18Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2222
22.19Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2223
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
23.5
23.6
23.7
23.8
23.9

Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . .


Independent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
Flexural Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Illustrative Example for the Slope Deection Method . .
Slope Deection; Propped Cantilever Beam . . . . . . .
Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two Span Beam, Slope Deection, Moment Diagram . .
Frame Analysis by the Slope Deection Method . . . . .

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2310
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2313

24.1 Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244


24.2 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
25.1
25.2
25.3
25.4

T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . .
T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . .
Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T

Victor Saouma

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251
252
252
253

Structural Engineering

06

LIST OF FIGURES

Draft
25.5
25.6
25.7
25.8

Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . .


Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . .
Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding . .

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257
258
259

26.1 Global Coordinate System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


26.2 Local Coordinate Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.3 Sign Convention, Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . .
26.4 Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements
26.5 Dependent Displacements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.6 Examples of Active Global Degrees of Freedom . . . . .
26.7 Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . .
26.8 2D Frame Element Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.9 *Frame Example (correct K32 and K33 ) . . . . . . . . .
26.10Example for [ID] Matrix Determination . . . . . . . . .
26.11Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . .
26.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.13Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code . . . .
26.14ID Values for Simple Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26.15Structure Plotted with CASAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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263
264
264
264
265
266
269
2613
2614
2616
2617
2619
2623
2626
2649

27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
27.7

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271
272
272
273
274
275
278

Types of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement . . . . . . . . .
Possible Bar arrangements . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load moment interaction diagram . . . . . .
Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column
Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . .

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28.1 Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


28.2 Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads,
(Lin and Stotesbury 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.3 Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.4 Axial and Flexural Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.5 Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28.6 Normal and Shear Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 281
. 282
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283
284
285
287

30.1 Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function . . . . . . . . . . . 303


30.2 Denition of Reliability Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
30.3 Probability of Failure in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3011

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
List of Tables
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13

Unit Weight of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


Weights of Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Velocity Variation above Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coecients of Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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22
23
23
23
27
28
28
28

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29
212
213
213
217

3.1
3.2
3.3

Properties of Major Structural Steels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33


Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Joist Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

4.1

Equations of Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

5.1

Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

7.1
7.2
7.3

Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73


Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Strength Reduction Factors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

9.1
9.2

Usual Gage Lengths g, g1 , g2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95


Eective Net Area Ae for Bolted and Welded Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

12.1 Conjugate Beam Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215


13.1 Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
13.2 k Factors for Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
13.3 Summary of Expressions for the Internal Strain Energy and External Work . . . . . . . . 1325
15.1 Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions for Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
16.1 Design Stress Fcr for Fy =36 ksi in Terms of rKL
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
min
KL
16.2 Design Stress Fcr for Fy =50 ksi in Terms of rmin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
16.3 Stiness Reduction Factors (AISC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
17.1 Nominal Areas of Standard Bolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
18.1 Unbraced Beam Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
18.2 Summary of AISC Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1811

02

LIST OF TABLES

Draft

19.1 Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197


g1 (x)g2 (x)dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

21.1 Table of
0

21.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2115
21.3 Displacement Computations for a Rectangular Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2120
22.1 Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2221
22.2 Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2224
23.1 Stiness vs Flexibility Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
23.2 Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4

Example of Nodal Denition .


Example of Element Denition
Example of Group Number . .
Degrees of Freedom of Dierent

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Structure Types Systems

28.1
28.2
28.3
28.4
28.5
28.6
28.7
28.8
28.9

Geometry of the Arch . . . . . . .


Calculation of Horizontal Force . .
Moment at the Centers of the Ribs
Values of Normal and Shear Forces
Design of the Arch . . . . . . . . .
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262
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285
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2810
2810
2811
2811

30.1 Tabulated Results of a Simple Monte-Carlo Simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309


30.2 Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft

Part I

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING I;
CVEN 3525

Draft

Draft
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1
1

Structural Engineering

Structural engineers are responsible for the detailed analysis and design of:

Architectural structures: Buildings, houses, factories. They must work in close cooperation with an
architect who will ultimately be responsible for the design.
Civil Infrastructures: Bridges, dams, pipelines, oshore structures. They work with transportation,
hydraulic, nuclear and other engineers. For those structures they play the leading role.
Aerospace, Mechanical, Naval structures: aeroplanes, spacecrafts, cars, ships, submarines to ensure the structural safety of those important structures.

1.2
2

Structures and their Surroundings

Structural design is aected by various environmental constraints:


1. Major movements: For example, elevator shafts are usually shear walls good at resisting lateral
load (wind, earthquake).
2. Sound and structure interact:
A dome roof will concentrate the sound
A dish roof will diuse the sound
3. Natural light:
A at roof in a building may not provide adequate light.
A Folded plate will provide adequate lighting (analysis more complex).
A bearing and shear wall building may not have enough openings for daylight.
A Frame design will allow more light in (analysis more complex).
4. Conduits for cables (electric, telephone, computer), HVAC ducts, may dictate type of oor system.
5. Net clearance between columns (unobstructed surface) will dictate type of framing.

1.3
3

Architecture & Engineering

Architecture must be the product of a creative collaboration of architects and engineers.

4 Architect stress the overall, rather than elemental approach to design. In the design process, they
conceptualize a space-form scheme as a total system. They are generalists.

12

Draft

INTRODUCTION

5 The engineer, partly due to his/her education think in reverse, starting with details and without
sucient regards for the overall picture. (S)he is a pragmatist who knows everything about nothing.

Thus there is a conceptual gap between architects and engineers at all levels of design.

7 Engineers education is more specialized and in depth than the architects. However, engineer must
be kept aware of overall architectural objective.
8 In the last resort, it is the architect who is the leader of the construction team, and the engineers are
his/her servant.

A possible compromise might be an Architectural Engineer.

1.4
10

Architectural Design Process

Architectural design is hierarchical:

Schematic: conceptual overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. Collaboration is mostly
between the owner and the architect.
Preliminary: Establish basic physical properties of major subsystems and key components to prove
design feasibility. Some collaboration with engineers is necessary.
Final design: nal in-depth design renements of all subsystems and components and preparation of
working documents (blue-prints). Engineers play a leading role.

1.5
11

Architectural Design

Architectural design must respect various constraints:

Functionality: Inuence of the adopted structure on the purposes for which the structure was erected.
Aesthetics: The architect often imposes his aesthetic concerns on the engineer. This in turn can place
severe limitations on the structural system.
Economy: It should be kept in mind that the two largest components of a structure are labors and
materials. Design cost is comparatively negligible.

1.6

Structural Analysis

12 Given an existing structure subjected to a certain load determine internal forces (axial, shear, exural, torsional; or stresses), deections, and verify that no unstable failure can occur.

13

Thus the basic structural requirements are:

Strength: stresses should not exceed critical values: < f


Stiness: deections should be controlled: < max
Stability: buckling or cracking should also be prevented

1.7
14

Structural Design

Given a set of forces, dimension the structural element.

Steel/wood Structures Select appropriate section.


Reinforced Concrete: Determine dimensions of the element and internal reinforcement (number and
sizes of reinforcing bars).
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1.8 Load Transfer Elements

13

Draft

For new structures, iterative process between analysis and design. A preliminary design is made
using rules of thumbs (best known to Engineers with design experience) and analyzed. Following
design, we check for

15

Serviceability: deections, crack widths under the applied load. Compare with acceptable values
specied in the design code.
Failure: and compare the failure load with the applied load times the appropriate factors of safety.
If the design is found not to be acceptable, then it must be modied and reanalyzed.
For existing structures rehabilitation, or verication of an old infrastructure, analysis is the most
important component.

16

17

In summary, analysis is always required.

1.8
18

Load Transfer Elements

From Strength of Materials, Fig. 1.1

Figure 1.1: Types of Forces in Structural Elements (1D)


Axial: cables, truss elements, arches, membrane, shells
Flexural: Beams, frames, grids, plates
Torsional: Grids, 3D frames
Shear: Frames, grids, shear walls.

1.9
19

Structure Types

Structures can be classied as follows:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14

INTRODUCTION

Draft

Tension & Compression Structures: only, no shear, exure, or torsion


Cable (tension only): The high strength of steel cables, combined with the eciency of simple
tension, makes cables ideal structural elements to span large distances such as bridges, and
dish roofs, Fig. 1.2

Figure 1.2: Basic Aspects of Cable Systems


Arches (mostly compression) is a reversed cable structure. In an arch, we seek to minimize
exure and transfer the load through axial forces only. Arches are used for large span roofs
and bridges, Fig. 1.3
Trusses have pin connected elements which can transmit axial forces only (tension and compression). Elements are connected by either slotted, screwed, or gusset plate connectors.
However, due to construction details, there may be secondary stresses caused by relatively
rigid connections. Trusses are used for joists, roofs, bridges, electric tower, Fig. 1.4
Post and Beams: Essentially a support column on which a beam rests, Fig. 1.5, and 1.6.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1.9 Structure Types

15

Draft

Figure 1.3: Basic Aspects of Arches

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

16

INTRODUCTION

Draft

Figure 1.4: Types of Trusses

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1.9 Structure Types

17

Draft

Figure 1.5: Variations in Post and Beams Congurations

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

18

INTRODUCTION

Draft

VIERENDEEL TRUSS

OVERLAPPING SINGLE-STRUT
CABLE-SUPPORTED BEAM

TREE-SUPPORTED TRUSS

BRACED BEAM

CABLE-STAYED BEAM

SUSPENDED CABLE
SUPPORTED BEAM

BOWSTRING TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED
STRUTED ARCH OR
CABLE BEAM/TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED
MULTI-STRUT
BEAM OR TRUSS

GABLED TRUSS

CABLE-SUPPORTED ARCHED FRAME

CABLE-SUPPORTED PORTAL FRAME

Figure 1.6: Dierent Beam Types

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1.9 Structure Types

19

Draft

Beams: Shear, exure and sometimes axial forces. Recall that =


beams, i.e. span/depth at least equal to ve.

Mc
I

is applicable only for shallow

Whereas r/c beams are mostly rectangular or T shaped, steel beams are usually I shaped (if the
top anges are not properly stiened, they may buckle, thus we must have stieners).
Frames: Load is co-planar with the structure. Axial, shear, exure (with respect to one axis in 2D
structures and with respect to two axis in 3D structures), torsion (only in 3D). The frame is
composed of at least one horizontal member (beam) rigidly connected to vertical ones1 . The vertical
members can have dierent boundary conditions (which are usually governed by soil conditions).
Frames are extensively used for houses and buildings, Fig. 1.7.

Figure 1.7: Basic Forms of Frames


Grids and Plates: Load is orthogonal to the plane of the structure. Flexure, shear, torsion.
In a grid, beams are at right angles resulting in a two-way dispersal of loads. Because of the rigid
connections between the beams, additional stiness is introduced by the torsional resistance of
members.
Grids can also be skewed to achieve greater eciency if the aspect ratio is not close to one.
Plates are at, rigid, two dimensional structures which transmit vertical load to their supports.
Used mostly for oor slabs.
Folded plates is a combination of transverse and longitudinal beam action. Used for long span
roofs. Note that the plate may be folded circularly rather than longitudinally. Folded plates are
used mostly as long span roofs. However, they can also be used as vertical walls to support both
vertical and horizontal loads.
1 The precursor of the frame structures were the Post and Lintel where the post is vertical member on which the lintel
is simply posed.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

110

INTRODUCTION

Draft

Membranes: 3D structures composed of a exible 2D surface resisting tension only. They are usually
cable-supported and are used for tents and long span roofs Fig. 1.8.

Figure 1.8: Examples of Air Supported Structures


Shells: 3D structures composed of a curved 2D surface, they are usually shaped to transmit compressive
axial stresses only, Fig. 1.9.
Shells are classied in terms of their curvature.

1.10
20

Structural Engineering Courses

Structural engineering education can be approached from either one of two points of views:

Architectural: Start from overall design, and move toward detailed analysis.
Education: Elemental rather than global approach. Emphasis is on the individual structural elements
and not always on the total system.
CVEN3525 will seek a balance between those two approaches.
This is only the third of a long series of courses which can be taken in Structural Engineering, Fig.
1.10

21

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1.10 Structural Engineering Courses

111

Draft

Figure 1.9: Basic Forms of Shells

Figure 1.10: Sequence of Structural Engineering Courses

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

112

Draft
1.11

INTRODUCTION

References

Following are some useful references for structural engineering, those marked by were consulted,
and borrowed from in preparing the Lecture Notes:

22

Structural Art
1. Billington, D.P., The Tower and the Bridge; The new art of structural engineering, Princeton
University Pres,, 1983.
Structural Engineering
1. Biggs, J.M., Introduction to Structural Engineering; Analysis and Design, Prentice Hall, 1986.
2. Gordon, J.E., Structures, or Why Things Dont Fall Down, Da Capo paperback, New York,
1978
3. Mainstone, R., Developments in Structural Form, Allen Lane Publishers, 1975.
Structural Engineering, Architectural Analysis and Design
1. Ambrose, J., Building Structures, second Ed. Wiley, 1993.
2. Salvadori, M. and Heller, R., Structure in Architecture; The Building of Buildings, Prentice
Hall, Third Edition, 1986.
3. Salvadori, M. and Levy, M., Structural Design in Architecture, Prentice hall, Second Edition,
1981.
4. Salvadori, M., Why Buildings Stand Up; The Strength of Architecture, Norton Paperack, 1990.
5. Lin, T.Y. and Stotesbury, S.D., Structural Concepts and Systems for Architects and Engineers,
John Wiley, 1981.
6. White, R. Gergely, P. and Sexmith, R., Structural Engineering; Combined Edition, John
Wiley, 1976.
7. Sandaker, B.N. and Eggen, A.P., The Structural Basis of Architecture, Whitney Library of
Design, 1992.
Structural Analysis
1. Arbadi, F. Structural Analysis and Behavior, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1991.
2. Hsieh, Y.Y., Elementary Theory of Structures, Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 1988.
3. Ghali, A., and Neville, A.M., Structural Analysis, Third Edition, Chapman and Hall, 1989
Structural Design
1. Nilson, A., and Winter, G. Design of Concrete Structures, Eleventh Edition, McGraw Hill,
1991.
2. Salmon C. and Johnson, J. Steel Structures, Third Edition, Harper Collins Publisher, 1990.
3. Gaylord, E.H., Gaylord, C.N. and Stallmeyer, J.E., Design of Steel Structures, Third Edition, McGraw Hill, 1992.
Codes
1. ACI-318-89, Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete, American Concrete Institute
2. Load & Resistance Factor Design, Manual of Steel Construction, American Institute of Steel
Construction.
3. Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Ocials, 5360 South Workman
Road; Whittier, CA 90601
4. Minimum Design Loads in Buildings and Other Structures, ANSI A58.1, American National
Standards Institute, Inc., New York, 1972.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 2

LOADS
2.1

Introduction

1 The main purpose of a structure is to transfer load from one point to another: bridge deck to pier;
slab to beam; beam to girder; girder to column; column to foundation; foundation to soil.
2 There can also be secondary loads such as thermal (in restrained structures), dierential settlement
of foundations, P-Delta eects (additional moment caused by the product of the vertical force and the
lateral displacement caused by lateral load in a high rise building).

Loads are generally subdivided into two categories

Vertical Loads or gravity load


1. dead load (DL)
2. live load (LL)
also included are snow loads.
Lateral Loads which act horizontally on the structure
1. Wind load (WL)
2. Earthquake load (EL)
this also includes hydrostatic and earth loads.
4 This distinction is helpful not only to compute a structures load, but also to assign dierent factor of
safety to each one.

For a detailed coverage of loads, refer to the Universal Building Code (UBC), (UBC 1995).

2.2

Vertical Loads

6 For closely spaced identical loads (such as joist loads), it is customary to treat them as a uniformly
distributed load rather than as discrete loads, Fig. 2.1

2.2.1

Dead Load

7 Dead loads (DL) consist of the weight of the structure itself, and other permanent xtures (such as
walls, slabs, machinery).
8 For analysis purposes, dead loads can easily be determined from the structures dimensions and density,
Table 2.1

22

LOADS

Draft
P1

P2

P3

P4

P5

P6

P7

REPETITIVE JOIST LOADS


ACTUAL DISCRETE LOADS ON SUPPORT BEAM

w LB/FT = TOTAL LOAD / SPAN

SUPPORT BEAM
SPAN

ASSUMED EQUIVALENT UNIFORM LOAD


TYPICAL SYSTEM OF JOISTS

Figure 2.1: Approximation of a Series of Closely Spaced Loads


Material
Aluminum
Brick
Concrete
Steel
Wood (pine)

lb/ft3
173
120
145
490
40

kN/m3
27.2
18.9
33.8
77.0
6.3

Table 2.1: Unit Weight of Materials


9 For steel structures, the weight per unit length of rolled sections is given in the AISC Manual of Steel
Construction.

For design purposes, dead loads must be estimated and veried at the end of the design cycle. This
makes the design process iterative.

10

11

Weights for building materials is given in Table 2.2

12

For preliminary design purposes the average dead loads of Table 2.3 can be used:

2.2.2

Live Loads

Contrarily to dead loads which are xed and vertical, live loads (LL) are movable or moving and may
be horizontal.

13

Occupancy load may be due to people, furniture, equipment. The loads are essentially variable point
loads which can be placed anywhere.

14

15

In analysis load placement should be such that their eect (shear/moment) are maximized.

A statistical approach is used to determine a uniformly distributed static load which is equivalent to
the weight of the maximum concentration of occupants. These loads are dened in codes such as the
Uniform Building Code or the ANSI Code, Table 2.4.

16

17

For small areas (30 to 50 sq ft) the eect of concentrated load should be considered separately.

Since there is a small probability that the whole oor in a building be fully loaded, the UBC code
species that the occupancy load for members supporting an area A larger than 150 ft2 (i.e. a column
with a total tributary area, including oors above it, larger than 150 ft2 ) may be reduced by R where


DL
R = r(A 150) 23.1 1 +
(2.1)
LL

18

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.2 Vertical Loads

Draft

23
lb/ft2

Material

Ceilings
Channel suspended system
Acoustical ber tile
Floors
Steel deck
Concrete-plain 1 in.
Linoleum 1/4 in.
Hardwood
Roofs
Copper or tin
5 ply felt and gravel
Shingles asphalt
Clay tiles
Sheathing wood
Insulation 1 in. poured in place
Partitions
Clay tile 3 in.
Clay tile 10 in.
Gypsum Block 5 in.
Wood studs 2x4 (12-16 in. o.c.)
Plaster 1 in. cement
Plaster 1 in. gypsum
Walls
Bricks 4 in.
Bricks 12 in.
Hollow concrete block (heavy aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.
Hollow concrete block (light aggregate)
4 in.
8 in.
12 in.

1
1
2-10
12
1
4
1-5
6
3
9-14
3
2
17
40
14
2
10
5
40
120
30
55
80
21
38
55

Table 2.2: Weights of Building Materials


Material
Timber
Steel
Reinforced concrete

lb/ft2
40-50
50-80
100-150

Table 2.3: Average Gross Dead Load in Buildings


Use or Occupancy
Assembly areas
Cornices, marquees, residential balconies
Corridors, stairs
Garage
Oce buildings
Residential
Storage

lb/ft2
50
60
100
50
50
40
125-250

Table 2.4: Minimum Uniformly Distributed Live Loads, (UBC 1995)


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

24

LOADS

Draft

where r = .08 for oors, A is the supported area ( ft2 ) DL and LL are the dead and live loads per unit
area supported by the member. R can not exceed 40% for horizontal members and 60% for vertical ones.

Example 2-1: Live Load Reduction


In a 10 story oce building with a column spacing of 16 ft in both directions, the total dead load
is 60 psf, snow load 20 psf and live load 80 psf. what is the total live load and total load for which a
column must be designed on the ground oor
Solution:
1. The tributary area is 16 16 = 256f t2 > 150

2. The reduction R is R = .08(16 16 150) = 8.48%





3. Maximum allowable reduction Rmax = 23.1 1 + 60


80 = 40.4% which is less than 60%
4. The reduced cumulative load for the column of each oor is
Floor
Cumulative R (%)
Cumulative LL
Cumulative R LL

Roof
8.48
20
18.3

10
16.96
80
66.4

9
25.44
80
59.6

8
33.92
80
52.9

7
42.4
80
46.08

6
51.32
80
38.9

5
59.8
80
32.2

4
60
80
32

3
60
80
32

2
60
80
32

Total
740
410

The resulting design live load for the bottom column has been reduced from 740 Kips to 410 Kips .
5. The total dead load is DL = (10)(60) = 600 Kips, thus the total reduction in load is

740410
740+600

100= 25% .

2.2.3

Snow

19 Roof snow load vary greatly depending on geographic location and elevation. They range from
20 to 45 psf, Fig. 2.2.

Figure 2.2: Snow Map of the United States, ubc

20

Snow loads are always given on the projected length or area on a slope, Fig. 2.3.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.2 Vertical Loads

25

Draft

LIVE LOAD
DEAD LOAD

LE
N
G
TH

RISE

WIND
LOAD

RUN

Figure 2.3: Loads on Projected Dimensions


The steeper the roof, the lower the snow retention. For snow loads greater than 20 psf and roof pitches
more than 20 the snow load p may be reduced by
p

R = ( 20)
0.5
(psf)
(2.2)
40

21

22

Other examples of loads acting on inclined surfaces are shown in Fig. 2.4.

L1

w1
w3
w1 Snow Load

w2 Wind Load

w3 Roof Dead Load


L
L = 1
2
cos

Figure 2.4: Vertical and Normal Loads Acting on Inclined Surfaces

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26

LOADS

Draft
2.3

2.3.1

Lateral Loads
Wind

Wind load depend on: velocity of the wind, shape of the building, height, geographical
location, texture of the building surface and stiness of the structure.

23

24

Wind loads are particularly signicant on tall buildings1 .

When a steady streamline airow of velocity V is completely stopped by a rigid body, the stagnation
pressure (or velocity pressure) qs was derived by Bernouilli (1700-1782)

25

qs =

1 2
V
2

(2.3)

where the air mass density is the air weight divided by the acceleration of gravity g = 32.2 ft/sec2 . At
sea level and a temperature of 15o C (59o F), the air weighs 0.0765 lb/ft3 this would yield a pressure of
1 (0.0765)lb/ft3
qs =
2 (32.2)ft/sec2

(5280)ft/mile
V
(3600)sec/hr

2
(2.4)

or
qs = 0.00256V 2

(2.5)

where V is the maximum wind velocity (in miles per hour) and qs is in psf. V can be obtained from
wind maps (in the United States 70 V 110), Fig. 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Wind Map of the United States, (UBC 1995)


During storms, wind velocities may reach values up to or greater than 150 miles per hour, which
corresponds to a dynamic pressure qs of about 60 psf (as high as the average vertical occupancy load in
buildings).

26

27

28

Wind pressure increases with height, Table 2.5.


Wind load will cause suction on the leeward sides, Fig. 2.7
1 The

primary design consideration for very high rise buildings is the excessive drift caused by lateral load (wind and
possibly earthquakes).

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.3 Lateral Loads

27

Draft

Height Zone
(in feet)
<30
30 to 49
50 to 99
100 to 499
500 to 1199
>1,200

20
15
20
25
30
35
40

Wind-Velocity
25 30 35
20 25 25
25 30 35
30 40 45
40 45 55
45 55 60
50 60 70

Map
40
30
40
50
60
70
80

Area
45
35
45
55
70
80
90

50
40
50
60
75
90
100

Table 2.5: Wind Velocity Variation above Ground

Figure 2.6: Eect of Wind Load on Structures(Schueller 1996)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

28

LOADS

Draft

This magnitude must be modied to account for the shape and surroundings of the building. Thus,
the design pressure p (psf) is given by

29

(2.6)

p = Ce Cq Iqs
The pressure is assumed to be normal to all walls and roofs and

Ce Velocity Pressure Coecient accounts for height, exposure and gust factor. It accounts for the
fact that wind velocity increases with height and that dynamic character of the airow (i.e the
wind pressure is not steady), Table 2.6.
Ce
1.39-2.34
1.06-2.19

Exposure
D
C

0.62-1.80

Open, at terrain facing large bodies of water


Flat open terrain, extending one-half mile or open from the site in
any full quadrant
Terrain with buildings, forest, or surface irregularities 20 ft or more
in height

Table 2.6: Ce Coecients for Wind Load, (UBC 1995)


Cq Pressure Coecient is a shape factor which is given in Table 2.7 for gabled frames.
Windward Side
Gabled Frames (V:H)
Roof Slope
<9:12
0.7
9:12 to 12:12
0.4
>12:12
0.7
Walls
0.8
Buildings (height < 200 ft)
Vertical Projections
height < 40 ft
1.3
height > 40 ft
1.4
Horizontal Projections
0.7

Leeward Side
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.5
1.3
1.4
0.7

Table 2.7: Wind Pressure Coecients Cq , (UBC 1995)


I Importance Factor as given by Table 2.8. where

I
II
III
IV

Occupancy Category
Essential facilities
Hazardous facilities
Special occupancy structures
Standard occupancy structures

Importance Factor I
Earthquake Wind
1.25
1.15
1.25
1.15
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

Table 2.8: Importance Factors for Wind and Earthquake Load, (UBC 1995)
I Essential Facilities: Hospitals; Fire and police stations; Tanks; Emergency vehicle shelters,
standby power-generating equipment; Structures and equipment in government. communication centers.
II Hazardous Facilities: Structures housing, supporting or containing sucient quantities of
toxic or explosive substances to be dangerous to the safety of the general public if released.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.3 Lateral Loads

29

Draft

III Special occupancy structure: Covered structures whose primary occupancy is public assembly, capacity > 300 persons.
Buildings for schools through secondary or day-care centers, capacity > 250 persons.
Buildings for colleges or adult education schools, capacity > 500 persons.
Medical facilities with 50 or more resident incapacitated patients, but not included above
Jails and detention facilities
All structures with occupancy >5,000 persons.
Structures and equipment in power generating stations and other public utility facilities not
included above, and required for continued operation.
IV Standard occupancy structure: All structures having occupancies or functions not listed
above.

30

For the preliminary design of ordinary buildings Ce = 1.0 and Cq = 1.3 may be assumed, yielding
p = (1.3).020256V 2 = .00333V 2

(2.7)

which corresponds to a pressure of 21 psf for a wind speed of 80 mph, Fig. 2.7, Table 2.9.

Height
Above
Grade (ft)
0-15
20
25
30
40
60
80
100
120
160
200
300
400

Exposure
B
C
Basic Wind Speed (mph)
70
80
70
80
10
13
17
23
11
14
18
24
12
15
19
25
12
16
20
26
14
18
21
28
17
22
25
33
18
24
27
35
20
26
28
37
21
28
29
38
23
30
31
41
25
33
33
43
29
37
36
47
32
41
38
50

Table 2.9: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures

Example 2-2: Wind Load


Determine the wind forces on the building shown on below which is built in St Louis and is surrounded
by trees.
Solution:
1. From Fig. 2.5 the maximum wind velocity is St. Louis is 70 mph, since the building is protected
we can take Ce = 0.7, I = 1.. The base wind pressure is qs = 0.00256 (70)2 = 12.54 psf.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

210

LOADS

Draft
400
Exposure B, 70 mph
Exposure B, 80 mph
Exposure C, 70 mph
Exposure C, 80 mph

350

Height Above Grade (ft)

300

250

200

150

100

50

10

15
20
25
30
35
40
Approximate Design Wind Pressure (psf)

45

50

Figure 2.7: Approximate Design Wind Pressure p for Ordinary Wind Force Resisting Building Structures

2. The slope of the roof is 8:15=6.4:12 which gives Cq = 0.7 for both the windward and leeward
sides. The vertical walls have Cq = 0.8 for the windward side and Cq = 0.5 for the leeward one.
3. Thus the applied pressure on the roof is p = 0.7 (0.7) 12.54 = -6.14 psf that is the roof is
subjected to uplift.
4. The winward wall, the pressure is 0.7 0.8 12.54 = 7.02 psf , and for the leeward wall 0.7
(0.5) 12.54 = -4.39 psf (suction) ,
5. The direction of the wind can change and hence each structural component must be designed to
resist all possible load combinations.
6. For large structures which may be subjected to large wind loads, testing in a wind tunnel of the
structure itself and its surroundings is often accomplished.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.3 Lateral Loads

211

Draft
2.3.2
31

Earthquakes

Buildings should be able to resist

Minor earthquakes without damage


Moderate earthquakes without structural damage but possibly with some nonstructural damages
Major earthquakes without collapse but possibly with some structural damage as well as nonstructural damage.
This is achieved through an appropriate dynamic analysis.
For preliminary designs or for small structures an equivalent horizontal static load can be determined.

32

33

Actual loads depend on the following


1. Intensity of the ground acceleration (including soil/rock properties).
2. Dynamic properties of the building, such as its mode shapes and periods of vibration and its
damping characteristics.
3. Mass of the building.

A critical factor in the dynamic response of a structure is the fundamental period of the structures
vibration (or rst mode of vibration). This is the time required for one full cycle of motion, Fig. 2.8. If
the earthquake excitation has a frequency close to the one of the building, then resonance may occur.
This should be avoided.

34

Figure 2.8: Vibrations of a Building


Earthquake load manifests itself as a horizontal force due to the (primarily) horizontal inertia force
(F = ma).

35

36

The horizontal force at each level is calculated as a portion of the base shear force V

V =
Victor Saouma

ZIC
W
RW

(2.8)
Structural Engineering

212

LOADS

Draft
where:

Z: Zone Factor: to be determined from Fig. 2.9 and Table 2.10.

Figure 2.9: Seismic Zones of the United States, (UBC 1995)

Seismic Zone
Z

0
0

1
0.075

2A
0.15

2B
0.2

3
0.3

4
0.4

Table 2.10: Z Factors for Dierent Seismic Zones, ubc


I: Importance Factor: which was given by Table 2.8.
C: Design Response Spectrum given by

C=

1.25S
2.75
T 2/3

(2.9)

T is the fundamental period of vibration of the building in seconds. This can be determined from
either the free vibration analysis of the building, or estimated from the following empirical formula
T = Ct (hn )3/4

(2.10)

where:
hn is the building height above base in ft.
and
Ct 0.035 steel moment resisting frames
Ct 0.030 reinforced concrete moment resisting frames and eccentrically braced frames S: Site
Ct 0.020 all other buildings
Coecient given by Table 2.11 Note that most of the damages in the 1990? earthquake in San
Francisco occurred in the marina where many houses were built on soft soil.
and
C
0.075
RW
Victor Saouma

(2.11)

Structural Engineering

2.3 Lateral Loads

213

Draft
Type
S1
S2
S3
S4

Description
A soil prole with either rock-like material or sti/dense soil less
than 200 ft.
Dense or sti soil exceeding 200 ft
70 ft or more soil containing more than 20 ft of soft to medium sti
clay but not more than 40 ft. of soft clay.
Soil containing more than 40 ft of soft clay

S Factor
1.0
1.2
1.5
2.0

Table 2.11: S Site Coecients for Earthquake Loading, (UBC 1995)

Structural System

RW
Bearing wall system
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
8
All other light-framed walls
6
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Building frame system using trussing or shear walls)
Steel eccentrically braced ductiel frame
10
Light-framed walls with shear panels
Plywood walls for structures three stories or less
9
All other light-framed walls
7
Shear walls
Concrete
8
Masonry
8
Concentrically braced frames
Steel
8
Concrete (only for zones I and 2)
8
Heavy timber
8
Moment-resisting frame system
Special moment-resisting frames (SMRF)
Steel
12
Concrete
12
Concrete intermediate moment-resisting frames (IMRF)only for zones 1 and 2 8
Ordinary moment-resisting frames (OMRF)
Steel
6
Concrete (only for zone 1)
5
Dual systems (selected cases are for ductile rigid frames only)
Shear walls
Concrete with SMRF
12
Masonry with SMRF
8
Steel eccentrically braced ductile frame
6-12
Concentrically braced frame
12
Steel with steel SMRF
10
Steel with steel OMRF
6
Concrete with concrete SMRF (only for zones 1 and 2)
9

H (ft)

65
65
240
160
240
65
65
240
160
160
65

N.L.
N.L.
160
-

N.L.
160
160-N.L.
N. L.
N.L.
160
-

Table 2.12: Partial List of RW for Various Structure Systems, (UBC 1995)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

214

LOADS

Draft

RW is given by Table 2.12.


W Load total structure load.
The horizontal force V is distributed over the height of the building in two parts. The rst (applied
only if T 0.7 sec.) is a concentrated force F1 equal to

37

Ft = 0.07T V 0.25V

(2.12)

is applied at the top of the building due to whiplash. The balance of the force V Ft is distributed as
a triangular load diminishing to zero at the base.
38

Assuming a oor weight constant for every oor level, then the force acting on each one is given by
Fx =

(V Ft )hx
(V Ft )hx
=
h1 + h2 + + hn
ni=1 hi

(2.13)

where hi and hn are the height in ft above the base to level i, n or x respectively

Example 2-3: Earthquake Load on a Frame


Determine the approximate earthquake forces for the ductile hospital frame structure shown below.
The DL for each oor is 200 lb/ft and the LL is 400 lb/ft. The structure is built on soft soil. Use DL
plus 50%LL as the weight of each oor. The building is in zone 3.

Solution:
1. The fundamental period of vibration is
T = Ct (hn )3/4 = (0.030)(24)3/4 = 0.32 sec.
2. The C coecient is
C=

1.25S
(1.25)(2.0)
=
= 5.344 > 2.75
T 2/3
(0.32)2/3

(2.14)

(2.15)

use C = 2.75.
3. The other coecients are: Z =0.3; I=1.25; RW =12
4. Check

C
2.75
= 0.23 > 0.075
=
RW
12

(2.16)

W = 2 ((200 + 0.5(400)) (20) = 16000 lbs

(2.17)

5. The total vertical load is

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.3 Lateral Loads

215

Draft

6. The total seismic base shear is


V

ZIC
(0.3)(1.25)(2.75)
= 0.086W
=
RW
12

(2.18-a)

= (0.086)(16000) = 1375 lbs

(2.18-b)

7. Since T < 0.7 sec. there is no whiplash.


8. The load on each oor is thus given by
F2

F1

(1375)(24)
= 916.7 lbs
12 + 24
(1375)(12)
= 458.3 lbs
12 + 24

(2.19-a)
(2.19-b)

Example 2-4: Earthquake Load on a Tall Building, (Schueller 1996)


Determine the approximate critical lateral loading for a 25 storey, ductile, rigid space frame concrete
structure in the short direction. The rigid frames are spaced 25 ft apart in the cross section and 20
ft in the longitudinal direction. The plan dimension of the building is 175x100 ft, and the structure is
25(12)=300 ft high. This oce building is located in an urban environment with a wind velocity of 70
mph and in seismic zone 4. For this investigation, an average building total dead load of 192 psf is used.
Soil conditions are unknown.
470 k

25(12)=300

2638 k

2(300)/3=200

300/2=150

1523 k

7(25)=175

84000 k

3108 k

5(20)=100

Solution:
1. The total building weight is
W = (0.1926) psf(100 175) ft2 25 storeys = 84, 000 k
Victor Saouma

(2.20)

Structural Engineering

216

LOADS

Draft

2. the fundamental period of vibration for a rigid frame is

T = Ct (hn )3/4 = 0.030(300)3/4 = 2.16 sec. > 0.7 sec.


3. The C coecient is

1.25S
(1.25)(1.5)
=
= 1.12 2.75
T 2/3
(2.16)2/3

C=

(2.21)

(2.22)

4. The other coecients are Z=0.4; I=1, RW =12


5. We check

C
1.12
=
= 0.093 0.075
RW
12

(2.23)

6. The total seismic base shear along the critical short direction is
V

ZIC
(0.4)(1)(1.12)
W = 0.037W
W =
RW
(12)

(2.24-a)

(0.037)(84000) = 3108 kip

(2.24-b)

7. Since T > 0.7 sec., the whiplash eect must be considered


Ft

= 0.07T V = (0.07)(2.16)(3108) = 470 k


le 0.25V = (0.25)(3108) = 777 k

(2.25-a)
(2.25-b)

Hence the total triangular load is


V Ft = 3108 470 = 2638 k

(2.26)

8. let us check if wind load governs. From Table xx we conservatively assume a uniform wind pressure
of 29 psf resulting in a total lateral force of
PW = (0.029) psf(175 300) ft2 = 1523 k < 3108 k

(2.27)

The magnitude of the total seismic load is clearly larger than the total wind force.

2.4
2.4.1
39

Other Loads
Hydrostatic and Earth

Structures below ground must resist lateral earth pressure.


(2.28)

q = Kh
where is the soil density, K =

1sin
1+sin

is the pressure coecient, h is the height.

40

For sand and gravel = 120 lb/ ft3 , and 30 .

41

If the structure is partially submerged, it must also resist hydrostatic pressure of water, Fig. 2.10.

q = W h

(2.29)

where W = 62.4 lbs/ft3 .

Example 2-5: Hydrostatic Load


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.4 Other Loads

217

Draft

Figure 2.10: Earth and Hydrostatic Loads on Structures


The basement of a building is 12 ft below grade. Ground water is located 9 ft below grade, what
thickness concrete slab is required to exactly balance the hydrostatic uplift?
Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure must be countered by the pressure caused by the weight of concrete. Since p =
h we equate the two pressures and solve for h the height of the concrete slab (62.4) lbs/ft3 (12 9) ft =



water
3
(150) lbs/ft3 h h = (62.4) lbs/ft3 (3) ft(12) in/ft = 14.976 in 15.0 inch
(150)
lbs
/
ft



concrete

2.4.2

Thermal

If a member is uniformly heated (or cooled) without restraint, then it will expand (or contract).
This expansion is given by

42

l = lT

(2.30)

where is the coecient of thermal expansion, Table 2.13

Steel
Concrete

(/F )
6.5 106
5.5 106

Table 2.13: Coecients of Thermal Expansion

43

If the member is restrained against expansion, then a compressive stress = ET is developed.

44

To avoid excessive stresses due to thermal loading expansion joints are used in bridges and buildings.

Example 2-6: Thermal Expansion/Stress (Schueller 1996)


A low-rise building is enclosed along one side by a 100 ft-long clay masonry ( = 3.6106 in./in./o F,
E = 2, 400, 000 psi) bearing wall. The structure was built at a temperature of 60o F and is located in
the northern part of the United States where the temperature range is between -20o and +120oF.
Solution:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

218

LOADS

Draft

1. Assuming that the wall can move freely with no restraint from cross-walls and foundation, the wall
expansion and contraction (summer and winter) are given by
LSummer
LWinter

T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = 0.26 (2.31-a)
in

T L = (3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F (100) ft(12) in/ft = -0.35
(2.31-b)
in

2. We now assume (conservatively) that the free movement cannot occur (L = 0) hence the resulting
T L
= ET
stress would be equal to = E = E L
L =E
L
Summer

ET = (2, 400, 000)

Winter

ET = (2, 400, 000)

lbs

(3.6
in2
lbs
in2

106 ) in/ in/o F (120 60)o F = 518

lbs

Tension
(2.32-a)

in2
lbs

(3.6 106 ) in/ in/o F (20 60)o F = -691

in2

Compression
(2.32-b)
(2.32-c)

Note that the tensile stresses being beyond the masonry capacity, cracking will occur.

2.4.3

Bridge Loads

For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig. 6.5.
Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.

Figure 2.11: Truck Load

2.4.4

2.5
2.5.1
45

Impact Load

Other Important Considerations


Load Combinations

Live loads specied by codes represent the maximum possible loads.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.5 Other Important Considerations

219

Draft

The likelihood of all these loads occurring simultaneously is remote. Hence, building codes allow
certain reduction when certain loads are combined together.

46

47

Furthermore, structures should be designed to resist a combination of loads.

Denoting D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil:

48

For the load and resistance factor design (LRFD) method of concrete structures, the American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building design code (318) (318 n.d.) requires that the following load combinations
be considered:

49

1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
5. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
6. 1.4(D+T)
whereas for steel structures, the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) code, (of Steel COnstruction 1986) requires that the following combinations be veried
1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
Analysis can be separately performed for each of the basic loads (L, D, W, etc) and then using the
principle of superposition the loads can be linearly combined (unless the elastic limit has been reached).

50

51

Loads are often characterized as Usual, Unusual and Extreme.

2.5.2

Load Placement

Only the dead load is static. The live load on the other hand may or may not be applied on a given
component of a structure. Hence, the load placement arrangement resulting in the highest internal forces
(moment +ve or -ve, shear) at dierent locations must be considered, Fig. 2.12.

52

2.5.3

Structural Response

Under the action of the various forces and loadings described above, the structure must be able to
respond with proper behavior, Fig. 7.1.

53

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

220

LOADS

Draft

Figure 2.12: Load Placement to Maximize Moments

Figure 2.13: Load Life of a Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.5 Other Important Considerations

221

Draft

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11
00
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
001111
11
000011
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
00
11
0000
1111
00
11
11
001111
000011
00

Figure 2.14: Concept of Tributary Areas for Structural Member Loading

b
a/b > 2
one way slab

b
a/b <2
Two way slab

Figure 2.15: One or Two Way actions in Slabs

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

222

Draft
2.5.4

LOADS

Tributary Areas

For preliminary analysis, the tributary area of a structural component will determine the total applied
load.

54

For a slab simply supported over four linear supports, we may have a one way or tow way action if
the ratio a/b is greater or smaller than two respectively, Fig. 2.15.

55

Whereas we will be focusing on the design of a reinforced concrete or steel section, we must keep in
mind the following:

56

1. The section is part of a beam or girder.


2. The beam or girder is really part of a three dimensional structure in which load is transmitted
from any point in the structure to the foundation through any one of various structural forms.
Load transfer in a structure is accomplished through a hierarchy of simple exural elements which
are then connected to the columns, Fig. 2.16 or by two way slabs as illustrated in Fig. 2.17.

57

58

An example of load transfer mechanism is shown in Fig. 2.18.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2.5 Other Important Considerations

Draft

223

Figure 2.16: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

224

LOADS

Draft

Figure 2.17: Two Way Actions

D
b=12; a=4; b/a=12/4=3>2 One way slab
2

(40) lb/ft (4) ft= 160 lb/ft=0.16 k/ft


b
B

G
(0.16)(12)/2=0.96 k
0.96 k

LL=40
lbs/ft 2

12 ft
0.96 k

0.96 k

H
G

0.48 k

E
a

0.48 k
B

A
4 ft

4 ft

4 ft

0.48+0.96=1.44 k

1.44 k
2

(2)(40)lb/ft (3)ft=0.24 k/ft

b=10; a=6; b/a<2 Two way slab


B

1111
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0000
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0000
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0000
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0000
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0000
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0000
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0000
1111
00000000
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00000000
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0000
1111
00000000
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00000000
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0000
1111
00000000
H 11111111
00000000
11111111
0000 G
1111
3

(0.24)(2+3/2)=0.84k
0.84 k

0.84k

0.84k

0.42k

A
1.8k

(40)lb/ft (3)ft=0.12k/ft
0.42k

B
3

C
3

1.8k

(0.42)+(0.84)+(0.12)[6/2+3/2]=1.8k

Figure 2.18: Example of Load Transfer

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 3

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
1 Proper understanding of structural materials is essential to both structural analysis and to structural
design.

Characteristics of the most commonly used structural materials will be highlighted.

3.1
3.1.1

Steel
Structural Steel

3 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its properties can be greatly varied by altering the carbon content
(always less than 0.5%) or by adding other elements such as silicon, nickel, manganese and copper.

Practically all grades of steel have a Young Modulus equal to 29,000 ksi, density of 490 lb/cu ft, and
a coecient of thermal expansion equal to 0.65 105 /deg F.

5 The yield stress of steel can vary from 40 ksi to 250 ksi. Most commonly used structural steel are A36
(yld = 36 ksi) and A572 (yld = 50 ksi), Fig. 3.6

Figure 3.1: Stress Strain Curves of Concrete and Steel


6 Structural steel can be rolled into a wide variety of shapes and sizes.
Usually the most desirable
members are those which have a large section moduli (S) in proportion to their area (A), Fig. 3.2.

32

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft

Figure 3.2: Standard Rolled Sections

Steel can be bolted, riveted or welded.

8 Sections are designated by the shape of their cross section, their depth and their weight. For example
W 27 114 is a W section, 27 in. deep weighing 114 lb/ft.

Common sections are:

S sections were the rst ones rolled in America and have a slope on their inside ange surfaces of 1 to
6.
W or wide ange sections have a much smaller inner slope which facilitates connections and rivetting.
W sections constitute about 50% of the tonnage of rolled structural steel.
C are channel sections
MC Miscellaneous channel which can not be classied as a C shape by dimensions.
HP is a bearing pile section.
M is a miscellaneous section.
L are angle sections which may have equal or unequal sides.
WT is a T section cut from a W section in two.
Properties of structural steel are tabulated in Table 3.1.
Rolled sections, Fig. 3.3 and welded ones, Fig 3.4 have residual stresses. Those originate during
the rolling or fabrication of a member. The member is hot just after rolling or welding, it cools unevenly
because of varying exposure. The area that cool rst become stier, resist contraction, and develop
compressive stresses. The remaining regions continue to cool and contract in the plastic condition and
develop tensile stresses.

10

Due to those residual stresses, the stress-strain curve of a rolled section exhibits a non-linear segment
prior to the theoretical yielding, Fig. 3.5. This would have important implications on the exural and
axial strength of beams and columns.

11

3.1.2

Reinforcing Steel

Steel is also used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 3.2. Those bars have a deformation on their
surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually have a yield stress of 60 ksi1 .

12

1 Stirrups

which are used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear usually have a yield stress of only 40 ksi.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.1 Steel

33

Draft
ASTM
Desig.
A36

Shapes Available

Shapes and bars

A500

Cold formed welded


seamless sections;

A501

Hot formed welded and seamless sections;


Plates and bars 12 in and less
thick;

A529

and

A606

Hot and cold rolled sheets;

A611

Cold rolled sheet in cut


lengths
Structural shapes, plates and
bars

A 709

Use

y (ksi)

Riveted, bolted, welded;


Buildings and bridges
General structural purpose Riveted, welded or
bolted;
Bolted and welded

36 up through 8 in. (32 above


8.)
Grade A: 33; Grade B: 42;
Grade C: 46

Building frames and


trusses;
Bolted and
welded
Atmospheric corrosion
resistant
Cold formed sections
Bridges

u (ksi)

36
42

45-50
Grade C 33; Grade D 40;
Grade E 80
Grade 36: 36 (to 4 in.); Grade
50: 50; Grade 100: 100 (to
2.5in.) and 90 (over 2.5 to 4
in.)

Table 3.1: Properties of Major Structural Steels

Maximum compressive
stress, say 12 ksi average

Compression (-)
(-)

Tension (+)
(+)

Figure 3.3: Residual Stresses in Rolled Sections


say 20 ksi
say 12 ksi

+
+

say 40 ksi

20 ksi

say 35 ksi
tension

Welded H
say 20 ksi
compression

Welded box

Figure 3.4: Residual Stresses in Welded Sections


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

34

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft
Ideal coupon containing
no residual stress

.3

Average stress P/A

Fy

.2
Fp

Maximum
residual
compressive
stress

.1

Members with
residual stress

2
Average copressive strain

Shaded portion indicates area


which has achieved a stress Fy

Figure 3.5: Inuence of Residual Stress on Average Stress-Strain Curve of a Rolled Section

Bar Designation
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 14
No. 18

Diameter
(in.)
2/8=0.250
3/8=0.375
4/8=0.500
5/8=0.625
6/8=0.750
7/8=0.875
8/8=1.000
9/8=1.128
10/8=1.270
11/8=1.410
14/8=1.693
18/8=2.257

Area
( in2 )
0.05
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00

Perimeter
in
0.79
1.18
1.57
1.96
2.36
2.75
3.14
3.54
3.99
4.43
5.32
7.09

Weight
lb/ft
0.167
0.376
0.668
1.043
1.5202
2.044
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
7.650
13.60

Table 3.2: Properties of Reinforcing Bars

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.2 Aluminum

35

Draft

Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from re), and
becomes brittle at 30 deg. F2 .

13

Steel is also used as wire strands and ropes for suspended roofs, cable-stayed bridges, fabric roofs and
other structural applications. A strand is a helical arrangement of wires around a central wire. A rope
consists of multiple strands helically wound around a central plastic core, and a modulus of elasticity of
20,000 ksi, and an ultimate strength of 220 ksi.
14

15

Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.

3.2

Aluminum

Aluminum is used whenever light weight combined with strength is an important factor. Those
properties, along with its resistance to corrosion have made it the material of choice for airplane
structures, light roof framing.

16

17

Aluminum members can be connected by riveting, bolting and to a lesser extent by welding.

Aluminum has a modulus of elasticity equal to 10,000 ksi (about three times lower than steel),
a coecient of thermal expansion of 2.4 105 and a density of 173 lbs/ft3 .

18

The ultimate strength of pure aluminum is low (13,000 psi) but with the addition of alloys it can go
up.

19

When aluminum is in contact with other metals in the presence of an electrolyte, galvanic corrosion
may cause damage. Thus, steel and aluminum in a structure must be carefully separated by means of
painting or a nonconductive material.

20

3.3

Concrete

Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement3 , water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed stone).
An ideal mixture is one in which:

21

1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the particles of
aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining 1/4
being the cement paste.
Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being coarse
aggregates.

22

23

Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given by

E = 57, 000 fc
(3.1)

or
E = 33 1.5
where both

fc


fc

(3.2)

and E are in psi and is in lbs/ft .

Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.

24

25

26

All concrete fail at an ultimate strain of 0.003, Fig. 3.6.


Pre-peak nonlinearity is caused by micro-cracking Fig. 3.7.
2 This

brittleness is even more accentuated in high strength steel, and has been the cause of some bridge collapses during
winter nights. (CVEN 6831 Fracture Mechanics)
3 Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in a kiln and then pulverized.
When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called hydration.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

36

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft

Figure 3.6: Concrete Stress-Strain curve

fc
non-linear

.5fc
linear

Figure 3.7: Concrete microcracking

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.4 Masonry

37

Draft
27

The tensile strength of concrete ft is about 10% of the compressive strength.

28

Density of normal weight concrete is 145 lbs/ft3 and 100 lbs/ft3 for lightweight concrete.

29

Coecient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.

When concrete is poured (or rather placed), the free water not needed for the hydration process
evaporates over a period of time and the concrete will shrink. This shrinkage is about 0.05% after one
year (strain). Thus if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur4 .
30

Concrete will also deform with time due to the applied load, this is called creep. This should be taken
into consideration when computing the deections (which can be up to three times the instantaneous
elastic deection).

31

3.4

Masonry

Masonry consists of either natural materials, such as stones, or of manufactured products such as
bricks and concrete blocks5 , stacked and bonded together with mortar.

32

As for concrete, all modern structural masonry blocks are essentially compression members with low
tensile resistance.

33

34

The mortar used is a mixture of sand, masonry cement, and either Portland cement or hydrated lime.

3.5

Timber

Timber is one of the earliest construction materials, and one of the few natural materials with good
tensile properties.

35

36

The properties of timber vary greatly, and the strength is time dependent.

37

Timber is a good shock absorber (many wood structures in Japan have resisted repeated earthquakes).

The most commonly used species of timber in construction are Douglas r, southern pine, hemlock
and larch.

38

Members can be laminated together under good quality control, and exural strengths as high as
2,500 psi can be achieved.

39

3.6
40

Steel Section Properties

Dimensions and properties of rolled sections are tabulated in the following pages, Fig. 3.8.

4 For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement, can
reduce the shrinkage by 75%.
5 Mud bricks were used by the Babylonians, stones by the Egyptians, and ice blocks by the Eskimos...

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

38

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft

Figure 3.8: W and C sections

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.6 Steel Section Properties

Draft
Designation

W 44x285
W 44x248
W 44x224
W 44x198
W 40x328
W 40x298
W 40x268
W 40x244
W 40x221
W 40x192
W 40x655
W 40x593
W 40x531
W 40x480
W 40x436
W 40x397
W 40x362
W 40x324
W 40x297
W 40x277
W 40x249
W 40x215
W 40x199
W 40x183
W 40x167
W 40x149
W 36x848
W 36x798
W 36x720
W 36x650
W 36x588
W 36x527
W 36x485
W 36x439
W 36x393
W 36x359
W 36x328
W 36x300
W 36x280
W 36x260
W 36x245
W 36x230
W 36x256
W 36x232
W 36x210
W 36x194
W 36x182
W 36x170
W 36x160
W 36x150
W 36x135
W 33x619
W 33x567
W 33x515
W 33x468
W 33x424
W 33x387
W 33x354
W 33x318
W 33x291
W 33x263
W 33x241
W 33x221
W 33x201
W 33x169
W 33x152
W 33x141
W 33x130
W 33x118
W 30x581
W 30x526
W 30x477
W 30x433
W 30x391
W 30x357
W 30x326
W 30x292
W 30x261
W 30x235
W 30x211
W 30x191
W 30x173
W 30x148
W 30x132
W 30x124
W 30x116
W 30x108
W 30x 99
W 30x 90

39

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
44.02
43.62
43.31
42.91
40.00
39.69
39.37
39.06
38.67
38.20
43.62
42.99
42.34
41.81
41.34
40.95
40.55
40.16
39.84
39.69
39.38
38.98
38.67
38.98
38.59
38.20
42.45
41.97
41.19
40.47
39.84
39.21
38.74
38.26
37.80
37.40
37.09
36.74
36.52
36.26
36.08
35.90
37.43
37.12
36.69
36.49
36.33
36.17
36.01
35.85
35.55
38.47
37.91
37.36
36.81
36.34
35.95
35.55
35.16
34.84
34.53
34.18
33.93
33.68
33.82
33.49
33.30
33.09
32.86
35.39
34.76
34.21
33.66
33.19
32.80
32.40
32.01
31.61
31.30
30.94
30.68
30.44
30.67
30.31
30.17
30.01
29.83
29.65
29.53

in
1.025
0.865
0.785
0.710
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.710
0.710
0.710
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.120
1.000
0.930
0.830
0.750
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.630
2.520
2.380
2.165
1.970
1.790
1.610
1.500
1.360
1.220
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
1.970
1.790
1.630
1.500
1.360
1.240
1.140
1.020
0.930
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.470

in
11.810
11.810
11.810
11.810
17.910
17.830
17.750
17.710
17.710
17.710
16.870
16.690
16.510
16.360
16.240
16.120
16.020
15.905
15.825
15.830
15.750
15.750
15.750
11.810
11.810
11.810
18.130
17.990
17.775
17.575
17.400
17.220
17.105
16.965
16.830
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.910
16.750
16.590
16.455
16.315
16.200
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
16.200
16.020
15.865
15.725
15.590
15.470
15.370
15.255
15.155
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
10.400

in
1.770
1.575
1.415
1.220
1.730
1.575
1.415
1.260
1.065
0.830
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.640
2.400
2.200
2.010
1.810
1.650
1.575
1.420
1.220
1.065
1.220
1.025
0.830
4.530
4.290
3.900
3.540
3.230
2.910
2.680
2.440
2.200
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
3.540
3.230
2.950
2.680
2.440
2.240
2.050
1.850
1.650
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
0.610

83.8
72.8
65.8
58.0
96.4
87.6
78.8
71.7
64.8
56.5
192.0
174.0
156.0
140.0
128.0
116.0
106.0
95.3
87.4
81.3
73.3
63.3
58.4
53.7
49.1
43.8
249.0
234.0
211.0
190.0
172.0
154.0
142.0
128.0
115.0
105.0
96.4
88.3
82.4
76.5
72.1
67.6
75.4
68.1
61.8
57.0
53.6
50.0
47.0
44.2
39.7
181.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
124.0
113.0
104.0
93.5
85.6
77.4
70.9
65.0
59.1
49.5
44.7
41.6
38.3
34.7
170.0
154.0
140.0
127.0
114.0
104.0
95.7
85.7
76.7
69.0
62.0
56.1
50.8
43.5
38.9
36.5
34.2
31.7
29.1
26.4

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
3.3
3.7
4.2
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.3
7.0
8.3
10.7
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.1
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.0
5.5
6.5
7.4
4.8
5.8
7.1
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.2
4.5
5.0
5.3
5.7
6.1
6.5
3.5
3.9
4.5
4.8
5.1
5.5
5.9
6.4
7.6
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.8
4.2
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.2
6.8
4.7
5.5
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.1
4.6
5.0
5.7
6.3
7.0
4.4
5.3
5.7
6.2
6.9
7.8
8.5

hc
tw
38.0
44.9
49.4
54.9
37.6
41.2
45.6
48.1
48.1
48.1
17.4
19.1
21.2
23.4
25.5
28.0
30.5
34.2
36.8
41.2
45.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
52.6
54.3
12.5
13.2
14.5
16.0
17.6
19.6
21.0
23.1
25.8
28.1
30.9
33.3
35.6
37.5
39.4
41.4
33.8
37.3
39.1
42.4
44.8
47.8
50.0
52.0
54.1
15.2
16.6
18.2
19.7
21.7
23.8
25.8
28.8
31.2
34.5
36.1
38.7
41.9
44.7
47.2
49.6
51.7
54.5
13.7
15.1
16.6
18.0
19.9
21.8
23.7
26.5
29.0
32.5
34.9
38.0
41.2
41.5
43.9
46.2
47.8
49.6
51.9
57.5

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
24600
21400
19200
16700
26800
24200
21500
19200
16600
13500
56500
50400
44300
39500
35400
32000
28900
25600
23200
21900
19500
16700
14900
13300
11600
9780
67400
62600
55300
48900
43500
38300
34700
31000
27500
24800
22500
20300
18900
17300
16100
15000
16800
15000
13200
12100
11300
10500
9750
9040
7800
41800
37700
33700
30100
26900
24300
21900
19500
17700
15800
14200
12800
11500
9290
8160
7450
6710
5900
33000
29300
26100
23200
20700
18600
16800
14900
13100
11700
10300
9170
8200
6680
5770
5360
4930
4470
3990
3620

in3
1120
983
889
776
1340
1220
1090
983
858
708
2590
2340
2090
1890
1710
1560
1420
1280
1170
1100
992
858
769
682
599
512
3170
2980
2690
2420
2180
1950
1790
1620
1450
1320
1210
1110
1030
953
895
837
895
809
719
664
623
580
542
504
439
2170
1990
1810
1630
1480
1350
1230
1110
1010
917
829
757
684
549
487
448
406
359
1870
1680
1530
1380
1250
1140
1030
928
827
746
663
598
539
436
380
355
329
299
269
245

in
17.1
17.2
17.1
16.9
16.7
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.0
15.5
17.2
17.0
16.9
16.8
16.6
16.6
16.5
16.4
16.3
16.4
16.3
16.2
16.0
15.7
15.3
14.9
16.4
16.4
16.2
16.0
15.9
15.8
15.6
15.6
15.5
15.4
15.3
15.2
15.1
15.0
15.0
14.9
14.9
14.8
14.6
14.6
14.5
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.0
15.2
15.1
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.7
14.5
14.4
14.4
14.3
14.1
14.1
14.0
13.7
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.5
13.5
13.4
13.2
13.2
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.4
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.7
11.7

in4
490
435
391
336
1660
1490
1320
1170
988
770
2860
2520
2200
1940
1720
1540
1380
1220
1090
1040
926
796
695
336
283
229
4550
4200
3680
3230
2850
2490
2250
1990
1750
1570
1420
1300
1200
1090
1010
940
528
468
411
375
347
320
295
270
225
2870
2580
2290
2030
1800
1620
1460
1290
1160
1030
932
840
749
310
273
246
218
187
2530
2230
1970
1750
1550
1390
1240
1100
959
855
757
673
598
227
196
181
164
146
128
115

in3
83
74
66
57
185
167
149
132
112
87
339
302
266
237
212
191
173
153
138
132
118
101
88
57
48
39
501
467
414
367
328
289
263
235
208
188
171
156
144
132
123
114
86
77
68
62
58
53
49
45
38
340
308
276
247
221
200
181
161
146
131
118
106
95
54
47
43
38
33
312
278
249
222
198
179
162
144
127
114
100
90
80
43
37
34
31
28
24
22

in
2.42
2.44
2.44
2.41
4.15
4.12
4.09
4.04
3.90
3.69
3.86
3.81
3.75
3.72
3.67
3.65
3.61
3.57
3.54
3.58
3.56
3.54
3.45
2.50
2.40
2.29
4.27
4.24
4.18
4.12
4.07
4.02
3.98
3.95
3.90
3.87
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.98
3.94
3.89
3.85
3.81
3.79
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.86
3.80
3.75
3.71
3.68
3.65
3.61
3.58
3.54
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
2.09

in3
1310.0
1150.0
1030.0
902.0
1510.0
1370.0
1220.0
1100.0
967.0
807.0
3060.0
2750.0
2450.0
2180.0
1980.0
1790.0
1630.0
1460.0
1330.0
1250.0
1120.0
963.0
868.0
781.0
692.0
597.0
3830.0
3570.0
3190.0
2840.0
2550.0
2270.0
2070.0
1860.0
1660.0
1510.0
1380.0
1260.0
1170.0
1080.0
1010.0
943.0
1040.0
936.0
833.0
767.0
718.0
668.0
624.0
581.0
509.0
2560.0
2330.0
2110.0
1890.0
1700.0
1550.0
1420.0
1270.0
1150.0
1040.0
939.0
855.0
772.0
629.0
559.0
514.0
467.0
415.0
2210.0
1990.0
1790.0
1610.0
1430.0
1300.0
1190.0
1060.0
941.0
845.0
749.0
673.0
605.0
500.0
437.0
408.0
378.0
346.0
312.0
283.0

in3
135.0
118.0
105.0
90.0
286.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
172.0
135.0
541.0
481.0
422.0
374.0
334.0
300.0
270.0
239.0
215.0
204.0
182.0
156.0
137.0
89.6
76.0
62.2
799.0
743.0
656.0
580.0
517.0
454.0
412.0
367.0
325.0
292.0
265.0
241.0
223.0
204.0
190.0
176.0
137.0
122.0
107.0
97.7
90.7
83.8
77.3
70.9
59.7
537.0
485.0
433.0
387.0
345.0
312.0
282.0
250.0
226.0
202.0
182.0
164.0
147.0
84.4
73.9
66.9
59.5
51.3
492.0
438.0
390.0
348.0
310.0
279.0
252.0
223.0
196.0
175.0
154.0
138.0
123.0
68.0
58.4
54.0
49.2
43.9
38.6
34.7

in4
60.0
40.7
30.0
20.1
74.2
56.3
41.1
30.4
21.2
13.7
596.0
451.0
329.0
245.0
186.0
142.0
109.0
79.4
61.2
51.1
37.7
24.4
18.1
19.6
14.0
9.6
1269.0
1073.0
804.0
600.0
453.0
330.0
260.0
195.0
143.0
109.0
84.5
64.2
52.6
41.5
34.6
28.6
53.3
39.8
28.0
22.2
18.4
15.1
12.4
10.1
7.0
567.0
444.0
338.0
256.0
193.0
149.0
115.0
84.4
65.0
48.5
35.8
27.5
20.5
17.7
12.4
9.7
7.4
5.3
537.0
405.0
307.0
231.0
174.0
134.0
103.0
74.9
53.8
40.0
27.9
20.6
15.3
14.6
9.7
8.0
6.4
5.0
3.8
2.9

Structural Engineering

310

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft
Designation

W 27x539
W 27x494
W 27x448
W 27x407
W 27x368
W 27x336
W 27x307
W 27x281
W 27x258
W 27x235
W 27x217
W 27x194
W 27x178
W 27x161
W 27x146
W 27x129
W 27x114
W 27x102
W 27x 94
W 27x 84
W 24x492
W 24x450
W 24x408
W 24x370
W 24x335
W 24x306
W 24x279
W 24x250
W 24x229
W 24x207
W 24x192
W 24x176
W 24x162
W 24x146
W 24x131
W 24x117
W 24x104
W 24x103
W 24x 94
W 24x 84
W 24x 76
W 24x 68
W 24x 62
W 24x 55
W 21x402
W 21x364
W 21x333
W 21x300
W 21x275
W 21x248
W 21x223
W 21x201
W 21x182
W 21x166
W 21x147
W 21x132
W 21x122
W 21x111
W 21x101
W 21x 93
W 21x 83
W 21x 73
W 21x 68
W 21x 62
W 21x 57
W 21x 50
W 21x 44
W 18x311
W 18x283
W 18x258
W 18x234
W 18x211
W 18x192
W 18x175
W 18x158
W 18x143
W 18x130
W 18x119
W 18x106
W 18x 97
W 18x 86
W 18x 76
W 18x 71
W 18x 65
W 18x 60
W 18x 55
W 18x 50
W 18x 46
W 18x 40
W 18x 35
W 16x100
W 16x 89
W 16x 77
W 16x 67
W 16x 57
W 16x 50
W 16x 45
W 16x 40
W 16x 36
W 16x 31
W 16x 26
W 14x730
W 14x665
W 14x605
W 14x550
W 14x500
W 14x455
W 14x426
W 14x398
W 14x370
W 14x342
W 14x311
W 14x283
W 14x257
W 14x233
W 14x211
W 14x193

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
32.52
31.97
31.42
30.87
30.39
30.00
29.61
29.29
28.98
28.66
28.43
28.11
27.81
27.59
27.38
27.63
27.29
27.09
26.92
26.71
29.65
29.09
28.54
27.99
27.52
27.13
26.73
26.34
26.02
25.71
25.47
25.24
25.00
24.74
24.48
24.26
24.06
24.53
24.31
24.10
23.92
23.73
23.74
23.57
26.02
25.47
25.00
24.53
24.13
23.74
23.35
23.03
22.72
22.48
22.06
21.83
21.68
21.51
21.36
21.62
21.43
21.24
21.13
20.99
21.06
20.83
20.66
22.32
21.85
21.46
21.06
20.67
20.35
20.04
19.72
19.49
19.25
18.97
18.73
18.59
18.39
18.21
18.47
18.35
18.24
18.11
17.99
18.06
17.90
17.70
16.97
16.75
16.52
16.33
16.43
16.26
16.13
16.01
15.86
15.88
15.69
22.42
21.64
20.92
20.24
19.60
19.02
18.67
18.29
17.92
17.54
17.12
16.74
16.38
16.04
15.72
15.48

in
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.060
0.980
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
1.970
1.810
1.650
1.520
1.380
1.260
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.810
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
1.730
1.590
1.460
1.320
1.220
1.100
1.000
0.910
0.830
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
1.520
1.400
1.280
1.160
1.060
0.960
0.890
0.810
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890

in
15.255
15.095
14.940
14.800
14.665
14.545
14.445
14.350
14.270
14.190
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
14.115
13.955
13.800
13.660
13.520
13.405
13.305
13.185
13.110
13.010
12.950
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
13.405
13.265
13.130
12.990
12.890
12.775
12.675
12.575
12.500
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
12.005
11.890
11.770
11.650
11.555
11.455
11.375
11.300
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710

in
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.930
1.770
1.610
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
3.540
3.270
2.990
2.720
2.480
2.280
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.460
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
3.130
2.850
2.620
2.380
2.190
1.990
1.790
1.630
1.480
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
2.740
2.500
2.300
2.110
1.910
1.750
1.590
1.440
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440

158.0
145.0
131.0
119.0
108.0
98.7
90.2
82.6
75.7
69.1
63.8
57.0
52.3
47.4
42.9
37.8
33.5
30.0
27.7
24.8
144.0
132.0
119.0
108.0
98.4
89.8
82.0
73.5
67.2
60.7
56.3
51.7
47.7
43.0
38.5
34.4
30.6
30.3
27.7
24.7
22.4
20.1
18.2
16.2
118.0
107.0
97.9
88.2
80.8
72.8
65.4
59.2
53.6
48.8
43.2
38.8
35.9
32.7
29.8
27.3
24.3
21.5
20.0
18.3
16.7
14.7
13.0
91.5
83.2
75.9
68.8
62.1
56.4
51.3
46.3
42.1
38.2
35.1
31.1
28.5
25.3
22.3
20.8
19.1
17.6
16.2
14.7
13.5
11.8
10.3
29.4
26.2
22.6
19.7
16.8
14.7
13.3
11.8
10.6
9.1
7.7
215.0
196.0
178.0
162.0
147.0
134.0
125.0
117.0
109.0
101.0
91.4
83.3
75.6
68.5
62.0
56.8

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
2.2
2.3
2.5
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.7
5.2
5.9
6.5
7.2
4.5
5.4
6.0
6.7
7.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.4
4.8
5.3
5.9
6.7
7.5
8.5
4.6
5.2
5.9
6.6
7.7
6.0
6.9
2.1
2.3
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.2
3.5
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.4
6.0
6.5
7.1
7.7
4.5
5.0
5.6
6.0
6.7
5.0
6.1
7.2
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.3
6.0
6.4
7.2
8.1
4.7
5.1
5.4
6.0
6.6
5.0
5.7
7.1
5.3
5.9
6.8
7.7
5.0
5.6
6.2
6.9
8.1
6.3
8.0
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.3
2.4
2.6
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.3
3.6
3.9
4.2
4.6
5.1
5.5

hc
tw
12.3
13.4
14.7
15.9
17.6
19.2
20.9
22.9
24.7
26.6
29.2
32.3
33.4
36.7
40.0
39.7
42.5
47.0
49.4
52.7
10.9
11.9
13.1
14.2
15.6
17.1
18.6
20.7
22.5
24.8
26.6
28.7
30.6
33.2
35.6
39.2
43.1
39.2
41.9
45.9
49.0
52.0
50.1
54.6
10.8
11.8
12.8
14.2
15.4
17.1
18.8
20.6
22.6
24.9
26.1
28.9
31.3
34.1
37.5
32.3
36.4
41.2
43.6
46.9
46.3
49.4
53.6
10.6
11.5
12.5
13.8
15.1
16.7
18.0
19.8
21.9
23.9
24.5
27.2
30.0
33.4
37.8
32.4
35.7
38.7
41.2
45.2
44.6
51.0
53.5
24.3
27.0
31.2
35.9
33.0
37.4
41.2
46.6
48.1
51.6
56.8
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.2
5.7
6.1
6.4
6.9
7.4
8.1
8.8
9.7
10.7
11.6
12.8

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
25500
22900
20400
18100
16100
14500
13100
11900
10800
9660
8870
7820
6990
6280
5630
4760
4090
3620
3270
2850
19100
17100
15100
13400
11900
10700
9600
8490
7650
6820
6260
5680
5170
4580
4020
3540
3100
3000
2700
2370
2100
1830
1550
1350
12200
10800
9610
8480
7620
6760
5950
5310
4730
4280
3630
3220
2960
2670
2420
2070
1830
1600
1480
1330
1170
984
843
6960
6160
5510
4900
4330
3870
3450
3060
2750
2460
2190
1910
1750
1530
1330
1170
1070
984
890
800
712
612
510
1490
1300
1110
954
758
659
586
518
448
375
301
14300
12400
10800
9430
8210
7190
6600
6000
5440
4900
4330
3840
3400
3010
2660
2400

in3
1570
1440
1300
1170
1060
970
884
811
742
674
624
556
502
455
411
345
299
267
243
213
1290
1170
1060
957
864
789
718
644
588
531
491
450
414
371
329
291
258
245
222
196
176
154
131
114
937
846
769
692
632
569
510
461
417
380
329
295
273
249
227
192
171
151
140
127
111
94
82
624
564
514
466
419
380
344
310
282
256
231
204
188
166
146
127
117
108
98
89
79
68
58
175
155
134
117
92
81
73
65
56
47
38
1280
1150
1040
931
838
756
707
656
607
559
506
459
415
375
338
310

in
12.7
12.6
12.5
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.2
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.7
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.2
9.1
10.2
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.5
9.4
9.4
9.2
9.1
9.1
9.1
9.0
8.7
8.7
8.6
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.2
8.1
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.8
7.8
7.7
7.5
7.5
7.5
7.4
7.4
7.2
7.2
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.0
7.0
6.7
6.7
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
8.2
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.5
7.3
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.6
6.5

in4
2110
1890
1670
1480
1310
1170
1050
953
859
768
704
618
555
497
443
184
159
139
124
106
1670
1490
1320
1160
1030
919
823
724
651
578
530
479
443
391
340
297
259
119
109
94
82
70
34
29
1270
1120
994
873
785
694
609
542
483
435
376
333
305
274
248
93
81
71
65
58
31
25
21
795
704
628
558
493
440
391
347
311
278
253
220
201
175
152
60
55
50
45
40
22
19
15
186
163
138
119
43
37
33
29
24
12
10
4720
4170
3680
3250
2880
2560
2360
2170
1990
1810
1610
1440
1290
1150
1030
931

in3
277
250
224
200
179
161
146
133
120
108
100
88
79
71
64
37
32
28
25
21
237
214
191
170
152
137
124
110
99
89
82
74
68
60
53
46
41
26
24
21
18
16
10
8
189
168
151
134
122
109
96
86
77
70
60
54
49
44
40
22
20
17
16
14
9
8
6
132
118
107
96
85
77
69
61
56
50
45
39
36
32
28
16
14
13
12
11
7
6
5
36
31
27
23
12
10
9
8
7
4
3
527
472
423
378
339
304
283
262
241
221
199
179
161
145
130
119

in
3.66
3.61
3.57
3.52
3.48
3.45
3.42
3.40
3.37
3.33
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.41
3.36
3.33
3.28
3.23
3.20
3.17
3.14
3.11
3.08
3.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
3.27
3.23
3.19
3.15
3.12
3.09
3.05
3.02
3.00
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.95
2.91
2.88
2.85
2.82
2.79
2.76
2.74
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05

in3
1880.0
1710.0
1530.0
1380.0
1240.0
1130.0
1020.0
933.0
850.0
769.0
708.0
628.0
567.0
512.0
461.0
395.0
343.0
305.0
278.0
244.0
1550.0
1410.0
1250.0
1120.0
1020.0
922.0
835.0
744.0
676.0
606.0
559.0
511.0
468.0
418.0
370.0
327.0
289.0
280.0
254.0
224.0
200.0
177.0
153.0
134.0
1130.0
1010.0
915.0
816.0
741.0
663.0
589.0
530.0
476.0
432.0
373.0
333.0
307.0
279.0
253.0
221.0
196.0
172.0
160.0
144.0
129.0
110.0
95.4
753.0
676.0
611.0
549.0
490.0
442.0
398.0
356.0
322.0
291.0
261.0
230.0
211.0
186.0
163.0
145.0
133.0
123.0
112.0
101.0
90.7
78.4
66.5
198.0
175.0
150.0
130.0
105.0
92.0
82.3
72.9
64.0
54.0
44.2
1660.0
1480.0
1320.0
1180.0
1050.0
936.0
869.0
801.0
736.0
672.0
603.0
542.0
487.0
436.0
390.0
355.0

in3
437.0
394.0
351.0
313.0
279.0
252.0
227.0
206.0
187.0
168.0
154.0
136.0
122.0
109.0
97.5
57.6
49.3
43.4
38.8
33.2
375.0
337.0
300.0
267.0
238.0
214.0
193.0
171.0
154.0
137.0
126.0
115.0
105.0
93.2
81.5
71.4
62.4
41.5
37.5
32.6
28.6
24.5
15.7
13.3
296.0
263.0
237.0
210.0
189.0
169.0
149.0
133.0
119.0
108.0
92.6
82.3
75.6
68.2
61.7
34.7
30.5
26.6
24.4
21.7
14.8
12.2
10.2
207.0
185.0
166.0
149.0
132.0
119.0
106.0
94.8
85.4
76.7
69.1
60.5
55.3
48.4
42.2
24.7
22.5
20.6
18.5
16.6
11.7
9.9
8.1
54.9
48.1
41.1
35.5
18.9
16.3
14.5
12.7
10.8
7.0
5.5
816.0
730.0
652.0
583.0
522.0
468.0
434.0
402.0
370.0
338.0
304.0
274.0
246.0
221.0
198.0
180.0

in4
499.0
391.0
297.0
225.0
169.0
131.0
101.0
78.8
61.0
46.3
37.0
26.5
19.5
14.7
10.9
11.2
7.3
5.3
4.0
2.8
456.0
357.0
271.0
205.0
154.0
119.0
91.7
67.3
51.8
38.6
31.0
24.1
18.5
13.4
9.5
6.7
4.7
7.1
5.3
3.7
2.7
1.9
1.7
1.2
298.0
225.0
174.0
130.0
101.0
75.2
54.9
41.3
31.1
23.9
15.4
11.3
9.0
6.8
5.2
6.0
4.3
3.0
2.5
1.8
1.8
1.1
0.8
177.0
135.0
104.0
79.7
59.3
45.2
34.2
25.4
19.4
14.7
10.6
7.5
5.9
4.1
2.8
3.5
2.7
2.2
1.7
1.2
1.2
0.8
0.5
7.7
5.4
3.6
2.4
2.2
1.5
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
1450.0
1120.0
870.0
670.0
514.0
395.0
331.0
273.0
222.0
178.0
136.0
104.0
79.1
59.5
44.6
34.8

Structural Engineering

3.6 Steel Section Properties

Draft
Designation

W 8x 67
W 8x 58
W 8x 48
W 8x 40
W 8x 35
W 8x 31
W 8x 28
W 8x 24
W 8x 21
W 8x 18
W 8x 15
W 8x 13
W 8x 10
W 6x 25
W 6x 20
W 6x 15
W 6x 16
W 6x 12
W 6x 9
W 5x 19
W 5x 16
W 4x 13
M 14x 18
M 12x 12
M 12x 11
M 12x 10
M 10x 9
M 10x 8
M 10x 8
M 8x 6
M 6x 4
M 5x 19
S 24x121
S 24x106
S 24x100
S 24x 90
S 24x 80
S 20x 96
S 20x 86
S 20x 75
S 20x 66
S 18x 70
S 18x 55
S 15x 50
S 15x 43
S 12x 50
S 12x 41
S 12x 35
S 12x 32
S 10x 35
S 10x 25
S 8x 23
S 8x 18
S 7x 20
S 7x 15
S 6x 17
S 6x 12
S 5x 15
S 5x 10
S 4x 10
S 4x 8
S 3x 8
S 3x 6

311

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
9.00
8.75
8.50
8.25
8.12
8.00
8.06
7.93
8.28
8.14
8.11
7.99
7.89
6.38
6.20
5.99
6.28
6.03
5.90
5.15
5.01
4.16
14.00
12.00
11.97
11.97
10.00
9.95
9.99
8.00
6.00
5.00
24.50
24.50
24.00
24.00
24.00
20.30
20.30
20.00
20.00
18.00
18.00
15.00
15.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.00
10.00
8.00
8.00
7.00
7.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.00
3.00

in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280
0.215
0.177
0.160
0.149
0.157
0.141
0.130
0.135
0.114
0.316
0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170

in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060
4.000
3.065
3.065
3.250
2.690
2.690
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003
8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.255
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330

in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345
0.270
0.225
0.210
0.180
0.206
0.182
0.173
0.189
0.171
0.416
1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.544
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.426
0.426
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260

19.7
17.1
14.1
11.7
10.3
9.1
8.2
7.1
6.2
5.3
4.4
3.8
3.0
7.3
5.9
4.4
4.7
3.5
2.7
5.5
4.7
3.8
5.1
3.5
3.2
2.9
2.7
2.3
2.2
1.9
1.3
5.6
35.6
31.2
29.3
26.5
23.5
28.2
25.3
22.0
19.4
20.6
16.1
14.7
12.6
14.7
12.0
10.3
9.4
10.3
7.5
6.8
5.4
5.9
4.5
5.1
3.7
4.3
2.9
2.8
2.3
2.2
1.7

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
4.4
5.1
5.9
7.2
8.1
9.2
7.0
8.1
6.6
8.0
6.4
7.8
9.6
6.7
8.2
11.5
5.0
7.1
9.2
5.8
6.9
5.9
7.4
6.8
7.3
9.1
6.5
7.4
7.8
6.0
5.4
6.0
3.7
3.6
4.2
4.1
4.0
3.9
3.8
4.0
3.9
4.5
4.3
4.5
4.4
4.2
4.0
4.7
4.6
5.0
4.7
4.9
4.7
4.9
4.7
5.0
4.6
5.0
4.6
4.8
4.5
4.8
4.5

hc
tw
11.1
12.4
15.8
17.6
20.4
22.2
22.2
25.8
27.5
29.9
28.1
29.9
40.5
15.5
19.1
21.6
19.1
21.6
29.2
14.0
15.8
10.6
60.3
62.5
63.6
68.0
58.4
59.3
65.0
53.8
47.0
11.2
26.4
34.1
28.3
33.7
42.1
21.6
26.2
27.1
34.1
21.8
33.6
23.2
31.0
13.9
20.7
23.4
28.6
13.8
26.4
14.5
23.7
12.3
21.9
9.9
19.9
7.5
17.4
8.7
14.7
5.6
11.4

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
272
228
184
146
127
110
98
83
75
62
48
40
31
53
41
29
32
22
16
26
21
11
148
72
65
62
39
34
33
18
7
24
3160
2940
2390
2250
2100
1670
1580
1280
1190
926
804
486
447
305
272
229
218
147
124
65
58
42
37
26
22
15
12
7
6
3
3

in3
60
52
43
36
31
28
24
21
18
15
12
10
8
17
13
10
10
7
6
10
9
5
21
12
11
10
8
7
7
5
2
10
258
240
199
187
175
165
155
128
119
103
89
65
60
51
45
38
36
29
25
16
14
12
10
9
7
6
5
3
3
2
2

in
3.7
3.7
3.6
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.4
3.5
3.4
3.3
3.2
3.2
2.7
2.7
2.6
2.6
2.5
2.5
2.2
2.1
1.7
5.4
4.6
4.6
4.6
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.1
9.4
9.7
9.0
9.2
9.5
7.7
7.9
7.6
7.8
6.7
7.1
5.8
5.9
4.6
4.8
4.7
4.8
3.8
4.1
3.1
3.3
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.9
2.0
1.6
1.6
1.1
1.2

in4
89
75
61
49
43
37
22
18
10
8
3
3
2
17
13
9
4
3
2
9
8
4
3
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
8
83
77
48
45
42
50
47
30
28
24
21
16
14
16
14
10
9
8
7
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
0

in3
21
18
15
12
11
9
7
6
4
3
2
1
1
6
4
3
2
2
1
4
3
2
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
21
20
13
13
12
14
13
9
9
8
7
6
5
6
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0

in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.46
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00
0.72
0.53
0.54
0.58
0.48
0.43
0.47
0.42
0.36
1.19
1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52

in3
70.2
59.8
49.0
39.8
34.7
30.4
27.2
23.2
20.4
17.0
13.6
11.4
8.9
18.9
14.9
10.8
11.7
8.3
6.2
11.6
9.6
6.3
24.9
14.3
13.2
12.2
9.2
8.2
7.7
5.4
2.8
11.0
306.0
279.0
240.0
222.0
204.0
198.0
183.0
153.0
140.0
125.0
105.0
77.1
69.3
61.2
53.1
44.8
42.0
35.4
28.4
19.3
16.5
14.5
12.1
10.6
8.5
7.4
5.7
4.0
3.5
2.4
2.0

in3
32.7
27.9
22.9
18.5
16.1
14.1
10.1
8.6
5.7
4.7
2.7
2.2
1.7
8.6
6.7
4.8
3.4
2.3
1.7
5.5
4.6
2.9
2.2
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.3
5.0
36.2
33.2
23.9
22.3
20.7
24.9
23.0
16.7
15.3
14.4
12.1
10.0
9.0
10.3
8.9
6.8
6.4
6.2
5.0
3.7
3.2
3.0
2.4
2.4
1.9
1.9
1.4
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7

in4
5.1
3.3
2.0
1.1
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
12.8
10.1
7.6
6.0
4.9
8.4
6.6
4.6
3.6
4.2
2.4
2.1
1.5
2.8
1.8
1.1
0.9
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.0

Structural Engineering

312

Draft
Designation

C 15.x 50
C 15.x 40
C 15.x 34
C 12.x 30
C 12.x 25
C 12.x 21
C 10.x 30
C 10.x 25
C 10.x 20
C 10.x 15
C 9.x 20
C 9.x 15
C 9.x 13
C 8.x 19
C 8.x 14
C 8.x 12
C 7.x 15
C 7.x 12
C 7.x 10
C 6.x 13
C 6.x 11
C 6.x 8
C 5.x 9
C 5.x 7
C 4.x 7
C 4.x 5
C 3.x 6
C 3.x 5
C 3.x 4
MC18.x 58
MC18.x 52
MC18.x 46
MC18.x 43
MC13.x 50
MC13.x 40
MC13.x 35
MC13.x 32
MC12.x 50
MC12.x 45
MC12.x 40
MC12.x 35
MC12.x 31
MC12.x 11
MC10.x 41
MC10.x 34
MC10.x 29
MC10.x 25
MC10.x 22
MC10.x 8
MC10.x 7
MC 9.x 25
MC 9.x 24
MC 8.x 23
MC 8.x 21
MC 8.x 20
MC 8.x 19
MC 8.x 9
MC 7.x 23
MC 7.x 19
MC 6.x 18
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 16
MC 6.x 15
MC 6.x 12

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
A

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
15.
15.
15.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
5.
5.
4.
4.
3.
3.
3.
18.
18.
18.
18.
13.
13.
13.
13.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
12.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
9.
9.
8.
8.
8.
8.
8.
7.
7.
6.
6.
6.
6.
6.

in
0.716
0.520
0.400
0.510
0.387
0.282
0.673
0.526
0.379
0.240
0.448
0.285
0.233
0.487
0.303
0.220
0.419
0.314
0.210
0.437
0.314
0.200
0.325
0.190
0.321
0.184
0.356
0.258
0.170
0.700
0.600
0.500
0.450
0.787
0.560
0.447
0.375
0.835
0.712
0.590
0.467
0.370
0.190
0.796
0.575
0.425
0.380
0.290
0.170
0.152
0.450
0.400
0.427
0.375
0.400
0.353
0.179
0.503
0.352
0.379
0.340
0.375
0.316
0.310

in
3.716
3.520
3.400
3.170
3.047
2.942
3.033
2.886
2.739
2.600
2.648
2.485
2.433
2.527
2.343
2.260
2.299
2.194
2.090
2.157
2.034
1.920
1.885
1.750
1.721
1.584
1.596
1.498
1.410
4.200
4.100
4.000
3.950
4.412
4.185
4.072
4.000
4.135
4.012
3.890
3.767
3.670
1.500
4.321
4.100
3.950
3.405
3.315
1.500
1.127
3.500
3.450
3.502
3.450
3.025
2.978
1.874
3.603
3.452
3.504
3.500
3.000
2.941
2.497

in
0.650
0.650
0.650
0.501
0.501
0.501
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.436
0.413
0.413
0.413
0.390
0.390
0.390
0.366
0.366
0.366
0.343
0.343
0.343
0.320
0.320
0.296
0.296
0.273
0.273
0.273
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.625
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.610
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.700
0.309
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.575
0.280
0.202
0.550
0.550
0.525
0.525
0.500
0.500
0.311
0.500
0.500
0.475
0.385
0.475
0.475
0.375

14.7
11.8
10.0
8.8
7.3
6.1
8.8
7.3
5.9
4.5
5.9
4.4
3.9
5.5
4.0
3.4
4.3
3.6
2.9
3.8
3.1
2.4
2.6
2.0
2.1
1.6
1.8
1.5
1.2
17.1
15.3
13.5
12.6
14.7
11.8
10.3
9.4
14.7
13.2
11.8
10.3
9.1
3.1
12.1
9.9
8.4
7.3
6.4
2.5
1.9
7.5
7.0
6.7
6.3
5.9
5.5
2.5
6.7
5.6
5.3
4.5
4.8
4.4
3.5

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

hc
tw
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
404.0
349.0
315.0
162.0
144.0
129.0
103.0
91.2
78.9
67.4
60.9
51.0
47.9
44.0
36.1
32.6
27.2
24.2
21.3
17.4
15.2
13.1
8.9
7.5
4.6
3.8
2.1
1.9
1.7
676.0
627.0
578.0
554.0
314.0
273.0
252.0
239.0
269.0
252.0
234.0
216.0
203.0
55.4
158.0
139.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
32.0
22.1
88.0
85.0
63.8
61.6
54.5
52.5
23.3
47.5
43.2
29.7
25.4
26.0
25.0
18.7

in3
53.8
46.5
42.0
27.0
24.1
21.5
20.7
18.2
15.8
13.5
13.5
11.3
10.6
11.0
9.0
8.1
7.8
6.9
6.1
5.8
5.1
4.4
3.6
3.0
2.3
1.9
1.4
1.2
1.1
75.1
69.7
64.3
61.6
48.4
42.0
38.8
36.8
44.9
42.0
39.0
36.1
33.8
9.2
31.5
27.8
25.3
22.0
20.5
6.4
4.4
19.6
18.9
16.0
15.4
13.6
13.1
5.8
13.6
12.3
9.9
8.5
8.7
8.3
6.2

in
5.24
5.44
5.62
4.29
4.43
4.61
3.42
3.52
3.66
3.87
3.22
3.40
3.48
2.82
2.99
3.11
2.51
2.60
2.72
2.13
2.22
2.34
1.83
1.95
1.47
1.56
1.08
1.12
1.17
6.29
6.41
6.56
6.64
4.62
4.82
4.95
5.06
4.28
4.36
4.46
4.59
4.71
4.22
3.61
3.75
3.89
3.87
3.99
3.61
3.40
3.43
3.48
3.09
3.13
3.05
3.09
3.05
2.67
2.77
2.37
2.38
2.33
2.37
2.30

in4
11.
9.23
8.13
5.14
4.47
3.88
3.94
3.36
2.81
2.28
2.42
1.93
1.76
1.98
1.53
1.32
1.38
1.17
0.97
1.05
0.87
0.69
0.63
0.48
0.43
0.32
0.31
0.25
0.20
17.80
16.40
15.10
14.40
16.50
13.70
12.30
11.40
17.40
15.80
14.30
12.70
11.30
0.38
15.80
13.20
11.40
7.35
6.50
0.33
0.11
7.65
7.22
7.07
6.64
4.47
4.20
0.63
7.29
6.11
5.93
4.97
3.82
3.51
1.87

in3
3.78
3.37
3.11
2.06
1.88
1.73
1.65
1.48
1.32
1.16
1.17
1.01
0.96
1.01
0.85
0.78
0.78
0.70
0.63
0.64
0.56
0.49
0.45
0.38
0.34
0.28
0.27
0.23
0.20
5.32
5.07
4.82
4.69
4.79
4.26
3.99
3.81
5.65
5.33
5.
4.67
4.39
0.31
4.88
4.38
4.02
3.
2.80
0.27
0.12
3.02
2.93
2.84
2.74
2.05
1.97
0.43
2.85
2.57
2.48
2.03
1.84
1.75
1.04

in
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.76
0.78
0.80
0.67
0.68
0.69
0.71
0.64
0.66
0.67
0.60
0.62
0.63
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.49
0.49
0.45
0.45
0.42
0.41
0.40
1.02
1.04
1.06
1.07
1.06
1.08
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.35
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.
1.
0.37
0.24
1.01
1.01
1.03
1.03
0.87
0.87
0.50
1.05
1.04
1.06
1.05
0.89
0.89
0.73

in3
68.20
57.20
50.40
33.60
29.20
25.40
26.60
23.
19.30
15.80
16.80
13.50
12.50
13.80
10.90
9.55
9.68
8.40
7.12
7.26
6.15
5.13
4.36
3.51
2.81
2.26
1.72
1.50
1.30
94.60
86.50
78.40
74.40
60.50
50.90
46.20
43.10
56.10
51.70
47.30
42.80
39.30
11.60
38.90
33.40
29.60
25.80
23.60
7.86
5.73
23.20
22.20
18.80
18.
16.20
15.40
6.91
16.20
14.30
11.50
9.82
10.20
9.69
7.38

in3
8.17
6.87
6.23
4.33
3.84
3.49
3.78
3.19
2.71
2.35
2.47
2.05
1.95
2.17
1.73
1.58
1.64
1.43
1.26
1.36
1.15
0.99
0.92
0.76
0.70
0.57
0.54
0.47
0.40
9.94
9.13
8.42
8.10
10.10
8.57
7.95
7.60
10.20
9.35
8.59
7.91
7.44
0.64
8.71
7.51
6.83
5.21
4.86
0.55
0.25
5.23
5.05
4.88
4.71
3.57
3.44
0.88
4.86
4.34
4.14
3.28
3.18
3.
1.79

in4
2.67
1.46
1.02
0.87
0.54
0.37
1.23
0.69
0.37
0.21
0.43
0.21
0.17
0.44
0.19
0.13
0.27
0.16
0.10
0.24
0.13
0.08
0.11
0.06
0.08
0.04
0.07
0.04
0.03
2.81
2.03
1.45
1.23
2.98
1.57
1.14
0.94
3.24
2.35
1.70
1.25
1.01
0.06
2.27
1.21
0.79
0.64
0.51
0.04
0.02
0.69
0.60
0.57
0.50
0.44
0.38
0.06
0.63
0.41
0.38
0.22
0.34
0.29
0.15

Structural Engineering

3.6 Steel Section Properties

Draft
Designation

WT18.x180.
WT18.x164.
WT18.x150.
WT18.x140.
WT18.x130.
WT18.x123.
WT18.x115.
WT18.x128.
WT18.x116.
WT18.x105.
WT18.x 97.
WT18.x 91.
WT18.x 85.
WT18.x 80.
WT18.x 75.
WT18.x 68.
WT17.x177.
WT17.x159.
WT17.x146.
WT17.x132.
WT17.x121.
WT17.x111.
WT17.x101.
WT17.x 85.
WT17.x 76.
WT17.x 71.
WT17.x 65.
WT17.x 59.
WT15.x118.
WT15.x106.
WT15.x 96.
WT15.x 87.
WT15.x 74.
WT15.x 66.
WT15.x 62.
WT15.x 58.
WT15.x 54.
WT15.x 50.
WT14.x109.
WT14.x 97.
WT14.x 89.
WT14.x 81.
WT14.x 73.
WT14.x 65.
WT14.x 57.
WT14.x 51.
WT14.x 47.
WT14.x 42.
WT12.x 88.
WT12.x 81.
WT12.x 73.
WT12.x 66.
WT12.x 59.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 52.
WT12.x 47.
WT12.x 42.
WT12.x 38.
WT12.x 34.
WT12.x 31.
WT12.x 28.
WT11.x 83.
WT11.x 74.
WT11.x 66.
WT11.x 61.
WT11.x 56.
WT11.x 51.
WT11.x 47.
WT11.x 42.
WT11.x 37.
WT11.x 34.
WT11.x 31.
WT11.x 29.
WT11.x 25.
WT11.x 22.
WT 9.x 72.
WT 9.x 65.
WT 9.x 60.
WT 9.x 53.
WT 9.x 49.
WT 9.x 43.
WT 9.x 38.
WT 9.x 36.
WT 9.x 33.
WT 9.x 30.
WT 9.x 28.
WT 9.x 25.
WT 9.x 23.
WT 9.x 20.
WT 9.x 18.

313

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
18.70
18.54
18.37
18.26
18.13
18.04
17.95
18.71
18.56
18.34
18.25
18.17
18.08
18.00
17.92
17.77
17.77
17.58
17.42
17.26
17.09
16.97
16.84
16.91
16.75
16.65
16.55
16.43
15.65
15.47
15.34
15.22
15.34
15.15
15.09
15.01
14.91
14.82
14.22
14.06
13.90
13.80
13.69
13.81
13.65
13.55
13.46
13.35
12.63
12.50
12.37
12.24
12.13
12.03
12.26
12.15
12.05
11.96
11.86
11.87
11.78
11.24
11.03
10.91
10.84
10.76
10.68
10.81
10.72
10.62
10.56
10.49
10.53
10.41
10.33
9.74
9.63
9.48
9.36
9.30
9.19
9.10
9.23
9.18
9.12
9.06
8.99
9.03
8.95
8.85

in
1.120
1.020
0.945
0.885
0.840
0.800
0.760
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.765
0.725
0.680
0.650
0.625
0.600
1.160
1.040
0.960
0.870
0.830
0.775
0.715
0.670
0.635
0.605
0.580
0.550
0.830
0.775
0.710
0.655
0.650
0.615
0.585
0.565
0.545
0.520
0.830
0.750
0.725
0.660
0.605
0.610
0.570
0.515
0.490
0.460
0.750
0.705
0.650
0.605
0.550
0.500
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.440
0.415
0.430
0.395
0.750
0.720
0.650
0.600
0.550
0.500
0.580
0.515
0.455
0.430
0.400
0.405
0.380
0.350
0.730
0.670
0.655
0.590
0.535
0.480
0.425
0.495
0.450
0.415
0.390
0.355
0.360
0.315
0.300

in
16.730
16.630
16.655
16.595
16.550
16.510
16.470
12.215
12.120
12.180
12.115
12.075
12.030
12.000
11.975
11.950
16.100
15.985
15.905
15.805
15.860
15.805
15.745
11.500
11.565
11.535
11.510
11.480
15.055
15.105
15.040
14.985
10.480
10.545
10.515
10.495
10.475
10.450
14.115
14.035
14.085
14.020
13.965
10.010
10.070
10.015
9.990
9.960
12.890
12.955
12.900
12.855
12.800
12.750
9.000
9.065
9.020
8.990
8.965
7.040
7.005
12.420
12.510
12.440
12.390
12.340
12.290
8.420
8.355
8.295
8.270
8.240
6.555
6.530
6.500
11.220
11.160
11.265
11.200
11.145
11.090
11.035
7.635
7.590
7.555
7.530
7.495
6.060
6.015
6.000

in
2.010
1.850
1.680
1.570
1.440
1.350
1.260
1.730
1.570
1.360
1.260
1.180
1.100
1.020
0.940
0.790
2.090
1.890
1.730
1.570
1.400
1.275
1.150
1.220
1.055
0.960
0.855
0.740
1.500
1.315
1.185
1.065
1.180
1.000
0.930
0.850
0.760
0.670
1.500
1.340
1.190
1.080
0.975
1.100
0.930
0.830
0.745
0.640
1.340
1.220
1.090
0.960
0.850
0.750
0.980
0.875
0.770
0.680
0.585
0.590
0.505
1.360
1.150
1.035
0.960
0.875
0.800
0.930
0.835
0.740
0.685
0.615
0.650
0.535
0.450
1.320
1.200
1.060
0.940
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.810
0.750
0.695
0.630
0.570
0.605
0.525
0.425

52.7
48.2
44.1
41.2
38.2
36.0
33.8
37.7
34.1
30.9
28.5
26.8
25.0
23.5
22.1
19.9
52.1
46.7
42.8
38.7
35.4
32.5
29.5
24.8
22.4
20.8
19.2
17.3
34.5
31.0
28.1
25.4
21.7
19.4
18.2
17.1
15.9
14.5
31.9
28.5
26.1
23.7
21.5
18.9
16.8
15.0
13.8
12.4
25.8
23.9
21.5
19.3
17.2
15.3
15.1
13.8
12.4
11.2
10.0
9.1
8.1
24.4
21.6
19.4
17.9
16.3
14.9
13.7
12.2
10.7
10.0
9.1
8.4
7.4
6.5
21.0
19.1
17.5
15.6
14.3
12.7
11.2
10.4
9.6
8.8
8.1
7.3
6.8
5.9
5.2

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

hc
tw
14.1
15.4
16.7
17.8
18.7
19.7
20.7
16.9
18.7
19.6
21.2
22.4
23.9
25.0
26.0
27.1
12.9
14.4
15.6
17.2
18.1
19.3
21.0
22.4
23.6
24.8
25.8
27.3
16.2
17.4
19.0
20.6
20.8
22.0
23.1
23.9
24.8
26.0
14.6
16.2
16.7
18.4
20.0
19.9
21.3
23.5
24.7
26.3
14.4
15.3
16.6
17.8
19.6
21.6
19.6
20.9
22.9
24.5
26.0
25.1
27.3
12.4
13.0
14.4
15.6
17.1
18.8
16.2
18.2
20.6
21.8
23.5
23.2
24.7
26.8
11.0
11.9
12.3
13.6
15.0
16.7
18.9
16.2
17.8
19.3
20.6
22.6
22.3
25.5
26.8

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
1500.0
1350.0
1230.0
1140.0
1060.0
995.0
934.0
1200.0
1080.0
985.0
901.0
845.0
786.0
740.0
698.0
637.0
1320.0
1160.0
1050.0
943.0
871.0
799.0
725.0
649.0
592.0
552.0
513.0
469.0
674.0
610.0
549.0
497.0
466.0
421.0
396.0
373.0
349.0
322.0
502.0
444.0
414.0
372.0
336.0
323.0
289.0
258.0
239.0
216.0
319.0
293.0
264.0
238.0
212.0
189.0
204.0
186.0
166.0
151.0
137.0
131.0
117.0
226.0
204.0
181.0
166.0
150.0
135.0
144.0
127.0
110.0
103.0
93.8
90.4
80.3
71.1
142.0
127.0
119.0
104.0
93.8
82.4
71.8
78.2
70.7
64.7
59.5
53.5
52.1
44.8
40.1

in3
104.0
94.1
86.1
80.0
75.1
71.0
67.0
87.4
78.5
73.1
67.0
63.1
58.9
55.8
53.1
49.7
96.8
85.8
78.3
70.2
65.8
60.8
55.5
51.1
47.4
44.7
42.1
39.2
55.1
50.5
45.7
41.7
40.6
37.4
35.3
33.7
32.0
30.0
45.2
40.3
38.2
34.4
31.2
31.0
28.3
25.3
23.8
21.9
32.2
29.9
27.2
24.8
22.3
20.0
22.0
20.3
18.3
16.9
15.6
15.6
14.1
25.5
23.7
21.1
19.3
17.5
15.8
17.9
15.7
13.8
12.9
11.9
11.8
10.7
9.7
18.5
16.7
15.9
14.1
12.7
11.2
9.8
11.2
10.1
9.3
8.6
7.8
7.8
6.7
6.2

in
5.33
5.29
5.27
5.25
5.26
5.26
5.25
5.66
5.63
5.65
5.62
5.62
5.61
5.61
5.62
5.66
5.03
4.99
4.97
4.94
4.96
4.96
4.95
5.12
5.14
5.15
5.18
5.20
4.42
4.43
4.42
4.42
4.63
4.66
4.66
4.67
4.69
4.71
3.97
3.95
3.98
3.96
3.95
4.13
4.15
4.14
4.16
4.18
3.51
3.50
3.50
3.52
3.51
3.51
3.67
3.67
3.67
3.68
3.70
3.79
3.80
3.04
3.08
3.06
3.04
3.03
3.01
3.25
3.22
3.21
3.20
3.21
3.29
3.30
3.31
2.60
2.58
2.60
2.59
2.56
2.55
2.54
2.74
2.72
2.71
2.71
2.70
2.77
2.76
2.79

in4
786.00
711.00
648.00
599.00
545.00
507.00
470.00
264.00
234.00
206.00
187.00
174.00
160.00
147.00
135.00
113.00
729.00
645.00
581.00
517.00
466.00
420.00
375.00
155.00
136.00
123.00
109.00
93.60
427.00
378.00
336.00
299.00
113.00
98.00
90.40
82.10
73.00
63.90
352.00
309.00
278.00
248.00
222.00
92.20
79.40
69.60
62.00
52.80
240.00
221.00
195.00
170.00
149.00
130.00
59.70
54.50
47.20
41.30
35.20
17.20
14.50
217.00
188.00
166.00
152.00
137.00
124.00
46.40
40.70
35.30
32.40
28.70
15.30
12.50
10.30
156.00
139.00
126.00
110.00
100.00
87.60
76.20
30.10
27.40
25.00
22.50
20.00
11.30
9.55
7.67

in3
94.00
85.50
77.80
72.20
65.90
61.40
57.10
43.20
38.60
33.80
30.90
28.80
26.60
24.60
22.50
18.90
90.60
80.70
73.10
65.50
58.80
53.20
47.60
27.00
23.60
21.30
18.90
16.30
56.80
50.10
44.70
39.90
21.70
18.60
17.20
15.70
13.90
12.20
49.90
44.10
39.40
35.40
31.70
18.40
15.80
13.90
12.40
10.60
37.20
34.20
30.30
26.50
23.20
20.30
13.30
12.00
10.50
9.18
7.85
4.90
4.15
35.00
30.00
26.70
24.60
22.20
20.20
11.00
9.75
8.51
7.83
6.97
4.67
3.82
3.18
27.70
24.90
22.50
19.70
18.00
15.80
13.80
7.89
7.22
6.63
5.97
5.35
3.72
3.17
2.56

in
3.86
3.84
3.83
3.81
3.78
3.75
3.73
2.65
2.62
2.58
2.56
2.55
2.53
2.50
2.47
2.38
3.74
3.71
3.69
3.66
3.63
3.59
3.56
2.50
2.47
2.43
2.39
2.32
3.52
3.49
3.46
3.43
2.28
2.25
2.23
2.19
2.15
2.10
3.32
3.29
3.26
3.24
3.21
2.21
2.18
2.15
2.12
2.07
3.04
3.05
3.01
2.97
2.94
2.91
1.99
1.98
1.95
1.92
1.87
1.38
1.34
2.98
2.95
2.93
2.92
2.90
2.89
1.84
1.83
1.81
1.80
1.77
1.35
1.30
1.26
2.72
2.70
2.69
2.66
2.65
2.63
2.61
1.70
1.69
1.69
1.67
1.65
1.29
1.27
1.22

in3
187.00
168.00
153.00
142.00
133.00
125.00
118.00
156.00
140.00
131.00
120.00
113.00
105.00
100.00
95.50
94.30
174.00
154.00
140.00
125.00
116.00
107.00
97.70
90.80
84.50
79.80
75.60
74.80
98.20
89.50
80.80
73.40
72.20
66.80
63.10
60.40
57.70
57.40
81.10
71.80
67.60
60.80
55.00
55.10
50.40
45.00
42.40
39.20
57.80
53.30
48.20
43.90
39.20
35.10
39.20
36.10
32.50
30.10
27.90
28.40
25.60
46.30
42.40
37.60
34.30
31.00
27.90
31.80
28.00
24.40
22.90
21.10
21.20
20.80
17.60
34.00
30.50
28.70
25.20
22.60
19.90
17.30
20.00
18.00
16.50
15.30
13.80
13.90
12.00
12.00

in3
146.00
132.00
120.00
112.00
102.00
94.90
88.10
68.60
61.00
53.50
48.90
45.40
41.90
38.60
35.50
29.80
141.00
125.00
113.00
101.00
90.90
82.10
73.40
42.20
37.00
33.50
29.70
25.70
87.50
77.20
68.90
61.40
34.00
29.20
27.00
24.60
22.00
19.30
77.00
67.90
60.80
54.50
48.80
28.80
24.70
21.70
19.40
16.60
57.30
52.60
46.60
40.70
35.70
31.20
20.70
18.80
16.30
14.30
12.30
7.87
6.67
53.90
46.30
41.10
37.80
34.10
30.90
17.40
15.30
13.30
12.20
10.90
7.42
6.09
5.09
42.70
38.30
34.60
30.20
27.60
24.20
21.10
12.30
11.20
10.30
9.27
8.29
5.85
4.97
4.03

in4
54.30
42.10
32.00
26.20
20.70
17.30
14.30
26.60
19.80
13.90
11.10
9.19
7.51
6.17
5.04
3.48
57.20
42.10
32.40
24.20
17.90
13.70
10.20
8.80
6.16
4.84
3.67
2.64
19.90
13.90
10.30
7.61
7.30
4.85
3.98
3.21
2.49
1.88
18.50
13.20
9.74
7.31
5.44
5.60
3.65
2.64
2.01
1.40
12.00
9.22
6.70
4.74
3.35
2.35
3.50
2.62
1.84
1.34
0.93
0.85
0.59
11.90
7.69
5.62
4.47
3.40
2.60
3.01
2.16
1.51
1.22
0.51
0.88
0.57
0.38
9.70
7.30
5.30
3.73
2.92
2.04
1.41
1.74
1.36
1.08
0.83
0.61
0.61
0.40
0.25

Structural Engineering

314

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Draft
Designation

WT 8.x 50.
WT 8.x 45.
WT 8.x 39.
WT 8.x 34.
WT 8.x 29.
WT 8.x 25.
WT 8.x 23.
WT 8.x 20.
WT 8.x 18.
WT 8.x 16.
WT 8.x 13.
WT 7.x365.
WT 7.x333.
WT 7.x303.
WT 7.x275.
WT 7.x250.
WT 7.x228.
WT 7.x213.
WT 7.x199.
WT 7.x185.
WT 7.x171.
WT 7.x156.
WT 7.x142.
WT 7.x129.
WT 7.x117.
WT 7.x106.
WT 7.x 97.
WT 7.x 88.
WT 7.x 80.
WT 7.x 73.
WT 7.x 66.
WT 7.x 60.
WT 7.x 55.
WT 7.x 50.
WT 7.x 45.
WT 7.x 41.
WT 7.x 37.
WT 7.x 34.
WT 7.x 31.
WT 7.x 27.
WT 7.x 24.
WT 7.x 22.
WT 7.x 19.
WT 7.x 17.
WT 7.x 15.
WT 7.x 13.
WT 7.x 11.
WT 6.x168.
WT 6.x153.
WT 6.x140.
WT 6.x126.
WT 6.x115.
WT 6.x105.
WT 6.x 95.
WT 6.x 85.
WT 6.x 76.
WT 6.x 68.
WT 6.x 60.
WT 6.x 53.
WT 6.x 48.
WT 6.x 44.
WT 6.x 40.
WT 6.x 36.
WT 6.x 33.
WT 6.x 29.
WT 6.x 27.
WT 6.x 25.
WT 6.x 23.
WT 6.x 20.
WT 6.x 18.
WT 6.x 15.
WT 6.x 13.
WT 6.x 11.
WT 6.x 10.
WT 6.x 8.
WT 6.x 7.
WT 5.x 56.
WT 5.x 50.
WT 5.x 44.
WT 5.x 39.
WT 5.x 34.
WT 5.x 30.
WT 5.x 27.
WT 5.x 25.
WT 5.x 23.
WT 5.x 20.
WT 5.x 17.
WT 5.x 15.
WT 5.x 13.
WT 5.x 11.
WT 5.x 10.
WT 5.x 9.
WT 5.x 8.
WT 5.x 6.

tw

bf

tf

in2

in
8.48
8.38
8.26
8.16
8.22
8.13
8.06
8.01
7.93
7.94
7.84
11.21
10.82
10.46
10.12
9.80
9.51
9.34
9.15
8.96
8.77
8.56
8.37
8.19
8.02
7.86
7.74
7.61
7.49
7.39
7.33
7.24
7.16
7.08
7.01
7.16
7.09
7.02
6.95
6.96
6.89
6.83
7.05
6.99
6.92
6.95
6.87
8.41
8.16
7.93
7.70
7.53
7.36
7.19
7.01
6.86
6.70
6.56
6.45
6.36
6.26
6.19
6.13
6.06
6.09
6.03
6.09
6.03
5.97
6.25
6.17
6.11
6.16
6.08
5.99
5.95
5.68
5.55
5.42
5.30
5.20
5.11
5.05
4.99
5.05
4.96
4.86
5.24
5.16
5.09
5.12
5.05
4.99
4.93

in
0.585
0.525
0.455
0.395
0.430
0.380
0.345
0.305
0.295
0.275
0.250
3.070
2.830
2.595
2.380
2.190
2.015
1.875
1.770
1.655
1.540
1.410
1.290
1.175
1.070
0.980
0.890
0.830
0.745
0.680
0.645
0.590
0.525
0.485
0.440
0.510
0.450
0.415
0.375
0.370
0.340
0.305
0.310
0.285
0.270
0.255
0.230
1.775
1.625
1.530
1.395
1.285
1.180
1.060
0.960
0.870
0.790
0.710
0.610
0.550
0.515
0.470
0.430
0.390
0.360
0.345
0.370
0.335
0.295
0.300
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.235
0.220
0.200
0.755
0.680
0.605
0.530
0.470
0.420
0.370
0.340
0.350
0.315
0.290
0.300
0.260
0.240
0.250
0.240
0.230
0.190

in
10.425
10.365
10.295
10.235
7.120
7.070
7.035
6.995
6.985
5.525
5.500
17.890
17.650
17.415
17.200
17.010
16.835
16.695
16.590
16.475
16.360
16.230
16.110
15.995
15.890
15.800
15.710
15.650
15.565
15.500
14.725
14.670
14.605
14.565
14.520
10.130
10.070
10.035
9.995
8.060
8.030
7.995
6.770
6.745
6.730
5.025
5.000
13.385
13.235
13.140
13.005
12.895
12.790
12.670
12.570
12.480
12.400
12.320
12.220
12.160
12.125
12.080
12.040
12.000
10.010
9.995
8.080
8.045
8.005
6.560
6.520
6.490
4.030
4.005
3.990
3.970
10.415
10.340
10.265
10.190
10.130
10.080
10.030
10.000
8.020
7.985
7.960
5.810
5.770
5.750
4.020
4.010
4.000
3.960

in
0.985
0.875
0.760
0.665
0.715
0.630
0.565
0.505
0.430
0.440
0.345
4.910
4.520
4.160
3.820
3.500
3.210
3.035
2.845
2.660
2.470
2.260
2.070
1.890
1.720
1.560
1.440
1.310
1.190
1.090
1.030
0.940
0.860
0.780
0.710
0.855
0.785
0.720
0.645
0.660
0.595
0.530
0.515
0.455
0.385
0.420
0.335
2.955
2.705
2.470
2.250
2.070
1.900
1.735
1.560
1.400
1.250
1.105
0.990
0.900
0.810
0.735
0.670
0.605
0.640
0.575
0.640
0.575
0.515
0.520
0.440
0.380
0.425
0.350
0.265
0.225
1.250
1.120
0.990
0.870
0.770
0.680
0.615
0.560
0.620
0.530
0.435
0.510
0.440
0.360
0.395
0.330
0.270
0.210

14.7
13.1
11.3
9.8
8.4
7.4
6.6
5.9
5.3
4.6
3.8
107.0
97.8
88.9
80.9
73.5
66.9
62.6
58.5
54.4
50.3
45.7
41.6
37.8
34.2
31.0
28.4
25.9
23.4
21.3
19.4
17.7
16.0
14.6
13.2
12.0
10.9
10.0
9.0
7.8
7.1
6.3
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.8
3.3
49.4
44.8
41.0
37.0
33.9
30.9
27.9
25.0
22.4
20.0
17.6
15.6
14.1
12.8
11.6
10.6
9.5
8.5
7.8
7.3
6.6
5.9
5.2
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.1
16.5
14.7
12.9
11.3
10.0
8.8
7.9
7.2
6.6
5.7
4.8
4.4
3.8
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.2
1.8

Victor Saouma

bf
2tf
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

hc
tw
12.1
13.5
15.6
18.0
16.5
18.7
20.6
23.3
24.1
25.8
28.4
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.8
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.4
4.9
5.3
5.8
6.4
6.9
7.7
8.4
8.8
9.7
10.9
11.8
13.0
11.2
12.7
13.7
15.2
15.4
16.8
18.7
19.8
21.5
22.7
24.1
26.7
2.7
3.0
3.2
3.5
3.8
4.1
4.6
5.1
5.6
6.1
6.8
8.0
8.8
9.4
10.3
11.3
12.4
13.5
14.1
13.1
14.5
16.5
18.1
20.9
23.6
20.9
23.1
24.7
27.2
5.2
5.8
6.5
7.4
8.4
9.4
10.6
11.6
11.2
12.5
13.6
14.8
17.0
18.4
17.7
18.4
19.2
23.3

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

in4
76.8
67.2
56.9
48.6
48.7
42.3
37.8
33.1
30.6
27.4
23.5
739.0
622.0
524.0
442.0
375.0
321.0
287.0
257.0
229.0
203.0
176.0
153.0
133.0
116.0
102.0
89.8
80.5
70.2
62.5
57.8
51.7
45.3
40.9
36.4
41.2
36.0
32.6
28.9
27.6
24.9
21.9
23.3
20.9
19.0
17.3
14.8
190.0
162.0
141.0
121.0
106.0
92.1
79.0
67.8
58.5
50.6
43.4
36.3
32.0
28.9
25.8
23.2
20.6
19.1
17.7
18.7
16.6
14.4
16.0
13.5
11.7
11.7
10.1
8.7
7.7
28.6
24.5
20.8
17.4
14.9
12.9
11.1
10.0
10.2
8.8
7.7
9.3
7.9
6.9
6.7
6.1
5.4
4.3

in3
11.4
10.1
8.6
7.4
7.8
6.8
6.1
5.3
5.1
4.6
4.1
95.4
82.1
70.6
60.9
52.7
45.9
41.4
37.6
33.9
30.4
26.7
23.5
20.7
18.2
16.2
14.4
13.0
11.4
10.2
9.6
8.6
7.6
6.9
6.2
7.1
6.3
5.7
5.1
4.9
4.5
4.0
4.2
3.8
3.5
3.3
2.9
31.2
27.0
24.1
20.9
18.5
16.4
14.2
12.3
10.8
9.5
8.2
6.9
6.1
5.6
5.0
4.5
4.1
3.8
3.5
3.8
3.4
3.0
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.6
2.3
2.0
1.8
6.4
5.6
4.8
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.6
2.4
2.5
2.2
1.9
2.2
1.9
1.7
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.2

in
2.28
2.27
2.24
2.22
2.41
2.40
2.39
2.37
2.41
2.45
2.47
2.62
2.52
2.43
2.34
2.26
2.19
2.14
2.10
2.05
2.01
1.96
1.92
1.88
1.84
1.81
1.78
1.76
1.73
1.71
1.73
1.71
1.68
1.67
1.66
1.85
1.82
1.81
1.80
1.88
1.87
1.86
2.04
2.04
2.07
2.12
2.14
1.96
1.90
1.86
1.81
1.77
1.73
1.68
1.65
1.62
1.59
1.57
1.53
1.51
1.50
1.49
1.48
1.47
1.50
1.51
1.60
1.58
1.57
1.76
1.75
1.75
1.90
1.90
1.92
1.92
1.32
1.29
1.27
1.24
1.22
1.21
1.19
1.18
1.24
1.24
1.26
1.45
1.44
1.46
1.54
1.56
1.57
1.57

in4
93.10
81.30
69.20
59.50
21.60
18.60
16.40
14.40
12.20
6.20
4.80
2360.00
2080.00
1840.00
1630.00
1440.00
1280.00
1180.00
1090.00
994.00
903.00
807.00
722.00
645.00
576.00
513.00
466.00
419.00
374.00
338.00
274.00
247.00
223.00
201.00
181.00
74.20
66.90
60.70
53.70
28.80
25.70
22.60
13.30
11.70
9.79
4.45
3.50
593.00
525.00
469.00
414.00
371.00
332.00
295.00
259.00
227.00
199.00
172.00
151.00
135.00
120.00
108.00
97.50
87.20
53.50
47.90
28.20
25.00
22.00
12.20
10.20
8.66
2.33
1.88
1.41
1.18
118.00
103.00
89.30
76.80
66.80
58.10
51.70
46.70
26.70
22.50
18.30
8.35
7.05
5.71
2.15
1.78
1.45
1.09

in3
17.90
15.70
13.40
11.60
6.06
5.26
4.67
4.12
3.50
2.24
1.74
264.00
236.00
211.00
189.00
169.00
152.00
141.00
131.00
121.00
110.00
99.40
89.70
80.70
72.50
65.00
59.30
53.50
48.10
43.70
37.20
33.70
30.60
27.60
25.00
14.60
13.30
12.10
10.70
7.16
6.40
5.65
3.94
3.45
2.91
1.77
1.40
88.60
79.30
71.30
63.60
57.50
51.90
46.50
41.20
36.40
32.10
28.00
24.70
22.20
19.90
17.90
16.20
14.50
10.70
9.58
6.97
6.21
5.51
3.73
3.12
2.67
1.16
0.94
0.71
0.59
22.60
20.00
17.40
15.10
13.20
11.50
10.30
9.34
6.65
5.64
4.60
2.87
2.44
1.99
1.07
0.89
0.72
0.55

in
2.51
2.49
2.47
2.46
1.60
1.59
1.57
1.57
1.52
1.17
1.12
4.69
4.62
4.55
4.49
4.43
4.38
4.34
4.31
4.27
4.24
4.20
4.17
4.13
4.10
4.07
4.05
4.02
4.00
3.98
3.76
3.74
3.73
3.71
3.70
2.48
2.48
2.46
2.45
1.92
1.91
1.89
1.55
1.53
1.49
1.08
1.04
3.47
3.42
3.38
3.34
3.31
3.28
3.25
3.22
3.19
3.16
3.13
3.11
3.09
3.07
3.05
3.04
3.02
2.51
2.48
1.96
1.94
1.93
1.54
1.52
1.51
0.85
0.82
0.77
0.75
2.68
2.65
2.63
2.60
2.59
2.57
2.56
2.54
2.01
1.98
1.94
1.37
1.36
1.33
0.87
0.84
0.81
0.79

in3
20.70
18.10
15.30
13.00
13.80
12.00
10.80
9.43
8.93
8.27
8.12
211.00
182.00
157.00
136.00
117.00
102.00
91.70
82.90
74.40
66.20
57.70
50.40
43.90
38.20
33.40
29.40
26.30
22.80
20.20
18.60
16.50
14.40
12.90
11.50
13.20
11.50
10.40
9.16
8.87
8.00
7.05
7.45
6.74
6.25
5.89
5.20
68.40
59.10
51.90
44.80
39.40
34.50
29.80
25.60
22.00
19.00
16.20
13.60
11.90
10.70
9.49
8.48
7.50
6.97
6.46
6.90
6.12
5.30
5.71
4.83
4.20
4.63
4.11
3.72
3.32
13.40
11.40
9.65
8.06
6.85
5.87
5.05
4.52
4.65
3.99
3.48
4.01
3.39
3.02
3.10
2.90
3.03
2.50

in3
27.40
24.00
20.50
17.70
9.43
8.16
7.23
6.37
5.42
3.52
2.74
408.00
365.00
326.00
292.00
261.00
234.00
217.00
201.00
185.00
169.00
152.00
137.00
123.00
110.00
99.00
90.20
81.40
73.00
66.30
56.60
51.20
46.40
41.80
37.80
22.40
20.30
18.50
16.40
11.00
9.82
8.66
6.07
5.32
4.49
2.77
2.19
137.00
122.00
110.00
97.90
88.40
79.70
71.30
63.00
55.60
49.00
42.70
37.50
33.70
30.20
27.20
24.60
22.00
16.30
14.60
10.70
9.50
8.41
5.73
4.78
4.08
1.83
1.49
1.13
0.95
34.60
30.50
26.50
22.90
20.00
17.50
15.70
14.20
10.10
8.59
7.01
4.42
3.75
3.05
1.68
1.40
1.15
0.87

in4
3.85
2.72
1.78
1.19
1.10
0.76
0.65
0.40
0.27
0.23
0.13
714.00
555.00
430.00
331.00
255.00
196.00
164.00
135.00
110.00
88.30
67.50
51.80
39.30
29.60
22.20
17.30
13.20
9.84
7.56
6.13
4.67
3.55
2.68
2.03
2.53
1.94
1.51
1.10
0.97
0.73
0.52
0.40
0.28
0.19
0.18
0.10
120.00
92.00
70.90
53.50
41.60
32.20
24.40
17.70
12.80
9.22
6.43
4.55
3.42
2.54
1.92
1.46
1.09
1.05
0.79
0.89
0.66
0.48
0.37
0.23
0.15
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.04
7.50
5.41
3.75
2.55
1.78
1.23
0.91
0.69
0.75
0.49
0.29
0.31
0.20
0.12
0.12
0.08
0.05
0.03

Structural Engineering

3.6 Steel Section Properties

Draft
Designation

315
bf
2tf

tw

bf

tf

in2
9.8
8.6
7.1
5.9
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.1
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
3.7
2.9
2.2
2.4
1.8
1.3
2.8
2.3
1.9

in
4.50
4.38
4.25
4.13
4.06
4.00
4.03
3.96
4.14
4.07
4.05
3.99
3.94
3.19
3.10
2.99
3.14
3.02
2.95
2.58
2.51
2.08

in
0.570
0.510
0.400
0.360
0.310
0.285
0.285
0.245
0.250
0.230
0.245
0.230
0.170
0.320
0.260
0.230
0.260
0.230
0.170
0.270
0.240
0.280

in
8.280
8.220
8.110
8.070
8.020
7.995
6.535
6.495
5.270
5.250
4.015
4.000
3.940
6.080
6.020
5.990
4.030
4.000
3.940
5.030
5.000
4.060

in
0.935
0.810
0.685
0.560
0.495
0.435
0.465
0.400
0.400
0.330
0.315
0.255
0.205
0.455
0.365
0.260
0.405
0.280
0.215
0.430
0.360
0.345

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

9.
6.
5.
3.
2.
9.

2.5
1.7
1.3
1.0
0.6
2.8

7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.50

0.215
0.177
0.157
0.135
0.114
0.316

4.000
3.065
2.690
2.281
1.844
5.003

0.270
0.225
0.206
0.189
0.171
0.416

ST12.x 61.
ST12.x 53.
ST12.x 50.
ST12.x 45.
ST12.x 40.
ST10.x 48.
ST10.x 43.
ST10.x 38.
ST10.x 33.
ST 9.x 35.
ST 9.x 27.
ST 8.x 25.
ST 8.x 21.
ST 6.x 25.
ST 6.x 20.
ST 6.x 18.
ST 6.x 16.
ST 5.x 18.
ST 5.x 13.
ST 4.x 12.
ST 4.x 9.
ST 4.x 10.
ST 4.x 8.
ST 3.x 9.
ST 3.x 6.
ST 3.x 7.
ST 3.x 5.
ST 2.x 5.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 4.
ST 2.x 3.

17.8
15.6
14.7
13.2
11.7
14.1
12.7
11.0
9.7
10.3
8.0
7.3
6.3
7.3
6.0
5.2
4.7
5.2
3.7
3.4
2.7
2.9
2.3
2.5
1.8
2.2
1.5
1.4
1.1
1.1
0.8

12.25
12.25
12.00
12.00
12.00
10.15
10.15
10.00
10.00
9.00
9.00
7.50
7.50
6.00
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.00
5.00
4.00
4.00
3.50
3.50
3.00
3.00
2.50
2.50
2.00
2.00
1.50
1.50

0.800
0.620
0.745
0.625
0.500
0.800
0.660
0.635
0.505
0.711
0.461
0.550
0.411
0.687
0.462
0.428
0.350
0.594
0.311
0.441
0.271
0.450
0.252
0.465
0.232
0.494
0.214
0.326
0.193
0.349
0.170

8.050
7.870
7.245
7.125
7.000
7.200
7.060
6.385
6.225
6.251
6.001
5.640
5.501
5.477
5.252
5.078
5.000
4.944
4.661
4.171
4.001
3.860
3.662
3.565
3.332
3.284
3.004
2.796
2.663
2.509
2.330

HP14.x117.
HP14.x102.
HP14.x 89.
HP14.x 73.
HP13.x100.
HP13.x 87.
HP13.x 73.
HP13.x 60.
HP12.x 84.
HP12.x 74.
HP12.x 63.
HP12.x 53.
HP10.x 57.
HP10.x 42.
HP 8.x 36.

34.4
30.0
26.1
21.4
29.4
25.5
21.6
17.5
24.6
21.8
18.4
15.5
16.8
12.4
10.6

14.21
14.01
13.83
13.61
13.15
12.95
12.75
12.54
12.28
12.13
11.94
11.78
9.99
9.70
8.02

0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.605
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.415
0.445

14.885
14.785
14.695
14.585
13.205
13.105
13.005
12.900
12.295
12.215
12.125
12.045
10.225
10.075
8.155

WT 4.x 34.
WT 4.x 29.
WT 4.x 24.
WT 4.x 20.
WT 4.x 18.
WT 4.x 16.
WT 4.x 14.
WT 4.x 12.
WT 4.x 11.
WT 4.x 9.
WT 4.x 8.
WT 4.x 7.
WT 4.x 5.
WT 3.x 13.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 3.x 6.
WT 3.x 5.
WT 3.x 10.
WT 3.x 8.
WT 2.x 7.
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT
MT

7.x
6.x
5.x
4.x
3.x
3.x

Victor Saouma

hc
tw

Ix

Sx

rx

Iy

Sy

ry

Zx

Zy

5.6
6.2
7.9
8.8
10.2
11.1
11.1
12.9
13.8
15.0
14.0
15.0
20.2
7.8
9.6
10.8
9.6
10.8
14.6
7.0
7.9
5.3

in4
10.9
9.1
6.8
5.7
4.8
4.3
4.2
3.5
3.9
3.4
3.3
2.9
2.2
2.3
1.8
1.4
1.7
1.3
0.9
1.0
0.9
0.5

in3
3.0
2.6
2.0
1.7
1.4
1.3
1.3
1.1
1.2
1.0
1.1
1.0
0.7
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3

in
1.05
1.03
0.99
0.99
0.97
0.97
1.01
1.00
1.12
1.14
1.22
1.23
1.20
0.79
0.77
0.80
0.84
0.86
0.84
0.61
0.60
0.52

in4
44.30
37.50
30.50
24.50
21.30
18.50
10.80
9.14
4.89
3.98
1.70
1.37
1.05
8.53
6.64
4.66
2.21
1.50
1.10
4.56
3.75
1.93

in3
10.70
9.13
7.52
6.08
5.31
4.64
3.31
2.81
1.85
1.52
0.85
0.68
0.53
2.81
2.21
1.56
1.10
0.75
0.56
1.82
1.50
0.95

in
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.04
2.03
2.02
1.62
1.61
1.26
1.23
0.88
0.84
0.84
1.52
1.50
1.45
0.97
0.92
0.90
1.28
1.27
1.00

in3
6.29
5.25
3.94
3.25
2.71
2.39
2.38
1.98
2.11
1.86
1.91
1.74
1.27
1.68
1.29
1.03
1.25
1.01
0.72
0.97
0.80
0.62

in3
16.30
13.90
11.40
9.25
8.06
7.04
5.05
4.29
2.84
2.33
1.33
1.08
0.83
4.28
3.36
2.37
1.70
1.16
0.86
2.76
2.29
1.46

in4
2.52
1.66
0.98
0.56
0.38
0.27
0.27
0.17
0.14
0.09
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.23
0.12
0.05
0.11
0.05
0.02
0.15
0.09
0.08

0
0
0
0
0
0

30.1
31.3
29.2
26.9
23.5
5.6

13.1
6.6
3.5
1.6
0.6
1.0

2.7
1.6
1.0
0.6
0.3
0.5

2.27
1.95
1.62
1.28
0.94
0.62

1.32
0.49
0.31
0.17
0.08
3.93

0.66
0.32
0.23
0.15
0.09
1.57

0.72
0.53
0.48
0.42
0.36
1.19

4.88
2.89
1.81
1.01
0.52
1.03

1.16
0.58
0.41
0.26
0.16
2.66

0.06
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.17

1.090
1.090
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.920
0.920
0.795
0.795
0.691
0.691
0.622
0.622
0.659
0.659
0.545
0.544
0.491
0.491
0.425
0.425
0.392
0.392
0.359
0.359
0.326
0.326
0.293
0.293
0.260
0.260

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0

13.2
17.0
14.1
16.8
21.1
10.8
13.1
13.6
17.0
10.9
16.8
11.6
15.5
7.0
10.3
11.7
14.3
6.9
13.2
7.3
11.8
6.1
10.9
5.0
10.0
3.8
8.7
4.3
7.3
2.8
5.7

259.0
216.0
215.0
190.0
162.0
143.0
125.0
109.0
93.1
84.7
62.4
40.6
33.0
25.2
18.9
17.2
14.9
12.5
7.8
5.0
3.5
3.4
2.2
2.1
1.3
1.3
0.7
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1

30.1
24.1
26.3
22.6
18.7
20.3
17.2
15.8
12.9
14.0
9.6
7.7
6.0
6.1
4.3
4.0
3.3
3.6
2.1
1.8
1.1
1.4
0.8
1.0
0.6
0.7
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1

3.82
3.72
3.83
3.79
3.72
3.18
3.14
3.15
3.10
2.87
2.79
2.35
2.29
1.85
1.78
1.83
1.78
1.56
1.45
1.22
1.14
1.07
0.99
0.92
0.83
0.76
0.68
0.58
0.53
0.43
0.38

41.70
38.50
23.80
22.50
21.10
25.10
23.40
14.90
13.80
12.10
10.40
7.85
7.19
7.85
6.78
4.94
4.68
4.18
3.39
2.15
1.86
1.59
1.32
1.15
0.91
0.83
0.61
0.45
0.38
0.29
0.23

10.40
9.80
6.58
6.31
6.04
6.97
6.63
4.66
4.43
3.86
3.47
2.78
2.61
2.87
2.58
1.95
1.87
1.69
1.46
1.03
0.93
0.82
0.72
0.65
0.55
0.51
0.41
0.32
0.29
0.23
0.19

1.53
1.57
1.27
1.30
1.34
1.33
1.36
1.16
1.19
1.08
1.14
1.03
1.07
1.03
1.06
0.98
1.00
0.90
0.95
0.80
0.83
0.73
0.77
0.68
0.70
0.62
0.64
0.57
0.58
0.52
0.52

54.50
43.30
47.50
41.10
33.60
36.90
31.10
28.60
23.40
25.10
17.30
14.00
10.80
11.00
7.71
7.12
5.94
6.58
3.70
3.19
2.07
2.47
1.48
1.85
1.01
1.34
0.65
0.59
0.38
0.35
0.20

18.10
16.60
12.00
11.20
10.40
12.50
11.60
8.37
7.70
7.21
6.07
5.01
4.54
5.19
4.45
3.41
3.22
3.11
2.49
1.84
1.59
1.48
1.23
1.18
0.93
0.94
0.69
0.57
0.48
0.41
0.33

6.38
5.04
3.76
3.01
2.43
4.15
3.30
2.28
1.78
2.05
1.18
1.05
0.77
1.39
0.87
0.54
0.45
0.63
0.30
0.27
0.17
0.22
0.12
0.18
0.08
0.16
0.06
0.06
0.04
0.04
0.02

0.805
0.705
0.615
0.505
0.765
0.665
0.565
0.460
0.685
0.610
0.515
0.435
0.565
0.420
0.445

9.2
10.5
11.9
14.4
8.6
9.9
11.5
14.0
9.0
10.0
11.8
13.8
9.0
12.0
9.2

14.2
16.2
18.5
22.6
13.6
15.7
18.4
22.7
14.2
16.0
18.9
22.3
13.9
18.9
14.2

1220.0
1050.0
904.0
729.0
886.0
755.0
630.0
503.0
650.0
569.0
472.0
393.0
294.0
210.0
119.0

172.0
150.0
131.0
107.0
135.0
117.0
98.8
80.3
106.0
93.8
79.1
66.8
58.8
43.4
29.8

5.96
5.92
5.88
5.84
5.49
5.45
5.40
5.36
5.14
5.11
5.06
5.03
4.18
4.13
3.36

443.00
380.00
326.00
261.00
294.00
250.00
207.00
165.00
213.00
186.00
153.00
127.00
101.00
71.70
40.30

59.50
51.40
44.30
35.80
44.50
38.10
31.90
25.50
34.60
30.40
25.30
21.10
19.70
14.20
9.88

3.59
3.56
3.53
3.49
3.16
3.13
3.10
3.07
2.94
2.92
2.88
2.86
2.45
2.41
1.95

194.00
169.00
146.00
118.00
153.00
131.00
110.00
89.00
120.00
105.00
88.30
74.00
66.50
48.30
33.60

91.40
78.80
67.70
54.60
68.60
58.50
48.80
39.00
53.20
46.60
38.70
32.20
30.30
21.80
15.20

8.02
5.40
3.60
2.01
6.25
4.12
2.54
1.39
4.24
2.98
1.83
1.12
1.97
0.81
0.77

Structural Engineering

316

Draft

Designation

L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L

8.0x8.0x1.125
8.0x8.0x1.000
8.0x8.0x0.875
8.0x8.0x0.750
8.0x8.0x0.625
8.0x8.0x0.563
8.0x8.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x1.000
8.0x6.0x0.875
8.0x6.0x0.750
8.0x6.0x0.625
8.0x6.0x0.563
8.0x6.0x0.500
8.0x6.0x0.438
8.0x4.0x1.000
8.0x4.0x0.750
8.0x4.0x0.563
8.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.750
7.0x4.0x0.625
7.0x4.0x0.500
7.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x1.000
6.0x6.0x0.875
6.0x6.0x0.750
6.0x6.0x0.625
6.0x6.0x0.563
6.0x6.0x0.500
6.0x6.0x0.438
6.0x6.0x0.375
6.0x6.0x0.313
6.0x4.0x0.875
6.0x4.0x0.750
6.0x4.0x0.625
6.0x4.0x0.563
6.0x4.0x0.500
6.0x4.0x0.438
6.0x4.0x0.375
6.0x4.0x0.313
6.0x3.5x0.500
6.0x3.5x0.375
6.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x5.0x0.875
5.0x5.0x0.750
5.0x5.0x0.625
5.0x5.0x0.500
5.0x5.0x0.438
5.0x5.0x0.375
5.0x5.0x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.750
5.0x3.5x0.625
5.0x3.5x0.500
5.0x3.5x0.438
5.0x3.5x0.375
5.0x3.5x0.313
5.0x3.5x0.250
5.0x3.0x0.625
5.0x3.0x0.500
5.0x3.0x0.438
5.0x3.0x0.375
5.0x3.0x0.313
5.0x3.0x0.250
4.0x4.0x0.750
4.0x4.0x0.625
4.0x4.0x0.500
4.0x4.0x0.438
4.0x4.0x0.375
4.0x4.0x0.313
4.0x4.0x0.250
4.0x3.5x0.500
4.0x3.5x0.438
4.0x3.5x0.375
4.0x3.5x0.313
4.0x3.5x0.250
4.0x3.0x0.500
4.0x3.0x0.438
4.0x3.0x0.375
4.0x3.0x0.313
4.0x3.0x0.250
3.5x3.5x0.500
3.5x3.5x0.438
3.5x3.5x0.375
3.5x3.5x0.313
3.5x3.5x0.250
3.5x3.0x0.500
3.5x3.0x0.438
3.5x3.0x0.375
3.5x3.0x0.313
3.5x3.0x0.250
3.5x2.5x0.500
3.5x2.5x0.438
3.5x2.5x0.375
3.5x2.5x0.313
3.5x2.5x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.500
3.0x3.0x0.438
3.0x3.0x0.375
3.0x3.0x0.313
3.0x3.0x0.250
3.0x3.0x0.188
3.0x2.5x0.500
3.0x2.5x0.438
3.0x2.5x0.375
3.0x2.5x0.313
3.0x2.5x0.250
3.0x2.5x0.188
3.0x2.0x0.500
3.0x2.0x0.438
3.0x2.0x0.375
3.0x2.0x0.313
3.0x2.0x0.250
3.0x2.0x0.188
2.5x2.5x0.500
2.5x2.5x0.375
2.5x2.5x0.313
2.5x2.5x0.250
2.5x2.5x0.188
2.5x2.0x0.375
2.5x2.0x0.313

Victor Saouma

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
A
in2
16.70
15.00
13.20
11.40
9.61
8.68
7.75
13.00
11.50
9.94
8.36
7.56
6.75
5.93
11.00
8.44
6.43
5.75
7.69
6.48
5.25
3.98
11.00
9.73
8.44
7.11
6.43
5.75
5.06
4.36
3.65
7.98
6.94
5.86
5.31
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
4.50
3.42
2.87
7.98
6.94
5.86
4.75
4.18
3.61
3.03
5.81
4.92
4.00
3.53
3.05
2.56
2.06
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
5.44
4.61
3.75
3.31
2.86
2.40
1.94
3.50
3.09
2.67
2.25
1.81
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.25
2.87
2.48
2.09
1.69
3.00
2.65
2.30
1.93
1.56
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.75
2.43
2.11
1.78
1.44
1.09
2.50
2.21
1.92
1.62
1.31
1.00
2.25
2.00
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
2.25
1.73
1.46
1.19
0.90
1.55
1.31

wgt
k/f t
56.90
51.00
45.00
38.90
32.70
29.60
26.40
44.20
39.10
33.80
28.50
25.70
23.00
20.20
37.40
28.70
21.90
19.60
26.20
22.10
17.90
13.60
37.40
33.10
28.70
24.20
21.90
19.60
17.20
14.90
12.40
27.20
23.60
20.00
18.10
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
15.30
11.70
9.80
27.20
23.60
20.00
16.20
14.30
12.30
10.30
19.80
16.80
13.60
12.00
10.40
8.70
7.00
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
18.50
15.70
12.80
11.30
9.80
8.20
6.60
11.90
10.60
9.10
7.70
6.20
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
11.10
9.80
8.50
7.20
5.80
10.20
9.10
7.90
6.60
5.40
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
9.40
8.30
7.20
6.10
4.90
3.71
8.50
7.60
6.60
5.60
4.50
3.39
7.70
6.80
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
7.70
5.90
5.00
4.10
3.07
5.30
4.50

Ix
in4
98.0
89.0
79.6
69.7
59.4
54.1
48.6
80.8
72.3
63.4
54.1
49.3
44.3
39.2
69.6
54.9
42.8
38.5
37.8
32.4
26.7
20.6
35.5
31.9
28.2
24.2
22.1
19.9
17.7
15.4
13.0
27.7
24.5
21.1
19.3
17.4
15.5
13.5
11.4
16.6
12.9
10.9
17.8
15.7
13.6
11.3
10.0
8.7
7.4
13.9
12.0
10.0
8.9
7.8
6.6
5.4
11.4
9.4
8.4
7.4
6.3
5.1
7.7
6.7
5.6
5.0
4.4
3.7
3.0
5.3
4.8
4.2
3.6
2.9
5.1
4.5
4.0
3.4
2.8
3.6
3.3
2.9
2.5
2.0
3.5
3.1
2.7
2.3
1.9
3.2
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.8
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.2
1.0
2.1
1.9
1.7
1.4
1.2
0.9
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.1
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.9
0.8

Sx
in3
17.5
15.8
14.0
12.2
10.3
9.3
8.4
15.1
13.4
11.7
9.9
8.9
8.0
7.1
14.1
10.9
8.4
7.5
8.4
7.1
5.8
4.4
8.6
7.6
6.7
5.7
5.1
4.6
4.1
3.5
3.0
7.2
6.3
5.3
4.8
4.3
3.8
3.3
2.8
4.2
3.2
2.7
5.2
4.5
3.9
3.2
2.8
2.4
2.0
4.3
3.7
3.0
2.6
2.3
1.9
1.6
3.5
2.9
2.6
2.2
1.9
1.5
2.8
2.4
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.3
1.0
1.9
1.7
1.5
1.2
1.0
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.5
1.3
1.1
1.0
0.8
1.4
1.3
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.1
1.0
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.4
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.5

rx
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
2.49
2.51
2.53
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.57
2.52
2.55
2.58
2.59
2.22
2.24
2.25
2.27
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.86
1.88
1.90
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.92
1.94
1.95
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.55
1.56
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.62
1.57
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.61
1.62
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.25
1.25
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.09
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.94
0.95
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.97
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.77
0.78

Iy
in4
98.00
89.00
79.60
69.70
59.40
54.10
48.60
38.80
34.90
30.70
26.30
24.00
21.70
19.30
11.60
9.36
7.43
6.74
9.05
7.84
6.53
5.10
35.50
31.90
28.20
24.20
22.10
19.90
17.70
15.40
13.00
9.75
8.68
7.52
6.91
6.27
5.60
4.90
4.18
4.25
3.34
2.85
17.80
15.70
13.60
11.30
10.00
8.74
7.42
5.55
4.83
4.05
3.63
3.18
2.72
2.23
3.06
2.58
2.32
2.04
1.75
1.44
7.67
6.66
5.56
4.97
4.36
3.71
3.04
3.79
3.40
2.95
2.55
2.09
2.42
2.18
1.92
1.65
1.36
3.64
3.26
2.87
2.45
2.01
2.33
2.09
1.85
1.58
1.30
1.36
1.23
1.09
0.94
0.78
2.22
1.99
1.76
1.51
1.24
0.96
1.30
1.18
1.04
0.90
0.74
0.58
0.67
0.61
0.54
0.47
0.39
0.31
1.23
0.98
0.85
0.70
0.55
0.51
0.45

Sy
in3
17.50
15.80
14.00
12.20
10.30
9.34
8.36
8.92
7.94
6.92
5.88
5.34
4.79
4.23
3.94
3.07
2.38
2.15
3.03
2.58
2.12
1.63
8.57
7.63
6.66
5.66
5.14
4.61
4.08
3.53
2.97
3.39
2.97
2.54
2.31
2.08
1.85
1.60
1.35
1.59
1.23
1.04
5.17
4.53
3.86
3.16
2.79
2.42
2.04
2.22
1.90
1.56
1.39
1.21
1.02
0.83
1.39
1.15
1.02
0.89
0.75
0.61
2.81
2.40
1.97
1.75
1.52
1.29
1.05
1.52
1.35
1.16
0.99
0.81
1.12
0.99
0.87
0.73
0.60
1.49
1.32
1.15
0.98
0.79
1.10
0.98
0.85
0.72
0.59
0.76
0.68
0.59
0.50
0.41
1.07
0.95
0.83
0.71
0.58
0.44
0.74
0.66
0.58
0.49
0.40
0.31
0.47
0.42
0.37
0.32
0.26
0.20
0.72
0.57
0.48
0.39
0.30
0.36
0.31

ry
in
2.42
2.44
2.45
2.47
2.49
2.50
2.50
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79
1.80
1.03
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.13
1.80
1.81
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.89
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.17
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
0.98
0.99
1.01
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
0.81
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.85
0.86
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.23
1.24
1.25
1.04
1.05
1.06
1.07
1.07
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.90
1.06
1.07
1.07
1.08
1.09
0.88
0.89
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.90
0.90
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.55
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.57
0.58
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.78
0.58
0.58

Zx
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
27.30
24.20
21.10
17.90
16.20
14.50
12.80
24.30
18.90
14.50
13.00
14.80
12.60
10.30
7.87
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
12.70
11.20
9.51
8.66
7.78
6.88
5.97
5.03
7.50
5.76
4.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
7.65
6.55
5.38
4.77
4.14
3.49
2.83
6.27
5.16
4.57
3.97
3.36
2.72
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
3.50
3.11
2.71
2.29
1.86
3.41
3.03
2.64
2.23
1.82
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
2.63
2.34
2.04
1.73
1.41
2.53
2.26
1.97
1.67
1.36
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.88
1.68
1.47
1.25
1.02
0.78
1.78
1.59
1.40
1.19
0.97
0.75
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.99
0.84

Zy
in3
31.60
28.50
25.30
22.00
18.60
16.80
15.10
16.20
14.40
12.50
10.50
9.52
8.51
7.50
7.72
5.81
4.38
3.90
5.65
4.74
3.83
2.90
15.50
13.80
12.00
10.20
9.26
8.31
7.34
6.35
5.35
6.31
5.47
4.62
4.19
3.75
3.30
2.85
2.40
2.91
2.20
1.85
9.33
8.16
6.95
5.68
5.03
4.36
3.68
4.10
3.47
2.83
2.49
2.16
1.82
1.47
2.61
2.11
1.86
1.60
1.35
1.09
5.07
4.33
3.56
3.16
2.74
2.32
1.88
2.73
2.42
2.11
1.78
1.44
2.03
1.79
1.56
1.31
1.06
2.68
2.38
2.08
1.76
1.43
1.98
1.76
1.53
1.30
1.05
1.40
1.24
1.07
0.91
0.74
1.93
1.72
1.50
1.27
1.04
0.79
1.35
1.20
1.05
0.89
0.72
0.55
0.89
0.79
0.68
0.58
0.47
0.36
1.31
1.02
0.87
0.71
0.55
0.66
0.56

J
in4
7.13
5.08
3.46
2.21
1.30
0.96
0.68
4.35
2.96
1.90
1.12
0.82
0.58
0.40
3.68
1.61
0.70
0.50
1.47
0.87
0.46
0.20
3.68
2.51
1.61
0.95
0.70
0.50
0.34
0.22
0.13
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.58
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
0.40
0.17
0.10
2.07
1.33
0.79
0.42
0.28
0.18
0.11
1.11
0.66
0.35
0.24
0.15
0.09
0.05
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
1.02
0.61
0.32
0.22
0.14
0.08
0.04
0.30
0.21
0.13
0.08
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.28
0.19
0.12
0.07
0.04
0.26
0.18
0.11
0.07
0.04
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.23
0.16
0.10
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.21
0.15
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.13
0.09
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.19
0.08
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.07
0.04

Structural Engineering

3.6 Steel Section Properties

Draft
3.6.1

317

ASCII File with Steel Section Properties

Available is an ASCII le (PC/DOS or Sun/UNIX (/usr/src/public/aisc) containing the following


section properties (All dimensions are inches and kips).
A
Area
BF
Width of ange
BTF
bf/2tf the ratio of the ange width to twice the ange thickness
CW
Cw, warping constant
D
Depth, actual
DAF
d/Af the ratio of the depth to the compression ange area
DI
Inner diameter of pipe
DN
Nominal depth
DSG
Shape designation i.e. W or C
DTW
d/tw the ratio of the depth to the web thickness
EO
eo distance from outside face of web to shear center
FYP
Fy the theoretical maximum yield stress based on the width-thickness ratio of 1/2 the
unstiened compression ange, beyond which a particular shape is not compact. (Specied
as 0 if greater than 65 ksi)
FYPPPA Fy (ASD) the theoretical maximum yield stress based on the depth-thickness ratio of
the web below which a particular shape may be considered compact for any condition of
combined bending and axial stresses. (Specied as 0 if greater than 65 ksi)
FYPPPL Fy (LRFD) see above
H
H exural constant LRFD Formula (A-E3-9)
H38
H exural constant, double angles 3/8 back to back
H34
H exural constant, double angles 3/4 back to back
HL
Horizontal leg or side dimension
HTW
hc/tw, ratio of assumed web depth for stability to thickess of web
JSHP
JUMBO SHAPE (J) see note below
NT
Tensile group number per ASTM A6
NX1
X1 beam buckling factor LRFD Formula (F1-8)
OD
Outer diameter of pipe
QF
Qf statical moment at point in ange
QW
Qw statical moment at mid-depth

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

318

Draft
RA
RI
RO
RO38
RO34
RT

RX
RY
RY38
RY34
RZ
SX
SY
SW
T
TF
TW
VL
WGT
WNO
XB
XI
XJ
XK
X2
YB
YI
ZX
ZY

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Minimum llet radius, detailing value (in.); ange toe value for M, S, C, MC shapes
Minimum llet radius, design
ro shear center coordinate
ro double angles 3/8 back to back
ro double angles 3/4 back to back
The radius of gyration of a section comprising the compression ange plus 1/3 of the compression web area, taken about an axis in the plane of the web
rx radius of gyration about axis XX
ry radius of gyration about axis YY
ry double angles 3/8 back to back
ry double angles 3/4 back to back
rz radius of gyration about principal axis
Sx elastic section modulus about axis XX
Sy elastic section modulus about axis YY
Sw warping statical moment
Thickness of leg or wall
Thickness of ange
Thickness of web
Vertical leg or side dimension
Nominal weight
Wno normalized warping function
x centroid of section in X direction from outer web
Ix moment of inertia about axis XX
J torsional constant
k distance from outer face of ange to web toe llet of rolled shape
X2 beam buckling factor LRFD Formula (F1-9)
y centroid of section in Y direction from outer top ange face
Iy moment of inertia about axis YY
Zx plastic modulus about axis XX
Zy plastic modulus about axis YY

program form
c
c
c
c
c
c
c

test program to open the AISC1.PRN file, read a single record


and print the data from that record to the screen.
aisc1.bin contains contains 658 records (sections) with
38 variables in each record.
character*2 dsg, jshp
real dn, wgt, a, d, tw, bf, tf, xk,
1
btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt, daf,
2
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj, cw,
3
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro

c
c
c

c
c
c
100

c
c
c

--------------------------------open aisc file


--------------------------------open(unit=1,file=aisc1.bin,
1
status=old,access=direct,recl=152)
----------------------------------prompt user to select record (line)
----------------------------------write(*,*) Enter line number to read: (0 to quit) >
read(*,*) line
if(line .eq. 0) stop
if(line.gt.658)then
write(*,*) Invalid line number, must be less than 658
goto 100
endif
-----------------------------------read a single record from aisc file
------------------------------------

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.7 Joists

319

Draft

read(1,rec=line) dsg, dn, wgt, jshp, a, d, tw, bf, tf, xk,


btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt,
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj,
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro
c
------------------------c
write data to screen
c
------------------------write(*,999,err=1000) dsg, dn, wgt, jshp, a, d, tw, bf, tf,
1
btf, fyp, htw, dtw, fypppl, fypppa, x1, x2, rt,
2
ri, ra, nt, xi, sx, rx, yi, sy, ry, zx, zy, xj,
3
wno, sw, qf, qw, ro
c
-----c
goto beginning
c
-----goto 100
c--------------------------------------------------------c error message if read attempt is past last record (658)
c--------------------------------------------------------1000 write(*,*) line number is past last record (658)
goto 100
999
format(a2,2x,f3.0,2x,f4.0,a2,6(2x,1pe10.3))
1
2
3

daf,
cw,

xk,
daf,
cw,

end

3.7
41

Joists

Table 3.3 list the Joist properties.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

320

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

4"

4"

Span

[Design Length = Span 0.33 FT.]

4"

Draft

Figure 3.9: prefabricated Steel Joists

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3.7 Joists

321

Draft
Joint 8K1
Desig.
Depth 8
(in.)
W 5.1
(lbs/ft)
Span
(ft.)
8
550
550
9
550
550
10
550
480
11
532
377
12
444
288
13
377
225
14
324
179
15
281
145
16
246
119
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32

10K1 12K1 12K3 12K5 14K1 14K3 14K4 14K6 16K2 16K3 16K4 16K5 16K6 16K7 16K9
10

12

12

12

14

14

14

14

16

16

16

16

16

16

16

5.7

7.1

5.2

6.7

7.7

5.5

6.3

7.5

8.1

8.6

10.0

550
550
550
510
500
425
434
344
380
282
336
234
299
197
268
167
241
142
218
123
199
106
181
93
166
81

550
550
550
510
550
463
543
428
476
351
420
291
374
245
335
207
302
177
273
153
249
132
227
116
208
101

550
550
550
510
550
463
550
434
550
396
550
366
507
317
454
269
409
230
370
198
337
172
308
150
282
132

550
550
511
475
448
390
395
324
352
272
315
230
284
197
257
170
234
147
214
128
196
113
180
100
166
88
154
79
143
70

550
550
550
507
550
467
495
404
441
339
395
287
356
246
322
212
293
184
268
160
245
141
226
124
209
110
193
98
180
88

550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
530
397
475
336
428
287
388
248
353
215
322
188
295
165
272
145
251
129
233
115
216
103

550
550
550
507
550
467
550
443
550
408
550
383
525
347
475
299
432
259
395
226
362
199
334
175
308
56
285
139
265
124

550
550
512
488
456
409
408
347
368
297
333
255
303
222
277
194
254
170
234
150
216
133
200
119
186
106
173
95
161
86
151
78
142
71

550
550
550
526
508
456
455
386
410
330
371
285
337
247
308
216
283
189
260
167
240
148
223
132
207
118
193
106
180
96
168
87
158
79

550
550
550
526
550
490
547
452
493
386
447
333
406
289
371
252
340
221
313
195
289
173
268
155
249
138
232
124
216
112
203
101
190
92

550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
503
373
458
323
418
282
384
248
353
219
326
194
302
173
281
155
261
139
244
126
228
114
214
103

550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
548
405
498
351
455
307
418
269
384
238
355
211
329
188
306
168
285
151
266
137
249
124
233
112

550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
507
339
465
298
428
263
395
233
366
208
340
186
317
167
296
151
277
137
259
124

550
550
550
526
550
490
550
455
550
426
550
406
550
385
550
363
550
346
514
311
474
276
439
246
408
220
380
198
355
178
332
161
311
147

550
550
550
542
550
455
479
363
412
289
358
234
313
192
277
159
246
134
221
113
199
97

Table 3.3: Joist Properties

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

322

Draft

STRUCTURAL MATERIALS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 4

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS


To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Newtons third law of motion

4.1

Introduction

1 In the analysis of structures (hand calculations), it is often easier (but not always necessary) to start
by determining the reactions.
2 Once the reactions are determined, internal forces are determined next; nally, deformations (deections and rotations) are determined last1 .

Reactions are necessary to determine foundation load.

Depending on the type of structures, there can be dierent types of support conditions, Fig. 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Types of Supports


1 This

is the sequence of operations in the exibility method which lends itself to hand calculation. In the stiness
method, we determine displacements rsts, then internal forces and reactions. This method is most suitable to computer
implementation.

42

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Draft

Roller: provides a restraint in only one direction in a 2D structure, in 3D structures a roller may provide
restraint in one or two directions. A roller will allow rotation.
Hinge: allows rotation but no displacements.
Fixed Support: will prevent rotation and displacements in all directions.

4.2

Equilibrium

Reactions are determined from the appropriate equations of static equilibrium.

Summation of forces and moments, in a static system must be equal to zero2 .

In a 3D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 6 independent equations of equilibrium:


Fx = Fy = Fz = 0
(4.1)
Mx = My = Mz = 0
In a 2D cartesian coordinate system there are a total of 3 independent equations of equilibrium:

Fx

10

Fy

= Mz

(4.2)

For reaction calculations, the externally applied load may be reduced to an equivalent force3 .
Summation of the moments can be taken with respect to any arbitrary point.

Whereas forces are represented by a vector, moments are also vectorial quantities and are represented
by a curved arrow or a double arrow vector.

11

12

Not all equations are applicable to all structures, Table 4.1


Structure Type
Beam, no axial forces
2D Truss, Frame, Beam
Grid
3D Truss, Frame
Beams, no axial Force
2 D Truss, Frame, Beam

Equations
Fx

Fy
Fy

Fz
Fx
Fy
Fz
Alternate Set
MzA MzB
Fx
MzA MzB
A
Mz
MzB MzC

Mz
Mz
Mx
Mx

My
My

Mz

Table 4.1: Equations of Equilibrium


The three conventional equations of equilibrium in 2D: Fx , Fy and Mz can be replaced by the
independent moment equations MzA , MzB , MzC provided that A, B, and C are not colinear.

13

14

It is always preferable to check calculations by another equation of equilibrium.

15

Before you write an equation of equilibrium,


1. Arbitrarily decide which is the +ve direction
2. Assume a direction for the unknown quantities
3. The right hand side of the equation should be zero
2 In

a dynamic system F = ma where m is the mass and a is the acceleration.


for internal forces (shear and moment) we must use the actual load distribution.

3 However

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

4.3 Equations of Conditions

43

Draft

If your reaction is negative, then it will be in a direction opposite from the one assumed.
Summation of all external forces (including reactions) is not necessarily zero (except at hinges and at
points outside the structure).

16

Summation of external forces is equal and opposite to the internal ones. Thus the net force/moment
is equal to zero.

17

18

The external forces give rise to the (non-zero) shear and moment diagram.

4.3

Equations of Conditions

If a structure has an internal hinge (which may connect two or more substructures), then this will
provide an additional equation (M = 0 at the hinge) which can be exploited to determine the reactions.

19

Those equations are often exploited in trusses (where each connection is a hinge) to determine reactions.

20

In an inclined roller support with Sx and Sy horizontal and vertical projection, then the reaction
R would have, Fig. 4.2.

21

Rx
Sy
=
Ry
Sx

(4.3)

Figure 4.2: Inclined Roller Support

4.4

Static Determinacy

In statically determinate structures, reactions depend only on the geometry, boundary conditions and
loads.

22

If the reactions can not be determined simply from the equations of static equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if present), then the reactions of the structure are said to be statically indeterminate.

23

24 the degree of static indeterminacy is equal to the dierence between the number of reactions and
the number of equations of equilibrium, Fig. 4.3.

Failure of one support in a statically determinate system results in the collapse of the structures.
Thus a statically indeterminate structure is safer than a statically determinate one.

25

For statically indeterminate structures4 , reactions depend also on the material properties (e.g. Youngs
and/or shear modulus) and element cross sections (e.g. length, area, moment of inertia).

26

4 Which

will be studied in CVEN3535.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

44

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Draft

Figure 4.3: Examples of Static Determinate and Indeterminate Structures


Example 4-1: Statically Indeterminate Cable Structure
A rigid plate is supported by two aluminum cables and a steel one. Determine the force in each
cable5 .

If the rigid plate supports a load P, determine the stress in each of the three cables. Solution:
1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the rst degree.
right
left
= PAl
Mz = 0; PAl
Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P

Thus we eectively have two unknowns and one equation.


2. We need to have a third equation to solve for the three unknowns. This will be derived from the
compatibility of the displacements in all three cables, i.e. all three displacements must be
equal:

= PA
PL
L =
= L
L
AE

=indeterminate
5 This example problem will be the only statically
E
problem analyzed in CVEN3525.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

4.5 Geometric Instability

Draft

45
PAl L
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
=

=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St



Al

St

or (EA)St PAl + (EA)Al PSt = 0


3. Solution of this system of two equations with two unknowns yield:


 

2
1
PAl
P
=
(EA)St (EA)Al
PSt
0

 
1 

PAl
2
1
P

=
PSt
(EA)
 St (EA)Al   0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2



Determinant

4.5

Geometric Instability

The stability of a structure is determined not only by the number of reactions but also by their
arrangement.

27

28

Geometric instability will occur if:


1. All reactions are parallel and a non-parallel load is applied to the structure.
2. All reactions are concurrent, Fig. ??.

Figure 4.4: Geometric Instability Caused by Concurrent Reactions


3. The number of reactions is smaller than the number of equations of equilibrium, that is a mechanism is present in the structure.
Mathematically, this can be shown if the determinant of the equations of equilibrium is equal to
zero (or the equations are inter-dependent).

29

4.6

Examples

Examples of reaction calculation will be shown next. Each example has been carefully selected as it
brings a dierent twist from the preceding one. Some of those same problems will be revisited later
for the determination of the internal forces and/or deections. Many of those problems are taken from
Prof. Gerstle textbok Basic Structural Analysis.

30

Example 4-2: Simply Supported Beam


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

46

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Draft

Determine the reactions of the simply supported beam shown below.

Solution:
The beam has 3 reactions, we have 3 equations of static equilibrium, hence it is statically determinate.
(+ ) Fx = 0;
(+ ) Fy = 0;
(+ )
Mzc = 0;

Rax 36 k = 0
Ray + Rdy 60 k (4) k/ft(12) ft = 0
12Ray 6Rdy (60)(6) = 0

1 0
0
Rax 36
Rax 36 k
0 1
1
108
Ray
Ray
56 k
=

0 12 6
360
Rdy
Rdy
52 k

or

Alternatively we could have used another set of equations:


(+ )
Mza = 0; (60)(6) + (48)(12) (Rdy )(18) = 0 Rdy = 52 k
(+ )
Mzd = 0; (Ray )(18) (60)(12) (48)(6) = 0 Ray = 56 k
Check:
) Fy = 0; ; 56 52 60 48 = 0
(+

Example 4-3: Parabolic Load


Determine the reactions of a simply supported beam of length L subjected to a parabolic load
 x 2
w = w0 L

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

4.6 Examples

47

Draft

Solution:
Since there are no axial forces, there are two unknowns and two equations of equilibrium. Considering
an innitesimal element of length dx, weight dW , and moment dM :
 x=L
 x 2
w0
dx x (Rb )(L) = 0
(+ )
Ma = 0;
x=0 
L
w



dW



dM



M 

L4
= 14 w0 L
Rb = L1 w0 4L
2
 x=L  2
x
1
w0
dx = 0
(+
) Fy = 0; Ra + w0 L
L
x=0
4

Rb
w0 L3
L2 3

Ra =

14 w0 L

1
12 w0 L

Example 4-4: Three Span Beam


Determine the reactions of the following three spans beam

Solution:
We have 4 unknowns (Rax , Ray , Rcy and Rdy ), three equations of equilibrium and one equation of
condition (Mb = 0), thus the structure is statically determinate.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

48

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Draft

1. Isolating ab:

M b = 0; (9)(Ray ) (40)(5) = 0
(+ )
Ma = 0; (40)(4) (S)(9) = 0
Fx = 0;

Ray = 22.2 k
S = 17.7 k
Rax = 30 k

2. Isolating bd:
(+ )
Md = 0; (17.7)(18) (40)(15) (4)(8)(8) (30)(2) + Rcy (12) = 0
Rcy = 1,236
12 = 103 k
(+ )
Mc = 0; (17.7)(6) (40)(3) + (4)(8)(4) + (30)(10) Rdy (12) = 0
Rdy = 201.3
12 = 16.7 k
3. Check
Fy = 0; ; 22.2 40 40 + 103 32 30 + 16.7 = 0

Example 4-5: Three Hinged Gable Frame


The three-hinged gable frames spaced at 30 ft. on center. Determine the reactions components on the
frame due to: 1) Roof dead load, of 20 psf of roof area; 2) Snow load, of 30 psf of horizontal projection;
3) Wind load of 15 psf of vertical projection. Determine the critical design values for the vertical and
horizontal reactions.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

4.6 Examples

49

Draft

Solution:
1. Due to symmetry, we will consider only the dead load on one side of the frame.
2. Due to symmetry, there is no vertical force transmitted by the hinge for snow and dead load.
3. Roof dead load per frame is
DL = (20) psf(30) ft



302 + 152 ft

1
lbs/k = 20.2 k
1, 000

4. Snow load per frame is


SL = (30) psf(30) ft(30) ft

1
lbs/k = 27. k
1, 000

5. Wind load per frame (ignoring the suction) is


W L = (15) psf(30) ft(35) ft

1
lbs/k = 15.75 k
1, 000

6. There are 4 reactions, 3 equations of equilibrium and one equation of condition statically
determinate.
7. The horizontal reaction H due to a vertical load V at midspan of the roof, is obtained by taking
moment with respect to the hinge
(+ )
MC = 0; 15(V ) 30(V ) + 35(H) = 0

H=

15V
35

= .429V

Substituting for roof dead and snow load we obtain


A
VDL
A
HDL
A
VSL
A
HSL

=
=
=
=

B
VDL
B
HDL
B
VSL
B
HSL

=
=
=
=

(.429)(20.2) =
(.429)(27.)

20.2 k
8.66 k
27. k
11.58 k

8. The reactions due to wind load are


(+ )
MA
(+ )
MC
(+ ) Fx
(+ ) Fy
Victor Saouma

= 0;
= 0;
= 0;
= 0;

B
(15.75)( 20+15
2 ) VW L (60) = 0
B
HW L (35) (4.6)(30) = 0
A
15.75 3.95 HW
L = 0
B
A
VW L VW L = 0

B
VW
L = 4.60 k
B

HW
L = 3.95 k
A
HW L = 11.80 k
A

VW
L = 4.60 k

Structural Engineering

410

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Draft

9. Thus supports should be designed for


H = 8.66 k + 11.58 k + 3.95 k
V = 20.7 k + 27.0 k + 4.60 k

= 24.19 k
= 52.3 k

Example 4-6: Inclined Supports


Determine the reactions of the following two spans beam resting on inclined supports.

Solution:
A priori we would identify 5 reactions, however we do have 2 equations of conditions (one at each inclined
support), thus with three equations of equilibrium, we have a statically determinate system.
(+ )
Mb = 0; (Ray )(20) (40)(12) (30)(6) + (44.72)(6) (Rcy )(12) = 0
20Ray = 12Rcy + 391.68
(+ ) Fx = 0; 34 Ray 22.36 43 Rcy = 0
Rcy = 0.5625Ray 16.77
Solving for those two equations:


 


 

20
12
Ray
391.68
Ray
14.37 k
=

=
8.69 k
0.5625 1
Rcy
Rcy
16.77
The horizontal components of the reactions at a and c are
Rax
Rcx

=
=

3
4 14.37
4
3 8.69

=
=

10.78 k
11.59 k

Finally we solve for Rby


(+ )
Ma = 0; (40)(8) + (30)(14) (Rby )(20) + (44.72)(26) + (8.69)(32) = 0
Rby = 109.04 k
We check our results

) Fy = 0; 14.37 40 30 + 109.04 44.72 8.69 = 0


(+
(+ ) Fx = 0; 10.78 22.36 + 11.59
=0

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

4.7 Arches

Draft
4.7
31

411

Arches

See Section ??.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

412

Draft

EQUILIBRIUM & REACTIONS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 5

TRUSSES
5.1

Introduction

5.1.1

Assumptions

1 Cables and trusses are 2D or 3D structures composed of an assemblage of simple one dimensional
components which transfer only axial forces along their axis.

Cables can carry only tensile forces, trusses can carry tensile and compressive forces.

Cables tend to be exible, and hence, they tend to oscillate and therefore must be stiened.

Trusses are extensively used for bridges, long span roofs, electric tower, space structures.

For trusses, it is assumed that


1. Bars are pin-connected
2. Joints are frictionless hinges1 .
3. Loads are applied at the joints only.

A truss would typically be composed of triangular elements with the bars on the upper chord under
compression and those along the lower chord under tension. Depending on the orientation of the
diagonals, they can be under either tension or compression.

Fig. 5.1 illustrates some of the most common types of trusses.

8 It can be easily determined that in a Pratt truss, the diagonal members are under tension, while in
a Howe truss, they are in compression. Thus, the Pratt design is an excellent choice for steel whose
members are slender and long diagonal member being in tension are not prone to buckling. The vertical
members are less likely to buckle because they are shorter. On the other hand the Howe truss is often
preferred for for heavy timber trusses.

In a truss analysis or design, we seek to determine the internal force along each member, Fig. 5.2

5.1.2

Basic Relations

Sign Convention: Tension positive, compression negative. On a truss the axial forces are indicated as
forces acting on the joints.
Stress-Force: =

P
A

Stress-Strain: = E
1 In practice the bars are riveted, bolted, or welded directly to each other or to gusset plates, thus the bars are not free
to rotate and so-called secondary bending moments are developed at the bars. Another source of secondary moments
is the dead weight of the element.

52

TRUSSES

Draft

Figure 5.1: Types of Trusses

Figure 5.2: Bridge Truss

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

5.2 Trusses

53

Draft

Force-Displacement: =

L
L

Equilibrium: F = 0

5.2
5.2.1

Trusses
Determinacy and Stability

Trusses are statically determinate when all the bar forces can be determined from the equations
of statics alone. Otherwise the truss is statically indeterminate.

10

A truss may be statically/externally determinate or indeterminate with respect to the reactions (more
than 3 or 6 reactions in 2D or 3D problems respectively).

11

12

A truss may be internally determinate or indeterminate, Table 5.1.

If we refer to j as the number of joints, R the number of reactions and m the number of members,
then we would have a total of m + R unknowns and 2j (or 3j) equations of statics (2D or 3D at each
joint). If we do not have enough equations of statics then the problem is indeterminate, if we have too
many equations then the truss is unstable, Table 5.1.

13

2D
3D
Static Indeterminacy
External
R>3
R>6
Internal
m + R > 2j m + R > 3j
Unstable m + R < 2j m + R < 3j
Table 5.1: Static Determinacy and Stability of Trusses
If m < 2j 3 (in 2D) the truss is not internally stable, and it will not remain a rigid body when it is
detached from its supports. However, when attached to the supports, the truss will be rigid.

14

Since each joint is pin-connected, we can apply M = 0 at each one of them. Furthermore, summation
of forces applied on a joint must be equal to zero.

15

For 2D trusses the external equations of equilibrium which can be used to determine the reactions
are FX = 0, FY = 0 and MZ = 0. For 3D trusses the available equations are FX = 0, FY = 0,
FZ = 0 and MX = 0, MY = 0, MZ = 0.

16

For a 2D truss we have 2 equations of equilibrium FX = 0 and FY = 0 which can be applied at


each joint. For 3D trusses we would have three equations: FX = 0, FY = 0 and FZ = 0.

17

Fig. 5.3 shows a truss with 4 reactions, thus it is externally indeterminate. This truss has 6 joints
(j = 6), 4 reactions (R = 4) and 9 members (m = 9). Thus we have a total of m + R = 9 + 4 = 13
unknowns and 2 j = 2 6 = 12 equations of equilibrium, thus the truss is statically indeterminate.

18

19

There are two methods of analysis for statically determinate trusses


1. The Method of joints
2. The Method of sections

5.2.2
20

Method of Joints

The method of joints can be summarized as follows


1. Determine if the structure is statically determinate
2. Compute all reactions

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

54

TRUSSES

Draft

Figure 5.3: A Statically Indeterminate Truss


3. Sketch a free body diagram showing all joint loads (including reactions)
4. For each joint, and starting with the loaded ones, apply the appropriate equations of equilibrium
(Fx and Fy in 2D; Fx , Fy and Fz in 3D).
5. Because truss elements can only carry axial forces, the resultant force (F7 = F7x + F7y ) must be
along the member, Fig. 5.4.
Fx
F
Fy
=
=
L
Lx
Ly

(5.1)

Always keep track of the x and y components of a member force (Fx , Fy ), as those might be needed
later on when considering the force equilibrium at another joint to which the member is connected.

21

Figure 5.4: X and Y Components of Truss Forces


22

This method should be used when all member forces must be determined.

In truss analysis, there is no sign convention. A member is assumed to be under tension (or
compression). If after analysis, the force is found to be negative, then this would imply that the wrong
assumption was made, and that the member should have been under compression (or tension).

23

On a free body diagram, the internal forces are represented by arrow acting on the joints and
not as end forces on the element itself. That is for tension, the arrow is pointing away from the joint,
and for compression toward the joint, Fig. 5.5.

24

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

5.2 Trusses

55

Draft

Figure 5.5: Sign Convention for Truss Element Forces

Example 5-1: Truss, Method of Joints


Using the method of joints, analyze the following truss

Solution:
1. R = 3, m = 13, 2j = 16, and m + R = 2j

2. We compute the reactions

(+ ) ME = 0; (20 + 12)(3)(24) + (40 + 8)(2)(24) + (40)(24) RAy (4)(24) = 0


RAy = 58 k
) Fy = 0; 20 + 12 + 40 + 8 + 40 58 REy = 0
(+
REy = 62 k
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

56

TRUSSES

Draft

3. Consider each joint separately:


Node A: Clearly AH is under compression, and AB under tension.

(+
) Fy = 0; FAHy + 58 = 0
FAH = lly (FAHy )
ly = 32
FAH = 40
32 (58) = 72.5 k Compression
(+ ) Fx = 0; FAHx + FAB = 0
24
x
FAB = L
Ly (FAHy ) = 32 (58) = 43.5 k Tension

l=

322 + 242 = 40

Node B:

(+ ) Fx = 0; FBC
) Fy = 0; FBH
(+

=
=

43.5 k Tension
20 k Tension

Node H:

(+ ) Fx = 0; FAHx FHCx FHGx = 0


43.5 2424
(FHC ) 2424
(FHG ) = 0
2 +322
2 +102
(+
) Fy = 0; FAHy + FHCy 12 FHGy 20 = 0
58 + 2432
(FHC ) 12 2410
(FHG ) 20 = 0
2 +322
2 +102
This can be most conveniently written as


 

0.6 0.921
FHC
7.5
=
0.8 0.385
FHG
52

(5.2)

Solving we obtain
FHC
FHG
Victor Saouma

=
=

7.5 k Tension
52 k Compression
Structural Engineering

5.2 Trusses

57

Draft
Node E:

Fy = 0; FEFy = 62
Fx = 0; FED = FEFx

FEF =
FED =

242 +322
(62)
32
24
24
(F
)
EFy = 32 (62)
32

= 77.5 k
= 46.5 k

The results of this analysis are summarized below

4. We could check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of forces at a node not previously used,
such as D

5.2.2.1
25

26

27

Matrix Method

This is essentially the method of joints cast in matrix form2 .


We seek to determine the Statics Matrix [B] such that
 



P
F
BF F BF R
=
BRF BRR
R
0

(5.3)

This method can be summarized as follows


1. Select a coordinate system
2. Number the joints and the elements separately
2 Writing

a computer program for this method, would be an acceptable project.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

58

TRUSSES

Draft
3. Assume

(a) All member forces to be positive (i.e. tension)


(b) All reactions to be positive
4. Compute the direction cosines at each node j and for each element e, Fig. 5.6

Y
- ve
+ ve

+ ve
+ ve
X

- ve
- ve

+ ve
- ve

Figure 5.6: Direction Cosines


ej
je

=
=

Lx
L
Ly
L

5. Write the two equations of equilibrium at each joint j in terms of the unknowns (member forces
and reactions), Fig. 5.7

e
e
e
Fy = L y F = F
L

e
e
e
Fx = Lx F = F
L

Figure 5.7: Forces Acting on Truss Joint


elements e
j Fe + Rxj + Pxj = 0
(+ ) Fx = 0; #of
e=1
elements e
j Fe + Ryj + Pyj = 0
(+ ) Fy = 0; #of
e=1

6. Invert the matrix to compute {F } and {R}


The advantage of this method, is that once the [B] matrix has been inverted, we can readily reanalyze
the same structure for dierent load cases. With the new design codes in which dead loads and live
loads are separately factored (Chapter 7), this method can save substantial reanalysis eort. Furthermore, when deections are determined by the virtual force method (Chapter 13), two analysis with two
dierent loads are required.

28

This method may be the only one appropriate to analyze statically determinate trusses which solutions defy the previous two methods, Fig. 5.8.

29

30

Element e connecting joint i to j will have ei = ej , and ie = je

The matrix [B] will have 2j rows and m + r columns. It can only be inverted if ti is symmetric (i.e
2j = m + r, statically determinate).

31

32

An algorithm to implement this method in simple computer programs:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

5.2 Trusses

59

Draft

Figure 5.8: Complex Statically Determinate Truss


1. Prepare input data:
(a) Nodal information:
Node
1
2
3

x(1)
0.
10.
5.

x(2)
0.
0.
5.

P (1)
0.
0.
0.

P (2)
0.
0.
-10.

R(1)
1
0
0

R(2)
1
1
0

where x(1), x(2), P (1), and P (2) are the x and y coordinates; the x and y component of
applied nodal load. R(1), R(2) correspond to the x and y boundary conditions, they will be
set to 1 if there is a corresponding reaction, and 0 otherwise.
(b) Element Connectivity
Element
1
2
3

Node(1)
1
2
3

Node(2)
2
3
1

2. Determine the size of the matrix (2 times the number of joints) and initialize a square matrix of
this size to zero.
3. Assemble the rst submnatrix of the Statics matrix
(a) Loop over each element (e), determine Lix , Liy (as measured from the rst node), L, ei =
ie =

Liy
e
e
e
e
L , j = i , j = i , where
ei in row 2i 1 column e, ie in

(b) Store
2j column e.

Lix
L

i and j are the end nodes of element e.


row 2i column e, ej in row 2j 1 column e, je in row

4. Loop over each node:


(a) Store Rxi (reaction boundary condition for node i along x) in row 2i 1 column e + 2i 1.
Similarly, store Ryi (reaction boundary condition for node i along y) in row 2i column e + 2i.
(b) Store Pxi (Load at node i along x axis) in vector P row 2i 1, similarly, store Pyi in row 2i.
5. Invert the matrix B, multiply it with the load vector P and solve for the unknown member forces
and reactions.
%
% Initialize the statics matrix
%
b(1:2*npoin,1:2*npoin)=0.;
%
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

510

Draft

TRUSSES

% Determine direction cosines and insert them in b


%
for ielem=1:nelem
nod1=lnods(ielem,1);
nod2=lnods(ielem,2);
lx=coord(nod2,1)-coord(nod1,1);
ly=coord(nod2,2)-coord(nod1,2);
l_elem(ielem)=
alpha_i=...
beta_i=...
b(...,...)=...;
b(...,...)=...;
alpha_j=...
beta_j=...
b(...,...)=...
b(...,...)=...
end
%
% Boundary conditions
%
nbc=0;
for inode=1:npoin
for ibc=1:2
if id(inode,ibc)==1
nbc=nbc+1;
b(...,...)=1.;
end
end
end

Example 5-2: Truss I, Matrix Method


Determine all member forces for the following truss

Solution:
1. We rst determine the directions cosines

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

5.2 Trusses

Draft

511
Member
1

Nodes
1-2

11 = 1
2

2-3

3-1

Node 2
12 = 1
21 = 0
Node 3
23 = .707 32 = .707
Node 1
31 = .707
13 = .707

Node 1
11 = 0

Node 2
22 = .7071
22 = .707
Node 3
33 = .707 33 = .707

2. Next we write the equations of equilibrium

Node 1
Node 2
Node 3

Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy

=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0

F1
11
11
1
2
1
2

0
0

F2
0
0
22
22
23
32

F3
31
13
0
0
33
33

R1x
1
0
0
0
0
0

R1y
0
1
0
0
0
0

R2y

0


F1
F2
F3
R1x
R1y
R2y

F1
F2
F3
R1x
R1y
R2y

{F }

0
0
0
0
0
10

{P }

=0

Or
Node 1 Fx
Fy
Node 2 Fx
Fy
Node 3 Fx
Fy

=0
=0
=0
=0
=0
=0

1
0
.707
0
0
.707
1 .707
0
0
.707
0
0
.707 .707
0 .707 .707

1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0

[B]

Inverting [B] we obtain from F = [B]1 P

F1

F3
R1x

1y
R2y

{F }

0
0
0
0
0
10

{P }

=0

7.07

7.07
=
0

Example 5-3: Truss II, Matrix Method


Set up the statics matrix for the truss of Example 5-1 using the matrix method
Solution:
First we number the joints and the elements as shown below.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

512

TRUSSES

Draft

Then we determine the direction cosines


24
242 +322
32
242 +322
10
242 +102
24
242 +102

# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6
# 7
# 8

Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy

1
1

=
=
=
=

3
5
4
5
10
26
24
26

= 0.6
= 0.8
= 0.38
= 0.92

.6
.8

1
1

1
1
1

.6
.8

1
1

.6
.8

1
1
1
.6
.8

.6
.8
.6
.8

1
.6
.8

.6
.8

.92
.38
.92
.38

.92
.38
.92
.38

[B]

F1

FF23
F4

F5

F6

FF78

9
FF10

F11

FF12

13

R1

R1xy
R5

y
?

0
0
0
20
0
40
0
40
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
12

Using Mathematica we would have


b={
{ 1, 0., 0., 0.,0.6, 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0.,0.8, 0., 0., 0.,
{-1, 1, 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0.,0., 0., 0., 0.,
1, 0., 0.,
{0.,-1,
1, 0., 0., 0.,-0.6, 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.8, 1.,
{0., 0., -1,
1, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., -1, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1,
{0., 0., 0., 0., -0.6, 0., 0.6, 0.,
{0., 0., 0., 0.,-0.8, -1,-0.8, 0.,
}
p={0, 0, 0, -20, 0, -40 , 0, -40,
m=Inverse[b].p

0., 0., 0.,


0.,
0., 1, 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 1, 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0.6, 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0.8, 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 1., 0.,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0.,-0.6,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.8,
0.,
0., 0., 0., 1.},
-0.6, 0., 0.6,
0.,-0.92, 0., 0., 0.},
-0.8,-1.,-0.8,
0., 0.38, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,-0.92, 0.92, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0.,-0.38,-0.38, 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0., 0.92,
0., 0., 0., 0.},
0., 0., 0., 0.38,
0., 0., 0., 0.}
0, 0,

0, 0, 0, -8,

0, -12}

And the result will be

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

=0

5.2 Trusses

513

Draft

Out[3]= {-43.5, -43.5, -46.5, -46.5, 72.5, -20., -7.66598, -31.7344,


>

-2.66598, -40., 77.5, 52.2822, 52.2822, -1.22125 10

-14
, -58., -62.}

which correspond to the unknown element internal forces and external reactions.

5.2.3

Method of Sections

When only forces in selected members (away from loaded joints) is to be determined, this method
should be used.

33

34

This method can be summarized as follows


1. Cut the truss into two substructures by an imaginary line (not necessarily straight) such that it
will at least intersect the member for which force is to be determined.
2. Consider either one of the two substructures as the free body
3. Each substructure must remain in equilibrium. Apply the equations of equilibrium
(a) Summation of moments about a particular point (usually the intersection of 2 cut members)
would permit the determination of other member forces
(b) Summation of forces is usually used to determine forces in inclined members

Example 5-4: Truss, Method of Sections


Determine FBC and FHG in the previous example.
Solution:
Cutting through members HG, HC and BC, we rst take the summation of forces with respect to H:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

514

TRUSSES

Draft
(+ )
MH = 0

RAy (24) FBC (32) = 0


FBC = 24
32 (58) = 43.5 k Tension
(+ )
MC = 0; (58)(24)(2) (20 + 12)(24) FHGx (32) FHGy (24) = 0
2770 768 (32)(FHG ) 2424
(24)(FHG ) 2410
=0
2 +102
2 +102
2, 000 (29.5)FHG (9.2)FHG = 0
FHG = 52 k Compression

5.3

Case Study: Stadium


B

3m

D
C
1m
E

2m
G
F

3m

0.5 m
7.5 m

Figure 5.9: Florence Stadium, Pier Luigi Nervi (?)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

5.3 Case Study: Stadium

515

Draft

800 kN
1

j=6

3m

m=9
r=3

3
6

1m

4
4

8
2m

7
9

5
111
000
000
111
000
111

3m

6
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111

0.5 m
7.5 m

Figure 5.10: Florence Stadioum, Pier Luigi Nervi (?)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

516

Draft

TRUSSES

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 6

CABLES
6.1

Funicular Polygons

1 A cable is a slender exible member with zero or negligible exural stiness, thus it can only transmit
tensile forces1 .
2 The tensile force at any point acts in the direction of the tangent to the cable (as any other component
will cause bending).

Its strength stems from its ability to undergo extensive changes in slope at the point of load application.

Cables resist vertical forces by undergoing sag (h) and thus developing tensile forces. The horizontal
component of this force (H) is called thrust.

The distance between the cable supports is called the chord.

The sag to span ratio is denoted by


r=

h
l

(6.1)

7 When a set of concentrated loads is applied to a cable of negligible weight, then the cable deects into
a series of linear segments and the resulting shape is called the funicular polygon.

If a cable supports vertical forces only, then the horizontal component H of the cable tension T remains
constant.

Example 6-1: Funicular Cable Structure


Determine the reactions and the tensions for the cable structure shown below.

1 Due

to the zero exural rigidity it will buckle under axial compressive forces.

62

CABLES

Draft

Solution:
We have 4 external reactions, however the horizontal ones are equal and we can use any one of a number
of equations of conditions in addition to the three equations of equilibrium. First, we solve for Ay ,
Dy and H = Ax = Dx . For this problem we could use the following 3 equations of static equilibrium
Fx = Fy = M = 0, however since we do not have any force in the x direction, the second equation
is of no avail. Instead we will consider the following set Fy = MA = MD = 0
1. First we solve for Dy
(+ )
MA = 0; 12(30) + 6(70) Dy (100) = 0 Dy = 7.8 k

(6.2)

2. Then we solve for Ay


(+ ) Fy = 0; Ay 12 6 + 7.8 = 0 Ay = 10.2 k

(6.3)

3. Solve for the horizontal force


(+ )
MB = 0; Ay (30) H(6) = 0 H = 51 k

(6.4)

4. Now we can solve for the sag at point C


(+ )
MC = 0 DY (30) + H(hc ) = 0 hc =

30(7.8)
30Dy
=
= 4.6 ft
H
51

5. We now solve for the cable internal forces or tractions in this case
6
= 0.200 A = 11.31 deg
TAB ;
tan A =
30
H
51
=
= 51.98 k
=
cos A
0.981
6 4.6
TBC ;
= 0.035 B = 2 deg
tan B =
40
H
51
=
= 51.03 k
=
cos B
0.999
4.6
TCD ;
= 0.153 C = 8.7 deg
tan C =
30
H
51
=
= 51.62 k
=
cos C
0.988

Victor Saouma

(6.5)

(6.6-a)
(6.6-b)
(6.6-c)
(6.6-d)
(6.6-e)
(6.6-f)

Structural Engineering

6.2 Uniform Load

63

Draft
6.2

6.2.1

Uniform Load
qdx; Parabola

9 Whereas the forces in a cable can be determined from statics alone, its conguration must be derived
from its deformation. Let us consider a cable with distributed load p(x) per unit horizontal projection of the cable length2 . An innitesimal portion of that cable can be assumed to be a straight line,
Fig. 6.1 and in the absence of any horizontal load we have H =constant. Summation of the vertical

T
V

q(x)

x q(x)

y(x)

dy

ds

dx

ds
L

dx

V+dV

H
T+dT

x
h
x

y
L/2

Figure 6.1: Cable Structure Subjected to q(x)


forces yields
) Fy = 0 V + qdx + (V + dV ) =
(+

(6.7-a)

dV + qdx =

(6.7-b)

where V is the vertical component of the cable tension at x3 . Because the cable must be tangent to T ,
we have
V
tan =
(6.8)
H
10

Substituting into Eq. 6.7-b yields


d(H tan ) + qdx = 0

(6.9)

or

d
(H tan ) = q
dx
Since H is constant (no horizontal load is applied), this last equation can be rewritten as

d
(tan ) = q
dx

(6.11)

dy
dx

which when substituted in Eq. 6.11 yields

Written in terms of the vertical displacement y, tan =


the governing equation for cables

11

2 Thus
3 Note

(6.10)

d2 y
q
=
dx2
H

(6.12)

neglecting the weight of the cable


that if the cable was subjected to its own weight then we would have qds instead of pdx.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

64

CABLES

Draft

For a cable subjected to a uniform load p. we can determine its shape by double integration of Eq.
6.12

12

Hy 

Hy

qx + C1
qx2
+ C1 x + C2
2

(6.13-a)
(6.13-b)

To solve for C1 and C2 this last equation must satisfy the boundary conditions: y = 0 at x = 0 and at
x = L C2 = 0 and C1 = qL
2 . Thus
q
(6.14)
Hy = x(L x)
2
13 This equation gives the shape y(x) in terms of the horizontal force H, it can be rewritten in terms of
the maximum sag h which occurs at midspan, hence at x = L2 we would have4

qL2
8

Hh =

(6.15)

This relation clearly shows that the horizontal force is inversely proportional to the sag h, as h 
H . Furthermore, this equation can be rewritten as

14

8h
qL
=
H
L

(6.16)

and combining this equation with Eq. 6.1 we obtain

15

(6.17)

4hx
(L x)
L2

(6.18)

Combining Eq. 6.14 and 6.15 we obtain


y=

16

qL
= 8r
H

If we shift the origin to midspan, and reverse y, then

y=

4h 2
x
L2

(6.19)

Thus the cable assumes a parabolic shape (as the moment diagram of the applied load).
The maximum tension occurs at the support where the vertical component is equal to V = qL
2 and
the horizontal one to H, thus
 


2
2

qL/2
qL
Tmax = V 2 + H 2 =
+ H2 = H 1 +
(6.20)
2
H

17

Combining this with Eq. 6.17 we obtain5 .

Tmax = H
4 Note

M=


1 + 16r2 H(1 + 8r2 )

(6.21)

the analogy between this equation and the maximum moment in a simply supported uniformly loaded beam

qL2
.
8

5 Recalling

that (a + b)n = an + nan1 b +

1
2
Thus for b << 1, 1 + b = (1 + b) 2 1 + 2b

Victor Saouma

n(n1) n2 2
a
b
2!

+ or (1 + b)n = 1 + nb +

n(n1)b2
2!

n(n1)(n2)b3
3!

+ ;

Structural Engineering

6.2 Uniform Load

65

Draft
6.2.2

qds; Catenary

Let us consider now the case where the cable is subjected to its own weight (plus ice and wind if any).
We would have to replace qdx by qds in Eq. 6.7-b

18

dV + qds = 0

(6.22)

The dierential equation for this new case will be derived exactly as before, but we substitute qdx by
qds, thus Eq. 6.12 becomes
d2 y
q ds
=
2
dx
H dx
19

But ds2 = dx2 + dy 2 , hence:


q
d2 y
=
2
dx
H

1+

(6.23)

dy
dx

2
(6.24)

solution of this dierential equation is considerably more complicated than for a parabola.
20

We let dy/dx = p, then

dp
q
=
1 + p2
dx
H

rearranging

dp

=
1 + p2

(6.25)

q
dx
H

(6.26)

From Mathematica (or handbooks), the left hand side is equal to




dp

= loge (p + 1 + p2 )
1 + p2
Substituting, we obtain

loge (p + 1 + p2 )

p + 1 + p2

1 + p2
1+p

21

(6.27)

qx
+ C1
=
 H

(6.28-a)

= e

= p + e

(6.28-b)
A

(6.28-c)

= p 2pe + e
e2A 1
eA eA
= sinh A
=
=
2eA
2


qx
dy
= sinh
+ C1
=
H
dx
 qx


 qx
H
=
sinh
+ C1 dx = cosh
+ C1 + C2
H
q
H
2

2A

(6.28-d)
(6.28-e)
(6.28-f)
(6.28-g)

To determine the two constants, we set


dy
dx
dy
dx
0
y

Victor Saouma

L
at x =
2

 qx
q H
=
sinh
+ C1
H q
H


q L
q L
= sinh
+ C1 C1 =
H2
H2
 

q L
H
x + C2
= cosh
q
H 2
= 0

(6.29-a)
(6.29-b)
(6.29-c)
(6.29-d)
Structural Engineering

66

CABLES

Draft

At midspan, the sag is equal to h, thus


 

H
q L L
cosh

+ C2
q
H 2
2
H
= h+
q

h
C2

22

(6.30-a)
(6.30-b)

If we move the origin at the lowest point along the cable at x = x L/2 and y  = h y, we obtain
q 
q
y = cosh
x 1
H
H

23

(6.31)

This equation is to be contrasted with 6.19, we can rewrite those two equations as:
q
1  q 2
y=
x
Parabola
H
2 H

q
q
y = cosh
x 1 Catenary
H
H

(6.32-a)
(6.32-b)

The hyperbolic cosine of the catenary can be expanded into a Taylor power series as
qy
1  qx 2
1  qx 4
1  qx 6
=
+
+
+ ...
H
2 H
24 H
720 H

(6.33)

The rst term of this development is identical as the formula for the parabola, and the other terms
constitute the dierence between the two. The dierence becomes signicant only for large qx/H, that
is for large sags in comparison with the span, Fig. 6.3.
3
Parabola
Catenary
2.5

1.5

0.5

0
2

1.5

0.5

0
qx/H

0.5

1.5

Figure 6.2: Catenary versus Parabola Cable Structures

6.2.2.1

Historical Note

It should be mentioned that solution of this problem constitued one of the major mathematical/Mechanics
challenges of the early 18th century. Around 1684, dierential and integral calculus took their rst eective forms, and those powerful new techniques allowed scientists to tackle complex problems for the rst
time, (Penvenuto 1991). One of these problems was the solution to the catenary problem as presented by
Jakob Bernouilli. Immediately thereafter, Leibniz presented a solution based on innitesimal calculus,
another one was presented by Huygens. Finally, the brother of the challenger, Johann Bernoulli did also
present a solution.

24

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

6.2 Uniform Load

67

Draft

Huygens solution was complex and relied on geometrical arguments. The one of Leibniz was ellegant
and correct (y/a = (bx/a + bx/a )/2 (we recognize Eq. 6.31 albeit written in slightly dierent form, Fig.
6.3. Finally, Bernoulli presented two correct solution, and in his solution he did for the rst time express
25

Figure 6.3: Leipnizs Figure of a catenary, 1690


equations of equilibrium in dierential form.
Example 6-2: Design of Suspension Bridge
Design the following 4 lanes suspension bridge by selecting the cable diameters assuming an allowable
cable strength all of 190 ksi. The bases of the tower are hinged in order to avoid large bending moments.

The total dead load is estimated at 200 psf. Assume a sag to span ratio of
Solution:

1
5

1
=
1. The dead load carried by each cable will be one half the total dead load or p1 = 12 (200) psf(50) ft 1,000
5.0 k/ft

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

68

CABLES

Draft

2. Using the HS 20 truck, the uniform additional load per cable is


p2 = (2)lanes/cable(.64)k/ft/lane = 1.28 k/ft/cable. Thus, the total design load is p1 + p2 =
5 + 1.28 = 6.28 k/ft
3. The thrust H is determined from Eq. 6.15
H

pl2
8h
(6.28) k/ft(300)2 ft2


(8) 300
5 ft

=
=
=

4. From Eq. 6.21 the maximum tension is


Tmax

(6.34-a)
(6.34-b)

1, 177 k

(6.34-c)


1 + 16r2


(6.35-a)

 2
1
(1, 177) k 1 + (16)
5

(6.35-b)

1, 507 k

(6.35-c)

5. Note that if we used the approximate formula in Eq. 6.21 we would have obtained
Tmax

H(1 + 8r2 )

 2
1
1, 177 1 + 8
5

=
=
=

(6.36-a)
(6.36-b)

1, 554 k

(6.36-c)

or 3% dierence!
6. The required cross sectional area of the cable along the main span should be equal to
Tmax
1, 507 k
=
= 7.93 in2
all
190 ksi

A=
which corresponds to a diameter
d=

4A
=

(4)(7.93)
= 3.18 in

7. We seek next to determine the cable force in AB. Since the pylon can not take any horizontal
force, we should have the horizontal
component of Tmax (H) equal and opposite to the horizontal

component of TAB or

TAB
H

TAB

(100)2 +(120)2
100

thus

(100)2 + (120)2
= (1, 177)(1.562) = 1, 838 k
=H
100

the cable area should be


A=
which corresponds to a diameter

1, 838 k
= 9.68 in2
190 ksi

!
d=

(6.37)

(4)(9.68)
= 3.51 in

8. To determine the vertical load acting on the pylon, we must add the vertical components of Tmax
and of TAB (VBC and VAB respectively). We can determine VBC from H and Tmax , thus

120
(1, 177) + (1, 507)2 (1, 177)2 = 1, 412 + 941 = 2, 353 k
(6.38)
P =
100
Using A36 steel with an allowable stress of 21 ksi, the cross sectional area of the tower should be
2
A = 2,353
21 = 112 in . Note that buckling of such a high tower might govern the nal dimensions.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge

69

Draft

9. If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least
equal to
(1, 412) k(1, 000)
V =
= 9, 413 ft3
150 lbs/ft3
or a cube of approximately 21 ft

6.3

Case Study: George Washington Bridge

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)


The George Washington bridge, is a suspension bridge spanning the Hudson river from New York
City to New Jersey. It was completed in 1931 with a central span of 3,500 ft (at the time the worlds
longest span). The bridge was designed by O.H. Amman, who had emigrated from Switzerland. In 1962
the deck was stiened with the addition of a lower deck.

26

6.3.1
27

Geometry

A longitudinal and plan elevation of the bridge is shown in Fig. 6.4. For simplicity we will assume in

??
377 ft

610 ft

327 ft

3,500 ft

650 ft

4,760 ft
ELEVATION

N.J.

HUDSON RIVER

N.Y.

PLAN

Figure 6.4: Longitudinal and Plan Elevation of the George Washington Bridge
our analysis that the two approaching spans are equal to 650 ft.
There are two cables of three feet diameter on each side of the bridge. The centers of each pair are 9
ft apart, and the pairs themselves are 106 ft apart. We will assume a span width of 100 ft.

28

The cables are idealized as supported by rollers at the top of the towers, hence the horizontal components of the forces in each side of the cable must be equal (their vertical components will add up).

29

The cables support the road deck which is hung by suspenders attached at the cables. The cables are
made of 26,474 steel wires, each 0.196 inch in diameter. They are continuous over the tower supports
and are rmly anchored in both banks by huge blocks of concrete, the anchors.

30

Because the cables are much longer than they are thick (small LI ), they can be idealized as perfectly
exible members with no shear/bending resistance but with high axial strength.

31

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

610

CABLES

Draft

The towers are 578 ft tall and rest on concrete caissons in the river. Because of our assumption
regarding the roller support for the cables, the towers will be subjected only to axial forces.

32

6.3.2

Loads

The dead load is composed of the weight of the deck and the cables and is estimated at 390 and 400
psf respectively for the central and side spans respectively. Assuming an average width of 100 ft, this
would be equivalent to

33

DL = (390) psf(100) ft

(1, 000) lbs

= 39 k/ft

(6.39)

for the main span and 40 k/ft for the side ones.
For highway bridges, design loads are given by the AASHTO (Association of American State Highway
Transportation Ocials). The HS-20 truck is often used for the design of bridges on main highways, Fig.
6.5. Either the design truck with specied axle loads and spacing must be used or the equivalent uniform
load and concentrated load. This loading must be placed such that maximum stresses are produced.
34

Figure 6.5: Truck Load

35

With two decks, we estimate that there is a total of 12 lanes or


LL = (12)Lanes(.64) k/ ft/Lane = 7.68 k/ft 8 k/ft

(6.40)

We do not consider earthquake, or wind loads in this analysis.


36

Final DL and LL are, Fig. 6.6: T L = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft

6.3.3
37

Cable Forces

The thrust H (which is the horizontal component of the cable force) is determined from Eq. 6.15
H

=
=
=

Victor Saouma

wL2cs
8h
(47) k/ft(3, 500)2 ft2
(8)(327) ft
220, 000 k

(6.41-a)
(6.41-b)
(6.41-c)
Structural Engineering

6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge

611

Draft

wD,S = 40 k/ft

wD = 39 k/ft

wD,S = 40 k/ft

DEAD LOADS

wL = 8 k/ft

Figure 6.6: Dead and Live Loads


From Eq. 6.21 the maximum tension is
r
Tmax

327
h
=
= 0.0934
Lcs
3, 500

= H 1 + 16r2

= (220, 000) k 1 + (16)(0.0934)2

= (220, 000) k(1.0675) = 235,000 k

6.3.4
38

(6.42-a)
(6.42-b)
(6.42-c)
(6.42-d)

Reactions

Cable reactions are shown in Fig. 6.7.


POINTS WITH
REACTIONS TO
CABLES

Figure 6.7: Location of Cable Reactions


39

The vertical force in the columns due to the central span (cs) is simply the support reaction, 6.8
Vcs =

Victor Saouma

1
1
wLcs = (47) k/ft(3, 500) ft = 82, 250 k
2
2

(6.43)
Structural Engineering

612

CABLES

Draft

wTOT = 39 + 8 = 47 k/ft
B

REACTIONS AT
TOP OF TOWER

POINT OF NO
MOMENT

L = 3,500 FT

Figure 6.8: Vertical Reactions in Columns Due to Central Span Load


Note that we can check this by determining the vector sum of H and V which should be equal to Tmax :

2 + H2 =
Vcs
(82, 250)2 + (220, 000)2 = 235, 000 k

(6.44)

Along the side spans (ss), the total load is T L = 40 + 8 = 48 k/ft. We determine the vertical reaction
by taking the summation of moments with respect to the anchor:

40

Lss
Vss Lss
2
(650) ft
= (377) k(220, 000) k + (48) k/ft(650) ft
650Vss
2
Vss
MD = 0; +;
hss H + (wss Lss )

(6.45-a)

(6.45-b)

143, 200 k

(6.45-c)

Note: that we have used equilibrium to determine the vertical component of the cable force. It would
377
have been wrong to determine Vss from Vss = 220, 000 650
as we did in the previous example, because
the cable is now loaded. We would have to determine the shape of the cable and the tangent at the
support. Beginiing with Eq. 6.13-b:

41

Hy

1 2
wx + C1 x + C2
2
w x2
C1
C2
+
x+
H 2
H
H

(6.46-a)
(6.46-b)
(6.46-c)

At x = 0, y = 0, thus C2 = 0; and at x = 650, y = 377; with H = 220, 000 k and w = 48


=

(48) k
C1
x2
x
ft(220, 000) k
(220, 000) k

(6.47-a)

1.091 104 x2 4.545 106 C1 x

(6.47-b)

y|x=650
C1

=
=

377 = 1.091 104 (650)2 4.545 106 C1 (650)


112, 000

(6.47-c)
(6.47-d)

y
dy
dx

1.091 104 x2 0.501x

(6.47-e)

2.182 104 x 0.501

(6.47-f)

0.1418 0.501 = 0.6428 =

(220, 000)(0.6428) = 141, 423 k

"
dy ""
dx "x=650
V

V
H

(6.47-g)
(6.47-h)

which is only 1% dierent.


42

Hence the total axial force applied on the column is


V = Vcs + Vss = (82, 250) k + (143, 200) k = 225,450 k

Victor Saouma

(6.48)

Structural Engineering

6.3 Case Study: George Washington Bridge

613

Draft
43

The vertical reaction at the anchor is given by summation of the forces in the y direction, Fig. 6.9:
(+ ) Fy = 0; (wss Lss ) + Vss + Ranchor
(48) k/ft(650) ft + (143, 200) k + Ranchor
Ranchor

= 0

(6.49-a)

= 0

(6.49-b)

112,000 k

(6.49-c)
(6.49-d)

225,450 k
220,000 k

112,000 k
Figure 6.9: Cable Reactions in Side Span

44

45

The axial force in the side cable is determined the vector sum of the horizontal and vertical reactions.
#

ss
Tanchor
=
+ H 2 = (112, 000)2 + (220, 000)2 = 247, 000 k
R2
(6.50-a)
anchor
#

ss
2 + H2 =
=
Vss
(143, 200)2 + (220, 000)2 = 262,500 k
(6.50-b)
Ttower

The cable stresses are determined last, Fig. 6.10:


Awire

Atotal

Central Span

ss
Side Span Tower tower

ss
Side Span Anchor tower

(3.14)(0.196)2
D2
=
= 0.03017 in2
(6.51-a)
4
4
2
(4)cables(26, 474)wires/cable(0.03017) in2 /wire = 3, 200 in(6.51-b)
H
(220, 000) k
=
= 68.75 ksi
(6.51-c)
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Ttower
(262, 500) in2
= 82 ksi
(6.51-d)
=
A
(3, 200) in2
ss
Tanchor
(247, 000) in2
=
= 77.2 ksi
(6.51-e)
A
(3, 200) in2

73.4 ksi

81.9 ksi

68.75 ksi

77.2 ksi

Figure 6.10: Cable Stresses


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

614

CABLES

Draft

If the cables were to be anchored to a concrete block, the volume of the block should be at least equal
to V = (112,000) k(1,000)3 lbs/ k = 747, 000 ft3 or a cube of approximately 91 ft

46

150

lbs/ft

The deck, for all practical purposes can be treated as a continuous beam supported by elastic springs
with stiness K = AL/E (where L is the length of the supporting cable). This is often idealized as
a beam on elastic foundations, and the resulting shear and moment diagrams for this idealization are
shown in Fig. 6.11.

47

K=AL/E

Shear

Moment

Figure 6.11: Deck Idealization, Shear and Moment Diagrams

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 7

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI


and AISC CODES
7.1

Safety Provisions

1 Structures and structural members must always be designed to carry some reserve load above what is
expected under normal use. This is to account for

Variability in Resistance: The actual strengths (resistance) of structural elements will dier from
those assumed by the designer due to:
1. Variability in the strength of the material (greater variability in concrete strength than in
steel strength).
2. Dierences between the actual dimensions and those specied (mostly in placement of steel
rebars in R/C).
3. Eect of simplifying assumptions made in the derivation of certain formulas.
Variability in Loadings: All loadings are variable. There is a greater variation in the live loads than
in the dead loads. Some types of loadings are very dicult to quantify (wind, earthquakes).
Consequences of Failure: The consequence of a structural component failure must be carefully assessed. The collapse of a beam is likely to cause a localized failure. Alternatively the failure of a
column is likely to trigger the failure of the whole structure. Alternatively, the failure of certain
components can be preceded by warnings (such as excessive deformation), whereas other are sudden and catastrophic. Finally, if no redistribution of load is possible (as would be the case in a
statically determinate structure), a higher safety factor must be adopted.
The purpose of safety provisions is to limit the probability of failure and yet permit economical
structures.

The following items must be considered in determining safety provisions:


1. Seriousness of a failure, either to humans or goods.
2. Reliability of workmanship and inspection.
3. Expectation of overload and to what magnitude.
4. Importance of the member in the structure.
5. Chance of warning prior to failure.

Two major design philosophies have emerged


1. Working Stress Method
2. Ultimate Strength Method

72

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

Draft
7.2

Working Stress Method

5 This is the simplest of the two methods, and the one which has been historically used by structural
engineers.
6 Structural elements are designed for their service loads, and are dimensioned such that the stresses
do not exceed some predesignated allowable strength, Fig. 7.1.

Figure 7.1: Load Life of a Structure


7 In R/C this method was the one adopted by the ACI (American Concrete institute) code up to 1971,
Working Stress Design Method (WSD).
8 The AISC (American Institute of Steel Construction) code refers to it as the Allowable Stress
Design (ASD) and was used until 1986.

In this method:
1. All loads are assumed to have the same average variability.
2. The entire variation of the loads and the strengths is placed on the strength side of the equation.
< all =

yld
F.S.

(7.1)

where F.S. is the factor of safety.


10

Major limitations of this method


1. An elastic analysis can not easily account for creep and shrinkage of concrete.
2. For concrete structures, stresses are not linearly proportional to strain beyond 0.45fc .
3. Safety factors are not rigorously determined from a probabilistic approach, but are the result of
experience and judgment.

11

Allowable strengths are given in Table 7.1.

7.3
7.3.1

Ultimate Strength Method


The Normal Distribution

The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:

12

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

7.3 Ultimate Strength Method

Draft

73

Steel, AISC/ASD
Tension, Gross Area
Ft = 0.6Fy
Tension, Eective Net Area
Ft = 0.5Fu
Bending
Fb = 0.66Fy
Shear
Fv = 0.40Fy
Concrete, ACI/WSD
Tension
0
Compression
0.45fc

Eective net area will be dened in section 9.2.1.2.


Table 7.1: Allowable Stresses for Steel and Concrete
1. f (x) is symmetric with respect to the mean .
2. f (x) is a bell curve with inection points at x = .
3. f (x) is a valid probability distribution function as:

f (x) = 1

(7.2)

4. The probability that xmin < x < xmax is given by:




xmax

P (xmin < x < xmax ) =

f (x)dx

(7.3)

xmin

13

The general normal


(or2.5
Gauss)
is given
Fig. 1.0
30.1: 1.5
3.0
2.0distribution
1.5 1.0 0.5
0.0by,0.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.40
0.35
0.30

PDF

0.25

0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

CDF

0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x

Figure 7.2: Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function

1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
(x) =
2

Victor Saouma

(7.4)

Structural Engineering

74

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

Draft
14

A normal distribution N (, 2 ) can be normalized by dening

y=

(7.5)

and y would have a distribution N (0, 1):


y2
1
(y) = e 2
2

7.3.2

(7.6)

Reliability Index

15

In this approach, it is assumed that the load Q and the resistance R are random variables.

16

Typical frequency distributions of such random variables are shown in Fig. 7.3.

Figure 7.3: Frequency Distributions of Load Q and Resistance R

17

The safety margin is dened as Y = R Q. Failure would occur if Y < 0

18

Q and R can be combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 7.4.
X = ln

R
Q

(7.7)

Failure would occur for negative values of X


The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the
curve in Fig. 7.4.


R
20 If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X =
ln Q
and a
m
standard deviation .
19

21

We dene the safety index (or reliability index) as =

1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
or 1.1 104 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
22

Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.

23

Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classied as a hazard.

24

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

7.3 Ultimate Strength Method

75

Draft

Figure 7.4: Denition of Reliability Index

10

10

10

10

Good

Above Average

Below Average

10

Poor

1/(Probability of Failure)

10

Unsatisfactory

10

Probability of Failure in terms of

Hazardous

10

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Figure 7.5: Probability of Failure in terms of

25

Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3

Because the strengths and the loads vary independently, it is desirable to have one factor to account
for variability in resistance, and another one for the variability in loads.

26

These factors are referred to as resistance factor and Load Factor respectively. The resistance
factor is dened as
Rm
exp(0.55VR )
(7.8)
=
Rn

27

where RM RN and VR are the mean resistance, the nominal resistance (to be dened later), and the
coecient of variation of the resistance.

7.3.3

Discussion

28 ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the Ultimate
Strength Method).

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

76

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

Draft

Type of Load/Member
AISC
DL + LL; Members
DL + LL; Connections
DL + LL + WL; Members
DL + LL +EL; Members
ACI
Ductile Failure
Sudden Failures

3.0
4.5
3.5
1.75
3-3.5
3.5-4

Table 7.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures

29

AISC refers to it as Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD).

Terms such as failure load should be avoided; it is preferable to refer to a structures Limit State
load.

30

31

The general form is (LRFD-A4.1)1


Rn i Qi

(7.9)

where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural element,
Table 7.3.
Type of Member

ACI

Axial Tension
Flexure
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement
Axial Compression, other
Shear and Torsion
Bearing on concrete
AISC
Tension, yielding
Tension, fracture
Compression
Beams
Fasteners, Tension
Fasteners, Shear

0.9
0.9
0.75
0.70
0.85
0.70
0.9
0.75
0.85
0.9
0.75
0.65

Table 7.3: Strength Reduction Factors,


Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).
Rn is the design strength.
i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.
i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
i is the type of load
32

The various factored load combinations which must be considered are


1 Throughout

the notes we will refer by this symbol the relevant design specication in the AISC code.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

7.4 Example

77

Draft
AISC

1. 1.4D
2. 1.2D+1.6L+0.5(Lr or S)
3. 1.2D+0.5L (or 0.8W)+1.6(Lr or S)
4. 1.2D+0.5L+0.5(Lr or S)+1.3W
5. 1.2D+0.5L(or 0.2 S)+1.5E
6. 0.9D+1.3W(or 1.5 E)
ACI
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature; H= soil.
We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
Thus, in this method, we must perform numerous analysis, one for each load, of a given structure.
For trusses, this is best achieved if we use the matrix method, invert the statics matrix [B], and multiply
[B]1 by each one of the load cases, (Refer to Section 5.2.2.1). For the WSD method, we need not
perform more than one analysis in general.
33

Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The most important ones being

34

1. Deections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
35

Most code requirements on strength are written as:

x Rn > Qu

(7.10)

where Rn is the nominal strength of the member, Qu is the ultimate (factored) load eect (force, moment,
shear, torque). Design load is also at times dened as

Rd =

7.4

Qu
x

(7.11)

Example

Example 7-1: LRFD vs ASD


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

78

Draft

DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES of ACI and AISC CODES

To illustrate the dierences between the two design approaches, let us consider the design of an axial
member, subjected to a dead load of 100 k and live load of 80 k. Use A36 steel.
ASD: We consider the total load P = 100 + 80 = 180 k. From Table 7.1, the allowable stress is
0.6yld = 0.6 36 = 21.6 ksi. Thus the required cross sectional area is
A=

180
= 8.33 in2
21.6

USD we consider the largest of the two load combinations


=
i Qi : 1.4D
1.2D + 1.6L =

1.4(100)
= 140 k
1.2(100) + 1.6(80) = 248 k

From Table 7.3 = 0.9, and Rn = (0.9)Ayld . Hence, applying Eq. 7.9 the cross sectional area
should be
i Qi
248
= 7.65 in2
A=
=
yld
(0.9)(36)
Note that whereas in this particular case the USD design required a smaller area, this may not be the
case for dierent ratios of dead to live loads.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 8

DESIGN I
8.1

Case Study: Eiel Tower

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)

8.1.1

Materials, & Geometry

1 The tower was built out of wrought iron, less expensive than steel,and Eiel had more experience with
this material, Fig. 8.1

Figure 8.1: Eiel Tower (Billington and Mark 1983)


2 The structure is essentially a tower, subjected to gravity and wind load.
It is a relatively light
structure, so dead load is small compared to the wind load.

To avoid overturning

M gravity
M wind

had to be much higher than 1. This can be achieved either by:

1. Increase self weight (as in Washingtons monument)


2. Increase the width of the base

82

DESIGN I

Draft

3. Design support to resist tension.


4. Post-tension the support.

4 The tower is 984 feet high, and 328 feet wide at the base. The large base was essential to provide
adequate stability in the presence of wind load.
5 We can assume that the shape of the tower is parabolic. If we take the x axis to be along the vertical
axis of symmetry and y the half width, then we know that at x = 984 the (half) width y = 0 and at
x = 0 the half width is 328/2 = 164, thus the equation of the half width is given by


y = 164


2
984 x
984

(8.1)

av(x)2

We recall from calculus that for y = v(x)

dy
dx
d
ax2
dx

dy dv
dv dx

(8.2-a)

= 2ax

(8.2-b)

Thus for our problem


dy
dx



984 x
1
= 2(164)

984

984 



dy
dv

(8.3-a)

dv
dx

984 x
2, 952

(8.3-b)

Also

dy
dy
= tan = tan1
dx
dx
where is the angle measured from the x axis to the tangent to the curve.
7

(8.4)

We now can tabulate the width and slope at various elevations

Location
Support
First platform
second platform
Intermediate platform
Top platform
Top

Height
0
186
380
644
906
984

Width/2
164
108
62
20
1
0

Width
Estimated Actual
328
216
240
123
110
40
2
0

dy
dx

.333
.270
.205
.115
.0264
0.000

18.4o
15.1o
11.6o
6.6o
1.5o
0o

The tower is supported by four inclined supports, each with a cross section of 800 in2 . An idealization
of the tower is shown in Fig. 8.2.

8.1.2
9

10

Loads

The total weight of the tower is 18, 800 k.


The dead load is not uniformly distributed, and is approximated as follows, Fig. 8.3:

Location
Ground- second platform
Second platform-intermediate platform
intermediate platform - top
Victor Saouma Total

Height
380 ft
264 ft
340 ft
984 ft

Dead Weight
15, 500 k
2, 200 k
1, 100 k
18,Structural
800 k
Engineering

8.1 Case Study: Eiel Tower

83

Draft

ACTUAL
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION

IDEALIZED
CONTINUOUS
CONNECTION

ACTUAL
POINTS OF
CONNECTION

Figure 8.2: Eiel Tower Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Figure 8.3: Eiel Tower, Dead Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

84

DESIGN I

Draft

From the actual width of the lower two platforms we can estimate the live loads (the intermediate
and top platforms would have negligible LL in comparison):

11

1st platform:

kip
(50) psf(240)2 ft2 (1,000)
lbs

2nd platform:
Total:

(50) psf(110) ft

2, 880 k

(1,000)

600 k
3, 480 k

lbs

Hence the total vertical load is Pvert = DL + LL = 18, 800 + 3, 480 = 22, 280 k.
The wind pressure is known to also have a parabolic distribution (maximum at the top), the cross
sectional area over which the wind is acting is also parabolic (maximum at the base). Hence we will
simplify our analysis by considering an equivalent wind force obtained from a constant wind pressure
(force/length) and constant cross section Fig. 8.4: The pressure is assumed to be 2.6 k/ft, thus the

12

Figure 8.4: Eiel Tower, Wind Load Idealization; (Billington and Mark 1983)
lateral wind force is, Fig. 8.5

LOADS

TOTAL
LOADS

P=2560k

00000
11111

L/2

H0
00000
11111
Q=22,280k
00000
11111
00
11
00
11
00
11
V0 11
00

REACTIONS

11
00
00
11
00
11

M0

Figure 8.5: Eiel Tower, Wind Loads, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Plat = (2.6) k/ft(984) ft = 2,560 k

Victor Saouma

acting at

984
= 492 ft
2

(8.5)

Structural Engineering

8.1 Case Study: Eiel Tower

85

Draft
8.1.3

Reactions

Simplifying the three dimensional structure with 4 supports into a two dimensional one with two
supports, the reactions can be easily determined for this statically determinate structure, Fig. 8.6.

13

WINDWARD
SIDE

VERTICAL
FORCES

WIND
FORCES

LEEWARD
SIDE

TOTAL

Figure 8.6: Eiel Tower, Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)


Gravity Load
Pvert
grav
Rvert

= 22, 280
22, 280
=
= 11,140 k
2

(8.6-a)
(8.6-b)

Lateral Load
Lateral Moment (we essentially have a cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform load). The
moment at a distance x from the support along the cantilevered beam subjected to a uniform
pressure p is given by
Lx
(L x)2
=p
Mlat = p(L x)


2
2


Force Moment arm

(8.7)

Thus the lateral moment caused by the wind is parabolic. At the base (x = 0), the maximum
moment is equal to
Mlat = p

(984 0)2 2
(L x)2
= (2.6) k/ft
ft = 1,260,000 k.ft
2
2

(8.8)

We observe that the shape of the moment diagram is also parabolic, just like the tower itself.
This is not accidental, as nearly optimum structures have a shape which closely approximate
their moment diagram (such as the varying depth of continuous long span bridges).
To determine the resulting internal forces caused by the lateral (wind) moment, and since we
have two supports (one under tension and the other under compression) we use
wind
=
Rvert

1, 260, 000 k.ft


M
=
= 3,850 k
d
328 ft

(8.9)

Lateral Forces to be resisted by each of the two pairs. By symmetry, the lateral force will be
equally divided among the two pairs of supports and will be equal to
wind
=
Rlat

Victor Saouma

(2, 560) k
= 1,280 k
2

(8.10)

Structural Engineering

86

DESIGN I

Draft
8.1.4
14

Internal Forces

First, a brief reminder

Fy

cos

sin

tan

Fx
(8.11-a)
F
Fy
(8.11-b)
F
Fy
(8.11-c)
Fx

Fx
15

Internal forces are rst determined at the base.

Gravity load are rst considered, remember those are caused by the dead load and the live load,
Fig. 8.7:

16

=18.4

=18.4
INCLINED
INTERNAL
FORCE: N
CONSEQUENT
HORIZONTAL
COMPONENT: H

KNOWN VERTICAL
COMPONENT: V

H
FORCE POLYGON

Figure 8.7: Eiel Tower, Internal Gravity Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)

cos

tan

V
V
N =
N
cos
11, 140 k
= 11,730 kip
cos 18.4o
H
H = V tan
V
11, 140 k(tan 18.4o ) = 3,700 kip

(8.12-a)
(8.12-b)
(8.12-c)
(8.12-d)

The horizontal forces which must be resisted by the foundations, Fig. 8.8.

3700 k

3700 k

Figure 8.8: Eiel Tower, Horizontal Reactions; (Billington and Mark 1983)

17

Because the vertical load decreases with height, the axial force will also decrease with height.

18

At the second platform, the total vertical load is Q = 1, 100 + 2, 200 = 3, 300 k and at that height the

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.1 Case Study: Eiel Tower

87

Draft

angle is 11.6o thus the axial force (per pair of columns) will be
Nvert

3,300
2

= 1, 685 k
(8.13-a)
cos 11.6o
3, 300 k
(tan 11.6o) = 339 k
Hvert =
(8.13-b)
2
Note that this is about seven times smaller than the axial force at the base, which for a given axial
strength, would lead the designer to reduce (or taper) the cross-section.
The horizontal force will be resisted by the axial forces in the second platform itself.
Wind Load: We now have determined at each pair of support the vertical and the horizontal forces
caused by the wind load, the next step is to determine their axial components along the inclined leg,
Fig. 8.9:

19

18.4

3,850 k

3,850 cos 18.4

18.4

1,280 sin 18.4

1,280 k

Figure 8.9: Eiel Tower, Internal Wind Forces; (Billington and Mark 1983)
Nc

Nt

8.1.5
20

wind
wind
= Rvert
cos Rlat
sin
o
= (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )

(8.14-a)
(8.14-b)

(8.14-c)

-4,050 k Leeward

= R
cos + R
sin
o
= (3, 850) k(cos 18.4 ) + (1, 280) k(sin 18.40 )

(8.14-d)
(8.14-e)

(8.14-f)

wind
vert

wind
lat

4,050 k Winward

Internal Stresses

The total forces caused by both lateral and gravity forces can now be determined:
NLTotal

= (11, 730) k (4, 050) k = -15,780 k Leeward side





gravity
lateral

(8.15-a)

Total
NW

= (11, 730) k +(4, 050) k = -7,630 k Winward side





gravity
lateral

(8.15-b)

We observe that even under wind load, the windward side is still under compression.
In the idealization of the towers geometry, the area of each pair of the simplied columns is 1, 600 in2 .
and thus the maximum stresses will be determined from

21

comp =
22

NLT
15, 780 k
= -9.9 ksi
=
A
1, 600 in2

(8.16)

The strength of wrought iron is 45 ksi, hence the safety factor is


Safety Factor =

Victor Saouma

45 ksi
ultimate stress
=
= 4.5
actual stress
9.9 ksi

(8.17)
Structural Engineering

88

DESIGN I

Draft
8.2

Magazini Generali by Maillart

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)

8.2.1

Geometry

This storage house, built by Maillart in Chiasso in 1924, provides a good example of the marriage
between aesthetic and engineering.

23

The most striking feature of the Magazini Generali is not the structure itself, but rather the shape of
its internal supporting frames, Fig. 8.10.

24

HINGE IDEALIZATION
OF THIN SECTIONS

ACTUAL FRAME

ABSTRACTION OF MID SECTIONAS A SIMPLE BEAM

9.2 ft

63.6 ft

Figure 8.10: Magazzini Generali; Overall Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)
The frame can be idealized as a simply supported beam hung from two cantilever column supports.
Whereas the beam itself is a simple structural idealization, the overhang is designed in such a way as to
minimize the net moment to be transmitted to the supports (foundations), Fig. 8.11.

25

8.2.2

Loads

The load applied on the frame is from the weights of the roof slab, and the frame itself. Given the
space between adjacent frames is 14.7 ft, and that the roof load is 98 psf, and that the total frame
weight is 13.6 kips, the total uniform load becomes, Fig. 8.12:

26

qroof
qf rame
qtotal

Victor Saouma

= (98) psf(14.7) ft = 1.4 k/ft


(13.6) k
=
= 0.2 k/ft
(63.6) ft
= 1.4 + 0.2 = 1.6 k/ft

(8.18-a)
(8.18-b)
(8.18-c)

Structural Engineering

8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart

89

Draft

B
P

MB =B*d1

MP =P*d 2
d2

d1
B
MR=MB -M P

Figure 8.11: Magazzini Generali; Support System, (Billington and Mark 1983)
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft + q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q ROOF = 1.4 k/ft
+ q FRAME = 0.2 k/ft
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft

Figure 8.12: Magazzini Generali; Loads (Billington and Mark 1983)

8.2.3
27

Reactions

Reactions for the beam are determined rst taking advantage of symmetry, Fig. 8.13:
W

(1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft = 102 k


102
W
=
= 51 k
2
2

(8.19-a)
(8.19-b)

We note that these reactions are provided by the internal shear forces.
q TOTAL = 1.6 k/ft

63.6 ft

51 k

51 k

Figure 8.13: Magazzini Generali; Beam Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

810

DESIGN I

Draft
8.2.4

Forces

The internal forces are primarily the shear and moments. Those can be easily determined for a
simply supported uniformly loaded beam. The shear varies linearly from 51 kip to -51 kip with zero at
the center, and the moment diagram is parabolic with the maximum moment at the center, Fig. 8.14,
equal to:
(1.6) k/ft(63.6) ft2
qL2
=
= 808 k.ft
(8.20)
Mmax =
8
8

28

SHEAR FORCE

51 K
25 K
L

L/2

25 K

MOMENT

51 K

Mmax

L
0

L/2

L/4

3L/4

Figure 8.14: Magazzini Generali; Shear and Moment Diagrams (Billington and Mark 1983)
The externally induced moment at midspan must be resisted by an equal and opposite internal
moment. This can be achieved through a combination of compressive force on the upper bers, and
tensile ones on the lower. Thus the net axial force is zero, however there is a net internal couple, Fig.
8.15.

29

q TOTAL

C
d

VA
T

Figure 8.15: Magazzini Generali; Internal Moment, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Mext
T =C
Victor Saouma

= Cd C =
=

Mext
d

(808) k.ft
= 88 k
(9.2) ft

(8.21-a)
(8.21-b)
Structural Engineering

8.2 Magazini Generali by Maillart

811

Draft

30 Because the frame shape (and thus d(x)) is approximately parabolic, and the moment is also parabolic,
then the axial forces are constants along the entire frame, Fig. 8.16.

FRAME

MOMENT DIAGRAM

CABLE :

FRAME :

CURVE OF DIAGRAM

SHAPE OF DIAGRAM

Figure 8.16: Magazzini Generali; Similarities Between The Frame Shape and its Moment Diagram,
(Billington and Mark 1983)
The axial force at the end of the beam is not balanced, and the 88 kip compression must be transmitted
to the lower chord, Fig. 8.17. Fig. 8.18 This is analogous to the forces transmitted to the support by a

31

88 k

Tension
88 k

88 k

88 k

Compression
Horizontal Component
Tied Arch

Cable Force
Axial Force
Vertical Reaction

Figure 8.17: Magazzini Generali; Equilibrium of Forces at the Beam Support, (Billington and Mark
1983)
tied arch.
It should be mentioned that when a rigorous computer analysis was performed, it was determined
that the supports are contributing a compression force of about 8 kips which needs to be superimposed
over the central values, Fig. 8.18.

32

8.2.5
33

Internal Stresses

The net compressive stress, for a top chord with a cross sectional area of 75 in2 is equal to
=

(88) k
P
=
= 1.17 ksi
A
(75) in2

(8.22)

this is much lower than the allowable compressive stress of concrete which is about 1,350 ksi. It should
be noted that if the frame was cast along with the roof (monolithic construction), than this stress would
be even lower.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

812

DESIGN I

Draft
FRAME ACTS AS A
UNIT, UNLIKE THE
ABSTRACTION

-88 k - 8 k = -96 k
16 k
88 k - 8 k = 80 k

16 k

Figure 8.18: Magazzini Generali; Eect of Lateral Supports, (Billington and Mark 1983)
Since concrete has practically no tensile strength, the tensile force in the lower chord must be resisted
by steel. The lower chord has 4 bars with 0.69 in2 and 6 other bars with 0.58 in2 , thus we have a total
of
(8.23)
As = 4(0.69) + 6(0.58) = 6.24 in2

34

Thus the steel stresses will be


=

P
(88) k
=
= 14.1 ksi
A
(6.24) in2

(8.24)

which is lower than the allowable steel stress.

8.3
8.3.1
35

Buildings
Buildings Structures

There are three primary types of building systems:

Wall Subsystem: in which very rigid walls made up of solid masonry, paneled or braced timber, or
steel trusses constitute a rigid subsystem. This is only adequate for small rise buildings.
Vertical Shafts: made up of four solid or trussed walls forming a tubular space structure. The tubular
structure may be interior (housing elevators, staircases) and/or exterior. Most ecient for very
high rise buildings.
Rigid Frame: which consists of linear vertical components (columns) rigidly connected to sti horizontal ones (beams and girders). This is not a very ecient structural form to resist lateral
(wind/earthquake) loads.
8.3.1.1

Wall Subsystems

Whereas exterior wall provide enclosure and interior ones separation, both of them can also have a
structural role in transferring vertical and horizontal loads.

36

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.3 Buildings

813

Draft
37

Walls are constructed out of masonry, timber concrete or steel.

If the wall is braced by oors, then it can provide an excellent resistance to horizontal load in the
plane of the wall (but not orthogonal to it).

38

When shear-walls subsystem are used, it is best if the center of orthogonal shear resistance is close
to the centroid of lateral loads as applied. If this is not the case, then there will be torsional design
problems.

39

8.3.1.1.1

Example: Concrete Shear Wall

From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

We consider a reinforced concrete wall 20 ft wide, 1 ft thick, and 120 ft high with a vertical load of
400 k acting on it at the base. As a result of wind, we assume a uniform horizontal force of 0.8 kip/ft
of vertical height acting on the wall. It is required to compute the exural stresses and the shearing
stresses in the wall to resist the wind load, Fig. 8.19.

40

w=0.8 k/ft

20
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
W11111
00000
00000
40011111
k
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

H=96 k;
M =5760 k

60

120

V
-f
HORIZONTAL
+f

2/(3d)
+F

-F

VERTICAL
+ FDL

11111
00000
00000
11111

+140
+ 740 PSI
+ 600

7.7 IN TENSION

Figure 8.19: Design of a Shear Wall Subsystem, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
1. Maximum shear force and bending moment at the base
Vmax

Mmax

wL = (0.8) k.ft(120) ft = 96 k
(0.8) k.ft(120)2 ft2
wL2
=
= 5, 760 k.ft
2
2

(8.25-a)
(8.25-b)

2. The resulting eccentricity is


eActual =

(5, 760) k.ft


M
=
= 14.4 ft
P
(400) k

(8.26)

3. The critical eccentricity is


ecr =

(20) ft
L
=
= 3.3 ft < eActual N.G.
6
6

(8.27)

thus there will be tension at the base.


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

814

DESIGN I

Draft

4. The moment of inertia of the wall is


(1) ft(20) ft3
bh3
=
= 667 ft4
12
12

I=

(8.28)

5. The maximum exural stresses will be


max =

(5, 760) k.ft(10) ft


Mc
=
= (86.5) ksf = (600) psi
I
(667) ft4

(8.29)

6. The average shearing stress is


=

(96) k
V
=
= 4.8 ksf = 33.3 psi
A
(1)(20) ft2

(8.30)

A concrete with nominal shear reinforcement can carry at least 100 psi in shear, those computed
shear stresses are permissible.
7. At the base of the wall, the axial stresses will be
=

(400) k
= (20) ksf = 140 psi
(1)(20) ft2

(8.31-a)

8. The maximum stresses will thus be:


1

140 + 600 = 460 psi

140 600 = 740 psi

(Tension)

(8.32-a)

(Compression)

(8.32-b)

9. The compressive stress of 740 psi can easily be sustained by concrete, as to the tensile stress of
460 psi, it would have to be resisted by some steel reinforcement.
10. Given that those stresses are service stresses and not factored ones, we adopt the WSD approach,
and use an allowable stress of 20 ksi, which in turn will be increased by 4/3 for seismic and wind
load,
4
all = (20) = 26.7 ksi
(8.33)
3
11. The stress distribution is linear, compression at one end, and tension at the other. The length of
the tension area is given by (similar triangles)
20
460
x
=
x=
(20) = 7.7 ft
460
460 + 740
460 + 740

(8.34)

12. The total tensile force inside this triangular stress block is
T =

1
(460) ksi(7.7 12) in (12) in = 250 k


2

(8.35)

width

13. The total amount of steel reinforcement needed is


As =

(250) k
= 9.4 in2
(26.7) ksi

(8.36)

This amount of reinforcement should be provided at both ends of the wall since the wind or
earthquake can act in any direction. In addition, the foundations should be designed to resist
tensile uplift forces (possibly using piles).

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.3 Buildings

815

Draft
120

20

W
400 k

60

H=96 k

24

1
1.2

~1.6

V
+FM

-F

Figure 8.20: Trussed Shear Wall


8.3.1.1.2

Example: Trussed Shear Wall

From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

We consider the same problem previously analyzed, but use a trussed shear wall instead of a concrete
one, Fig. 8.20.

41

1. Using the maximum moment of 5, 760 kip-ft (Eq. 8.25-b), we can compute the compression and
tension in the columns for a lever arm of 20 ft.
F =

(5, 760) k.ft


= 288 k
(20) ft

(8.37)

2. If we now add the eect of the 400 kip vertical load, the forces would be
C

(400) k
288 = 488 k
2
(400) k
+ 288 = 88 k

(8.38-a)
(8.38-b)

3. The force in the diagonal which must resist a base shear of 96 kip is (similar triangles)


(20)2 + (24)2
(20)2 + (24)2
F
=
F =
(96) = 154 k
96
20
20

(8.39)

4. The design could be modied to have no tensile forces in the columns by increasing the width of
the base (currently at 20 ft).
8.3.1.2

Shaft Systems

Vertical shear-resisting shafts in buildings act as a tubular section and generally have a rectangular
cross section. If there is only one shaft, it is generally located in the center and houses the elevators. If
there are many shafts, then they should be symmetrically arranged.

42

If the shaft is relatively short and wide, with an aspect ratio under 1 or 2, then the dominant structural
action is that of a sti shear resisting tube. If the aspect ratio is between 3 and 5, then the shear forces
may not be the controlling criterion, and exure dominates.

43

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

816

DESIGN I

Draft
8.3.1.2.1
44

Example: Tube Subsystem

From (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

With reference to Fig. 8.21, the reinforced concrete shaft is 20 ft square, 120 ft high, and with 1 ft
~ 20

20

20

111111
000000
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000000
111111
000000
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000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
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111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111

w = 0.8 k/ft

H = 96 k
60

~ 20

120

N.A.

Figure 8.21: Design Example of a Tubular Structure, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)
thick walls. It is subjected to a lateral force of 0.8 k/ft.
1. Comparing this structure with the one analyzed in Sect. 8.3.1.1.1 the total vertical load acting on
the base is now increased to
V = 4(400) = 1, 600 k
(8.40)
2. As previously, the maximum moment and shear are 5, 760 k.ft and 96 k respectively.
3. The moment of inertia for a tubular section is
I =

(20)(20)3
(18)(18)3
bd3
=

= 4, 600 ft4
12
12
12

4. The maximum exural stresses:


(5, 760) k.ft(20/2) ft
MC
=
f l =
= 12.5 ksf = 87 psi
I
(4, 600) ft4

(8.41)

(8.42)

5. The average shear stress is


=

(96) k
V
= 2.4 ksf = 17 psi
=
A
2(20)(1) ft2

(8.43)

6. The vertical load of 1,600 k produces an axial stress of


ax =

(1, 600) k
P
=
= 20 ksf = 140 psi
A
(4(20)(1) ft2

(8.44)

7. The total stresses are thus

ax + f l

(8.45-a)

140 + 87 = 53 psi

(8.45-b)

140 87 = 227 psi

(8.45-c)

thus we do not have any tensile stresses, and those stresses are much better than those obtained
from a single shear wall.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.4 Design of a Three Hinged Arch

817

Draft
8.3.1.3

Rigid Frames

Rigid frames can carry both vertical and horizontal loads, however their analysis is more complex
than for tubes.

45

The rigorous and exact analysis of a rigid frame can only be accomplished through a computer analysis.
However, for preliminary design it is often sucient to perform approximate analysis.

46

There are two approximate methods for the analysis of rigid frames subjected to lateral loads: 1)
Portal and 2) Cantilever method.

47

48

The portal frame method is based on the following major assumptions, Fig. 8.22:
L
P

L/2

h/2

PI

H 1=P/2

H 2=P/2

h/2
V1 =P/(2L)

V2 =P/(2L)

Figure 8.22: A Basic Portal Frame, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)


1. Each bay of a bent acts as a separate portal frame consisting of two adjacent columns and the
connecting girder.
2. The point of inection (zero moment) for all columns is at midheight
3. The point of inection for all girders is at midspan.
4. For a multibay frame, the shears on the interior columns are equal and the shear in each exterior
column is half the shear of an interior column.

8.4

Design of a Three Hinged Arch

adapted from (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)


A long arch 100 ft high and spanning 510 ft is to be designed for a garage and hotel building, using
air rights over roads and highways.

100
Garage and hotel Building

510
It is necessary to determine preliminary dimensions for the size of the arch section. The arches are
spaced 60 ft on centers and carry four-story loading totaling 27 k/ft along each arch.
1. To the initial DL and LL of 27 k/ft we add the arch own weight estimated to be 25% of the
load, thus the total load is
(8.46)
w = (1 + .25)27 = 33.7 33 k/ft
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

818

DESIGN I

Draft

2. We next determine the various forces:


H
V
R

(33)(510)2
wL2
=
= 10, 700 k
8h
8(100)
(33)(510)
wL
=
= 8, 400 k
=
2
2


H 2 + V 2 = (10, 700)2 + (8, 400)2 = 13, 600 k
=

(8.47-a)
(8.47-b)
(8.47-c)

3. If we use concrete-lled steel pipe for arch section, and selecting a pipe diameter of 6 ft with a
thickness of 1/2 inch, then the steel cross sectional area is
As = 2rt = Dt = (3.14)(6) ft(12) in/ ft(0.5) in = 113 in2

(8.48)

4. The concrete area is


Ac =

(6)2 2
D2
= (3.14)
ft (144) in2 /f tsq = 4, 070 in2
4
4

(8.49)

5. Assuming that the steel has an allowable stress of 20 ksi and the concrete 2.5 ksi (noting that the
strength of conned concrete can be as high as three times the one of fc ), then the load carry(113)(20)ksi
=
2,260 k
Steel Ac
ing capacity of each component is Concrete As (4, 070)(2.5)ksi = 10,180 k
Total
12,440 kip
which is o.k. for the crown section (H=10,700 k) but not quite for the abutments at R=13,600 k.
6. This process of trial and error can be repeated until a satisfactory preliminary design is achieved.
Furthermore, a new estimate for the arch self weight should be undertaken.

8.5

Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)

Adapted from (Billington and Mark 1983)

8.5.1

Geometry

The Salginatobel bridge, perhaps the most famous and inuential structure of Maillart is located in
high up in the Swiss Alps close to Shuders.

49

It is a three hinged pedestrian bridge which crosses a deep valley with a most beautiful shape which
blends perfectly with its surrounding, Fig. 8.23

50

The load supporting structure is the arch itself, whereas the bridge deck and the piers are transferring
the vertical load into the arch.

51

52

The arch cross section is not constant, and can be idealized as in Fig. 8.24

53

The basic shape of the supporting structure is a three hinged arch as shown in Fig. 8.25

The arch is parabolic (which as we saw an the optimal shape which minimizes exure), and the cross
section at the quarter point has an area of

54

At = 2[(0.62)(12.46) + (0.59)(12.17)] = 29.8 ft2 = 4, 291 in2


55

(8.50)

Each ange has an area of


AF = (0.62)(12.46) = 7.73 ft2 = 1, 113 in2

(8.51)

and the eective depth of the section is d = 12.79 ft, Fig. 8.26.
56

At the crown/hinge the section is rectangular with


Acr = (1.05)(11.48) = 12.05 ft2 = 1, 735 in2

Victor Saouma

(8.52)
Structural Engineering

8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)

Draft

20 ft

20 ft

87.5 ft

87.5 ft

20 ft

20 ft

20 ft

42.6 ft

20 ft

819

295 ft

Figure 8.23: Salginatobel Bridge; Dimensions, (Billington and Mark 1983)

42.6 ft

ACTUAL ARCH WITH


CENTROID (DOTTED LINE)

IDEALIZATION
(ONE DEMENSIONAL)
295 ft

Figure 8.24: Salginatobel Bridge; Idealization, (Billington and Mark 1983)

CONCRETE
CORK PADS

HINGE

ACTUAL SPRINGING HINGE

IDEALIZATION

CORK PAD
CONCRETE

HINGE
HARD WOOD

ACTUAL CROWN HINGE

IDEALIZATION

Figure 8.25: Salginatobel Bridge; Hinges, (Billington and Mark 1983)


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

820

DESIGN I

42.6 ft

Draft
ACTUAL ARCH

295 ft

SECTIONS

12.46 ft

0.59 ft

12.17 ft
d=12.79 ft
13.41 ft

0.62 ft

0.62 ft

Figure 8.26: Salginatobel Bridge; Sections, (Billington and Mark 1983)

8.5.2

Loads

The dead load WD is assumed to be linearly distributed (even though it is greater where the arch is
deeper, and the vertical members longer) and is equal to 1,680 kips, Fig. 8.27.

57

wD =

(1, 680) k
WD
=
= 5.7 k/ft
L
(295) ft

(8.53)

wD = 5.7 k/ft
WD = 1680 k

L = 295 ft

Figure 8.27: Salginatobel Bridge; Dead Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)
For the sake of simplicity we will neglect the snow load (which is actually negligible compared to the
dead load).

58

The live load is caused by trac, and we consider the case in which two trucks, each weighing 55
kips, are placed at the quarter-point, Fig. 8.28. This placement of the load actually corresponds to one

59

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)

821

Draft

of the most critical loading arrangement. The total vertical load is shown in Fig. 8.29

8.5.3
60

Reactions

Reactions are easily determined from equilibrium, Fig. 8.33


1, 680
2
110
VL =
2
(+ )
Mc
(840)(147.5) (840)(73.75) HD (42.6)

=
=

HD

VD =

840 k

(8.54-a)

55 k

(8.54-b)

(55)(147.5) (55)(73.75) HL (42.6) =


RD

8.5.4

HL

2
= (840) + (1, 455)2

RL = (55)2 + (95)2

0
0

(8.54-c)
(8.54-d)

1, 455 k
0

(8.54-e)
(8.54-f)

95 k

(8.54-g)

1, 680 k

(8.54-h)

110 k

(8.54-i)

Internal Forces

61

The shear diagrams for the dead, live and combined load is shown in Fig. 8.31.

62

At the quarter point the axial force can be expressed as:


N = H cos + V sin

(8.55)

where

2d
(8.56)
L
and = 16.1o at this location. The horizontal force for the dead and live loads was determined previously
as 1, 455 and 95 kips respectively, and the vertical forces are obtained from the shear diagram, thus
tan =

qr
ND

(1, 455) cos 16.1o + (420) sin 16.1o = 1, 514 k

(8.57-a)

NLqr

(95) cos 16.1o + (55) sin 16.1o = 106 k

(8.57-b)

and at the crown where there is no vertical force (and = 0)


cr
ND

(1, 455) cos 0o + (420) sin 0o = 1, 455 k

(8.58-a)

NLcr

(95) cos 0o + (55) sin 0o = 95 k

(8.58-b)

63

The uniform dead load will not produce a moment on the parabolic arch.

64

The (point) live load will create a moment which can be decomposed into two parts,
1. Vertical load will cause a trapezoidal moment diagram, and the max moment is
MLV =

11o 295
PL
=
= 4, 050 k.ft
2 4
2 4

(8.59)

2. The second is caused by the horizontal reaction, and the resulting moment is MLH = Hd(x), since
d varies parabolically, and H is constant, that second moment is parabolic with a peak value equal
to
(8.60)
MLV = Hdmax = (95)(32.6) = 4, 050 k.ft
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

822

DESIGN I

Draft

PLAN

P = 55 k

ROADWAY

295 ft

P = 55 k

ARCH ABUTMENT

42.5 ft

Figure 8.28: Salginatobel Bridge; Truck Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)

823

Draft

P = 55 k

B
VB,D = 840 k

VA,D = 840 k

P = 55 k

DEAD LOAD

42.6 ft

Q D = 1680 k

VA,L = 55 k

LIVE LOAD

VB,L = 55 k

295 ft

Figure 8.29: Salginatobel Bridge; Total Vertical Load, (Billington and Mark 1983)

d=42.6 ft

A
l/4=73.75 ft

V
l/2=147.5 ft
Figure 8.30: Salginatobel Bridge; Reactions, (Billington and Mark 1983)

840 k

3L/4
L/4

295 ft

L/2

55 k

SHEAR FORCE

SHEAR FORCE

420 k

420 k
840 k

295 ft

SHEAR FORCE

+ 895 k

L/2

L
-55 k

295 ft

=
+ 475 k
+ 420 k
L

- 420 k
- 475 k
- 895 k
295 ft

Figure 8.31: Salganitobel Bridge; Shear Diagrams, (Billington and Mark 1983)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

824

DESIGN I

Draft

at the quarter point


MLV = Hd1/4 = (95)

3(32.6)
= 3, 040 k.ft
4

(8.61)

The overall bending moment diagram from the live loads is determined by simply adding those two
components, Fig. 8.32.

65

L/4

-4,050 k-ft

BENDING
MOMENT

BENDING

L/4

-3,040 k-ft

MOMENT

L/4

L/2

x
3L/4

295 ft

+ PL/4 = 4,050 k-ft

4,050 ft.k-3,040 ft.k = 1,010 ft.k

MOMENT

BENDING

295 ft

Figure 8.32: Salginatobel Bridge; Live Load Moment Diagram, (Billington and Mark 1983)
We observe that the actual shape of the arch follows this bending moment diagram for one of the
most critical live load case.

66

67

The maximum moment at midspan is


MLmax = 4, 050 3, 040 = 1, 010 k.ft

(8.62)

which would produce internal forces in the upper and lower anges equal to:
Fint =

8.5.5

(1, 010) k.ft


MLmax
=
= 79 k
d
(12.8) ft

(8.63)

Internal Stresses

68 The axial stresses at the springlines were determined to be 1, 680 and 110 kips for the dead and
live loads respectively.

69

At the support the area of concrete is Ac = 2, 240 in2 , thus the axial stresses are
D
sp

L
sp

s spT otal

(1, 680) k
1, 000 = 750 psi
(2, 240) in2
(110) k
1, 000 = 49 psi
(2, 240) in2

= 750 49 = 799 psi

(8.64-a)
(8.64-b)
(8.64-c)

At the crown, we repeat the same calculations, where the axial force is equal to the horizontal
component of the reactions

70

D
cr

Victor Saouma

(1, 455) k
1, 000 = 839 psi
(1, 735) in2

(8.65-a)
Structural Engineering

8.5 Salginatobel Bridge (Maillart)

Draft

825

L
cr

(95) k
1, 000 = 55 psi
(1, 735) in2

(8.65-b)

s cr T otal

839 55 = 894 psi

(8.65-c)

The stresses at the quarter point are determined next. Note that we must include the eect of both
axial and exural stresses

71

top
qr

(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
1, 000 +
1, 000
2
2
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2



DeadLoad
LiveLoad
Flexural


(8.66-a)

AxialStresses

= 353 25 71 449 psi


bot
qr

(8.66-b)

(1, 514) k
(106) k
(79) k
1, 000 +
1, 000
2
2
(4, 291) in
(4, 291) in
(1, 113) in2



DeadLoad
LiveLoad
Flexural


(8.66-c)

AxialStresses

= 353 25 + 71 307 psi

8.5.6

(8.66-d)

Structural Behavior of Deck-Stiened Arches

From (Billington 1979)


INCOMPLETE
The issue of unsymmetrical live load on a stiened or unstiened arch was also addressed by Maillart.
As discussed in (Billington 1979) and illustrated by Fig. 8.33

72

wL

/10

wL

wL a
wL
Unstiffened Arch

wL

wL

wL a
2

wL a
2

Stiffened Arch

Figure 8.33: Structural Behavior of Stiened Arches, (Billington 1979)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

826

Draft

DESIGN I

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 9

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS


1 This will be your rst exposure to structural design. Contrarily to structural analysis where you have
one and only one exact solution, there are typically many acceptable and correct alternative designs.
2 Another important dierence, is that in analysis you have so far focused on the application of one
equation (such as the exural stress in a beam) or of a single very well dened sequential process (such
as truss analysis). In design, (and very much so in the design of tension steel members), you will have
to satisfy more than one equation.
3 In almost all cases, design is governed by a code. In this course we adopt the LRFD method of the
AISC code. Hence, a design would have to simultaneously satisfy all the relevant code provisions.
4 In analysis you did not have to concern yourself with details on how the structure is put together,
evidently in design you would have to take this into account. To complicate matters, you would have to
use some form of common sense to make certain decisions which govern the design process.
5 Finally, design is loosely dened as a process in which you either select new members, or you verify
whether an existing design is satisfactory.

9.1

Introduction

6 Tension members are encountered mostly in truss structures (bridges, roof trusses, transmission towers,
wind bracing of multistoried buildings).

We will separately cover the design of compression members due to the possibility of buckling.

8 Structural elements are connected together to form a structure.


Connections fall into one of two
categories With fasteners, bolts, rivets; or without fasteners, welds. Fasteners require drilling or punching
a hole.
9 It can be shown that a circular hole in a uniformly stressed plate under , will have a stress concentration factor equal to 3, Fig. 9.1. That is around the hole, max = 3 1 .

9.2
10

Geometric Considerations

Before we consider the design of tension members, due consideration must be given to
1. The denition of the cross sectional area which will be used to dimension our design
2. Stiness of the member
1 If

the circle becomes an ellipse, than the stress concentration factor becomes greater than three; At the limit if the
ellipse collapses into a crack, then we would have theoretically an innite stress. This is why one should always avoid sharp
corners in a structure.

92

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

Figure 9.1: Stress Concentration Around Circular Hole

9.2.1

Areas

The presence of a hole, and the resulting stress concentration must be accounted for in design. This
is accomplished by introducing the concept of eective areas.

11

The eective area Ae is dened in terms of the net area An when the load is transmitted by bolts
or rivets, and gross area Ag for welded members:

12

Ae
Ae

=
=

U An
U Ag

Bolts, Rivets
Welds

(9.1)

where U is a reduction factor, and Ag is the gross area of the member.


9.2.1.1

Net Area, An

13

The net area must be dened whenever we have holes due to bolts or rivets.

14

Holes are usually punched 1/16 in. larger than the diameter of the bolt or rivet.

1
When holes are punched, a small zone (R 32
in) around it is damaged, thus the total width to
1
in.
be deducted in determining the net area is D = 16

15

Thus with respect to the fastener of diameter D we punched a hole of diameter D +


1
additional 16
was damaged by the process, thus for net area calculation we must subtract
fastener diameter, Fig. 9.2.

16

1
16 , and an
1
8 from the

Accordingly, for a plate of width w and thickness t, and with a single hole which accomodates a bolt
of diameter D, the net area would be

17



1
An = wt D +
t
8

(9.2)

Whenever there is a need for more than two rivets or bolts, the holes are not aligned but rather
staggered. Thus there is more than one potential failure line which can be used to determine the net
area.

18

19

For staggered holes, we dene the net are in terms of, Fig. 9.3,

pitch s, longitudinal center to center spacing between two consecutive holes.


gage g, transverse center to center spacing between two adjacent holes.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.2 Geometric Considerations

93

Draft

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Hole size
D
00000000000000000000000000
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D+

1
16

D+

1
8

Bolt size

Effective hole size

Figure 9.2: Hole Sizes

Figure 9.3: Eect of Staggered Holes on Net Area

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

94

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

The net area is determined as above, however we subtract


Length Correction =
An

s2
4g

(9.3)


1
# of holes
D+
= Ag 1
8

# of correct. s
t + 1
t
4g

(9.4)

In this example the two possible failure lines have the following net lengths:
1
A-B =Length of A-B (width of hole + 16
in.)
1
A-C =Length of A-B 2(width of hole + 16
in.) +

s2
4g

The minimum net area will obviously be equal to the net length multiplied by the plate thickness.
20 When holes are staggered on two legs of an angle, the gage length g is obtained by using a length
between the centers of the holes measured along the centerline of the angle thickness, i.e., the distance
t
t
A-B in Fig. 9.4. Thus the gage distance is g = ga + gb or
2
2

Figure 9.4: Gage Distances for an Angle

g = ga + gb t

(9.5)

It should be mentioned that every rolled angle has a standard value for the location of holes (i.e.
gage distances ga and gb ) depending on the length of the leg, Table 9.1.

21

Example 9-1: Net Area


Determine the minimum net area of the plate shown below assuming
as shown.

Victor Saouma

15
16

in.-diameter holes are located

Structural Engineering

9.2 Geometric Considerations

95

Draft

Leg
g
g1
g2

8
1
42
3
3

7
4
1
22
3

6
1
32
1
24
1
22

5
3
2
3
14

4
1
22

32
2

3
3
14

22
3
18

2
1
18

14
1

12

18

14

7
8

7
8

3
4

5
8

Table 9.1: Usual Gage Lengths g, g1 , g2


Solution:
We consider various paths:
%
$

1
(0.25)
= 2.50 in2
12 2 15
16 + 16
&
'

 (2.125)2
(2.125)2
1
A B D : 12 3 15
(0.25) = 2.43 in2
16 + 16 + 4(2.5) +
4(4)
&
'

 (2.125)2
(1.875)2
1
A B C : 12 3 15
(0.25) = 2.4 in2
16 + 16 + 4(2.5) +
4(4)
AD :

(9.6-a)
(9.6-b)
(9.6-c)

Thus path A-B-C controls.

Example 9-2: Net Area, Angle


Determine the net area An for the angle shown below if

15
16

in. diameter holes are used.

Solution:
For the net area calculation, the angle may be visualized as being attened into a plate as shown below.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

96

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

and
An = Ag Dt +

s2
t
4g

(9.7)

Where D is the width to be deducted for the hole, We consider the following paths:
AC :
ABC :

9.2.1.2



1
4.75 2 15
16 + 16 0.5
& 2


(3)
1
4.75 3 15
16 + 16 0.5 + 4(2.5) +

(3)
4(4.25)

'

= 3.75 in2
0.5 = 3.96 in

(9.8-a)
(9.8-b)

Eective Net Area, Ae

Often tension members are connected at the end by connection to some but not all of the cross sectional
elements. For instance, an angle section may be connected through one leg only. Thus, away from the
connection we used the gross or net area to resist the full tensile load, but right at the connection, only
one leg is connected and the other is for all practical purposes unstressed.

22

To account for this, the AISC code stipulates that the net area must be reduced by U , Table 9.2
where Ae = U An or Ae = U Ag .

23

Example 9-3: Reduction Factor


Determine the reduction factor U to be used in computing the eective net area of a W14x82 section
connected by plates at its two anges. There are three bolts along each connection line.
Solution:
Since only two (the anges) of the three elements (the third one being the web) are connected, U < 1.
b
We rst check for the prole ratio2 df .

bf
10.13
=
= 0.71 > 0.67
d
14.31

(9.9)

Thus from Table 9.2, U = 0.9

9.2.2
24

Stiness

Tension members which are too long may be


1. Too exible during erection of the structure (excessive and possibly permanent deformations when
carried due to their own weight).
2 Section

properties are taken from Sect. 3.6.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.2 Geometric Considerations

97

Draft

Type of members

Minimum Number
of Fasteners/line
Fastened Rolled Sections
Members having all cross sectional elements con1 (or welds)

Special
Requirements

Ae

An

nected to transmit tensile force


W, M, or S shapes with ange widths not less

3 (or welds)

b
d

0.67

0.9An

than 2/3 the depth, and structural tees cut from


these shapes, provided the connection is to the
anges. Bolted or riveted connections shall have
no fewer than three fasteners per line in the direction of stress
W, M, or S not meeting above conditions, structural tees cut from these shapes and all other

3 (or welds)

0.85An

shapes, including built-up cross-sections. Bolted


or riveted connections shall have no fewer than
three fasteners per line in the direction of stress
Structural tees cut from W, M, or S connected at

3 (or welds)

b
d

0.67

0.9An

anges only
All members with bolted or riveted connections

0.75An

having only two fasteners per line in the direction


of stress

Welded Plates
Welds
Welds
Welds

l > 2w
2w > l > 1.5w
l/w.1

Ag
0.87Ag
0.75Ag

b Flange width; d section depth; l Weld length; w Plate width;


Table 9.2: Eective Net Area Ae for Bolted and Welded Connections

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

98

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

2. Subjected to excessive lateral deections and vibrations once assembled.

25

To limit this, the AISC code imposes a constraint on the element stiness.

P
Recall that stiness is dened as K =
, and for exural member it will be shown later that
M
4EI
Kf = = L where I is the moment of inertia.

26

Since
# for steel E, the elastic modulus is constant, and given the denition of the radius of gyration
I
L
, the AISC code (LRFD-B7) species that the slenderness ratio rmin
should not exceed 300
r= A

27

L
< 300
rmin

(9.10)

This limitation does not apply to rods in tension.


In applying this requirement, the higher slenderness ratio based on the two principal axes must be
used, i.e. rLx and rLy .

28

9.3
29

LRFD Design of Tension Members

Recall the general form of the structural safety requirement under LRFD (Eq. 7.9):
Rn i Qi

(9.11)

t T n T u

(9.12)

For tension members, this equation becomes

where

30

=
=
=

resistance factor relating to tensile strength


nominal strength of a tension member
factored load on a tension member

From Table 7.3, t is 0.75 and 0.9 for fracture and yielding failure respectively.

9.3.1
31

t
Tn
Tu

Tension Failure

The design strength t Tn is the smaller of that based on, Fig. 9.5
1. Yielding in the gross section: We can not allow yielding of the gross section, because this will
result in unacceptable elongation of the entire member.

t Tn = t Fy Ag = 0.90Fy Ag

(9.13)

or
2. Fracture in the net section: Yielding is locally allowed, because Ae is applicable only on a small
portion of the element. Local excessive elongation is allowed, however fracture must be prevented.
This mode of failure usually occurs if there is insucient distance behind the pin.

t Tn = t Fu Ae = 0.75Fu Ae

Victor Saouma

(9.14)

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

Draft

99

o o
o o
o o
o o

o
o
o o
o o
o o

o o
o

0.75FuA e

0.9FyA g

o o
o

0.75FuA e

Figure 9.5: Net and Gross Areas

9.3.2

Block Shear Failure

32

For bolted connections, tearing failure may occur and control the strength of the tension member.

33

For instance, with reference to Fig. 9.6 the angle tension member attached to the gusset plate3 may

00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

0000
1111
0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

0000
1111
1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

Figure 9.6: Tearing Failure Limit State


have a tearing failure along a-b-c. In this case the shear strength along a-b plus the tensile strength
along bc contribute to resist this particular failure mode.
This mode of failure is uncommon in tension members; However this failure mode commonly controls
the design of bolted end connections to the thin webs of beams.

34

LRFD-J4 indicates that the following two equations must be considered to account for either one of
the two combinations

35

Shear yielding-tension fracture: fracture on the net area in tension followed by yielding on the gross
3A

gusset plate is a plate at the intersection of members to which they are connected.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

910

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

section in shear
(9.15)

t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )

Shear fracture -tension yielding: Fracture on the net section in shear followed by yielding on the
gross section in tension.
(9.16)

t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )


where

Avg =
Atg =
Ans =
Ant =
and the largest

36

gross area subjected to shear yielding


gross area subjected to tensile yielding
net (gross - area of holes) area subjected to shear fracture
net (gross - area of holes) area subjected to tensile fracture
of the two will control.

Note that a conservative simplication of the above two equations is given below
(9.17)

t Tn = 0.75(0.6Fu )Ans

In this equation Ans is the area along the entire failure path (including both tension and shear failure),
whereas in Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 Ans is the net area where actual shear failure occurs (not including tension
failure).
Note that in the preceding equation, we assumed the shear yield stress y = 0.6Fy , and the shear
tensile strength u = 0.6Fu .

37

9.3.3
38

Summary

The design procedure for tension member can be summarized as follows


1. Determine the net area An from Section 9.2.1.1; if there are staggered holes, use Eq. 9.3.
2. Determine the eective area Ae from Section 9.2.1.2, and U from Table 9.2.
3. The limit load will be the lowest of the following
Tension Failure: by taking the lowest of the following
(a) Yielding (yld ) in the gross section, Eq. 9.13
(b) Fracture (u ) in the eective section, Eq. 9.14
Tearing: By checking either one of the following
(a) Eq. 9.17
(b) Eq. 9.15 and 9.16, take the largest value.
4. Check for slenderness, Eq. 9.10

Example 9-4: Load Capacity of Angle


Determine the service load capacity in tension for an L6x4x 21 of A572 grade 50 steel connected with
in. diameter bolts as shown below. Assume a live load to dead load ratio of 3.0. Since there are many
fasteners, there is no need to check for shear failure.
7
8

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

911

Draft

Solution:
1. The net area is given by
(a) Section 1-1:


An = Ag 1 hole = 4.75

7 1
+
8 8


0.50 = 4.25 in2

(9.18)

(b) Section 1-2:




An

=
=


s2
Ag 2 holes +
t
4g


7 1
(2)2
+
(0.5) = 3.95 in2
4.75 2
0.50 +
8 8
4(2.5)

(9.19-a)
(9.19-b)

2. Since not both legs are connected, From Table 9.2 U = 0.85 and
Ae = U An = (0.85)(3.95) = 3.36 in2

(9.20)

3. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)


t T n

= t Fy Ag

(9.21-a)

= 0.90(50)(4.75) = 214 k

(9.21-b)

4. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. 9.14


t T n

t Fu Ae

(9.22-a)

0.75(65)(3.36) = 163.8 k

(9.22-b)

5. Thus the controlling t Tn is 163.8 Kips


6. Next we must determine the factored load, From Section 7.3.3 we consider Tn = 1.2D + 1.6L,
since L = 3D, this reduces to Tn = 1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D or
Tn

Victor Saouma

= 163.8 = 6.0D

(9.23-a)

(9.23-b)

= (3)(27.3) = 81.9 k

27.3 k

(9.23-c)

Structural Engineering

912

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft
Example 9-5: Shear Rupture

Investigate the shear rupture failure mode on the angle L4x4x 41 attached with three
bolts to a 38 in. gusset plate. The material is A36 steel.

7
8

in. diameter

Solution:
1. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)
t T n

t Fy Ag

(9.24-a)

=
=

0.90(36)(1.94)
62.9 k

(9.24-b)
(9.24-c)

2. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. (9.14)


t T n

=
=
=

t Fu Ae = t Fu U An

(9.25-a)

7 1
0.75(58)(0.85)[1.94 ( + )(0.25)]
8 8
62.5 k

(9.25-b)
(9.25-c)

3. Thus the controlling t Tn is 62.5 Kips


4. The block shear failure along path a-b-c investigated according to LRFD-J4 using Eq. 9.17 gives
Ans

t T n

= (length a-b-c less three holes)thickness




7 1
=
7.5 + 1.5 (3)( + ) 0.25
8 8

(9.26-a)
(9.26-b)

= 1.5 in2

(9.26-c)

= (0.6Fu )Ans
= 0.75(0.6)(58)(1.5)

(9.26-d)
(9.26-e)

(9.26-f)

39.15 k

Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

913

Draft

(a) Shear yielding-tension fracture:


t T n

= t (0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )


(9.27-a)




1 7 1
= 0.75 (0.6)(36) [(2 3) + 1.5] (0.25) + (58) 1.5 ( + ) (0.25) (9.27-b)
2 8 8
= 41.25 k
(9.27-c)

(b) Shear fracture -tension yielding:


t T n

=
=
=

t (0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )


(9.28-a)




7 1
(9.28-b)
0.75 (0.6)(58) 7.5 ( + )(2.5) (0.25) + (36)(1.5)(0.25)
8 8
42.75 k

(9.28-c)

6. Hence, when the more correct equations are used, the strength is controlled by block shear; t Tn =
43.8 k which is less than the fracture strength of 62.5 k.
7. This general result is expected when minimum number of connectors are used along with thin
elements such as 14 in. or less.

Example 9-6: Shear Rupture


Determine the service load that can be carried by this C15x33.9 section (Ag = 9.96 in2 ), assuming
that the load is 20% dead load, and 80% live load. A36 steel with 3/4 in. diameter bolts.

C15X33.9

3"
15"

t =0.4"
w

3"
3"

1.5"

3"

3"

Solution:
1. Checking yielding failure of the gross area (Eq. 9.13)
t T n

= t Fy Ag

(9.29-a)

= 0.90(36)(9.96) = 322 k

(9.29-b)
(9.29-c)

2. Checking for fracture in the net section, Eq. (9.14)


An
Ae
t T n

Victor Saouma

3 1
= = 9.96 4( + )(0.4) = 9.96 4(0.875)(0.4) = 8.56 in2
4 8
= U An = 0.85(8.56) = 7.276 in2

(9.30-b)

= t Fu Ae = t Fu U An

(9.30-c)

= 0.75(58)(0.85)(7.276)] = 269. k

(9.30-d)

(9.30-a)

Structural Engineering

914

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

3. Thus the controlling t Tn is 269 Kips


4. The block shear failure according to LRFD-J4 using Eq. 9.17 gives
Ans

[2(7.5) + 9 8(0.875)]0.4 = 6.80 in2

(9.31-a)

t T n

=
=

(0.6Fu )Ans
0.75(0.6)(58)(6.8)

(9.31-b)
(9.31-c)

177.5 k

(9.31-d)

Thus, block shear gives a lower design strength than yielding or fracture.
5. Had we instead used the larger of Eq. 9.15 and 9.16 we would have obtained
(a) Shear yielding-tension fracture:
Avg

2(7.5)(0.4) = 6.00 in2

(9.32-a)

Ant

[9 3(0.875)](0.4) = 2.55 in2

(9.32-b)

t T n

=
=

t (0.6Fy Avg + Fu Ant )


0.75[(0.6)(36)(6.0) + (58)(2.55)] = 208 in2

(9.32-c)
(9.32-d)
(9.32-e)

(b) Shear fracture -tension yielding:


Ans

2[7.5 (2.5)(0.875)](0.4) = 4.25 in2

(9.33-a)

Atg
t T n

=
=

(9)(0.4) = 3.60 in2


t (0.6Fu Ans + Fy Atg )

(9.33-b)
(9.33-c)

0.75[(0.6)(58)(4.25) + (36)(3.6)] = 208 k

(9.33-d)

6. Thus the design tension T d is 208 kips


7. Finally we determine the service loads
DL = 0.2P
LL = 0.8P

(9.34-a)
(9.34-b)

1.4DL = (1.4)(0.2)P = 0.28P


1.2DL + 1.6LL = (1.2)(0.2P ) + (1.6)(0.8P ) = 1.52P
t T n
DL

(9.34-c)
(9.34-d)

= 208 k = 1.52P P = 137 k

(9.34-e)

= (0.2)(137) = 27 k

(9.34-f)

LL = (0.8)(137) = 109 k

(9.34-g)

Note that P is the sum of the service loads (DL +LL).

Example 9-7: Complete Analysis/Design of a Truss


Design the tension members of a welded roof truss for the industrial building made of A36 steel.
Trusses are space 20 ft center to center.
Roof loads: 1) Built-up roong: 5.5 psf; 2) Decking: 2.5 psf; 3) Purlins: 3.0 psf; 4) Truss (estimate)
3.0 psf.
Snow load 40 psf.
Trolley load on bottom chord: 6.4 k at L2 and L2 ; and 12.3 k at L5 .
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

915

Draft

Solution:
Loading: First we must determine the joint load in order to analyze the truss.
1. The total roof load is
5.5 + 2.5 + 3.0 + 3.0 = 14.0 psf

(9.35)

Top chord loads:


D

= (14.0) psf(20) ft = 280 lbs/ft

(9.36-a)

= (40.0) psf(20) ft = 800 lbs/ft

(9.36-b)

2. Next we must translate this vertical uniform load into joint loads on the truss
U0 , U0 : Snow Load:
Roof Load:
U1 , U1

: Snow Load:
Roof Load:

U2 , U2 , U3 , U3 , U4 , U4 , U4

: Snow Load:
Roof Load:

1
1
2 (6.42)(800) 1,000
1
1
2 (6.42)(280) 1,000
1
2 (6.42
1
2 (6.42

1
+ 6.00)(800) 1,000
1
+ 6.00)(280) 1,000
1
(6.00)(800) 1,000
1
(6.00)(280) 1,000

= 2.57 k (9.37-a)
= 0.9 k (9.37-b)
= 4.97 k (9.37-c)
= 1.74 k (9.37-d)
= 4.80 k (9.37-e)
= 1.68 k (9.37-f)

Analysis: With the load dened, we are now ready to perform a structural analysis of the truss:
1. We have three types of loads (Dead, Snow, and Live), and according to the AISC code (Sect.
7.3.3 we must consider the following three load conditions:
(a) 1.4 D
(b) 1.2D+1.6L+0.5S
(c) 1.2D+1.6S+0.5L
2. We have 22 joints, 3 reactions and 41 members; 22(2) = 41 + 3
determinate.

thus the truss is statically

3. In this case, the structure is symmetrical. That is there is no horizontal displacements at joints
L5 and U5 , however those joints undergo a vertical displacement. Hence, we can analyze the
left half of the truss, and assume that we do have roller supports along the y axis at joints
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

916

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft

L5 and U5 . This substructure will have 3 reactions, 21 elements, and 12 joints. Thus, it is
statically determinate.
Note that at joint U5 we will apply only one half of the load due to symmetry.

4. Hence, we shall analyze the structure for each load (D, S, and L), and then determine the
various load combinations. This is best achieved by the Matrix method described in Sect.
5.2.2.1.
5. We renumber the truss as shown below.

6. Let us determine the direction cosines for each member4 .


Member

joint

Joint

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11

6.42
0
6.42
6.42
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.
6.0
6.0
6.0
0.

0.
4.50
-4.50
0.54
5.04
0.
-5.04
.501
5.54
0.
-5.54
.501
6.04
0.
-6.04
.501
6.54
0.
-6.54
.501
7.04

6.42
4.50
7.84
6.44
5.04
6.0
7.84
6.02
5.54
6.0
8.17
6.02
6.04
6.0
8.51
6.02
6.54
6.0
8.88
6.02
7.04

1.0
0.
.82
1.0
0.
1.0
.77
1.0
0.
1.0
.73
1.0
0.
1.0
.71
1.0
0.
1.0
.68
1.0
0.

0.
1.0
-.57
.08
1.0
0.
-.64
.08
1.0
0.
-.68
.08
1.0
0.
-.71
.08
1.0
0.
-.74
.08
1.0

3
2
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12

-6.42
0.
-6.42
-6.42
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.
-6.0
-6.0
-6.0
0.

0.
-4.50
4.50
-0.54
-5.04
0.
5.04
-.501
-5.54
0.
5.54
-.501
-6.04
0.
6.04
-.501
-6.54
0.
6.54
-.501
-7.04

-1.0
0.
-.82
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.77
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.73
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.71
-1.0
0.
-1.0
-.68
-1.0
0.

0.
-1.0
.57
-.08
-1.0
0.
.64
-.08
-1.0
0.
.68
-.08
-1
0.
.71
-.08
-1.0
0.
.74
-.08
-1.0

7. Having determined the directions cosines,and assuming all members under tension, the statics
[B] matrix can be assembled5 .
[B] = [BL |BR ]
4 Note

that the upper chord have an elevation of y = 4.5 + .08356x with respect to L0 .
that in assembling the matrix, each column corresponds to an unknown internal element force, or an external
reaction. Each row corresponds to an equation of equilibrium. To facilitate the construction of the matrix, equations of
equilibrium at each joint are lumped into a row containing two lines. The rst line corresponds to Fx , and the second
u
one to Fy . Thus, the rst line contains u
j , and the second j where the subscript corresponds to the joint (or row
number). The superscript corresponds to the column number or unknown quantity (member force or reaction). u
j and
ju are taken from the table above.
5 Note

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

917

Draft
or

# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6

[BL ] =

# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12

# 1
# 2
# 3
# 4
# 5
# 6

[BR ] =

# 7
# 8
# 9
# 10
# 11
# 12

Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy

Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy
Fx
Fy

1.
0.

0.
1.
0.
1.

1.
0.

.82
.57
.82
.57

1.
.08

1.
.08

0.
1.
0.
1.

1.
0.
.77
.64
.77
.64

1.
0.

1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.

1.
.08

1.
0.
.73
.68
.73
.68

1.
0.

1.
.08

1.

0.
1.
0.
1.

1.
0.
.71
.71
.71
.71

1.
0.

1.
.08
0.
1.
0.
1.

1.
.08

1.
0.

1.
0.

.68
.74
.68
.74

1.0
.08

1.
.08

8. We will have three vectors of joint loads


P

1x
0.

P1y

0.

0.
P2x

P2y
0.9 k

0.
P3x

0.

P
3y

0.

P4x

1.74 k

4y

0.

P5x

0.

P5y

0.

P6x
1.68 k
=

+
P6y
1
2
0.

0.
P7x

0.
P7y

1.68
k
P8x

0.

P8y

0.

P9x

0.

P9y

1.68 k

P10x

0.

P10y

0.

P
0.

12x
P12y

1.
.08

0.84

Roof

0.
0.
0.
2.57
0.
0.
0.
4.97
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
4.8
0.
0.
0.
2.4

0.
1.
0.
1.

+3

1.
1.

0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.4
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
6.15
0.
0.

F1
F2
F3
F4
F5
F6
F7
F8
F9
F10
F11
F12
F13
F14
F15
F16
F17
F18
F19
F20
F21
R1y
R11x
R12x

Crane (Live Load)

Snow

9. There are many tools available to solve this problem. We will use Mathematica. Below is a
listing of our input le.
(* define the statics matrix
*)
b={
{ 1., 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 1. , 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0. , .82, 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., -1.,-.57, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{-1., 0.,-.82, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., .57, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

918

Draft

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

{ 0., 0., 0., -1., 0. , 0.,-.77, 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0.,


0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0., .64, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1., .77, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.64, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-1. , 0. , 0.,.73 , 1.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0.,-.68, .08,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,-.73, 0.,
0., 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0. ,.68 , 0.,
1., 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,
0., 0., .71, 1., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08,
-1., 0.,-.71,.08 , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., -1.,-.71, 0., 0. , 1. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0. , .71, 0., 1. , 0. , 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., -1., 0. , 0.,.68 , 1.0, 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0.,-.74, .08, 0., 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., -1.,-.68, 0., 0. , 0., 1. , 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0. , .74, 0., 1. , 0., 0., 0.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-1. , 0. , 0., 0., 1.},
{ 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0., 0.,-.08, -1., 0., 0., 0.}
}
(* define the joint load vectors (roof, snow, and live)
*)
r=-{0., 0., 0., -0.9, 0., 0., 0., -1.74, 0., 0., 0., -1.68,
0., 0., 0., -1.68, 0., 0., 0., -1.68, 0., 0.,
0., -0.84}
s=-{0., 0., 0., -2.57, 0., 0., 0., -4.97, 0., 0., 0., -4.8,
0., 0., 0., -4.8 , 0., 0., 0., -4.8 , 0., 0.,
0., -2.4}
l=-{0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0.,
-6.4,
0.,
0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0., 0.,
0., 0., 0.,-6.15, 0., 0.}
(* Invert the statics matrix b
*)
bm1=Inverse[b]
(* Solve for the roof, snow, and live load forces
*)
rf=N[bm1.r,2]
sf=N[bm1.s,2]
lf=N[bm1.l,2]
Print[" Dead (roof) Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[rf]
Print[" Live (Crane) Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[lf]
Print[" Snow Load Forces/Reactions"]
Print[sf]
(* Consider various load combinations ber AISC code
*)
lc1=N[1.4 rf,2]
lc2=N[1.2 rf + 1.6 lf +0.5 sf,2]
lc3=N[1.2 rf + 0.5 lf + 1.6 sf,2]
Print[" Load Combination 1: 1.4 D"]
Print[lc1]
Print[" Load Combination 2: 1.2 D + 1.6 L +0.5 S"]
Print[lc2]
Print[" Load Combination 3: 1.2 D +0.5 L +1.6 S"]
Print[lc3]
Print[" Get the Maximum load of each member"]
maxvec=Map[Max,Transpose[{lc1,lc2,lc3}]]
Print[" Get the Minimum load of each member"]
minvec=Map[Min,Transpose[{lc1,lc2,lc3}]]
(* Function definitions to prune results
*)
pos[x_]:=If[x>0,x,0]
neg[x_]:=If[x<0,x,0]
(* Get the vector with Maximum and Minimum forces
*)
tension=Map[pos,maxvec]
compression=Map[neg,minvec]

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.3 LRFD Design of Tension Members

919

Draft

Print[" Vector of Tensile Forces"]


Print[tension]
Print[" Vector of Compressive Forces"]
Print[compression]
(* Define a function which will give the cross sectional area
*)
area[x_]:=If[x>0,x/(0.9*36),"-"]
(* Det ermine the area for each element which is under tension *)
xarea=N[Map[area,tempos],2]
Print[" Cross sectional areas for elements under tension"]
Print[xarea]

10. The following reactions are obtained


Load
Roof
Snow
Crane

R1y
8.5
24
13.

R11x
19.
53.
38

R12x
-19.
-53.
-38

We observe that Fx = 0 , we check for Fy = 0 for the roof load (Never ever trust any
computer analysis unless you check at least equilibrium, and the order of magnitude
of the
deections). The external joint load is 0.9 + 1.74 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 1.68 + 0.84 = 8.52 .
Design:

1. The above results can now be summarized in the following table


Member
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21

L0 L1
U0 L 0
U0 L 1
U0 U1
U1 L 1
L1 L2
U1 L 2
U1 U2
U2 L 2
L2 L3
U2 L 3
U2 U3
U3 L 3
L3 L4
U3 L 4
U3 U4
U4 L 4
L4 L5
U4 L 5
U4 U5
U5 L 5

Roof
0.
-8.5
12.
-9.8
-6.8
9.8
7.3
-15.
-4.6
15.
4.
-18.
-2.7
18.
1.4
-19.
-0.97
19.
-0.89
-19.
0.66

Load
Snow
0.
-24.
34.
-28.
-20.
28.
21.
-44.
-13.
44.
11.
-52.
-7.8
52.
3.9
-55.
-2.8
55.
-2.5
-53.
1.9

Live
0.
-13.
20.
-16.
-11.
16.
16.
-29.
-3.9
29.
5.2
-32.
-3.6
32.
4.6
-36.
-3.3
36.
4.2
-38.
3.1

Load Cases
1
2
3
0.
0.
0.
-12. -35. -55.
17.
52.
79.
-14. -43. -65.
-9.6 -30. -45.
14.
43.
65.
10.
38.
50.
-22. -72. -100.
-6.5 -14. -29.
22.
72.
100.
5.6
15.
26.
-26. -83. -120.
-3.8 -10. -18.
26.
83.
120.
1.9
9.8
10.
-27. -90. -130.
-1.4 -6.9 -7.3
27.
90.
130.
-1.2 5.1
-3.1
-26. -93. -130.
0.92
6.
5.3

Design Load
Compr. Tens.
0
0
-55.
0
0
79.
-65.
0
-45.
0
0.
65.
0.
50.
-100.
0
-29.
0
0
100.
0
26.
-120.
0
-18.
0
0
120.
0
10.
-130.
0
-7.3
0
0
130.
-3.1
5.1
-130.
0
0
6.

2. We now focus on the design of members with tensile forces (Note that member U4 L5 ) can
be subjected to both tensile and compressive forces).

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

920

Draft

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS


Member
L0 L1
L1 L2
L2 L3
L3 L4
L4 L5
U0 L 1
U1 L 2
U2 L 3
U3 L 4
U4 L 5
U5 L 5

Des. Load
kip
65.
100.
120.
130.
79.
50.
26.
10.
5.1
6.

Reqd. Area
in2
2.01
3.09
3.70
4.01
2.44
1.54
0.80
0.31
0.16
0.19

Section
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
WT 7x15
1
2L3x2 2 x 41
2L2x2x 41
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16
3
2L2x2x 16

Area
in2
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
4.42
2.63
1.88
1.43
1.43
1.43
1.43

L
in.
77.
72.
72.
72
72
94.
94.
98.
102.
107
84

rmin
in.
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
1.49
0.75
0.61
0.62
0.62
0.62
0.62

L
rmin

52
48
48
48
48
125
154
158
165
172
135

Comments:
1. We designed only the members under tension (Note that U4 L5 ) would also have to be
designed for compression.
2. The same size section was used for the entire lower chord. A smaller section could have been
used for L0 L2 , however the cost saving in steel would probably be oset by the additional
labor cost.
3. Similarly, additional savings would result in using dierent sections for the inclined members.
3
4. Again we could have used angles smaller than 2L2x2x 16
, for instance 2L2x2x 81 , however it is
3
preferable to avoid thicknesses smaller than 16 in. because of welding.

5. Angles with legs smaller than 2 in. could have been used, however those may not always be
available, and they may result in a slenderness ratio exceeding 300.
6. The joint details of a truss of this kind are usually worked out by the fabricator. How to
review them and approve them, the Engineer must know how to design them.
7. Design of steel connections will be covered in subsequent courses (note that however we have
seen above how to review some aspects of this design).

9.4

Computer Aided Analysis

In more advanced Structural Analysis courses (CVEN4525), you will be exposed to the computer aided
analysis of structures.
Using such a program (which will be made available later to you), following is the input data le:
*TITLE
Design of Welded truss
*CONTROL
12 21
1 0 6 2
*COORD
1
0.0
0.0
2
0.0
4.5
3
6.42
0.0
4
6.42
5.04
5 12.42
0.0
6 12.42
5.54
7 18.42
0.0
8 18.42
6.04
9 24.42
0.0
10 24.42
6.54
11 30.42
0.0
12 30.42
7.04
*BOUND
1 0 1
11 1 0
12 1 0
*ELEM
1 1 3 1
2 1 2 1

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

9.4 Computer Aided Analysis

921

Draft
3 2 3 1
4 2 4 1
5 3 4 1
6 3 5 1
7 4 5 1
8 4 6 1
9 5 6 1
10 5 7 1
11 6 7 1
12 6 8 1
13 7 8 1
14 7 9 1
15 8 9 1
16 8 10 1
17 9 10 1
18 9 11 1
19 10 11 1
20 10 12 1
21 11 12 1
*PROP
1 30000. 1.
*LOAD
3
3
Roof Load
6
0
0
2
0. -0.9
4
0. -1.74
6
0. -1.68
8
0. -1.68
10
0. -1.68
12
0. -0.84
Snow Load
6
0
0
2
0. -2.57
4
0. -4.97
6
0. -4.8
8
0. -4.8
10
0. -4.8
12
0. -2.4
Crane load
2
0
0
5
0. -6.4
11
0. -6.15
*COMB
LC 1
1
1 1.4
LC 2
3
1 1.2
2 0.5
3 1.6
LC 3
3
1 1.2
2 1.6
3 0.5

The output of such an analysis would be as follow. Compare those results with the one obtained by
inverting the statics matrix.
***********************************
I S D S
INTEGRATED STRUCTURAL DESIGN SYSTEM
***********************************
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, UNIV. OF COLORADO, BOULDER, CO
Version 0.2
July 1991

NUMBER
OF
JOINTS
-----12

NUMBER
OF
MEMBERS
------21

NUMBER OF
PROPERTY
GROUPS
--------1

NUMBER OF
ELASTIC
SPRINGS
--------0

NUMBER OF
LOADING
CASES
--------6

ASSOCIATED D.O.F. NUMBERS AND COORDINATES


----------------------------------------JOINT DELTA-X DELTA-Y GLOBAL GLOBAL
NUMBER D.O.F.# D.O.F.# X-COOR Y-COOR
------ ------- ------- ------ -----1
1
0
0.0
0.0
2
2
3
0.0
4.5
3
4
5
6.4
0.0
4
6
7
6.4
5.0
5
8
9
12.4
0.0
6
10
11
12.4
5.5
7
12
13
18.4
0.0
8
14
15
18.4
6.0
9
16
17
24.4
0.0

Victor Saouma

STRUCTURE
TYPE CODE
NUMBER
--------2

LOAD CASE:

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-6.8194E-02 0.0000E+00
2
4.6579E-02 -6.3711E-03
3
-6.8194E-02 -1.9852E-01
4
5.2197E-02 -2.0454E-01
5
-5.7975E-02 -3.5366E-01
6
4.7734E-02 -3.5703E-01
7
-4.0982E-02 -4.6059E-01
8
3.6636E-02 -4.6314E-01
9
-2.1247E-02 -5.2493E-01
10
2.0455E-02 -5.2659E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -5.4697E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -5.4536E-01
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 4.247E+01
11
1.090E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.090E+02 0.000E+00

Structural Engineering

922

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft
10
11
12

18
0
0

19
20
21

24.4
30.4
30.4

6.5
0.0
7.0

LOAD CASE:

MEMBER INCIDENCES AND PROPERTY GROUP ID NUMBERS


----------------------------------------------MEMBER START END PROPERTY
NUMBER JOINT JOINT GROUP #
------ ----- ----- -------1
1
3
1
2
1
2
1
3
2
3
1
4
2
4
1
5
3
4
1
6
3
5
1
7
4
5
1
8
4
6
1
9
5
6
1
10
5
7
1
11
6
7
1
12
6
8
1
13
7
8
1
14
7
9
1
15
8
9
1
16
8
10
1
17
9
10
1
18
9
11
1
19
10
11
1
20
10
12
1
21
11
12
1

REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 5.544E+01
11
1.251E+02 0.000E+00
12
-1.251E+02 0.000E+00

MEMBER LOADS
-----------MEMBER LOAD JOINT
AXIAL
NUMBER CASE NUMBER
LOAD
------ ---- ------ ---------

MEMBER PROPERTY GROUP DEFINITIONS


--------------------------------PROPERTY YOUNG"S
AREA OF
GROUP # MODULUS X-SECTION
-------- --------- --------1
3.0000E+04 1.0000E+00

1
2

NUMBER OF
APPLIED
LOAD CASES
---------3

NUMBER OF
COMBINED
LOAD CASES
---------3

3
4
5
6

load case:
Roof Load

1
2

APPLIED JOINT LOADS


------------------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------2
0.000E+00 -9.000E-01
4
0.000E+00 -1.740E+00
6
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
8
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
10
0.000E+00 -1.680E+00
12
0.000E+00 -8.400E-01

1
2
3
4
5
6

3
load case:
Snow Load

1
2
3

APPLIED JOINT LOADS


------------------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------2
0.000E+00 -2.570E+00
4
0.000E+00 -4.970E+00
6
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
8
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
10
0.000E+00 -4.800E+00
12
0.000E+00 -2.400E+00

4
5
6

1
2
3

load case:
Crane load

4
5

APPLIED JOINT LOADS


------------------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------5
0.000E+00 -6.400E+00
11
0.000E+00 -6.150E+00

1
2
3

R E S U L T

OF

M E S H

O P T I M I Z A T I O N
4

BANDWIDTH
PROFILE

INITIAL MESH
2
21

OPTIMIZED MESH
2
21

5
6

OLD NODES :
NEW NODES :

1
1

2
2

3
3

4
4

5
5

6
6

7
7

8
8

9
9

10
10

11
11

12
12

1
2

SKYLINE SOLVER STATISTICS


AVERAGE BANDWIDTH...............................
NUMBER OF EQUATIONS.............................
NUMBER OF NON-ZERO ELEMENTS IN STIFFNESS MATRIX.
MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF EACH BLOCK..................

Victor Saouma

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-8.2746E-02 0.0000E+00
2
5.5835E-02 -8.3164E-03
3
-8.2746E-02 -2.4162E-01
4
6.2249E-02 -2.4915E-01
5
-6.9944E-02 -4.2656E-01
6
5.6902E-02 -4.3183E-01
7
-4.9587E-02 -5.5737E-01
8
4.3305E-02 -5.6085E-01
9
-2.5489E-02 -6.3314E-01
10
2.3701E-02 -6.3466E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -6.5504E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -6.5373E-01

3
4
21
101
101

4
5

1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3
1
3

0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00
0.000E+00

1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2

8.520E+00
-8.520E+00
2.434E+01
-2.434E+01
1.255E+01
-1.255E+01
1.193E+01
-1.193E+01
4.247E+01
-4.247E+01
5.544E+01
-5.544E+01

2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
3

-1.185E+01
1.185E+01
-3.386E+01
3.386E+01
-1.952E+01
1.952E+01
-1.659E+01
1.659E+01
-6.239E+01
6.239E+01
-7.817E+01
7.817E+01

2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4
2
4

9.741E+00
-9.741E+00
2.783E+01
-2.783E+01
1.604E+01
-1.604E+01
1.364E+01
-1.364E+01
5.127E+01
-5.127E+01
6.424E+01
-6.424E+01

3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4
3
4

6.804E+00
-6.804E+00
1.944E+01
-1.944E+01
1.121E+01
-1.121E+01
9.525E+00
-9.525E+00
3.581E+01
-3.581E+01
4.487E+01
-4.487E+01

3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5
3
5

-9.706E+00
9.706E+00
-2.773E+01
2.773E+01
-1.599E+01
1.599E+01
-1.359E+01
1.359E+01
-5.109E+01
5.109E+01

Structural Engineering

9.4 Computer Aided Analysis

Draft

NUMBER OF BLOCK(S)..............................
MAXIM. CAPACITY FOR CONTROL INFORMATION.........
ESTIMATE OF UNUSED STORAGE FOR EACH BLOCK.......

1
21
11

LENGTH OF STIFFNESS ARRAY.......................


TOTAL LENGTH OF ARRAY AVAILABLE.................
TOTAL NUMBER OF I/O PERFORMED...................

101
49106
0

923

3
5

-6.401E+01
6.401E+01

4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5
4
5

-7.173E+00
7.173E+00
-2.049E+01
2.049E+01
-1.587E+01
1.587E+01
-1.004E+01
1.004E+01
-4.424E+01
4.424E+01
-4.933E+01
4.933E+01

4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6
4
6

1.525E+01
-1.525E+01
4.357E+01
-4.357E+01
2.823E+01
-2.823E+01
2.135E+01
-2.135E+01
8.526E+01
-8.526E+01
1.021E+02
-1.021E+02

5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6
5
6

4.613E+00
-4.613E+00
1.318E+01
-1.318E+01
3.805E+00
-3.805E+00
6.459E+00
-6.459E+00
1.822E+01
-1.822E+01
2.853E+01
-2.853E+01

5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7
5
7

-1.520E+01
1.520E+01
-4.342E+01
4.342E+01
-2.814E+01
2.814E+01
-2.128E+01
2.128E+01
-8.497E+01
8.497E+01
-1.018E+02
1.018E+02

6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7
6
7

-3.966E+00
3.966E+00
-1.133E+01
1.133E+01
-5.145E+00
5.145E+00
-5.553E+00
5.553E+00
-1.866E+01
1.866E+01
-2.546E+01
2.546E+01

6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8
6
8

1.818E+01
-1.818E+01
5.193E+01
-5.193E+01
3.203E+01
-3.203E+01
2.545E+01
-2.545E+01
9.902E+01
-9.902E+01
1.209E+02
-1.209E+02

7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8
7
8

2.691E+00
-2.691E+00
7.688E+00
-7.688E+00
3.490E+00
-3.490E+00
3.767E+00
-3.767E+00
1.266E+01
-1.266E+01
1.727E+01
-1.727E+01

7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9
7
9

-1.811E+01
1.811E+01
-5.175E+01
5.175E+01
-3.192E+01
3.192E+01
-2.536E+01
2.536E+01
-9.867E+01
9.867E+01
-1.205E+02
1.205E+02

8
9
8
9
8
9

-1.316E+00
1.316E+00
-3.759E+00
3.759E+00
-4.544E+00
4.544E+00

2
3
4

load case:
LC 1

4
5
6

NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------1

1
2

LOAD CASE COMBINATION


ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.400

3
4
5
6

load case:
LC 2

5
9

NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3

1
2
3
4

LOAD CASE COMBINATION


ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.200
2
0.500
3
1.600

5
6

10

1
2

load case:
LC 3

3
4

NUMBER OF
LOAD CASES
COMBINED
---------3

5
6

11
LOAD CASE COMBINATION
ID NUMBER
FACTOR
--------- ----------1
1.200
2
1.600
3
0.500

1
2
3
4
5

LOAD CASE:

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.2412E-02 0.0000E+00
2
8.3395E-03 -1.2780E-03
3
-1.2412E-02 -3.6280E-02
4
9.2804E-03 -3.7423E-02
5
-1.0470E-02 -6.3848E-02
6
8.4821E-03 -6.4700E-02
7
-7.4305E-03 -8.3526E-02
8
6.4357E-03 -8.4067E-02
9
-3.8080E-03 -9.4769E-02
10
3.4968E-03 -9.4973E-02
11
0.0000E+00 -9.7803E-02
12
0.0000E+00 -9.7640E-02

12

1
2
3
4
5
6

13

1
2
3

REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 8.520E+00
11
1.840E+01 0.000E+00
12
-1.840E+01 0.000E+00

4
5
6

14

1
2

LOAD CASE:

2
3

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-3.5460E-02 0.0000E+00
2
2.3826E-02 -3.6510E-03
3
-3.5460E-02 -1.0365E-01
4
2.6515E-02 -1.0692E-01
5
-2.9914E-02 -1.8242E-01
6
2.4234E-02 -1.8485E-01
7
-2.1229E-02 -2.3864E-01
8
1.8387E-02 -2.4018E-01

Victor Saouma

4
5
6

15

1
2
3

Structural Engineering

924

STEEL TENSION MEMBERS

Draft
9
10
11
12

-1.0880E-02
9.9907E-03
0.0000E+00
0.0000E+00

-2.7076E-01
-2.7134E-01
-2.7943E-01
-2.7896E-01

4
5
6

REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 2.434E+01
11
5.258E+01 0.000E+00
12
-5.258E+01 0.000E+00

16

1
2
3
4
5

LOAD CASE:

3
6

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-2.2231E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.5411E-02 -1.8825E-03
3
-2.2231E-02 -6.4475E-02
4
1.7377E-02 -6.6357E-02
5
-1.9034E-02 -1.1615E-01
6
1.5899E-02 -1.1685E-01
7
-1.3407E-02 -1.5065E-01
8
1.2325E-02 -1.5136E-01
9
-7.0236E-03 -1.7239E-01
10
7.0396E-03 -1.7310E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.8119E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.8045E-01

17

3
4
5
6

18

3
4
5
6

19
4

DISPLACEMENTS
------------DEFLECTIONS
JOINT ----------------------NUMBER
DELTA-X
DELTA-Y
------ ----------- ----------1
-1.7376E-02 0.0000E+00
2
1.1675E-02 -1.7892E-03
3
-1.7376E-02 -5.0792E-02
4
1.2993E-02 -5.2392E-02
5
-1.4658E-02 -8.9387E-02
6
1.1875E-02 -9.0580E-02
7
-1.0403E-02 -1.1694E-01
8
9.0100E-03 -1.1769E-01
9
-5.3311E-03 -1.3268E-01
10
4.8956E-03 -1.3296E-01
11
0.0000E+00 -1.3692E-01
12
0.0000E+00 -1.3670E-01
REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.193E+01
11
2.576E+01 0.000E+00
12
-2.576E+01 0.000E+00

Victor Saouma

1
2

REACTIONS
--------JOINT FORCE IN X FORCE IN Y
NUMBER DIRECTION DIRECTION
------ ---------- ---------1
0.000E+00 1.255E+01
11
3.787E+01 0.000E+00
12
-3.787E+01 0.000E+00

LOAD CASE:

1
2

1
2
3
4
5
6

20

1
2
3
4
5
6

21

1
2

8
9
8
9
8
9

-1.842E+00
1.842E+00
-1.073E+01
1.073E+01
-9.865E+00
9.865E+00

8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10
8
10

1.911E+01
-1.911E+01
5.459E+01
-5.459E+01
3.524E+01
-3.524E+01
2.675E+01
-2.675E+01
1.066E+02
-1.066E+02
1.279E+02
-1.279E+02

9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10

9.333E-01
-9.333E-01
2.667E+00
-2.667E+00
3.224E+00
-3.224E+00
1.307E+00
-1.307E+00
7.611E+00
-7.611E+00
6.999E+00
-6.999E+00

9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11
9
11

-1.904E+01
1.904E+01
-5.440E+01
5.440E+01
-3.512E+01
3.512E+01
-2.666E+01
2.666E+01
-1.062E+02
1.062E+02
-1.274E+02
1.274E+02

10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11
10
11

9.413E-01
-9.413E-01
2.689E+00
-2.689E+00
-4.064E+00
4.064E+00
1.318E+00
-1.318E+00
-4.028E+00
4.028E+00
3.400E+00
-3.400E+00

10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12
10
12

1.847E+01
-1.847E+01
5.276E+01
-5.276E+01
3.800E+01
-3.800E+01
2.585E+01
-2.585E+01
1.093E+02
-1.093E+02
1.256E+02
-1.256E+02

11
12
11
12

-6.936E-01
6.936E-01
-1.982E+00
1.982E+00

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 10

INTERNAL FORCES IN
STRUCTURES
1 This chapter will start as a review of shear and moment diagrams which you have studied in both
Statics and Strength of Materials, and will proceed with the analysis of statically determinate frames,
arches and grids.
2 By the end of this lecture, you should be able to draw the shear, moment and torsion (when applicable)
diagrams for each member of a structure.
3 Those diagrams will subsequently be used for member design. For instance, for exural design, we will
consider the section subjected to the highest moment, and make sure that the internal moment is equal
and opposite to the external one. For the ASD method, the basic beam equation (derived in Strength of
Materials) = MC
I , (where M would be the design moment obtained from the moment diagram) would
have to be satised.
4 Some of the examples rst analyzed in chapter 4 (Reactions), will be revisited here. Later on, we will
determine the deections of those same problems.

10.1

Design Sign Conventions

Before we (re)derive the Shear-Moment relations, let us arbitrarily dene a sign convention.

The sign convention adopted here, is the one commonly used for design purposes1 .

With reference to Fig. 10.1

2D:
Load Positive along the beams local y axis (assuming a right hand side convention), that is
positive upward.
Axial: tension positive.
Flexure A positive moment is one which causes tension in the lower bers, and compression in
the upper ones. Alternatively, moments are drawn on the compression side (useful to keep in
mind for frames).
Shear A positive shear force is one which is up on a negative face, or down on a positive one.
Alternatively, a pair of positive shear forces will cause clockwise rotation.
Torsion Counterclockwise positive
3D: Use double arrow vectors (and NOT curved arrows). Forces and moments (including torsions) are
dened with respect to a right hand side coordinate system, Fig. ??.
1 Later

on, in more advanced analysis courses we will use a dierent one.

102

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft

+ Axial Force

+ve Load

+
+ve Shear

+ve Moment

Figure 10.1: Shear and Moment Sign Conventions for Design

My

Tx

Mz

My
Mz

Tx
Figure 10.2: Sign Conventions for 3D Frame Elements

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.2 Load, Shear, Moment Relations

103

Draft
10.2

Load, Shear, Moment Relations

8 Let us (re)derive the basic relations between load, shear and moment. Considering an innitesimal
length dx of a beam subjected to a positive load2 w(x), Fig. 10.3. The innitesimal section must also

Figure 10.3: Free Body Diagram of an Innitesimal Beam Segment


be in equilibrium.
There are no axial forces, thus we only have two equations of equilibrium to satisfy Fy = 0 and
Mz = 0.

Since dx is innitesimally small, the small variation in load along it can be neglected, therefore we
assume w(x) to be constant along dx.

10

To denote that a small change in shear and moment occurs over the length dx of the element, we add
the dierential quantities dVx and dMx to Vx and Mx on the right face.

11

12

Next considering the rst equation of equilibrium


(+
) Fy = 0 Vx + wx dx (Vx + dVx ) = 0

or
dV
= w(x)
dx

(10.1)

The slope of the shear curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the load
curve at that point.
13

Similarly
(+ )
MO = 0 Mx + Vx dx wx dx

dx
(Mx + dMx ) = 0
2

Neglecting the dx2 term, this simplies to


dM
= V (x)
dx

(10.2)

The slope of the moment curve at any point along the axis of a member is given by the shear
at that point.
14

Alternative forms of the preceding equations



V =
w(x)dx

(10.3)


V21

Vx2 Vx1 =

x2

w(x)dx

(10.4)

x1
2 In

this derivation, as in all other ones we should assume all quantities to be positive.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

104

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft

The change in shear between 1 and 2, V12 , is equal to the area under the load between
x1 and x2 .

and


M

V (x)dx

(10.5)


M21

= M2 M1 =

x2

V (x)dx

(10.6)

x1

The change in moment between 1 and 2, M21 , is equal to the area under the shear curve
between x1 and x2 .
15

Note that we still need to have V1 and M1 in order to obtain V2 and M2 .

Similar relations will be determined later (Chapter 12) between curvature


12.30).

16

M
EI

and rotation (Eq.

Fig. 10.4 and 10.5 further illustrates the variation in internal shear and moment under uniform and
concentrated forces/moment.

17

Figure 10.4: Shear and Moment Forces at Dierent Sections of a Loaded Beam

10.3
18

Moment Envelope

For design, we often must consider dierent load combinations.

For each load combination, we should draw the shear, moment diagrams. and then we should use the
Moment envelope for design purposes.

19

10.4

Examples

10.4.1

Beams

Example 10-1: Simple Shear and Moment Diagram


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

Draft

105
Positive Constant

Negative Constant

Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing

Positive Constant

Negative Constant

Positive Increasing Positive Decreasing Negative Increasing Negative Decreasing

Load

Shear

Shear

Moment

Figure 10.5: Slope Relations Between Load Intensity and Shear, or Between Shear and Moment
Draw the shear and moment diagram for the beam shown below

Solution:
The free body diagram is drawn below

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

106

Draft

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Reactions are determined from the equilibrium equations


(+ )Fx = 0; RAx + 6 = 0 RAx = 6 k
(+ )
MA = 0; (11)(4) + (8)(10) + (4)(2)(14 + 2) RFy (18) = 0 RFy = 14 k
(+ ) Fy = 0; RAy 11 8 (4)(2) + 14 = 0 RAy = 13 k
Shear are determined next.
1. At A the shear is equal to the reaction and is positive.
2. At B the shear drops (negative load) by 11 k to 2 k.
3. At C it drops again by 8 k to 6 k.
4. It stays constant up to D and then it decreases (constant negative slope since the load is
uniform and negative) by 2 k per linear foot up to 14 k.
5. As a check, 14 k is also the reaction previously determined at F .
Moment is determined last:
1. The moment at A is zero (hinge support).
2. The change in moment between A and B is equal to the area under the corresponding shear
diagram, or MBA = (13)(4) = 52.
3. etc...

Example 10-2: Sketches of Shear and Moment Diagrams


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

Draft

107

For each of the following examples, sketch the shear and moment diagrams.

10.4.2

Frames

Inclined loads on inclined members are often mishandled. With reference to Fig. 10.6 we would have
the following relations

20

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

108

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft
L
w1

ly

lx

LX
w4

w2

LY

w3

l
l

lx

Figure 10.6: Inclined Loads on Inclined Members

lx
l
ly
l

ly
lx
ly
lx
+ w2 + w3 + w4
l
l
l
l
ly
lx
ly
lx
w1 L + w2 L + w3 LY + w4 LX
l
l
l
l

w1

(10.7)
(10.8)

cos

(10.9)

sin

(10.10)

Example 10-3: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram


Draw the shear and moment diagram of the following frame

Solution:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

109

Draft

Reactions are determined rst


4
)Fx = 0; RAx (3)(15) = 0
5


load
RAx = 36 k


9
12
3
4
30
(+ )
(3)(15) 39RDy = 0
MA = 0; (3)(30)( 2 ) + (3)(15) 30 +
5
2
5

2



(+

CDY

CDX

RDy = 52.96 k
) Fy = 0; RAy (3)(30) 35 (3)(15) + 52.96 = 0
(+
RAy = 64.06 k
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1010

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft
Shear:

1. For A B, the shear is constant, equal to the horizontal reaction at A and negative according
to our previously dened sign convention, VA = 36 k
2. For member B C at B, the shear must be equal to the vertical force which was transmitted
along A B, and which is equal to the vertical reaction at A, VB = 64.06.
3. Since B C is subjected to a uniform negative load, the shear along B C will have a slope
equal to 3 and in terms of x (measured from B to C) is equal to
VBC (x) = 64.06 3x
4. The shear along C D is obtained by decomposing the vertical reaction at D into axial and
shear components. Thus at D the shear is equal to 35 52.96 = 31.78 k and is negative. Based
on our sign convention for the load, the slope of the shear must be equal to 3 along C D.
Thus the shear at point C is such that Vc 53 9(3) = 31.78 or Vc = 13.22. The equation for
the shear is given by (for x going from C to D)
V = 13.22 3x
5. We check our calculations by verifying equilibrium of node C
(+
(+

)Fx = 0
) Fy = 0

3
5 (42.37) +
4
5 (42.37)

4
5 (13.22)
3
5 (13.22)

= 25.42 + 10.58 = 36
= 33.90 7.93 = 25.97

Moment:
1. Along A B, the moment is zero at A (since we have a hinge), and its slope is equal to the
shear, thus at B the moment is equal to (36)(12) = 432 k.ft
2. Along B C, the moment is equal to
 x
 x
MBC = MB +
VBC (x)dx = 432 +
(64.06 3x)dx
0

432 + 64.06x 3 x2

which is a parabola. Substituting for x = 30, we obtain at node C: MC = 432 + 64.06(30)


2
3 302 = 139.8 k.ft
BC
3. If we need to determine the maximum moment along B C, we know that dMdx
= 0 at the
64.06
point where VBC = 0, that is VBC (x) = 64.06 3x = 0 x = 3 = 25.0 ft. In other
words, maximum moment occurs where the shear is zero.
2

max
= 432 + 64.06(25.0) 3 (25.0)
= 432 + 1, 601.5 937.5 = 232 k.ft
Thus MBC
2

4. Finally along C D, the moment varies quadratically (since we had a linear shear), the
moment rst increases (positive shear), and then decreases (negative shear). The moment
along C D is given by
(x
(x
MCD = MC + 0 VCD (x)dx = 139.8 + 0 (13.22 3x)dx
2
= 139.8 + 13.22x 3 x2
which is a parabola.
2
Substituting for x= 15, we obtain at node C MC = 139.8 + 13.22(15) 3 152 = 139.8 +
198.3 337.5 = 0

Example 10-4: Frame Shear and Moment Diagram; Hydrostatic Load


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

1011

Draft

The frame shown below is the structural support of a ume. Assuming that the frames are spaced 2
ft apart along the length of the ume,
1. Determine all internal member end actions
2. Draw the shear and moment diagrams
3. Locate and compute maximum internal bending moments
4. If this is a reinforced concrete frame, show the location of the reinforcement.

Solution:
The hydrostatic pressure causes lateral forces on the vertical members which can be treated as
cantilevers xed at the lower end.
The pressure is linear and is given by p = h. Since each frame supports a 2 ft wide slice of the
ume, the equation for w (pounds/foot) is
w

=
=

(2)(62.4)(h)
124.8h lbs/ft

At the base w = (124.8)(6) = 749 lbs/ft = .749 k/ft Note that this is both the lateral pressure on the
end walls as well as the uniform load on the horizontal members.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1012

Draft

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

End Actions
1. Base force at B is FBx = (.749) 26 = 2.246 k
2. Base moment at B is MB = (2.246) 36 = 4.493 k.ft
3. End force at B for member B E are equal and opposite.
4. Reaction at C is RCy = (.749) 16
2 = 5.99 k
Shear forces
1. Base at B the shear force was determined earlier and was equal to 2.246 k. Based on the
orientation of the x y axis, this is a negative shear.
2. The vertical shear at B is zero (neglecting the weight of A B)
3. The shear to the left of C is V = 0 + (.749)(3) = 2.246 k.
4. The shear to the right of C is V = 2.246 + 5.99 = 3.744 k
Moment diagrams
1. At the base: B M = 4.493 k.ft as determined above.
2. At the support C, Mc = 4.493 + (.749)(3)( 23 ) = 7.864 k.ft
3. The maximum moment is equal to Mmax = 7.864 + (.749)(5)( 52 ) = 1.50 k.ft

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

Draft

1013

Design: Reinforcement should be placed along the bers which are under tension, that is on the side
of the negative moment3 . The gure below schematically illustrates the location of the exural4
reinforcement.

Example 10-5: Shear Moment Diagrams for Frame


3 That is why in most European countries, the sign convention for design moments is the opposite of the one commonly
used in the U.S.A.; Reinforcement should be placed where the moment is postive.
4 Shear reinforcement is made of a series of vertical stirrups.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1014

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft

12

10
2k/ft

30k

5k/ft

Vba
C

Hbd

M ba

Vbc

10k

5
20k

VA

Vbd

52.5k

M bc
M bd
30k

15
0

0
0

650k
450k

HD

4k/ft

200k

82.5k

VD

CHECK

30k

2k/ft 10k

5k/ft
B

A
17.5k

Hba
M ba

Vba

Hbc
M bc

C
Vbc

(10)+(2)(10) 30k

17.5-5x=0

-22.5k

3.5

-22.5+(-30)

10k

Vbc

17.5k

M bc
-200k

17.5-(5)(8)

(10)(10)+(2)(10)(10)/2

Vba

-52.5k
30.6k

(17.5)(3.5)/2

-20k

(17.5)(3.5)/2+(-22.5)(8-3.5)/2

(-52.5)(12)+(-20)

-650k

M ba

Vbd
M bd

50k

20k

450k
(50)(15)-[(4)(5)/2][(2)(15)/3)]

(50)-(4)(15)/2

450k

Hbd

20k

4k/ft

50k
82.5k

Example 10-6: Shear Moment Diagrams for Inclined Frame


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

1015

Draft

26k

26k

10

13

10

13
13

20k
C

13
5

12

15

B
2k/ft

20
Ha

36

20

Ve

48.8k

2k/ft

60k

Fx

800k

0k

60k
2

7.69k

1k

20k

(20)(15)/13=7.7
0k

0k
39.1k

CD
7

29.3k

48.9k

777k

k
1130

800k

9 B-C

13

-16 k

7k

1,130-(.58)(13)
k
800+(25.4)(13)
1122

3.1

8 B-C

77

-2

.1k
-2 39.

1,122-(26.6)(13)

k 26.6k
-0.58 6 - -0.6-26
25.42

11 C-D

(39.1)(12.5)

488k
12 C-D

14

-23
.1
k 6.6k k
8
5
.
-0
-2
-39
.

0k
113
1k

2k

112

(20)(12)/(13)=18.46
(19.2)(5)/(13)=7.38
(19.2)(12)/(13)=17.72
(26)(12)/(13)=24
(26.6)(13)/(12)=28.8
(26.6)(5)/(12)=11.1
(28.8)(4)/(5)=23.1
(28.8)(3)/(5)=17.28
(20)(4)/(5)=16
(20)(3)/(5)=12
(39.1)(5)/(4)=48.9
(39.1)(3)/(4)=29.3
777k

48

800k

+60k

+20k

+25.4

10

-23

488+(23.1)(12.5)

+25

8k
12k

778k

BC

19.2k
7.7
17.7+ .4k

16k

11.1k

28.8k

20k

18.46k
7.38k

17.2

23.

0k

26.6k

800k

48.8k

28.8k

778k
10k

24k

24k

20-10-10

26k
26k
10k

17.72k

F/Fy=z/x
F/Fx=z/y
Fx/Fy=y/x

ED
1

y
x

AB
19.2k

Fy

20k

60-(2)(20)

20k

(20)(20)+(60-20)(20)/2

19.2k

800k

(60)(20)-(2)(20)(20)/2

Va

10.4.3

3D Frame

Example 10-7: 3D Frame

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1016

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft

1. The frame has a total of 6 reactions (3 forces and 3 moments) at the support, and we have a total
of 6 equations of equilibrium, thus it is statically determinate.
2. Each member has the following internal forces (dened in terms of the local coordinate system of
each member x y  z  )
Member
Member

Axial
Nx

C D
BC
AB

Internal Forces
Shear
Moment
Vy Vz My Mz

Torsion
T x

3. The numerical calculations for the analysis of this three dimensional frame are quite simple, however
the main complexity stems from the diculty in visualizing the inter-relationships between internal
forces of adjacent members.
4. In this particular problem, rather than starting by determining the reactions, it is easier to determine the internal forces at the end of each member starting with member C D. Note that
temporarily we adopt a sign convention which is compatible with the local coordinate systems.
C-D
Fy
Fz
My
Mz

=0
=0
=0
=0

VyC = (20)(2)
VzC
MyC
MzC

Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx

=0
=0
=0
=0
=0

NxB
VyB
MyB
MzB
TxB

B-C

Victor Saouma

= +40kN
= +60kN
= (60)(2) = 120kN.m
= (20)(2) 22 = +40kN.m

= VzC
= VyC
= MyC
C
= V y (4) = (40)(4)
= MzC

= 60kN
= +40kN
= 120kN.m
= +160kN.m
= 40kN.m

Structural Engineering

10.4 Examples

1017

Draft
A-B

Fx
Fy
My
Mz
Tx

=0
=0
=0
=0
=0

NxA
VyA
MyA
MzA
TxA

= VyB
= NxB
= TxB
= MzB + NxB (4) = 160 + (60)(4)
= MyB

= +40kN
= +60kN
= +40kN.m
= +400kN.m
= 120kN.m

The interaction between axial forces N and shear V as well as between moments M and torsion
T is clearly highlighted by this example.
120 kN-m

60

C
B

40 kN

160
kN
m
-m
40 kN
N- kN
k
40 60
120 kN-m
40 kN N
120 kN-m
k
60
-m
kN
40
160
kN
m
160 -m
kN
0
4
kN
-m
N
40
kN
k
60
120 kN-m
120 kN-m

120 kN-m -m
kN
40
kN
60

-m

N
0k

kN

60

kN

40
120 kN-m 40 kN

40 kN

60

kN

40

20 kN/m

kN
-m

60

kN

kN

120 kN-m

40 kN kN
60

-m

40

kN

160

kN

-m

-m

N
0k

Victor Saouma

400

kN
N 120 kN-m-m
k
60
40 kN

Structural Engineering

1018

INTERNAL FORCES IN STRUCTURES

Draft

y
C

40
z

40
160

120

60

D
M

x
V

40

40
z

120
D
x

60

40
A
y

A
z
V

10.5
21

x
B

160

120
A

400
z
M

Arches

See section ??.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 11

ARCHES and CURVED


STRUCTURES
1

This chapter will concentrate on the analysis of arches.

2 The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) dierence
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
3 Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist exure through its exural rigidity.

A parabolic arch uniformly loaded will be loaded in compression only.

5 A semi-circular arch unirmly loaded will have some exural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.

11.1

Arches

6 In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
7 Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
8 Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
9 The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,


wL L L

M = Hh
=0
(11.1)
2
2
4

Solving for H
H=

wL2
8h

(11.2)

We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller

112

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft
2

M = w L /8

L
w=W/L

IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM

C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2

M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T

-C
+T
SAG = h

W/2

IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM

NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION


SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM

Figure 11.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)

wL/2

H
h

H = wL2 /8h

L/2
R

R
V = wL/2

R = V 2+ H

V = wL/2
2

MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE

= wL2 /8 - H h = 0

Figure 11.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.1 Arches

113

Draft

than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.

10

Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.

11

An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.

12

An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.

13

If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.

14

h
M base

H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h

APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE

APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE

H<H H<H

M crown

M base

h
H

L
V

Figure 11.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)


Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For
a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps
as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems,
and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes.

15

In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.

17 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R =


V 2 + H 2 ), whereas at the crown
we simply have H, the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
16

h
M base

H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h

APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE

APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE

H<H H<H
V

M crown

M base

L
V

Figure 11.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

114

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft
11.1.1

Statically Determinate

Example 11-1: Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. 20.5

Figure 11.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
(+ )
MzC

(+ ) Fx
(+ ) Fy
(+ )
MzB

=
=
=

0; (RAy )(140) + (80)(3.75) (30)(80) (20)(40) + RAx (26.25)


140RAy + 26.25RAx
0;
80 RAx RCx
0;
RAy + RCy 30 20
0;
(Rax )(60) (80)(30) (30)(20) + (RAy )(80)
80RAy + 60RAx

Solving those four equations simultaneously we have:


140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900

80
R
1
0
1
Ax

=
1
R
0
1 0

Cy
50

3, 000
RCx
80
60
0 0

RAy

RAx

RCy

RCx

15.1 k

29.8 k
=

34.9 k

50.2 k

=
=
=
=
=
=

0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(11.3)

We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:

(+ ) MzB = 0; (20)(20) (50.2)(33.75) + (34.9)(60) = 0

(11.4)

(11.5)

Example 11-2: Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the three hinged statically determined semi-circular arch under its own
dead weight w (per unit arc length s, where ds = rd). 20.6
Solution:
I Reactions The reactions can be determined by integrating the load over the entire structure
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.1 Arches

115

Draft

dP=wRd

R cos

Figure 11.6: Semi-Circular three hinged arch


1. Vertical Reaction is determined rst:
(+ )
MA

0; (Cy )(2R) +

wRd

R(1 +
cos ) = 0
dP
moment arm
 =
wR
wR
=
[ sin ] |=0
(1 + cos )d =
2
2
=0
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2

2 wR

(11.6-a)

=0

Cy

=
=
=

2. Horizontal Reactions are determined next

(+ ) MB

0; (Cx )(R) + (Cy )(R)

=
2
=0

Cx

=
=

wR

wR
2
2


2 1 wR

=
2

cos d =
=0

(11.6-b)

wRd




R cos

dP

moment arm

=0

(11.7-a)

=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
(11.7-b)

By symmetry the reactions at A are equal to those at C


II Internal Forces can now be determined, Fig. 20.7.
1. Shear Forces: Considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the
radial direction (FR = 0):


wRd sin + V = 0
(11.8)
( 1)wR cos + wR sin
=0
 2

2


Cx

Cy

V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin

(11.9)

2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):

( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(11.10)
=0

$
%
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin

(11.11)

3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
(+ )
M

( 2 1)wR R sin 2 wR2 (1 cos ) +



wRd R(cos cos ) + M = 0
=0

M = wR2
Victor Saouma

2 (1

sin ) + ( 2 ) cos

(11.12)
%

(11.13)

Structural Engineering

116

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

dP=wRd

R sin

R cos

C x=( /2-1)wR

R(1-cos )
R cos

C = /2 wR

R cos( )

Figure 11.7: Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram


III Deection are determined last
1. The real curvature is obtained by dividing the moment by EI
'
wR2 &

M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2

(11.14)

1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =

R
[1 cos sin ]
2

(11.15)

p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:

1


= 2

dx

11.1.2

' R

wR2 &
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ] 

Rd
2
2
=0 EI

2

M
EI

%
wR4 $ 2
7 18 12
16EI

.0337 wR
EI

(11.16-a)

Statically Indeterminate

Example 11-3: Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957)


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.1 Arches

117

Draft

Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and exural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .

Figure 11.8: Statically Indeterminate Arch


Solution:

1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit ctitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this ctitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is

1 Ch = 2


M
C

M
ds + 2
EI

V
C

V
ds + 2
Aw G

N
C

N
ds
AE

(11.17)

3. From Fig. 20.9, for the rib from C to B,

Victor Saouma

P
(100 R cos )
2
1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
2
cos
P
cos
2

(11.18-a)
(11.18-b)
(11.18-c)
(11.18-d)
(11.18-e)
Structural Engineering

118

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

Figure 11.9: Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed


N
ds

=
=

sin
Rd

(11.18-f)
(11.18-g)

4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
(11.19)
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the ctitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
 B
 B
 B
M
V
N
ChCh = 2
ds + 2
ds + 2
ds
(11.20-a)
M
V
N
EI
A
G
AE
w
C
C
C
= 2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
(11.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be
HC =

Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313

(11.21)

7. If only exural strains are considered, the result would be


HC =

22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309

(11.22)

Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
eects of shearing and axial strains are insignicant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the eects of
the shearing strains are much more signicant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.2 Curved Space Structures

119

Draft

3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignicant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the eects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to rst design the rib by considering exural strains only, and then
to check for the eects of rib shortening.

11.2

Curved Space Structures

Example 11-4: Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 20.10 subjected
x

x
wRd
d

O
R

V
r

C
A

A
y

Figure 11.10: Semi-Circular Box Girder


to its own weight w.
Solution:
I Reactions are again determined rst From geometry we have OA = R, OB = R cos , AB = OA
BO = R R cos , and BP = R sin . The moment arms for the moments with respect to the x
and y axis are BP and AB respectively. Applying three equations of equilibrium we obtain



FzA = wR

(11.23-a)

(wRd)(R sin ) = 0

MxA = 2wR2

(11.23-b)

(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0

MyA = wR2

(11.23-c)

=0
=

MxA


wRd = 0

FzA

=0
=

MyA
=0

II Internal Forces are determined next


1. Shear Force:


(+ ) Fz = 0 V

Victor Saouma

wRd = 0 V = wr

(11.24)

Structural Engineering

1110

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

2. Bending Moment:


MR = 0 M

(wRd)(R sin ) = 0 M = wR2 (1 cos )

(11.25)

(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0 T = wR2 ( sin )

(11.26)

3. Torsion:


MT = 0 +
0

III Deection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both exural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stinesses.
3

b(2b)
=
2. The exural stiness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12

2Eb4
3

= .667Eb4 .

3. The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both exural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:


M
T
P
Rd

=
M
Rd
T
+


EI
GJ
z
0
0


W
Torsion
Flexure



U

(11.27)

where the real moments were given above.


5. Assuming a unit virtual downward force P = 1, we have
M
T

= R sin

(11.28-a)

= R(1 cos )

(11.28-b)

6. Substituting these expression into Eq. 20.27




wR2
wR2

=
(R
sin
)
(1

cos
)
Rd
+
1




EI
GJ
0 

P

4

=
=

11.2.1

( sin ) R(1 cos ) Rd







1
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
.265

wR
EI
0
wR4
( 

2. + 18.56

)
EI
Flexure Torsion
4

20.56 wR
EI

(11.29-a)

Theory

Adapted from (Gerstle 1974)


Because space structures may have complicated geometry, we must resort to vector analysis1 to
determine the internal forces.

18

19

In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To

which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.2 Curved Space Structures

1111

Draft
11.2.1.1

Geometry

In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(11.30)
x = f1 ();

20

as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are

Figure 11.11: Geometry of Curved Structure in Space


denoted2 i, j, k.
The section on which the internal forces are required is cut and the principal axes are identied as
N S W which correspond to the normal force, and bending axes with respect to the Strong and
Weak axes. The corresponding unit vectors are n, s, w.

21

22

The unit normal vector at any section is given by


n=

dxi + dyj + dzk


dxi + dyj + dzk
=
ds
(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )1/2

(11.31)

The principal bending axes must be dened, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(11.32)
s=
|nk|

23

24

The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns

11.2.1.2
25

(11.33)

Equilibrium

For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All

vectorial quantities are denoted by a bold faced character.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1112

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

Figure 11.12: Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space


is acting at point A. The resultant force vector F and resultant moment vector M acting on the cut
section B are determined from equilibrium
F = 0;

P + F = 0;

F = P

(11.34-a)

M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
B

(11.34-b)

where L is the lever arm vector from B to A.


The axial and shear forces N, Vs and Vw are all three components of the force vector F along the
N, S, and W axes and can be found by dot product with the appropriate unit vectors:

26

N
Vs

=
=

Fn
Fs

(11.35-a)
(11.35-b)

Vw

Fw

(11.35-c)

Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from

27

Mn

(11.36-a)

Ms
Mw

=
=

Ms
Mw

(11.36-b)
(11.36-c)

Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.

28

Example 11-5: Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the internal forces N, Vs , and Vw and the internal moments T, Ms and Mw along the
helicoidal cantilevered girder shown in FIg. 20.13 due to a vertical load P at its free end.
Solution:
1. We rst determine the geometry in terms of the angle
x = R cos ;
Victor Saouma

y = R sin ;

z=

(11.37)
Structural Engineering

11.2 Curved Space Structures

Draft

1113

Figure 11.13: Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1114

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

2. To determine the unit vector n at any point we need the derivatives:


dx = R sin d;

dy = R cos d;

dz =

H
d

(11.38)

and then insert into Eq. 20.31


n =
=

R sin i + R cos j + H/k


%1/2
R2 sin2 + R2 cos2 + (H/)2
1
$
%1/2 [sin i + cos j + (H/R)k]
1 + (H/R)2


(11.39-a)
(11.39-b)

Since the denominator depends only on the geometry, it will be designated by K.


3. The strong bending axis lies in a horizontal plane, and its unit vector can thus be determined from
Eq. 20.32:
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
H "
(11.40-a)
nk =
sin cos R
"
K ""
0
0
1 "
1
=
(cos i + sin j)
(11.40-b)
K
and the absolute magnitude of this vector |kn| =

1
K,

and thus

s = cos i + sin j

(11.41)

4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
cos sin
0 ""
w = sn =
K ""
H "
sin cos R


1
H
H
=
sin i
cos j + k
K R
R

(11.42-a)

(11.42-b)

5. With the geometry denition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F
Mb = 0; M
where

= P
= LP

(11.43-a)
(11.43-b)




L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0 H k

and
LP =

"
"
i
"
R "" (1 cos )
"
0

j
sin
0

k
H
R
P

"
"
"
"
"
"

(11.44)

(11.45-a)

P R[ sin i (1 cos )j]

(11.45-b)

M = P R[sin i + (1 cos )j]

(11.46)

=
and

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

11.2 Curved Space Structures

1115

Draft

6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors

Victor Saouma

1
H
P R
Fn = K

(11.47-a)

Vs

Fs = 0

(11.47-b)

Vw

1
Fw = K
P

(11.47-c)

Mn = PKR (1 cos )

(11.47-d)

Ms

Ms = P R sin

(11.47-e)

Mw

Mw =

PH
K (1

cos )

(11.47-f)

Structural Engineering

1116

Draft

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 12

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES;
Geometric Methods
1 Deections of structures must be determined in order to satisfy serviceability requirements i.e. limit
deections under service loads to acceptable values (such as
L 360).
2 Later on, we will see that deection calculations play an important role in the analysis of statically
indeterminate structures.
3 We shall focus on exural deformation, however the end of this chapter will review axial and torsional
deformations as well.

Most of this chapter will be a review of subjects covered in Strength of Materials.

5 This chapter will examine deections of structures based on geometric considerations. Later on, we
will present a more pwerful method based on energy considerations.

12.1

Flexural Deformation

12.1.1

Curvature Equation

6 Let us consider a segment (between point 1 and point 2), Fig. 12.1 of a beam subjected to exural
loading.

The slope is denoted by , the change in slope per unit length is the curvature , the radius of
curvature is .

From Strength of Materials we have the following relations


ds = d

10

(12.1)

We also note by extension that s =


As a rst order approximation, and with ds dx and
=

11

d
1
=
ds

dy
dx

= Eq. 12.1 becomes

1
d
d2 y
=
= 2

dx
dx

(12.2)

Next, we shall (re)derive the exact expression for the curvature. From Fig. 12.1, we have
tan =

dy
dx

(12.3)

122

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft

Figure 12.1: Curvature of a exural element


Dening t as
t=
and combining with Eq. 12.3 we obtain

12

Applying the chain rule to =

d
ds

ds

13

(12.5)

we have
d dt
dt ds


2 + dy 2
!dx 


=
t

(12.4)

= tan1 t

=
ds can be rewritten as

dy
dx

1+

dy
dx

dy
dx

dx ds =

(12.6)


1 + t2 dx

(12.7)

Next combining Eq. 12.6 and 12.7 we obtain

d
dt

=
=
=

d dt
dt 1+t2 dx
1

tan

1
1+t2

dt
dx

1 1
dt
1+t2 1+t2 dx
2
d y
dx2

d2 y
dx2

= 
 2  32
dy
1 + dx

(12.8)

Thus the slope , curvature , radius of curvature are related to the y displacement at a point x
along a exural member by

14

d2 y
dx2

= 
 2  32
dy
1 + dx

Victor Saouma

(12.9)

Structural Engineering

12.1 Flexural Deformation

123

Draft
15

If the displacements are very small, we will have

12.1.2

dy
dx

<< 1, thus Eq. 12.9 reduces to

d2 y
1
=
dx2

(12.10)

Dierential Equation of the Elastic Curve

Again with reference to Figure 12.1 a positive d at a positive y (upper bers) will cause a shortening
of the upper bers
u = y
(12.11)

16

17

This equation can be rewritten as


lim

s0

= y lim
s0 s
s

(12.12)

du
d
= y
dx
dx


(12.13)

and since s x

Combining this with Eq. 12.10

1
==

(12.14)

This is the fundamental relationship between curvature (), elastic curve (y), and linear strain ().
18

Note that so far we made no assumptions about material properties, i.e. it can be elastic or inelastic.

19

For the elastic case:


x

=
=

My
I


=

My
EI

(12.15)

Combining this last equation with Eq. 12.14 yields


M
d
d2 y
1
=
= 2 =

dx
dx
EI

(12.16)

This fundamental equation relates moment to curvature.


20

Combining this equation with the moment-shear-force relations determined in the previous chapter
 2
dV
d M
= w(x)
dx
(12.17-a)
dM
=
V
(x)
dx2
dx

we obtain
d4 y
w(x)
= 4
EI
dx

12.1.3
21

(12.18)

Moment Temperature Curvature Relation

Assuming linear variation in temperature

Victor Saouma

TT dx Top

(12.19-a)

TB dx Bottom

(12.19-b)

Structural Engineering

124

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft
22

Next, considering
d2 y

M
=
=
2
dx
EI
y

In this case, we can take = TT at y =

h
2

(12.20)

or = (TT TB ) at y = h thus

d2 y
(TT TB )
d
M
= 2 =
=
dx
dx
EI
h

12.2

Flexural Deformations

12.2.1

Direct Integration Method

(12.21)

Equation 12.18 lends itself naturally to the method of double integration which was presented in
Strength of Materials

23

Example 12-1: Double Integration


Determine the deection at B for the following cantilevered beam

Solution:
At: 0 x

2L
3

1. Moment Equation
EI

5
wL
d2 y
x wL2
= Mx =
dx2
3
18

(12.22)

EI

dy
wL 2
5
=
x wL2 x + C1
dx
6
18

(12.23)

2. Integrate once

However we have at x = 0,

dy
dx

= 0, C1 = 0

3. Integrate twice
wL 3 5wL2 2
x
x + C2
18
36
Again we have at x = 0, y = 0, C2 = 0
EIy =

Victor Saouma

(12.24)

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

125

Draft
At:

xL

2L
3

1. Moment equation
EI

5
d2 y
wL
2L x 2L
2
3
x

wL
)(
)
=
M
=

w(x

x
dx2
3
18
3
2

(12.25)

dy
wL 2
2L 3
5
w
=
x wL2 x (x
) + C3
dx
6
18
6
3

(12.26)

2. Integrate once
EI

Applying the boundary condition at x =


the left, C3 = 0

2L
3 ,

we must have

dy
dx

equal to the value coming from

3. Integrating twice
2L 4
wL 3
5
w
x wL2 x2 (x
) + C4
18
36
24
3
Again following the same argument as above, C4 = 0
EIy =

(12.27)

Substituting for x = L we obtain


y=

163 wL4
1944 EI

(12.28)

12.2.2

Curvature Area Method (Moment Area)

12.2.2.1

First Moment Area Theorem

24

From equation 12.16 we have


M
d
=
dx
EI

this can be rewritten as (note similarity with

dV
dx

(12.29)

= w(x)).


21 = 2 1 =

x2

x2

d =
x1

x1

M
dx
EI

(12.30)

or with reference to Figure 12.2


First Area Moment Theorem: The change in slope from point 1 to point 2 on a beam is
equal to the area under the M/EI diagram between those two points.
12.2.2.2

Second Moment Area Theorem

Similarly, with reference to Fig. 12.2, we dene by t21 the distance between point 2 and the tangent
at point 1. For an innitesimal distance ds = d and for small displacements

M
dt = d(x2 x)
(x2 x)dx
(12.31)
dt =
d
M
=
EI
dx
EI

25

To evaluate t21

x2

t21 =

dt =
x1

x2

M
(x2 x)dx
EI
x1

(12.32)

or
Second Moment Area Theorem: The tangent distance t21 between a point, 2, on the
beam and the tangent of another point, 1, is equal to the moment of the M/EI diagram
between points 1 and 2, with respect to point 2.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

126

Draft

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Figure 12.2: Moment Area Theorems

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

127

Draft

Figure 12.3: Sign Convention for the Moment Area Method

Figure 12.4: Areas and Centroid of Polynomial Curves

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

128

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft
26

The sign convention is as shown in Fig. 12.3

27

Fig. 12.4 is a helpful tool to determine centroid and areas.

Example 12-2: Moment Area, Cantilevered Beam


Determine the deection of point A

Solution:
EItA/C =

Thus, A =

1
2



 
 



2 5L
9L
2wL2
5L
1 wL2
29wL4
+
=
(L)
5
2
3 2
3
2
4
24



area
area


Moment wrt A
Moment wrt A

(12.33)

29wL4
24EI

Example 12-3: Moment Area, Simply Supported Beam


Determine C and C for the following example

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

129

Draft

Solution:
Deection C is determined from C = c c = c c cc, cc = tC/B , and c c =

tA/B

Victor Saouma

tA/B
2


   
 

5P a3
3P
a
2a
3P
a
a
3a
1
3a

=
+
=
a+

EI
4
2
3
4
2
3
2EI





A1
A2 +A3



Moment
Moment

from geometry

(12.34)

Structural Engineering

1210

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft

Figure 12.5: Maximum Deection Using the Moment Area Method


This is positive, thus above tangent from B

  
Pa
2a
2a
1
P a3
tC/B =
=
EI
2
2
3
3EI

(12.35)

Positive, thus above the tangent from B Finally,


C =

P a3
11 P a3
5P a3

=
4EI
3EI
12 EI

(12.36)

Rotation C is
BC
BC
B

12.2.2.3

=
=
=


 
B C C = B BC
5P a3
Pa
2a
P a2
A3
C =

2EI(4a)
2
2
8EI
tA/B

(12.37)

Maximum Deection

A joint along the beam will have the maximum (or minimum) relative deection if
So we can determine max if x is known, Fig. 12.5.
To determine x:

28

dy
dx

= 0 or = 0

1. Compute tC/A
2. A =

tC/A
L

3. B = 0 and AB = A B , thus AB = A . Hence, compute AB in terms of x using First


Theorem.
4. Equate items 2 and 3, then solve for x.

Example 12-4: Maximum Deection

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

1211

Draft

Determine the deection at D, and the maximum deection at B

Solution:
Deection at D:
9
= tD/A tC/A
5


 
L
1 4P L
=
(L)
2
5
3
3
2P L
=
15EI 




  
1 4P L
17L
1 4P L
4L
8L
=
(L)
+
2
5
15
2
5
5
15
3
234 P L
=
375 EI

D
EItC/A
tC/A
EItD/A
tD/A

(12.38-a)
(12.38-b)
(12.38-c)
(12.38-d)
(12.38-e)

Substituting we obtain
D =

48 P L3
125 EI

(12.39)

Maximum deection at B:

tC/A

AB

max

max

2P L3
15EI

(12.40-a)

tC/A
2P L2
=
L   15EI


1 1 4P x
2 P x2
(x) =
EI 2
5
5 EI
2
2 P x2
L
2 PL
=
x=
AB
15 EI
5 EI
3


 
4P x  x  2
L
x at x =
5EI
2
3
3
3
4P L

45 3EI

(12.40-b)
(12.40-c)
(12.40-d)
(12.40-e)
(12.40-f)

Example 12-5: Frame Deection


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1212

Draft

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Complete the following example problem

Solution:
xxxx

Example 12-6: Frame Subjected to Temperature Loading


Neglecting axial deformation, compute displacement at A for the following frame

Solution:

1. First let us sketch the deformed shape


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

1213

Draft

2. BC exes B = C = 0
3. Rigid hinges at B and C with no load on AB and CD
4. Deection at A
A
AA

=
=

AA = AA + A A


B = C = |C |h2

(12.41-a)
(12.41-b)

A A

|B |h1

(12.41-c)

5. We need to compute B & C


B

tC/B
L

CB + B or C =

(12.42-a)
tB/C
L

(12.42-b)

6. In order to apply the curvature are theorem, we need a curvature (or moment diagram).
1
TB TT
M
= (
)=

h
EI
7.
tC/B = A

(12.43)

 
  
L
L
1
A
A
or B =
(-ve)
|B | = A
=
2
2
L
2
2

8.
CB
C

=
=

A
CB + B


C = A

A
A
=
(+ve)
2
2

(12.44)

(12.45)

9. From above,
A

=
=
A =

|C |h2 + |B |h1 =
A
2 (h2 + h1 )
(TB TT )
L
h

A
2 h2

A
2 h1

L
A = (TB TT )

 
1
(h2 + h1 )
2

(12.46)

10. Substitute
= (6.5 106 )(200 60)

(20)(12) 1
( )(10 + 25)(12)
(16)
2

= 2.87 in

(12.47-a)
(12.47-b)

11. Other numerical values:


B

=
=
=

1 (TB TT )
A
=
L
2
2
h
1
(200 60)
(6.5 106 )
(20)(12)
2
(16)
dy
<< 1
.00683rad. (.39 degrees) =
dx

C =

(12.48-a)
(12.48-b)
(12.48-c)

Note: sin(.00683) = .006829947 and tan(.00683) = .006830106


M
EI

=
=

Victor Saouma

1
(TB TT )
=

h
(200 60)
(6.5 106 )
= 5.6875 105
16
1
= 1.758 104 in = 1, 465 ft
5.6875 105

(12.49-a)
(12.49-b)
(12.49-c)

Structural Engineering

1214

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft

12. In order to get M , we need E & I. Note the dierence with other statically determinate structures;
the stier the beam, the higher the moment; the higher the moment, the higher the stress? NO!!

13. =

My
I

EI y
I

Ey

14. is constant BC is on arc of circle M is constant &


2
C x2 + dx + e

M
EI

d2 y
dx2

d2 y
dx2

M
EI

= C y =

15. The slope is a parabola, (Why?)


d2 y

3
M
dy
d2 y
1
2
=
= dx 1 + ( )2 ) 2 2

EI
(
dx
dx

29

(12.50)

Let us get curvature from the parabola slope and compare it with
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2

cx2
+ dx + e
2

(12.51-a)

cx + d

(12.51-b)

(12.51-c)

at x = 0, y = 0, thus e = 0
at x = 0, dy
x = B = .00683 thus d = .00683
dy
at x = 20 ft, dx
= C = .00683 thus c(20) .00683 = .00683 thus c = 6.83 104 thus
y
dy
dx
d2 y
dx2

= 6.83 104


x2
10x
2

(12.52-a)

= 6.83 104 (x 10)

(12.52-b)

= 6.83 104

(12.52-c)

= 6.83 104
1
= 1, 464f t as expected!
=
6.83 10 4

(12.52-d)
(12.52-e)

If we were to use the exact curvature formula

d2 y
3
dx2
)2
dy 2
+ ( dx )

(12.53-a)

[1 + (.00683)2] 2

12.2.3

6.83 104

6.829522 104

(12.53-b)

1464.23f t (compared with 1465ft)

(12.53-c)

Elastic Weight/Conjugate Beams



V12 =

x2

V and M 
wdx
V = wdx + C1

12 =

V dx

t21 =

 xx12

M12 =
x1

Victor Saouma

M=

V dx + C2

and y 
1
1
dx =
dx + C1

x1

x2

x2

dx

y=

dx + C2

x1

Structural Engineering

12.2 Flexural Deformations

1215

Draft

Figure 12.6: Conjugate Beams

29

M
1
==

EI

Load q

curvature

Shear V

slope

(12.55)

This leads to the following Moment M

deection y

(12.56)

(12.54)

30 Since V & M can be conjugated from statics, by analogy & y can be thought of as the V & M of
M
elastic weight.
a ctitious beam (or conjugate beam) loaded by EI
31

What about Boundary Conditions? Table 12.1, and Fig. 12.6.


Actual Beam
Hinge
= 0
Fixed End
=0
Free End
= 0
Interior Hinge
= 0
Interior Support = 0

y
y
y
y
y

=0
=0
= 0
= 0
=0

V
V
V
V
V

= 0
=0
= 0
= 0
= 0

Conjugate Beam
M = 0 Hinge
M = 0 Free end
M = 0 Fixed end
M = 0 Interior support
M = 0 Interior hinge

Table 12.1: Conjugate Beam Boundary Conditions


Whereas the Moment area method has a well dened basis, its direct application can be sometimes
confusing.

32

Alternatively, the moment area method was derived from the moment area method, and is a far
simpler method to remember and use in practice when simple back of the envelope calculations are
required.

33

Note that we can only have distributed load, and that the load the load is positive for a positive
moment, and negative for a negative moment. Shear and Moment diagrams should be drawn
accordingly.

34

Units of the distributed load w are FEIL (force time length divided by EI). Thus the Shear would
L2
L3
and the moment would have units of (w L) L or FEI
. Recalling
have units of w L or FEI
that EI has units of F L2 L4 = F L2 , we observe that indeed the shear corresponds to a rotation in
radians and the moment to a displacement.

35

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1216

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft

Example 12-7: Conjugate Beam


Analyze the following beam.

Solution:
3 equations of equilibrium and 1 equation of condition = 4 = number of reactions.
Deection at D = Shear at D of the corresponding conjugate beam (Reaction at D)
Take AC and M with respect to C

  
4P L
L
L
RA (L)
= 0
5EI
2
3
2P L2
RA =
15EI
(Slope in real beam at A) As computed before!
Let us draw the Moment Diagram for the conjugate beam
     

x
4
2 2
x
P
L x
x
M =
EI 15
5
2
3


2 2
2
P
L x x3
=
EI 15
15

2P  2
L x x3
=
15EI
Point of Maximum Moment (max ) occurs when

dM
dx

(12.57-b)

(12.58-a)
(12.58-b)
(12.58-c)

=0

2P
L
dM
=
(L2 3x2 ) = 0 3x2 = L2 x =
dx
15EI
3
Victor Saouma

(12.57-a)

(12.59)

Structural Engineering

12.3 Axial Deformations

1217

Draft

Figure 12.7: Torsion Rotation Relations


as previously determined
x

=
=

3
 2

2P
L L
L3

15EI
3
3 3
4P L3

45 3EI

(12.60-a)
(12.60-b)
(12.60-c)

as before.

12.3

Axial Deformations

Statics: =

P
A

Material: = E
Kinematics: =

12.4

PL
AE

(12.61)

Torsional Deformations

Since torsional eects are seldom covered in basic structural analysis, and students may have forgotten
the derivation of the basic equations from the Strength of Material course, we shall briey review the
basic equations.

36

Assuming a linear elastic material, and a linear strain (and thus stress) distribution along the radius
of a circular cross section subjected to torsional load, Fig. 12.7 we have:


max 

dA
(12.62)
T =


A c

area arm
stress



F orce


37

max
c




torque

2 dA

(12.63)

max
Victor Saouma

Tc
J

(12.64)
Structural Engineering

1218

DEFLECTION of STRUCTRES; Geometric Methods

Draft

Note the analogy of this last equation with = Mc


Iy

38
2 dA is the polar moment of inertia J for circular cross sections and is equal to:
A


J

2 (2d)

dA =

A
4

d4
c
=
2
32

(12.65)

Having developed a relation between torsion and shear stress, we now seek a relation between torsion
and torsional rotation. Considering Fig. 12.7-b, we look at the arc length BD


d
max
d
T
max dx = dc dx = c
max
d
=
(12.66)
=
max
dx
Gc
max = G
dx
GJ
max = TJC

39


40

Finally, we can rewrite this last equation as


T dx =

T =

Victor Saouma

GJ
L

Gjd and obtain:


(12.67)

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 13

ENERGY METHODS; Part I


13.1

Introduction

Energy methods are powerful techniques for both formulation (of the stiness matrix of an element1 )
and for the analysis (i.e. deection) of structural problems.

We shall explore two techniques:


1. Real Work
2. Virtual Work (Virtual force)

13.2
3

Real Work

We start by revisiting the rst law of thermodynamics:


The time-rate of change of the total energy (i.e., sum of the kinetic energy and the internal
energy) is equal to the sum of the rate of work done by the external forces and the change
of heat content per unit time.
d
dt (K

+ U ) = We + H

(13.1)

where K is the kinetic energy, U the internal strain energy, We the external work, and H the heat input
to the system.
4 For an adiabatic system (no heat exchange) and if loads are applied in a quasi static manner (no
kinetic energy), the above relation simplies to:

We = U

(13.2)

5 Simply stated, the rst law stipulates that the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy due to the external load.

13.2.1
6

External Work

The external work is given by, Fig. 13.1


We
1 More

about this in Matrix Structural Analysis.

0
f

P d

(13.3)
M d

132

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft
P

M
1

1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

dW

11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11

dW

Figure 13.1: Load Deection Curves


for point loads and concentrated moments respectively.
7

For linear elastic systems, we have for point loads


P = K

 f
We = K
P d
We =

d =
0

1
K2f
2

(13.4)

When this last equation is combined with Pf = Kf we obtain

We =

1
Pf f
2

(13.5)

We =

1
M f f
2

(13.6)

where K is the stiness of the structure.


8

Similarly for an applied moment we have

13.2.2

Internal Work

9 Considering an innitesimal element from an arbitrary structure subjected to uniaxial state of stress,
the strain energy can be determined with reference to Fig. 13.2. The net force acting on the element
while deformation is taking place is P = x dydz. The element will undergo a displacement u = x dx.
Thus, for a linear elastic system, the strain energy density is dU = 12 . And the total strain energy
will thus be

1
(13.7)
U=
E dVol
2 Vol 

10

When this relation is applied to various structural members it would yield:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.2 Real Work

133

Draft

Figure 13.2: Strain Energy Denition




Axial Members:
U

dV

=
=
=

Torsional Members:

dVol
Vol 2

P
A
P
AE

Adx

U=
0

P2
dx
2AE

(13.8)

Vol

G
d
Vol

xy
xy
2

Vol

1
2



E dVol

xy

xy
xy
dVol
J

= TJr
xy
= G
= rddrdx
 r  2
=
r2 d dr
o

U=
0

T2
dx
2GJ

(13.9)

Flexural Members:
U

=
=
dVol =
Iz



E

Vol

Mz y

I
1
2

Mz y
EIz

dA dx

y 2 dA

U=
0

M2
dx
2EIz

(13.10)

Example 13-1: Deection of a Cantilever Beam, (Chajes 1983)


Determine the deection of the cantilever beam, Fig. 13.3 with span L under a point load P applied
at its free end. Assume constant EI.
Solution:

We

Victor Saouma

1
P f
2

(13.11-a)

Structural Engineering

134

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

1
0
0
1
0
1
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
x

M=PL
Figure 13.3: Deection of Cantilever Beam


13.3

1
P f
2

M2
dx
0 2EI
P x

P2 L 2
P 2 L3
x dx =
2EI 0
6EI
2 3
P L
6EI
P L3
3EI

(13.11-b)
(13.11-c)
(13.11-d)
(13.11-e)
(13.11-f)

Virtual Work

A severe limitation of the method of real work is that only deection along the externally applied
load can be determined.

11

12

A more powerful method is the virtual work method.

The principle of Virtual Force (VF) relates force systems which satisfy the requirements of equilibrium,
and deformation systems which satisfy the requirement of compatibility

13

In any application the force system could either be the actual set of external loads dp or some
virtual force system which happens to satisfy the condition of equilibrium p. This set of external
forces will induce internal actual forces d or internal virtual forces compatible with the externally
applied load.

14

15 Similarly the deformation could consist of either the actual joint deections du and compatible internal
deformations d of the structure, or some virtual external and internal deformation u and which
satisfy the conditions of compatibility.

16

It is often simplest to assume that the virtual load is a unit load.

Thus we may have 4 possible combinations, Table 13.1: where: d corresponds to the actual, and
(with an overbar) to the hypothetical values.
This table calls for the following observations

17

1. The second approach is the same one on which the method of virtual or unit load is based. It is
simpler to use than the third as a internal force distribution compatible with the assumed virtual
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

Draft

1
2
3
4

135
Force
External Internal
dp
d
p

dp
d
p

Deformation
External Internal
du
d
du
d
u

IVW

Formulation

U
U

Flexibility
Stiness

Table 13.1: Possible Combinations of Real and Hypothetical Formulations


force can be easily obtained for statically determinate structures. This approach will yield exact
solutions for statically determinate structures.
2. The third approach is favored for statically indeterminate problems or in conjunction with approximate solution. It requires a proper guess of a displacement shape and is the basis of the stiness
method.
Let us consider an arbitrary structure and load it with both real and virtual loads in the following
sequence, Fig. 13.4. For the sake of simplicity, let us assume (or consider) that this structure develops
only axial stresses.

18

P1

1
0
0
1

11
00
00
11
00
11
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

1
0
0
1

11
00
00
11
00
11

111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

Virtual System

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

Real Load

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

P1

1
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

P
P

1
0
0
1

11
00
00
11
00
11

P
P

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

Virtual + Real Loads

Inter.

Ext.

= P
Virtual
Real

Figure 13.4: Real and Virtual Forces


1. If we apply the virtual load, then
1
1
P =
2
2
Victor Saouma


dVol

(13.12)

dVol

Structural Engineering

136

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

2. Load with the real (applied) load, since the external work must be equal to the internal strain
energy over the entire volume, then:

1
1
P1 1 =
IdVol
(13.13)
2
2 dVol
3. We now immagine that the virtual load was rst applied, and we then apply the real (actual) load
on top of it, then the total work done is



1
1
1
1
P + P1 1 + P
(13.14)

= 2 Vol dVol + 2 Vol dVol + Vol dVol
2

2




4. Since the strain energy and work done must be the same whether the loads are applied together
or separately, we obtain, from substracting the sum of Eqs. 13.13 and 13.12 from 13.14 and
generalizing, we obtain

( + ) dVol = P


(13.15)


W
U

This last equation is the key to the method of virtual forces. The left hand side is the internal virtual

strain energy U 2 . Similarly the right hand side is the external virtual work.

19

13.3.1

External Virtual Work W

20

The general expression for the external virtual work W is

W =

)n
i=1

(i )P i +

)n
i=1

(13.16)

(i )M i

for distributed load, point load, and concentrated moment respectively.


21

Recall that all overbar quantities are virtual and the other ones are the real.

13.3.2
22

Internal Virtual Work U

The general expression for the internal virtual work is





( + ) dVol = P


W
U

(13.17)

We will generalize it to dierent types of structural members.


We will rst write the equations independently of the material stress strain relation, and then we will
rewrite those same equations for a linear elastic system.

23

General :
Axial Members:
U

dVol
0

dVol =

Victor Saouma

Adx


U = A

dx

(13.18)

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

137

Draft

Figure 13.5: Torsion Rotation Relations


Torsional Members: With reference to Fig. 13.5 Note that in torsion the strain is the rate
of change of rotation of the cross section about the longitudinal axis x.


U
=
xy xy dVol

 Vol

 L 

T =
xy rdA
U =
(
xy rdA) dx
(13.19)

A
0
A

d


xy = r dx

T
dVol = dAdx
 L
d

U =
T dx
dx
0
Shear Members:

xy xy dVol

 Vol

U =
V =
xy dA

dVol = dAdx
U

L
0


(


xy dA) xy dx

V
L

U =

(13.20)

V xy dx
0

Flexural Members:
U


=

x x dVol
x ydA

=
y =

M
=
y


A

x dA

L

dVol =

dAdx
0

U =

M dx

(13.21)

Linear Elastic Systems Should we have a linear elastic material

= E

(13.22)

then the previous equations can be rewritten as:


2 We

use the * to distinguish it from the internal virtual strain energy obtained from the virtual displacement method

U .

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

138

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

Axial Members:
U

dV

dVol

Vol

P
A
P
AE

=
=
=

Adx

U =

P
dx
AE


P
0

(13.23)

Note that for a truss where we have n members, the above expression becomes

U = n1 P i
Shear Members:
U

xy
xy
dVol

Pi Li
Ai Ei

(13.24)


=
=
=
=
def

xy xy dVol

Vol

kA

xy
G

Adx

k 2 dydz

U =

V
0

V
dx
GA


(13.25)

xy

24

Note that the exact expression for the shear stress is


=

VQ
Ib

(13.26)

where Q is the moment of the area from the external bers to y with respect to the neutral
axis; For a rectangular section, this yields

=
=
=

VQ
Ib

V
Ib
6V
bh3

(13.27-a)
h/2

by  dy  =

h2
4
4

V
2I

h2
y2
4


(13.27-b)
(13.27-c)

and we observe that the shear stress is zero for y = h/2 and maximum at the neutral axis
V
where it is equal to 1.5 bh
.
25

To determine the form factor of a rectangular section

 2

= VIbQ
A
h
2

k
=

2I 4
= k VA

 2
 h/2
k 2 dydz
bh =
b h


y2
Q =
by  dy  =
A
A
2 4
y

= 1.2

(13.28)

26

Thus, the form factor may be taken as 1.2 for rectangular beams of ordinary proportions.

27

For I beams, k can be also approximated by 1.2, provided A is the area of the web.

Torsional Members:
U


=

xy
Vol

xy
dVol
G


xy

xy =
xy =
dVol =
Victor Saouma

Tr
J

xy

rddrdx
 r  2
r2 d dr
o

U =
0

T
T
dx


GJ


(13.29)

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

139

Draft
28

Note the similarity with the corresponding equation for shear deformation.

29

The torsional stiness of cylindrical sections is given by J =

30

The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections is given by

d4
32 .

J = kb3 d

(13.30)

where b is the shorter side of the section, d the longer, and k a factor given by Table 13.2.
d/b
k

1.0
0.141

1.5
0.196

2.0
0.229

2.5
0.249

3.0
0.263

4.0
0.281

5.0
0.291

10
0.312

0.333

Table 13.2: k Factors for Torsion

31

Recall from strength of materials that

G=

Flexural Members:
U

E
2(1 + )

(13.31)



E dV ol

Vol

Mz y

x =
=
dVol =
Iz

Mz y
EIz

dA dx

y 2 dA

U =

M
0

M
dx
EIz


(13.32)

13.3.3

Examples

Example 13-2: Beam Deection (Chajes 1983)


Determine the deection at point C in Fig. 13.6 E = 29, 000 ksi, I = 100 in4 .
Solution:
For the virtual force method, we need to have two expressions for the moment, one due to the real
load, and the other to the (unit) virtual one, Fig. 13.7.
Element
AB
BC

x=0
A
C

M
15x x2
x2

M
0.5x
x

Applying Eq. 13.32 we obtain



C P =


W

M
M
dx
EI
 0
z


(1)C

(0.5x)
0

Victor Saouma

20

(13.33-a)

(15x x2 )
dx +
EI

10

(x)
0

x2
dx
EI

(13.33-b)

Structural Engineering

1310

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

Figure 13.6:

15x -x 2

-0.5x

-x
Figure 13.7:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1311

Draft

=
C

=
=

2, 500
EI
(2, 500) k2 ft3 (1, 728) in3 / ft3
(29, 000) ksi(100) in4
1.49 in

(13.33-c)
(13.33-d)
(13.33-e)

Example 13-3: Deection of a Frame (Chajes 1983)


Determine both the vertical and horizontal deection at A for the frame shown in Fig. 13.8. E =
200 106 kN/ m2 , I = 200 106 mm4 .

Figure 13.8:
.
Solution:
To analyse this frame we must determine analytical expressions for the moments along each member
for the real load and the two virtual ones. One virtual load is a unit horizontal load at A, and the other
a unit vertical one at A also, Fig. 13.9.
Element
AB
BC
CD

x=0
A
B
C

M
0
50x
100

M v
x
2+x
4

M h
0
0
x

Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the inside of the frame.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1312

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

50 kN

1 kN

50x

+100
+

+4

1 kN

x
+

-x
1 kN
100 kN-m

4 kN-m

50 kN

5 kN-m

1 kN

Figure 13.9:
Substitution yields:

v P =


W

=
=
=

M
M
dx
EIz

(13.34-a)

 2
 5
(0)
50x
100
dx +
dx +
dx
(x)
(2 + x)
(4)
EI
EI
EI
0
0
0
2, 333 kN m3
EI
(2, 333) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4


(1)v

= 0.058 m = 5.8 cm

(1)h

=
=
=

(13.34-c)
(13.34-d)
(13.34-e)

Similarly for the horizontal displacement:


 L
M
h P =
M
dx


EI
z
0



W

(13.35-a)

 2
 5
(0)
50x
100
dx +
dx +
dx
(0)
(0)
(x)
EI
EI
EI
0
0
0
1, 250 kN m3
EI
(1, 250) kN m3 (103 )4 mm4 / m4
(200 106 ) kN/ m2 (200 106 ) mm4

(13.34-b)

= 0.031 m = 3.1 cm

(13.35-b)
(13.35-c)
(13.35-d)
(13.35-e)

Example 13-4: Rotation of a Frame (Chajes 1983)


Determine the rotation of joint C for frame shown in Fig. 13.10. E = 29, 000 ksi, I = 240 in4 .
Solution:
In this problem the virtual force is a unit moment applied at joint C, M e . It will cause an internal
moment M i
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1313

Draft

Figure 13.10:
Element
AB
BC
CD

x=0
A
B
D

M
0
30x 1.5x2
0

M
0
0.05x
0

Note that moments are considered positive when they produce compression on the outside of the frame.
Substitution yields:

C M e


W

M
M
dx
EIz
 0


=

(1)C

=
=

(13.36-a)

(30x 1.5x2 )
dx k2 ft3
EI
0
(1, 000)(144)
(29, 000)(240)
20

(0.05x)

(13.36-b)
(13.36-c)

0.021 radians

(13.36-d)

Example 13-5: Truss Deection (Chajes 1983)


Determine the vertical deection of joint 7 in the truss shown in Fig. 13.11. E = 30, 000 ksi.
Solution:
Two analyses are required. One with the real load, and the other using a unit vertical load at joint
7. Results for those analysis are summarized below. Note that advantage was taken of the symmetric
load and structure.
Member

A
in

1&4
10 & 13
11 & 12
5&9
6&8
2& 3
7
Total
Victor Saouma

2
2
2
1
1
2
1

ft

25
20
20
15
25
20
15

-50
40
40
20
16.7
-53.3
0

-0.083
0.67
0.67
0
0.83
-1.33
0

P P L
A

nP P L
A

518.75
268.0
268.0
0
346.5
708.9
0

2
2
2
2
2
2
1

1,037.5
536.0
536.0
0
693.0
1,417.8
0
4,220.3
Structural Engineering

1314

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

Figure 13.11:
Thus from Eq. 13.24 we have:


P

=
W

P
dx
P
AE
0



U

=
1 =
=

(13.37-a)

PL
AE
(4, 220.3)(12)
30, 000

(13.37-b)

(13.37-c)

1.69 in

(13.37-d)

Example 13-6: Torsional and Flexural Deformation, (Chajes 1983)


Determine the vertical deection at A in the structure shown in Fig. 13.12. E = 30, 000 ksi, I =
144 in4 , G = 12, 000 ksi, J = 288 in4
Solution:
1. In this problem we have both exural and torsional deformation. Hence we should determine the
internal moment and torsion distribution for both the real and the unit virtual load.
2. Then we will use the following relation
W


P A =

 


M
T
dx + T
dx
M
EI
GJ



Torsion
exure

3. The moment and torsion expressions are given by


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1315

Draft

Figure 13.12:
Element
AB
BC
4. Substituting,

x=0
A
B

M
10x
15x

M
x
x

T
0
50

T
0
5


M
T
dx + T
dx
 5 GJ
 5
 5 EI
10x
15x
50
dx +
dx +
dx
x
x
(5)
GJ
0 EI
0 EI
0
(1,042)(1,728)
(1,250)(1,728)
(30,000)(144) + (12,000)(288)
0.417 + 0.625
1.04 in


P A

1A

=
=
=

Example 13-7: Flexural and Shear Deformations in a Beam (White et al. 1976)
Determine the delection of a cantilevered beam, of length L subjected to an end force P due to both
exural and shear deformations. Assume G = 0.4E, and a square solid beam cross section.
Solution:
1. The virtual work equation is

P =


1

M d +
0


=

V xy dx

(13.38-a)


M
dx +
M
EI
0
L

V
0

V
dx
GA

(13.38-b)

2. The rst integral yields for M = P x, and M = (1)(x)




Victor Saouma

M
dx =
M
EI
0
=

 L
P
x2 dx
EI 0
P L3 /3EI

(13.39-a)
(13.39-b)
Structural Engineering

1316

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

3. The second integral represents the contribution of the shearing action to the total internal virtual
work and hence to the total displacement.
4. Both the real shear V and virtual shear V are constant along the length of the member, hence


V
0

V
dx =
GA
GA

1(P )dx =
0

P L
GA

(13.40)

5. Since = 1.2 for a square beam; hence


1 =
=

P L3
1.2P L
+
3EI
GA

P L L2
3.6
+
=
3E I
0.4A

(13.41-a)
PL
3E

&

L2
I

9
A

'
(13.41-b)

6. For a square beam of dimension h


I=
then

h4
12

and A = h2

(13.42)





P L 12L2
9
3P L 1.33L2
=
+ 2 =
+1
3E
h4
h
Eh2
h2

(13.43)

7. Choosing L = 20 ft and h = 1.5 ft (L/h = 13.3)


3P L
[1.33
=
Eh2

20
1.5

2
+ 1] =

3P L
Eh2 (237

+ 1)

(13.44)

Thus the exural deformation is 237 times the shear displacement. This comparison reveals why we
normally neglect shearing deformation in beams.
As the beam gets shorter or deeper, or as L/h decreases, the exural deformation decreases relative
to the shear displacement. At L/h = 5, the exural deformation has reduced to 1.33(5)2 = 33 times the
shear displacement.

Example 13-8: Thermal Eects in a Beam (White et al. 1976)


The cantilever beam of example 13-7 is subjected to a thermal environment that produces a temperature change of 70 C at the top surface and 230 C at the bottom surface, Fig. 13.13.
If the beam is a steel, wide ange section, 2 m long and 200 mm deep, what is the angle of rotation,
1 , at the end of beam as caused by the temperature eect? The original uniform temperature of the
beams was 40 C.
Solution:
1. The external virtual force conforming to the desired real displacement 1 is a moment M = 1 at the
tip of the cantilever, producing an external work term of moment times rotation. The internal virtual
force system for this cantilever beam is a uniform moment M int = 1.
2. The real internal deformation results from: (a) the average beam temperature of 150 C, which is
110 C above that of the original temperature, and (b) the temperature gradient of 160 C across the
depth of the beam.
3. The rst part of the thermal eect produces only a lengthening of the beam and does not enter into
the work equation since the virtual loading produces no axial force corresponding to an axial change in
length of the beam.
4. The second eect (thermal gradient) produces rotation d, and an internal virtual work term of
(L
0 M d.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1317

Draft

Figure 13.13:
5. We determine the value of d by considering the extreme ber thermal strain as shown above. The
angular rotation in the length dx is the extreme ber thermal strain divided by half the beam depth, or
d =

T dx
(11.7 106 )(80)dx
936 106

=
=
=
= (9.36 106 )dx
h/2
h/2
100
100

(13.45)

6. Using the virtual work equation


1 1

0
2,000

M d

1(9.36 106 )dx

(13.46-a)
(13.46-b)

=
=

+0.01872
0.01872 radians

(13.46-c)
(13.46-d)

7. This example raises the following points:


1. The value of 1 would be the same for any shape of 200 mm deep steel beam that has its neutral
axis of bending at middepth.
2. Curvature is produced only by thermal gradient and is independent of absolute temperature values.
3. The calculation of rotations by the method of virtual forces is simple and straightforward; the
applied virtual force is a moment acting at the point where rotation is to be calculated.
4. Internal angular deformation d has been calculated for an eect other than load-induced stresses.
The extension of the method of virtual forces to treat inelastic displacements is obvious all we
need to know is a method for determining the inelastic internal deformations.

Example 13-9: Deection of a Truss (White et al. 1976)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1318

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft
60 k

120 k
7

4
3
1

5
5

12

12

12

Figure 13.14:
Determine the deection at node 2 for the truss shown in Fig. 13.14.
Solution:

Member
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

P
kips
+0.25
+0.25
-0.56
+0.56
+0.56
-0.56
-0.50

P,
kips
+37.5
+52.5
-83.8
+16.8
-16.8
-117.3
-45.0

L,
ft
12
12
13.42
13.42
13.42
13.42
12

A,
in2
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0

E,
ksi
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103
10 103

PL
P AE

+22.5 104
+31.5 104
+125.9 104
+25.3 104
25.3 104
+176.6 104
+54.0 104
+410.5 104

The deection is thus given by


P =

7
)
1

PL
AE

(13.47-a)

(410.5 104 )(12 in/ ft) = 0.493 in

(13.47-b)

Example 13-10: Thermal Defelction of a Truss; I (White et al. 1976)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1319

Draft

The truss in example 13-9 the preceding example is built such that the lower chords are shielded from
the rays of the sun. On a hot summer day the lower chords are 30 F cooler than the rest of the truss
members. What is the magnitude of the vertical displacement at joint 2 as a result of this temperature
dierence?
Solution:
1. The virtual force system remains identical to that in the previous example because the desired displacement component is the same.
2. The real internal displacements are made up of the shortening of those members of the truss that are
shielded from the sun.
3. Both bottom chord members 1 and 2 thus shorten by
l = (T )(L) = (0.0000128) in/ in/oF (30)o (12) ft(12) in/ft = 0.0553 in

(13.48)

4. Then,
1 =

P (L) = .25(0.0553) + .25(0.0553) = 0.0276

0.0276 in

(13.49-a)
(13.49-b)

5. The negative sign on the displacement indicates that it is in opposite sense to the assumed direction
of the displacement; the assumed direction is always identical to the direction of the applied virtual
force.
6. Note that the same result would be obtained if we had considered the internal displacements to be
made up of the lengthening of all truss members above the bottom chord.

Example 13-11: Thermal Deections in a Truss; II (White et al. 1976)


A six-panel highway bridge truss, Fig. 13.15 is constructed with sidewalks outside the trusses so that

Figure 13.15:
the bottom chords are shaded. What will be the vertical deection component of the bottom chord at
the center of the bridge when the temperature of the bottom chord is 40 F (T ) below that of the top
chord, endposts, and webs? (coecient of steel thermal expansion is =0.0000065 per degree F.)
Solution:
1. The deection is given by



=
P
W

P
PL
dx = P
= P L = P T L
P
AE
AE

 0

Victor Saouma

(13.50)

Structural Engineering

1320

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft

where L is the temperature change in the length of each member, and P are the member virtual
internal forces.
2. Taking advantage of symmetry:
Member
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

L (ft)
35
21
21
0
35
28
35
0

(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
+0.00910
+0.00546
+0.00546
0
+0.00910
+0.00728
+0.00910
0

P (k)
+ 0.625
+ 0.75
+1.13
0
-0.625
+0.5
-0.625
0

P L
+0.00568
+0.00409
+0.00616
0
-0.00568
+0.00364
-0.00568
0
+0.00821

3. Hence, the total deection is


= (2)(0.00821)(12) in/ft = +0.20 in

(13.51)

4. A more ecient solution would have consisted in considering members 1,2, and 3 only and apply a
T = 40, we would obtain the same displacement.
5. Note that the forces in members 1, 2, and 3 (-0.75, -0.375, and -0.375 respectively) were not included
in the table because the corresponding T = 0.
6. A simpler solution would have T = 40 in members 1, 2, and 3 thus,
Member
1
2
3

L (ft)
21
21
21

(0.0000065)(40)L
T L
-0.00546
-0.00546
-0.00546

P (k)
-0.75
-0.375
-0.375

P L
+0.004095
+0.0020475
+0.0020475
+0.00819

= (2)(0.00819)(12) in/ft = +0.20 in

(13.52)

Example 13-12: Truss with initial camber


It is desired to provide 3 in. of camber at the center of the truss shown below

by fabricating the endposts and top chord members additionally long. How much should the length of
each endpost and each panel of the top chord be increased?
Solution:
1. Assume that each endpost and each section of top chord is increased 0.1 in.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1321

Draft

Member
1
2
3

P int
+0.625
+0.750
+1.125

L
+0.1
+0.1
+0.1

P int L
+0.0625
+0.0750
+0.1125
+0.2500

Thus,
(13.53)

(2)(0.250) = 0.50 in

2. Since the structure is linear and elastic, the required increase of length for each section will be


3.0
(13.54)
(0.1) = 0.60 in
0.50
3. If we use the practical value of 0.625 in., the theoretical camber will be
(6.25)(0.50)
= 3.125 in
0.1

(13.55)

Example 13-13: Prestressed Concrete Beam with Continously Variable I (White et al. 1976)

A prestressed concrete beam is made of variable depth for proper location of the straight pretensioning
tendon, Fig. 13.16. Determine the midspan displacement (point c) produced by dead weight of the girder.
The concrete weights 23.6 kN/m3 and has E = 25, 000 MPa (N/mm2 ). The beam is 0.25 m wide.
Solution:
1. We seek an expression for the real moment M , this is accomplished by rst determining the reactions,
and then considering the free body diagram.
2. We have the intermediary resultant forces
R1
R2

= (0.25)x(0.26)m3 (23.6)kN/m3 = 3.54x


= f rac12(0.25)x(0.04x)m3 (23.6)kN/m3 = 0.118x2

(13.56-a)
(13.56-b)

Hence,
M (x)

= 47.2x 3.54x

x

0.118x2

2
2
= 47.2x 1.76x 0.0393x3

x
3

(13.57-a)
(13.57-b)

3. The moment of inertia of the rectangular beam varies continously and is given, for the left half of the
beam, by
1 3
1
I(x) =
bh =
(0.25)(0.6 + 0.04x)3
(13.58)
12
12


1
48

4. Thus, the real angle changes produced by dead load bending are
d =

M
47.2x 1.76x2 0.0393x3
1
dx =
dx
EI
(0.6 + 0.04x)3
E 48

(13.59)

5. The virtual force system corresponding to the desired displacement is shown above with M = (1/2)x
for the left half of the span. Since the beam is symmetrical, the virtual work equations can be evaluated
for only one half of the beam and the nal answer is then obtained by multiplying the half-beam result
by two.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1322

Draft

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Figure 13.16: *(correct 42.7 to 47.2)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.3 Virtual Work

1323

Draft

6. The direct evaluation of the integral

M d is dicult because of the complexity of the expression for



*
d. Hence we shall use a numerical procedure, replacing the M (M/EI)dx with the M (M/EI)x,
where each quantity in the summation is evaluated at the center of the interval x and held constant
over the interval length. As x becomes very short, the solution approaches the exact answer.
7. An interval length of 1 meter, giving 10 elements in the half length of the beam, is chosen to establish
an accurate result.
8. The internal virtual work quantity is then
 L/2
) M M
M
dx
(x)
(13.60-a)
M
EI
EI
0
) M M
 (x)

(13.60-b)
=
h3
E 0.25
12
48 ) M M
(x)
(13.60-c)

E
h3
9. The summation for the 10 elements in the left half of the beam gives
Segment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

x
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5
8.5
9.5

h3
0.238
0.288
0.343
0.405
0.475
0.551
0.636
0.729
0.831
0.941

h
0.62
0.66
0.70
0.74
0.78
0.82
0.86
0.90
0.94
0.98

M
23.2
66.7
106.4
150
173
200
222
238
250
256

M
0.25
0.75
1.25
1.75
2.25
2.75
3.25
3.75
4.25
4.75

M M
h3

24
174
388
648
820
998
1,134
1,224
1,279
1,292
7,981

10. The SI units should be checked for consistency. Letting the virtual force carry the units of kN, the
virtual moment M has the units of mkN, and the units of the equation
c =
are

1
1 kN

) M M
EI

1 ( m kN)( m kN)
m
= mm
m=
( MN/ m2 ) m4
1, 000

(13.62)



48
M M
dx 2
(7, 981)(1) = 30.6mm
EI
25, 000

(13.63)

kN

11. Then

L
0

(13.61)

and the deection at midspan is


c = 30.6 mm

(13.64)

12. Acceptably accurate results may be obtained with considerably


fewer elements (longer intervals x).
*
Using four elements with centers at 2, 5, 8, and 10, the (M M/h3 )x is
)
= 3(174) + 3(820) + 3(1, 224) + 1(1, 292) = 7, 946
(13.65)
which is only 0.4% lower than the 10 element solution. If we go to two elements, 3 and 8, we obtain a
summation of 5(388) + 5(1, 224) = 8, 060, which is 1% high. A one element solution, with x = 5 m and
h = 0.8 m, gives a summation of 9,136, which is 14.4% high and much less accurate than the 2 element
solution.
13. Finally, it should be noted that the calculations involved in this example are essentially identical to
those necessary in the moment area method.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1324

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Draft
13.4
24

*Maxwell Bettis Reciprocal Theorem

If we consider a beam with two points, A, and B, we seek to determine


1. The deection at A due to a unit load at B, or fAB
2. The deection at B due to a unit load at A, or fBA

25

Applying the theorem of vitual work



fAB


fBA

M A

MB
dx
EI

(13.66-a)

M B

MA
dx
EI

(13.66-b)

0
L

=
0

But since the both the real and the virtual internal moments are caused by a unit load, both moments
are numerically equal
M A
M B

=
=

MA
MB

(13.67-a)
(13.67-b)

thus we conclude that


fBA = fBA

(13.68)

or The displacement at a point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal to the
displacement of point A when the unit load is acting at point B.
26 Similarly The rotation at a point B on a structure due to a unit couple moment acting at point A is
equal to the rotation at point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.
27 And The rotation in radians at point B on a structure due to a unit load acting at point A is equal
to the displacement of point A when a unit couple moment is acting at point B.

These theorems will be used later on in justifying the symmetry of the stiness matrix, and in
construction of inuence lines using the M
uller-Breslau principle.

28

13.5

Summary of Equations

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

13.5 Summary of Equations

1325

Draft

U


Axial
0

P2
dx
2AE


Shear

...


Flexure
0

Torsion
0

P
M

M
dx
2EIz
T2
dx
2GJ

W
i 21 Pi i
i 21 Mi i

w(x)v(x)dx
0

Virtual Force U
General
Linear
 L
 L
P
dx
P
dx


AE
0
0


V xy dx
 0L
M dx

...


L
0

T dx
0

M
M
dx


EIz


T
T
dx


GJ


Virtual Force W
i P i i
M i i
 L i
w(x)v(x)dx
0

Table 13.3: Summary of Expressions for the Internal Strain Energy and External Work

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1326

Draft

ENERGY METHODS; Part I

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 14

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS


This chapter deals with the behavior and design of laterally supported steel beams according to the
LRFD provisions.

If a beam is not laterally supported, we will have a failure mode governed by lateral torsional buckling.

3 By the end of this lecture you should be able to select the most ecient section (light weight with
adequate strength) for a given bending moment and also be able to determine the exural strength of a
given beam.

14.1

Review from Strength of Materials

14.1.1

Flexure

Fig.14.1 shows portion of an originally straight beam which has been bent to the radius by end
couples M , thus the segment is subjected to pure bending. It is assumed that plane cross-sections
normal to the length of the unbent beam remain plane after the beam is bent. Therefore, considering
the cross-sections AB and CD a unit distance apart, the similar sectors Oab and bcd give

(14.1)

where y is measured from the axis of rotation (neutral axis). Thus strains are proportional to the
distance from the neutral axis.
5 The corresponding variation in stress over the cross-section is given by the stress-strain diagram of
the material rotated 90o from the conventional orientation, provided the strain axis is scaled with the
distance y (Fig.14.1). The bending moment M is given by

M = ydA
(14.2)

where dA is an dierential area a distance y (Fig.14.1) from the neutral axis. Thus the moment M can
be determined if the stress-strain relation is known.
6

If stress is proportional to strain, = E, Equations 14.1 and 14.2 give



EI
M = E y 2 dA =

I
= EI
y = y
= S

where
S=

I
y

(14.3)

142

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

C
c d y
b

A
M

a
B

Figure 14.1: Bending of a Beam


is the Elastic Section Modulus. Note that for doubly symmetric sections, we have two section modulus
Sx and Sy .
7 The stress distribution on a typical wide-ange shape subjected to increasing bending moment is shown
in Fig.14.2. In the service range (that is before we multiplied the load by the appropriate factors in the
LRFD method) the section is elastic. This elastic condition prevails as long as the stress at the extreme
ber has not reached the yield stress Fy . Once the strain reaches its yield value y , increasing strain
induces no increase in stress beyond Fy .

Figure 14.2: Stress distribution at dierent stages of loading


When the yield stress is reached at the extreme ber, the nominal moment strength Mn , is referred
to as the yield moment My and is computed as

Mn = My = Sx Fy

(14.4)

(assuming that bending is occurring with respect to the x x axis).


When across the entire section, the strain is equal or larger than the yield strain ( y = Fy /Es )
then the section is fully plastied, and the nominal moment strength Mn is therefore referred to as the

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14.1 Review from Strength of Materials

Draft

Elastic Region

143

Plastic Region

Stress

Strain

Figure 14.3: Stress-strain diagram for most structural steels


plastic moment Mp and is determined from

Mp = Fy

(14.5)

ydA = Fy Z
A


Z=

(14.6)

ydA

is the Plastic Section Modulus.


10 The ratio Mp /My is a property of the cross-sectional shape and is independent of the material properties, it is referred to as the Shape Factor

Mp
Z
=
My
S

(14.7)

The shape factors of some regular cross-sectional shapes bending about their major axis are:
1. Rectangular section = 1.50
2. I section = 1.11
3. Circular section = 1.70

14.1.2

Shear

Examining the stress distribution in FIg. 14.4, if there is a variation of moment along the innitesimal
segment dx (thus a shear force is present), we determine the total force acting over the shaded area on
the left of the section dx, on the right, and then take the dierence which must be equal to the shear
force along the top surface of the shaded zone

11

x dA =

Victor Saouma

F1

F2

bdx

My
dA
I
My
dA
I
A
(M + dM )y
dA
I
A
F2 F1

(14.8-a)
(14.8-b)
(14.8-c)
(14.8-d)
Structural Engineering

144

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

h/2

M+dM

h
h/2

y1
00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
11111
00000

y
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000

dx

dA

max

Figure 14.4: Flexural and Shear Stress Distribution in a Rectangular Beam



=

dM y
dA
I
A
 
dM 1
ydA
dx Ib
A

(14.8-e)
(14.8-f)
(14.8-g)

substituting V = dM/dx we now obtain

VQ
Ib

Q =

(14.9)

ydA (14.10)
A

this is the shear formula, and Q is the rst moment of the area.
12

For a rectangular beam, we will have a parabolic shear stress distribution.

For a W section, it can be easily shown that about 95% of the shear force is carried by the web, and
that the average shear stress is within 10% of the actual maximum shear stress.

13

14.2

Nominal Strength

The strength requirement for beams in load and resistance factor design is stated as
b Mn Mu
where:
b
Mn
Mu

(14.11)

strength reduction factor; for exure 0.90


nominal moment strength
factored service load moment.

The equations given in this chapter are valid for exural members with the following kinds of cross
section and loading:

14

1. Doubly symmetric (such as W sections) and loaded in Plane of symmetry


2. Singly symmetric (channels and angles) loaded in plane of symmetry or through the shear center
parallel to the web1 .
1 More

about shear centers in Mechanics of Materials II.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14.3 Flexural Design

145

Draft
14.3

Flexural Design

14.3.1

Failure Modes and Classication of Steel Beams

15

The strength of exural members is limited by:

Plastic Hinge: at a particular cross section.


local buckling: of a cross-sectional element (e.g. the web or the ange),
Lateral-Torsional buckling: of the entire member.
Fig. 14.5 illustrates some of the buckling mode possible in a rolled section.

Figure 14.5: Local (ange) Buckling; Flexural and Torsional Buckling Modes in a Rolled Section, (Lulea
University)

16

Accordingly, the LRFD manual classies steel sections as

Compact sections: No local buckling can occur. Strength is based on the plastic moment.
Partially compact sections: Where local buckling may occur
Slender sections: where lateral torsional buckling may occur.
We will cover only the rst two cases.
14.3.1.1

Compact Sections

For compact sections, the mode of failure is the formation of a plastic hinge that is the section is
fully plastied. Hence we shall rst examine the bending behavior of beams under limit load. Then we
will relate this plastic moment to the design of compact sections.

17

18

A section is compact if the following conditions are met:


1. Flanges are continuously connected to the web
2. Width to thickness ratios, known as the slenderness ratios, of the ange and the web must not
exceed the limiting ratios p dened as follows:
Flange
Web
Note that

bf
2tf

Victor Saouma

and

hc
tw

bf
2tf
hc
tw

p
p

p = 65

Fy

640
p =

(14.12)

Fy

are tabulated in Sect. 3.6.

Structural Engineering

146

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft
19

The nominal strength Mn for laterally stable compact sections according to LRFD is
(14.13)

Mn = Mp
where:
Mp
Z
Fy
20

plastic moment strength = ZFy


plastic section modulus
specied minimum yield strength

Note that section properties, including Z values are tabulated in Section 3.6.

14.3.1.2

Partially Compact Section

If the width to thickness ratios of the compression elements exceed the p values mentioned in Eq.
14.12 but do not exceed the following r , the section is partially compact and we can have local buckling.

21

Flange: p <
Web:

p <

bf
2tf
hc
tw

p = 65

r = 141

p =

970
r =

Fy
640

Fy

Fy Fr

(14.14)

Fy

where, Fig. 14.6:


Fy specied minimum yield stress in ksi
bf width of the ange
tf thickness of the ange
hc unsupported height of the web which is twice the distance from the neutral axis
to the inside face of the compression ange less the llet or corner radius.
tw thickness of the web.
Fr residual stress = 10.0 ksi for rolled sections and 16.5 ksi for welded sections.

Figure 14.6: W Section


22

The nominal strength of partially compact sections according to LRFD is, Fig. 14.7
Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )(

where:
Mr

p
) Mp
r p

(14.15)

Residual Moment equal to (Fy Fr )S


bf /2tf for I-shaped member anges and
hc /tw for beam webs.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14.3 Flexural Design

Draft

147
Mn
Compact

Partially Compact

Slender

Mp

Mr

p
Flanges

bf

65

141

2tf

Fy

Fy - Fr

640
Fy

970
Fy

Web

tw

Figure 14.7: Nominal Moments for Compact and Partially Compact Sections
All other quantities are as dened earlier. Note that we use the associated with the one being
violated (or the lower of the two if both are).

23

14.3.1.3

Slender Section

If the width to thickness ratio exceeds r values of ange and web, the element is referred to as slender
compression element. Since the slender sections involve a dierent treatment, it will not be dealt here.

24

A laterally stable beam is one which is braced laterally in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of the web. Thus overall buckling of the compression ange as a column cannot occur prior to its full
participation to develop the moment strength of the section.

25

26

The AISC code requires that


Lb

Lp

Lp
300
rmin
Fy

(14.16)
(14.17)

where Lb is the maximum unbraced length of the compression ange, and rmin is the radius of gyration
with respect to the weak axis. This is an emperical equation, thus units are in inches, ksi, and ft.

14.3.2

Examples

Example 14-1: Shape Factors, Rectangular Section


Determine the shape factor for a rectangular beam of width b and depth d.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

148

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

Solution:
From Eq. 14.7 the shape factor is given by =

My
f

=
=

f ydA
A
y
Fy d/2

Mp
My

= Fy 2y
d

The moment at rst yield is




d/2

My = 2
0

2Fy 2
bd2
y bdy = Fy
d
6

The plastic moment is given by:




Mp =

d/2

f ydA = 2
A

Fy bydy = Fy
0

bd2
4

Thus, the shape factor is


2

Fy bd4
Mp
=
=
2 = 1.5
My
Fy bd6

Example 14-2: Shape Factors, T Section


Determine the shape factor of the inverted T-section shown in g. below.

Solution:

1. Determine the position of the Elastic Neutral Axis:


Taking moment about the top, the depth of the neutral axis is given by
y =

Victor Saouma

(10)(1)(9.5) + (9)(1)(4.5)
= 7.13 cm
(10)(1) + (9)(1)

Structural Engineering

14.3 Flexural Design

149

Draft

2. Determine the moment of inertia about the elastic neutral axis:



 

(1)(9)3
(10)(1)3
+ (9)(1)(7.13 4.5)2 +
+ (10)(1) ((10 7.13) 0.5)2 = 180 cm4
I=
12
12
3. Determine My :
My = Fy

I
180.0
= 25.25Fy
= Fy
ymax
7.13

4. Determine the position of Plastic Neutral Axis:


Plastic neutral axis divides the section in such a way that, the area above it is equal to area below
it. In other words it is also called as the bf Equal Area Axis
Total area = (10)(1) + (9)(1) = 19 cm2 Half area = 9.5 cm2
Thus the plastic neutral axis passes through the horizontal seat at 0.95 cm. from the bottom.
5. Determine Mp : Taking moments of the resultant forces C1 and C2 with respect to the location of
the resultant force of the lower tensile forces we have:
0.95
0.05 0.95
] + [(Fy )(10)(0.05)][
+
] = 45.475Fy
Mp = [(Fy )(1)(9)][4.5 + 0.05 +
2
2
2
6. Shape Factor
Mp
45.475Fy
=
= 1.8
My
25.25Fy

Example 14-3: Beam Design


Select the lightest W or M section to carry a uniformly distributed dead load of 0.2 kip/ft superimposed (i.e., in addition to the beam weight) and 0.8 kip/ft live load. The simply supported span is 20
ft. The compression ange of the beam is fully supported against lateral movement. Select the sections
for the following steels: A36; A572 Grade 50; and A572 Grade 65.
Solution:
Case 1: A36 Steel
1. Determine the factored load.
wD
wL
wu

=
=
=
=

0.2 k/ft
0.8 k/ft
1.2wD + 1.6wL
1.2(0.2) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.52 k/ft

2. Compute the factored load moment Mu . For a simply supported beam carrying uniformly
distributed load,
Mu = wu L2 /8 = (1.52)(20)2 /8 = 76 k.ft
Assuming compact section, since a vast majority of rolled sections satisfy p for both the
ange and the web. The design strength b Mn is
b Mn = b Mp = b Zx Fy
The design requirement is
b Mn = Mu
or, combing those two equations we have:
b Zx Fy = Mu
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1410

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

3. Required Zx is
Mu
76(12)
=
= 28.1 in3
b Fy
0.90(36)

Zx =

From the notes on Structural Materials, we select a W12X22 section which has a Zx = 29.3 in3
(22)(12)
Note that Zx is approximated by wd
= 29.3.
9 =
9
4. Check compact section limits p for the anges from the table
=

bf
2tf

= 4.7
= 65 =

p
and for the web:
=

Fy

hc
tw

=
=

65
36

41.8
640

=
Fy

= 10.8 >

640

36

= 107

5. Check the Strength by correcting the factored moment Mu to include the self weight. Self
weight of the beam W12X22 is 22 lb./ft. or 0.022 kip/ft
wD
wu
Mu

=
=
=

0.2 + 0.022 = 0.222 k/ft


1.2(0.222) + 1.6(0.8) = 1.55 k/ft
(1.55)(20)2 /8 = 77.3 k.ft

Mn

Mp = Zx Fy =

b Mn

0.90(87.9) = 79.1 k.ft > Mu

(29.3) in3 (36)


(12) in/ft

ksi

= 87.9 k.ft

Therefore use W12X22 section.


6. We nally check for the maximum distance between supports.
!
!
Iy
5
=
= 0.88 in
rmin =
A
6.5
300
Lp = rmin
Fy
300
= 0.88 = 43 ft
36

(14.18-a)
(14.18-b)
(14.18-c)

Case 2: A572 Grade 65 Steel:


1. same as in case 1
2. same as in case 1
Mu
b Fy
by wd
9

3. Required Zx =
approximated

=
=

76(12)
0.90(65) = 15.6
(14)(12)
= 18.7.
9

in3 Select W12X14: Zx = 17.4 in3 Note that Zx is

4. Check compact section limits p :


=
p =
=
p =

hc
tw = 54.3
640
640

=
65
Fy
bf
2tf = 8.82
65 = 65
65
Fy

= 79.4

= 8.1 < Not Good

In this case the controlling limit state is local buckling of the ange.
Since p < < r , as above, the section is classied as non-compact.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14.4 Shear Design

1411

Draft

5. Check the strength:


Since the section is non-compact, the strength is obtained by interpolation between Mp and
Mr .
For the anges:
r

141

Mn

Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp

Mp

Zx Fy =

Mr

Mn
b Mn

=
=

Fy 10

141
6510

= 19.0

(17.4) in (65) ksi


= 94.2 k.ft
(12) in/ft
(14.9) in3 (6510) ksi
Sx (Fy Fr ) =
= 68.3 k.ft.
(12) in/ft 
8.88.1
= 92.5 k.ft
94.2 (94.2 68.3) 19.08.1

0.90(92.5) = 83.25 k.ft > Mu

Therefore provide W12X14 section.

14.4

Shear Design

Except for very short span beams, shear seldom govern. Thus sections should rst be selected on the
basis of exural reauirements, and shear should be checked next.

27

28

as for beams
Vd = v Vn ;

29

(14.19)

v = 0.9

There are three failure modes possible:

Web yielding
Inelastic web buckling
Elastic web buckling
30

The AISC requirements for shear design are summarized below


Web Yielding
Inel. Web Buckling
Elast. Web Buckling

h
tw

418

Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw

Fyw

418

Fyw

<

h
tw

418

523

Fyw
523
Fyw

Vn = 0.6Fyw Aw
<

h
tw

Vn =

132,000Aw

Fyw
h
tw

( thw )2
(14.20)

and are shown in Fig. ??.

14.5

Deections

Deections of beams, under live load, are often curtailed in order not to impair serviceability (plaster
cracking, excessive vibration).

31

The AISC code states in Sect. L3.1 that deformations of structural members and systems due to
service loads shall not impair the serviceability of the structure. However no specic limits are given, as
those would depend on the type of structire.

32

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1412

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

40.0

Fy=36 ksi
Fy=54 ksi

35.0

Vn/Aw [ksi]

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

10.0
50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

h/tw

Figure 14.8: AISC Requirements for Shear Design

33

In lieu of practical design experience, it is customary to limit the live-load central span deection to

L
360

(14.21)

It should be recalled that the midspan deection of a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam is
equal to
5 wL4
(14.22)
=
384 EIx

34

14.6

Complete Design Example

A simply supported beam with a span of 20 ft supports a dead load of 1.0 k/ft, and a live load of 1.5
k/ft in addition to its own weight (estimate dead load to 40 lbs/ft). Select the most economical W shape
using A-36, determine the maximum distance for lateral bracing of the compression anges, and check
for deection which should not exceed L/360.
WD

= 1.0 + 0.04 = 1.04 k/ft

(14.23-a)

WL
Wu1

= 1.5 k/ft
= 1.4wd = 1.4(1.04) = 1.456 k/ft

(14.23-b)
(14.23-c)

Wu2
Mu
Vu
Zx
bf
2tf
h
tw
h
tw
v Vn

= 1.2wd + 1.6wL = 1.2(1.04) + 1.6(1.5) = 3.648 k/ft


3.65(20)2(12)
wu L2
=
= 2, 189 k.in
=
8
8
(3.65)(20)
wu L
=
= 36.5 k
=
2
2
Mu
2, 189
= 67.6 in3 W16x40, Zx = 72.9 in3
=
=
b Fy
(0.9)(36)

65
= 6.9 < = 10.8
36

640
= 46.6 < = 106.7
36

418
= 46.6 < = 69.7
36

= 0.9(0.6Fy ) dtw = (0.9)(0.6)(36)(16.01)(0.305) = 94.9 k > 36.5




(14.23-d)
(14.23-e)
(14.23-f)
(14.23-g)
(14.23-h)
(14.23-i)
(14.23-j)
(14.23-k)

Aw

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

14.6 Complete Design Example

Draft

5 wL L4
5 (1.5/12) k/ in(20)4 (12)4 in4
=
= 0.36 in
384 EIx
384
(29, 000) ksi(518) in4

(20)(12)
=
= 0.67 in > 0.36 in
360
= 1.57 in
300rmin
(300)(1.57)

=
=
= 78.5 in
Fy
36

L
360
rmin
Lp

Victor Saouma

1413

(14.23-l)
(14.23-m)
(14.23-n)
(14.23-o)

Structural Engineering

1414

Draft

BRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 15

COLUMN STABILITY
15.1

Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars

15.1.1

Single Bar System

1 Let us begin by considering a rigid bar connected to the support by a spring and axially loaded at the
other end, Fig. 15.1. Taking moments about point A:

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
L1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

0P
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
00000
11111
B
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111
A
0
1
00000
11111
0
1
00000
11111

P
Unstable Equilibrium
k
L

(stable)
sin
Neutral Equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium
k
L

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111

Stable

Neutral

111
000
000
111
000
111

Unstable

Figure 15.1: Stability of a Rigid Bar


MA =
=
P L k =
k
(P ) =
L

P k = 0
L for small rotation

(15.1-a)
(15.1-b)

(15.1-c)

(15.1-d)

hence we have three possibilities:


Stable Equilibrium: for P < k/L, = 0
Neutral Equilibrium: for P = k/L, and can take any value

152

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft

Unstable equilibrium: for P > k/L, = 0


2

Thus we introduce a critical load dened by


Pcr =

k
L

(15.2)

For large rotation, we would have


MA =
=
Pcr

P k = 0
L sin()P L k = 0
k
L sin()

(15.3-a)
(15.3-b)
(15.3-c)

Because there is more than one possible path () when P = Pcr , we call this point a biurcation
point.

5 If we now assume that there is an initial imperfection in the column, i.e.


the column is initially
crooked, Fig. 15.2, then

MA

Pcr

P L k( 0 ) = 0
0
k
(1 )
L

(15.4-a)
(15.4-b)

P
P

11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111

00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
A
00000
11111

Perfect System

k
L

k (1L

00000
11111
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111

Figure 15.2: Stability of a Rigid Bar with Initial Imperfection

15.1.2
6

Two Bars System

Next we consider the two rigid bar problem illustrated in Fig. 15.3.

Victor Saouma

MB

1 + 2

MA

21 2

P L2 k(2 1 ) = 0
PL
2
k
P L1 + k(2 1 ) k1 = 0
PL
1
k

(15.5-a)
(15.5-b)
(15.5-c)
(15.5-d)
Structural Engineering

15.1 Introduction; Discrete Rigid Bars

Draft

P
P
C

L
B
k

A
k

153

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0000000
1111111
C 1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
L
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111

0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
2
0000000
1111111
P
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
0
1
0000000
1111111
B
0000
1111
0000B
1111
0000
1111
0000
k(2 - )1 1111
0000k(2 1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
P
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
A 1111
k
0000
1111
0 1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
P
0
1
0
1
0
1

0
P1
0
1
0
1

0000000
1111111
0000 C
1111
1111111
0000000
0000
1111
1
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
2
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
B
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
L
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

)1

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
1.618
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

0 P
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
.618
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
1
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111

Figure 15.3: Stability of a Two Rigid Bars System

Those two equations can be cast in matrix form







1
2 1
1
=
2
2
1 1

where = P L/k, this is an eigenvalue formulation and can be rewritten as







2
1
1
0
=
2
1
1
0

(15.6)

(15.7)

This is a homogeneous system of equation, and it can have a non-zero solution only if its determinant is
equal to zero
"
"
" 2
1 ""
"
= 0
(15.8-a)
" 1
1 "
2 2 + 2 1

= 0

(15.8-b)

3 + 1

= 0

(15.8-c)

(15.8-d)

1,2

3 5
3 94
=
2
2

Hence we now have two critical loads:


Pcr1

Pcr2

k
3 5 k
= 0.382
2 L
L
k
3+ 5 k
= 2.618
2
L
L

(15.9)
(15.10)

9 We now seek to determine the deformed shape for each of the rst critical loads. It should be noted
that since the column will be failing at the critical buckling load, we can not determine the absolute
values of the deformations, but rather the shape of the buckling column.

3 5
(15.11-a)
1 =
2
+
,




2 32 5
1
0
1
=
(15.11-b)
2
0
1
1 3 5

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

154

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft

1+ 5
2

1


,

1
1

1+ 5
2

1.618 1
1 0.618



1
2


=

1
2


=

0
0
0
0


(15.11-c)

(15.11-d)

we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/0.618 = 1.618, thus the rst eigenmode is


1
2


=

1
1.618

(15.12)

10

Note that we can determine the deformed shape upon buckling but not the geometry.

11

Finally, we examine the second mode shape loads


+

2 3+2
1
+

1 5
2

,

1
1 3+2 5

,

1
1

1 5
2

0.618
1
1
1.618



1
2
1
2
1
2

2


=

=

=

3+ 5
2


0
0


0
0


0
0

(15.13-a)
(15.13-b)
(15.13-c)
(15.13-d)

we now arbitrarily set 1 = 1, then 2 = 1/1.618 = 0.618, thus the second eigenmode is


15.1.3

1
2


=

1
0.618


(15.14)

Analogy with Free Vibration

The problem just considered bears great ressemblence with the vibration of a two degree of freedom
mass spring system, Fig. 15.4.

12

u1
k =k

k =k

m=m
1

m2= 2m

k 3= k

u2
1

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

k u1

..
mu

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

u2

k(u -u )
2

..
2m u
ku

Figure 15.4: Two DOF Dynamic System


Each mass is subjected to an inertial force equals to the mass times the acceleration, and the spring
force:

13

2m
u2 + ku2 + k(u2 u1 ) =
Victor Saouma

(15.15-a)
Structural Engineering

15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems

Draft

or in matrix form

m
u1 + ku1 + k9u2 u1 0 =



14

155

m
0

(15.15-b)



 

1
u
0
2k k
u1
+
2
u
2m
k 2k
u2






M

The characteristic equation is |K M| where = 2 ,


"
" 2h
h
"
" h
2h 2

(15.16)

and is the natural frequency.


"
"
"=0
"

(15.17)

where h = k/m. This reduces to the polynomial


3
2 3h + h2 = 0
2

(15.18)


0.796 k/m

1.538 k/m

(15.19-a)

Solving, = (3 3)h/2 or
1

(15.19-b)

To nd the mode shapes 1 and 2 (relative magnitudes of the DOF) we substitute in the characteristic
equation and set the rst element equal to 1:




1.000
1.000
and 1 =
(15.20)
1 =
1.3660
0.3660

15

15.2

Continuous Linear Elastic Systems

16

Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744.

17

An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until buckling occur.

For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig. 15.5.
Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection is present.

18

x and y are
principal axes

Slightly bent position


L

y, v

Figure 15.5: Euler Column


Two sets of solutions will be presented, in both cases the equation of equilibrium is written for
the deformed element.

19

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

156

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft
15.2.1

Lower Order Dierential Equation

20 At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the concentric
load P , gives rise to a moment
(15.21)
Mz = P v

Note that the value of y is irrelevant.


21

Recalling that

d2 v
Mz
=
dx2
EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation

(15.22)

d2 v
P
v=0

dx2
EI
22

Letting k 2 =

P
EI ,

(15.23)

the solution to this second-order linear dierential equation is


v = A sin kx B cos kx

23

(15.24)

The two constants are determined by applying the boundary conditions


1. v = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. v = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0

(15.25)

This last equation can be satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deection; 2) kL = 0, that is no
applied load; or 3)
kL = n
(15.26)


2
cr
= n
or
Thus buckling will occur if PEI
L

24

Pcr =

n2 2 EI
L2

25 The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deection, will occur for n = 1; Thus Euler
critical load for a pinned column is

Pcr =

26

2 EI
L2

(15.27)

2 E
2

(15.28)

The corresponding critical stress is


cr = 

rmin

where I =
27

2
.
Armin

Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.

15.2.2

Higher Order Dierential Equation

15.2.2.1

Derivation

In the preceding approach, the buckling loads were obtained for a column with specied boundary
conditons. A second order dierential equation, valid specically for the member being analyzed was
used.

28

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems

157

Draft

In the next approach, we derive a single fourth order equation which will be applicable to any column
regardelss of the boundary conditions.

29

Considering a beam-column subjected to axial and shear forces as well as a moment, Fig. 15.6 (note
analogy with cable structure, Fig. 6.1), taking the moment about i for the beam segment and assuming

30

w
w(x)

1111
0000
0000
1111

1111
0000
0000
1111

y, u

P
v
x

dx

V+ V dx
x

P
dx

P
M+ M dx
x

i
j

Figure 15.6: Simply Supported Beam Column; Dierential Segment; Eect of Axial Force P
the angle

dv
dx

between the axis of the beam and the horizontal axis is small, leads to




 
dv
(dx)2
dV
dM
dx + w
+ V +
dx P
M M+
dx = 0
dx
2
dx
dx


(15.29)

Note that the rst underbraced term is identical to the one used in earlier derivation of the beams
dierential equation.
neglecting the terms in dx2 which are small, and then dierentiating each term with respect to x, we
obtain
d2 v
d2 M
dV
P 2 =0

(15.30)
2
dx
dx
dx

31

32

However, considering equilibrium in the y direction gives


dV
= w
dx

33

From beam theory, neglecting axial and shear deformations, we have


M = EI

34

(15.31)

d2 v
dx2

(15.32)

Substituting Eq. 15.31 and 15.32 into 15.30, and assuming a beam of uniform cross section, we obtain
EI
#

substituting =

P
EI ,

d4 v
d2 v

P
=w
dx4
dx2

(15.33)

and w = 0 we nally obtain


2
d4 v
2d v
+

=0
dx4
dx2

(15.34)

Again, we note that by considering equilibrium in the deformed state we have introduced the second
term to what would otherwise be the governing dierential equation for exural members (beams).
Finally, we note the analogy between this equation, and the governing dierential equation for a cable
structure, Eq. 6.12.

35

36

The general solution of this fourth order dierential equation to any set of boundary conditions is
v = C1 + C2 x + C3 sin x + C4 cos x

Victor Saouma

(15.35)

Structural Engineering

158

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft

Essential
(Dirichlet)
v
dv
dx

Natural
(Neumann)
d3 v
(V )
3
dx
2
d v
(M )
dx2

Table 15.1: Essential and Natural Boundary Conditions for Columns


The constants C  s are obtained from the boundary condtions. For columns, those are shown in Table
?? The essential boundary conditions are associated with displacement, and slope, the natural ones with
shear and moments (through their respective relationships with the displacement).

37

We note that at each node, we should have two boundary conditions, all combinations are possible
except pairs from the same raw (i.e. we can not have known displacement and shear, or known slope
and moment).

38

15.2.2.2

Hinged-Hinged Column

If we consider again the stability of a hinged-hinged column, the boundary conditions are displacement
2
(v) and moment ( ddxv2 EI) equal to zero at both ends1 , or

39

v
v

=
=

0,
0,

d2 v
2
dx
d2 v
dx2

= 0
= 0

at x =
at x =

0
L

(15.36)

substitution of the two conditions at x = 0 leads to C1 = C4 = 0. From the remaining conditions, we


obtain
C3 sin L + C2 L
C3 k 2 sin L

= 0
= 0

(15.37-a)
(15.37-b)

these relations are satised either if C2 = C3 = 0 or if sin L = C2 = 0. The rst alternative leads to
the trivial solution of equilibrium at all loads, and the second to L = n for n = 1, 2, 3 . The critical
load is
Pcr =

n2 2 EI
L2

(15.38)

which was derived earlier using the lower order dierential equation.
40

The shape of the buckled column is

nx
(15.39)
L
and only the shape (but not the geometry) can be determined. In general, we will assume C3 = 1 and
plot y.
y = C3 sin

15.2.2.3

Fixed-Fixed Column

We now consider a column which is restrained against rotation at both ends, the boundary conditions
are given by:

41

v(0)

= 0 = C1 + C4

1 It

(15.40-a)

v (0) = 0 = C2 + C3
v(L) = 0 = C1 + C2 L + C3 sin L + C4 cos L

(15.40-b)
(15.40-c)

v  (L) = 0 = C2 + C3 cos(L) C4 sin(L)

(15.40-d)

will be shown in subsequent courses, that the former BC is an essential B.C., and the later a natural B.C.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems

Draft

those equations can be set

1
1

1
0

159

in matrix form
0
1
L
1

0
1
C1

C2

C3
sin L
cos L

C4
cos L sin L
"
"
"
" 1 0
0
1
"
"
"
" 1 1

0
"
"
" 1 L sin L
cos L ""
"
" 0 1 cos L sin L "


0
=

= 0

(15.41-b)

The determinant is obtain from

"
" sin L
"
" cos L

(15.41-a)

"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"

0 (15.42-a)

0 (15.42-b)

2 + 2 L sin L + 2 cos L

0 (15.42-c)

" "
"
" " 1
" 1

0
" "
"
" L sin L
cos L "" "" 1
"
" 1 cos L sin L " " 0
"
"
" "
" L
cos L ""
cos L "" "" 1 sin L
"
"
+
sin L "
1 sin L " " 0 cos L

L sin L
1 cos L
"
"
"
"
" " 1 L
"
" 0 1

The rst solution, = 0 is a trivial one, and the next one


L sin L + 2 cos L 2
L sin L

= 0
= 2(1 cos L)

(15.43-a)
(15.43-b)

2n

(15.44-a)

2n
L

(15.44-b)

The solution to this transcendental equation is


!

P
EI
thus the critical load and stresses are given by

42

Pcr

cr

4n2 2 EI
L2
2 2
4n E
(L/r)2

(15.45)
(15.46)

The deected shape (or eigenmodes) can be obtained by substituting the value of into the c s.

15.2.2.4

Fixed-Hinged Column

Next we consider a column with one end xed (at x = L), and one end hinged (at x = 0). The
boundary conditions are
d2 v
v = 0, dx
= 0 at x = 0
2
(15.47)
dv
= 0 at x = L
v = 0,
dx
The rst two B.C. yield C1 = C4 = 0, and the other two

43

sin L L cos L = 0

(15.48)

But since cos L can not possibly be equal to zero, the preceding equation can be reduced to
tan L = L

(15.49)

which is a transcendental algebraic equation and can only be solved numerically. We are essentially
looking at the intersection of y = x and y = tan x, Fig. 15.7 and the smallest positive root is L = 4.4934,
P
since k 2 = EI
, the smallest critical load is
Pcr =

(4.4934)2
2
EI
=
EI
L2
(0.699L)2

(15.50)

Note that if we were to solve for x such that v,xx = 0 (i.e. an inection point), then x = 0.699L.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1510

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

6.0

7.0

8.0

9.0

10.0

Figure 15.7: Solution of the Tanscendental Equation for the Buckling Load of a Fixed-Hinged Column

15.2.3

Eective Length Factors K

Recall that the Euler buckling load was derived for a pinned column. In many cases, a column will
have dierent boundary conditions. It can be shown that in all cases, the buckling load would be given
by

44

Pcr =

2 EI

(15.51)

(KL)2

where K is called eective length factor, and KL is the eective length. and
cr = 

2 E
2

(15.52)

KL
rmin

The ratio rKL


is termed the slenderness ratio. Note that rmin should be the smallest radius of
min
gyration in the unbraced direction(s).
The eective length, can only be determined by numerical or approximate methods, and is the distance
between two adjacent (real or virtual) inection points, Fig. 15.8, 15.9

45

The most widely used charts for the eective length determination are those produced by the Structural Stability Research Council. The alignment chart, for an individual column, Fig. 15.10 is shown in
Fig. 15.11. It should be noted that this chart assumes that all members are still in the elastic range.

46

The use of the alignment chart involces computing G at each end of the column using the following
formula
* Ic
(15.53)
Ga = * LI c

47

Lg

where Ga is the stiness at end a of the column, Ic , Ig are the moment of inertias of the columns and
girders respectively. The summation must include only those members which are rigidly connected to
that joint and lying in the plane for which buckling is being considered.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

15.2 Continuous Linear Elastic Systems

1511

Draft

P
P

KL = 0.7L
KL = L

KL =

1
L L
2

KL < L

P
P

P
(a) End rotations
unrestrained

(b) End rotations


fully restrained

(c) One end


restrained, other
unrestrained

(d) Partially restrained


at each end

Figure 15.8: Column Eective Lengths

KL
2
L

L
0.7L<KL<L

KL>2L

(a) Braced frame, hinged base


P

0.5L<KL<0.7L

(b) Unbraced frame, hinged base


P

L
L<KL<2L

(c) Braced frame, fixed base

(d) Unbraced frame, fixed base

Figure 15.9: Frame Eective Lengths

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1512

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft

Figure 15.10: Column Eective Length in a Frame


Hence, once Ga and Gb are determined, those values are connected by a straight line in the appropriate
chart, and k is the point of intersection of that line with the midle axis.

48

49

Alternatively :-)



GA + GB
GA GB  2
/K
2 tan /2K
=1
+
1
+
4
K
2
tan /K
/K

(15.54)

(Ref. McGuire P. 467).

15.3
50

Inelastic Columns

There are two limiting loads for a column


1. Yielding of the gross section Pcr = Fy Ag , which occirs in short sti columns
2. Elastic (Euler) buckling, Eq. 15.51 Pcr =

2 EI
,
(KL)2

in long slender columns.

Those two expression are asymptotic values for actual column buckling. Intermediary failure loads
are caused by the presence of residual stresses which in turn give rise to inelastic buckling.

51

Inelastic buckling buckling occurs when the stresses (average) have not yet reached the yield stress,
and is based on the tangent modulus Et which is lower than the initial modulus E.

52

53

Residual stresses (caused by uneven cooling) will initiate inelastic buckling, Fig. 15.12.

The inelastic buckling curve has to be asymptotic to both the Euler elastic buckling (for slender
columns), and to the yield stress (for sti columns).

54

The Structural Stability Research Council (SSRC) has proposed a parabolic curve which provides a
transition between elastic buckling and yielding, thus accounting for the presence of residual stresses

55

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

15.3 Inelastic Columns

1513

Draft

Sidesway Inhibited

50.
10.

Ga

Sidesway Uninhibited
Gb

50.
10.

1.0

5.

5.
0.9

3.

3.

2.

100.
50.

Ga

Gb

100.
50.

20.
10.

30.
20.

5.

10.
9.
8.
7.
6.

3.

30.
20.

4.

2.
0.8

1.

1.

0.8
0.7
0.6

0.8
0.7
0.6

0.7

0.5

0.5

0.4

0.4

0.3

0.3
0.6

0.2

10.
9.
8.
7.
6.

5.

5.
2.

4.

4.

3.

3.

2.

2.
1.5

0.2
1.

0.1

1.

0.1

0.

0.5

0.

1.

Figure 15.11: Standard Alignment Chart (AISC)

Euler Buckling (Linear Elastic)


2

=E

( kLr )

yd

yd

ET < E

Inelastic
Buckling

Effect of Residual Stresses

Gross Yielding

Proportional Limit

Proportional Limit

kL
r

Figure 15.12: Inelastic Buckling

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1514

COLUMN STABILITY

Draft

and the resulting inelastic buckling, Fig. 15.13.


+
cr = y

y
1 2
4 E

KL
rmin

2 ,
(15.55)

Fy=36 ksi; E=29,000 ksi


50
Euler
SSRC

Stress [ksi]

40

30

20

10

20

40

60

80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin

160

180

200

Figure 15.13: Euler Buckling, and SSRC Column Curve

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 16

STEEL COMPRESSION
MEMBERS
1 This chapter will cover the elementary analysis and design of steel column according to the LRFD
provisions.

16.1

AISC Equations

By introducing a slenderness parameter c (not to be confused with the slenderness ratio) dened
as

2c

Fy
Fy
= 2 E
Euler
Fcr
 KL 2
KL
rmin

(16.1-a)

rmin

Fy
2 E

(16.1-b)

Hence, this parameter accounts for both the slenderness ratio as well as steel material properties.
This new parameter is a more suitable one than the slenderness ratio (which was a delimeter for elastic
buckling) for the inelastic buckling.
3

Equation 15.55 becomes


Fcr
2
=1 c
Fy
4

When c >

for c

(16.2)

2, then Euler equation applies


Fcr
1
= 2
Fy
c

for c

(16.3)

Hence the rst equation is based on inelastic buckling (with gross yielding as a limiting case), and the
second one on elastic buckling. The two curves are tangent to each other.
5

The above equations are valid for concentrically straight members.

6 The previous two equations, were modied to account for an initial out-of-straightness of about 1/1500.
This will result in, Fig. 16.1:

Fcr

Fcr

0.658c Fy for c 1.5


0.877
Fy for c > 1.5
2c

(16.4)
(16.5)

162

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Draft
where

KL
c =
r

Fy
E

(16.6)

Fy=36 ksi; E=29,000 ksi


50
SSRC 2
c
0.6584 ; c<1.5
2
0.877c Fy; c>1.5

Stress [ksi]

40

Elastic Buckling

30

Inelastic Buckling

20

10

20

40

60

>1.5

<1.5

80
100
120
140
Slenderness Ratio KL/rmin

160

180

200

Figure 16.1: SSRC Column Curve and AISC Critical Stresses


Fcr can readily be determined from Figure 16.2 or from Table 16.1 and 16.2.

8 The AISC code introduces a reduction factor Q into Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b when certan width/thickness
limitations (LRFD Table B5.1) are not satised, and local buckling may occur prior to overall buckling.

Fcr

Fcr


2
0.658Qc Fy for c Q 1.5

0.877
F
for

Q > 1.5
y
c
2c

(16.7-a)
(16.7-b)

since Q = 1 for all rolled H sections (standard W, S, and M shapes) it will be neglected in this course.
9 Finally, the AISC introduces a stiness reduction factor (SRF) for columns when the nomographs are
used. Such a reduction would account for the discrepancy between elastic buckling (assumed in the
nomographs) and inelastic buckling which occur for relatively high Pu /A values, Table 16.3.

16.2
10

LRFD Equations

The strength requirement for columns in load and resistance factor design is stated as
c Pn Pu

where:
c strength reduction factor, 0.85
Pn nominal strength=Ag Fcr
Fcr Eq. 16.7-a and 16.7-b
Pu factored service load.
Victor Saouma

(16.8)

Structural Engineering

16.2 LRFD Equations

163

Draft

Kl
rmin

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

c
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.18
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.31
0.33
0.34
0.35
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.39
0.40
0.41
0.43
0.44
0.45

c Fcr
30.60
30.59
30.59
30.57
30.56
30.54
30.52
30.50
30.47
30.44
30.41
30.37
30.33
30.29
30.24
30.19
30.14
30.08
30.02
29.96
29.90
29.83
29.76
29.69
29.61
29.53
29.45
29.36
29.27
29.18
29.09
28.99
28.90
28.79
28.69
28.58
28.47
28.36
28.25
28.13

Kl
rmin

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80

c
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
0.54
0.55
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.64
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.68
0.70
0.71
0.72
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.76
0.77
0.79
0.80
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.84
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90

c Fcr
28.01
27.89
27.76
27.63
27.51
27.37
27.24
27.10
26.97
26.83
26.68
26.54
26.39
26.25
26.10
25.94
25.79
25.63
25.48
25.32
25.16
24.99
24.83
24.66
24.50
24.33
24.16
23.99
23.82
23.64
23.47
23.29
23.11
22.94
22.76
22.58
22.40
22.21
22.03
21.85

Kl
rmin

81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120

c
0.91
0.92
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.01
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.05
1.07
1.08
1.09
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.21
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.29
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35

c Fcr
21.66
21.48
21.29
21.11
20.92
20.73
20.54
20.35
20.17
19.98
19.79
19.60
19.41
19.22
19.03
18.84
18.65
18.46
18.27
18.08
17.89
17.70
17.51
17.32
17.13
16.94
16.75
16.56
16.37
16.18
16.00
15.81
15.62
15.44
15.25
15.07
14.88
14.70
14.52
14.34

Kl
rmin

121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160

c
1.36
1.37
1.38
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.42
1.44
1.45
1.46
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.50
1.51
1.53
1.54
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.58
1.59
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.66
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.70
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.75
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.79

Table 16.1: Design Stress Fcr for Fy =36 ksi in Terms of

Victor Saouma

c Fcr
14.16
13.98
13.80
13.62
13.44
13.27
13.09
12.92
12.74
12.57
12.40
12.23
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33

Kl
rmin

161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200

c
1.81
1.82
1.83
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.87
1.88
1.90
1.91
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.95
1.96
1.97
1.99
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.03
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.07
2.09
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24

c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33

KL
rmin

Structural Engineering

164

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Draft

Kl
rmin

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40

c
0.01
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.11
0.12
0.13
0.15
0.16
0.17
0.19
0.20
0.21
0.22
0.24
0.25
0.26
0.28
0.29
0.30
0.32
0.33
0.34
0.36
0.37
0.38
0.40
0.41
0.42
0.44
0.45
0.46
0.48
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53

c Fcr
42.50
42.49
42.47
42.45
42.42
42.39
42.35
42.30
42.25
42.19
42.13
42.05
41.98
41.90
41.81
41.71
41.61
41.51
41.39
41.28
41.15
41.02
40.89
40.75
40.60
40.45
40.29
40.13
39.97
39.79
39.62
39.43
39.25
39.06
38.86
38.66
38.45
38.24
38.03
37.81

Kl
rmin

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80

c
0.54
0.56
0.57
0.58
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.63
0.65
0.66
0.67
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.73
0.74
0.75
0.77
0.78
0.79
0.81
0.82
0.83
0.85
0.86
0.87
0.89
0.90
0.91
0.93
0.94
0.95
0.96
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.02
1.03
1.04
1.06

c Fcr
37.58
37.36
37.13
36.89
36.65
36.41
36.16
35.91
35.66
35.40
35.14
34.88
34.61
34.34
34.07
33.79
33.51
33.23
32.95
32.66
32.38
32.09
31.79
31.50
31.21
30.91
30.61
30.31
30.01
29.70
29.40
29.09
28.79
28.48
28.17
27.86
27.55
27.24
26.93
26.62

Kl
rmin

81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120

c
1.07
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.18
1.19
1.20
1.22
1.23
1.24
1.26
1.27
1.28
1.30
1.31
1.32
1.33
1.35
1.36
1.37
1.39
1.40
1.41
1.43
1.44
1.45
1.47
1.48
1.49
1.51
1.52
1.53
1.55
1.56
1.57
1.59

c Fcr
26.31
25.99
25.68
25.37
25.06
24.75
24.44
24.13
23.82
23.51
23.20
22.89
22.58
22.27
21.97
21.66
21.36
21.06
20.76
20.46
20.16
19.86
19.57
19.27
18.98
18.69
18.40
18.11
17.83
17.55
17.26
16.98
16.71
16.42
16.13
15.86
15.59
15.32
15.07
14.82

Kl
rmin

121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160

c
1.60
1.61
1.63
1.64
1.65
1.67
1.68
1.69
1.71
1.72
1.73
1.74
1.76
1.77
1.78
1.80
1.81
1.82
1.84
1.85
1.86
1.88
1.89
1.90
1.92
1.93
1.94
1.96
1.97
1.98
2.00
2.01
2.02
2.04
2.05
2.06
2.08
2.09
2.10
2.11

Table 16.2: Design Stress Fcr for Fy =50 ksi in Terms of

Victor Saouma

c Fcr
14.57
14.33
14.10
13.88
13.66
13.44
13.23
13.02
12.82
12.62
12.43
12.25
12.06
11.88
11.71
11.54
11.37
11.20
11.04
10.89
10.73
10.58
10.43
10.29
10.15
10.01
9.87
9.74
9.61
9.48
9.36
9.23
9.11
9.00
8.88
8.77
8.66
8.55
8.44
8.33

Kl
rmin

161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200

c
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.25
2.26
2.27
2.29
2.30
2.31
2.33
2.34
2.35
2.37
2.38
2.39
2.41
2.42
2.43
2.45
2.46
2.47
2.48
2.50
2.51
2.52
2.54
2.55
2.56
2.58
2.59
2.60
2.62
2.63
2.64

c Fcr
8.23
8.13
8.03
7.93
7.84
7.74
7.65
7.56
7.47
7.38
7.30
7.21
7.13
7.05
6.97
6.89
6.81
6.73
6.66
6.59
6.51
6.44
6.37
6.30
6.23
6.17
6.10
6.04
5.97
5.91
5.85
5.79
5.73
5.67
5.61
5.55
5.50
5.44
5.39
5.33

KL
rmin

Structural Engineering

16.2 LRFD Equations

165

Draft

80
70
Fy=36 ksi
Fy=50 ksi
Fy=60 ksi
Fy=70 ksi
Fy=100 ksi

Fcr (ksi)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

20

40

60

80
100
120
140
Slenderness ratio, KL/r

160

180

200

Figure 16.2: Fcr versus KL/r According to LRFD, for Various Fy

Pu /A

Fy
36 ksi

42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27

0.05
0.14
0.22
0.30

Pu /A
50 ksi
0.03
0.09
0.16
0.21
0.27
0.33
0.38
0.44
0.49
0.53
0.58
0.63
0.67
0.71
0.75
0.79

26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11

Fy
36 ksi
0.38
0.45
0.52
0.58
0.65
0.70
0.76
0.81
0.85
0.89
0.92
0.85
0.97
0.99
1.00
1.00

50 ksi
0.82
0.85
0.88
0.90
0.93
0.95
0.97
0.98
0.99
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00

Table 16.3: Stiness Reduction Factors (AISC)


.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

166

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Draft
16.3

Examples

16.3.1

Evaluation

In this class of problems, we seek to assess the load carrying capacity of a given column. This, in
contrast to design problems, is a straightforward application of the governing equations.

11

Example 16-1: Unbraced Column Evaluation, (?)


Calculate the maximum factored load Pu that a 20 ft. long, unbraced A36 W 14x53 column can
hold. (K = 1.0)
Solution:
1. The W14x53 section has, (Sect. 3.6) A = 15.6 in2 , rx = 5.89 in, and ry = 1.92 in.
2. Since the column is not braced, the weak axis will control
(1.0)(20) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 125 dimensionless
ry
(1.92) in
3. The slenderness parameter
KL
c =
r

125
Fy
=
E

36, 000
= 1.401 < 1.5
29 106

4. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5, inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2

Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.6581.401 (36) ksi = 15.81 ksi


5. The design capacity of the section is thus
Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(15.6) in2 (15.81) ksi = 209.6 k

Example 16-2: Braced Column Evaluation, (?)


Calculate the maximum load, Pu for a 20 ft. long, A36 W24x104 column with K = 0.8. Then
recalculate if the column is braced at midheight in the weak axis (still assume K = 0.8).
Solution:
Unbraced Case:
1. The W24x104 section has, (Sect. 3.6) A = 30.6 in2 , rx = 10.1 in, and ry = 2.91 in.
Since the column is not braced, the weak axis will control
(0.8)(20) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 65.98
ry
(2.91) in
2. The slenderness parameter
KL
c =
r

65.98
Fy
=
E

36, 000
= .7399 < 1.5
29 106

3. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2

Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.7399 (36) ksi = 28.62 ksi


4. The design capacity of the section is thus
Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(30.6) in2 (28.62) ksi = 744.4 k
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

16.3 Examples

167

Draft
Braced Case:

5. We compute the slenderness ratios for both axis


KL
rx

(0.8)(20) ft(12)
(10.1) in
(0.8)(10) ft(12)
(2.91) in

KL
ry

in/ft
in/ft

= 19.01
= 32.99

6. The slenderness parameter


KL
c =
r

32.99
Fy
=
E

36, 000
= .369 < 1.5
29 106

7. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2

Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.369 (36) ksi = 34 ksi


8. The design capacity of the section is thus
Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(30.6) in2 (34) ksi = 884.4 k
9. We observe that bracing has increased the column capacity by

888.4744.4
744.4

= 18.8%

Example 16-3: Braced Column Evaluation, (?)


Calculate the maximum load, Pu for a 20 ft. long, A36 W12x79 column. The column is braced along
its weak axis at ve feet from the top and the bottom. The column is pinned at both ends.
Solution:
1. The W12x79 section has, (Sect. 3.6) A = 23.2 in2 , rx = 5.34 in, and ry = 3.05 in.
2. The unbraced lengths along the weak axis are 5 ft. at the ends and 10 ft. in the middle, however the
unbraced length along the strong axis is 20 ft.
3. We compute the slenderness ratios for both axis
KL
rx
KL
ry

(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(5.34) in
(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.05) in

=
=

in/ft
in/ft

= 44.9

= 39.3

4. The slenderness parameter


KL
c =
r

44.9
Fy
=
E

36, 000
= .503 < 1.5
29 106

5. Since c = 1.401 < 1.5 inelastic behavior controls and we use Eq. 16.7-a
2

Fcr = 0.658c Fy = 0.658.503 (36) ksi = 32.4 ksi


6. The design capacity of the section is thus
Pu = c Pn = c Ag Fcr = (0.85)(23.2) in2 (32.4) ksi = 638.9 k

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

168

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Draft
16.3.2

Design

Design problems are inherently more dicult than verication ones, and a trial and error procedure
must be followed.

12

1. Assume a design a design stress, c Fcr , typically around 25-30 ksi


=
2. Using the assumed c Fcr , determine Atrial
g

Pu
c Fcr

3. Select a trial member on the basis of Atrial


g
4. Determine Fcr of trial member, and compare c Pn with Pu .
5. If
(a) c Pn Pu , selection is appropriate
(b) c Pn > Pu , select a smaller section
(c) c Pn < Pu , select a larger section
13

Note that often the depth of the member is specied.


Example 16-4: Column Design, (?)

Find the most economical W12 section to hold a compressive load of 120 kips. Steel is A36, K = 1.0,
L = 16 feet. Live load to dead load ratio is 1.0 and the column is unbraced.
Solution:
1. Since the dead load and live loads are evenly split, from Sect. 7.3.3
Pu = 1.6(60) + 1.2(60) = 168 k
2. The eective length KL=16 feet, we assume a design stress of c Fcr = 25 ksi and
=
Atrial
g

Pu
168
= 6.72 in2
=
c Fcr
25

3. Select W12x26 as a trial member (A = 7.75 in2 )


KL
ry

=
=

Fcr
c Pn

(1.0)(16) ft(12) in/ft


#(1.51) in
Fy
KL
r #E
36,000
127.1

29106
2
0.658c Fy
1.422

127.1

1.42 < 1.5

=
= 0.658
(36) ksi
=
= c Ag Fcr
= (0.85)(7.65) in2 (15.4) ksi =

15.4 ksi
100.1 k

4. Since the design capacity of this section is less than the required one, we need a bigger section, try
W12x40, (A = 11.8 in2 ).
KL
ry

Fcr
c Pn

=
=
=

(1.0)(16) ft(12)
#(1.93) in
36,000
99.5

29106
1.1162

in/ft

99.5

1.116 < 1.5

0.658
(36) ksi
=
c Ag Fcr
(0.85)(11.8) in2 (21.37) ksi =

21.37 ksi
214.3 k

5. Since W 12x40 has a design capacity greater than the required one, it is a satisfactory design. Because
there is a sizeable gap between the required strength (168 kips) and the design strength (214 kips), we
could try a smaller section, W12x35. If we did, it will turn out that this section is not satisfactory.
Hence, we select W12x40 .
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

16.3 Examples

169

Draft
Example 16-5: Design of Braced Column, (?)

Design an economical W section to hold a factored load Pu of 795 kips. The column is 20 ft. long
and is assumed to have pin-pin end conditions. The column is braced at midheight in the weak direction
and is made of A36 steel.
Solution:
1. Since the column is braced at midheight in the weak direction, the eective length is 10 ft. in the
weak direction, and 20 ft in the strong one.
2. Assuming a design stress c Fcr = 30 ksi and
Atrial
=
g

Pu
795
= 26.5 in2
=
c Fcr
30

3. Select W14x90 as a trial member (A = 26.5 in2 )


KL
ry
KL
rx

=
=

(1.0)(10) ft(12)
(3.7) in
(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.14) in

in/ft
in/ft

32.4

39.1

4. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 39.1, the design stress is 28.23 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.23) ksi(26.5) in2 = 748.1 k
5. Since this is slightly less than the required capacity (795 kips), we need a bigger section and try
W14x99
(1.0)(10) ft(12) in/ft
KL
=
= 32.34
ry
(3.71) in
KL
rx

(1.0)(20) ft(12)
(6.17) in

in/ft

38.9

6. Using Table 16.1, for a slenderness ratio of 38.9, the design stress is 28.27 ksi, thus the design capacity
is
c Pn = c Fcr Ag = (28.27) ksi(29.1) in2 = 822.6 k
7. Hence, select W14x99 .

Example 16-6: Design of a Column, (?)


Select the lightest W section of A36 steel to serve as a pinned-end main member column 16 ft. long
to carry an axial compression load of 95 kips dead load and 100 kips live load in a braced structure, as
shown below. Design and indicate the rst three choices.
P

Hinged

A 36
Steel
16 0"

Hinged

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1610

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Draft

Section
W8 X 48
W10 X 49
W12 X 50
W14 X 53

Area (sq.in.)
14.1
14.4
14.7
15.6

KL/ry
92
76
98
100

Fcr (kksi)
23.0
26.6
21.7
21.3

c Pn (kips)
276
326
271
282

First choice
Second choice
Not good
Third choice

Solution:
1. Compute factored load.
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(95) + 1.6(100) = 274 k
2. We simply summarize the calculations for this example

Example 16-7: Column Design Using AISC Charts, (?)


Select the lightest W section of A36 steel to serve as a main member 30 ft. long to carry compression
load of 50 kips dead load and 110 kips live load in a braced structure, as shown below. The member is
assumed pinned at top and bottom and in addition has weak direction support at mid-height.
Potential buckled
shape if
KyLy/r y governs

P
Assume hinged top and
bottom for x- and y-axis
bending
A 36
Steel

15 0"

Assume hinged at mid-height


for y-axis bending only
Potential buckled
shape if
KxLx/r x governs

15 0"

Bracing
P
(a)

P
(b)

Solution:
1. Compute the factored loads:
Pu = 1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(50) + 1.6(110) = 236 k
2. Select from LRFD Column Load Tables. The eective length factors K for buckling in either the
strong or the weak direction equal unity; i.e., Kx = Ky = 1.0. Since the AISC Column Load tables are
computed assuming (KL/r)y controls, enter these tables with the eective length (KL)y . Thus enter
with,
Pu = 236 k; (KL)y = 15 ft.
Starting with the shallow W8 sections and working towards the deeper sections, nd
W8 X 40 c Pn = 238 k rx /ry = 1.73
W10 X 45 c Pn = 267 k rx /ry = 2.15
W12 X 45 c Pn = 257 k rx /ry = 2.65
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

16.3 Examples

1611

Draft

3. Since the actual support conditions are such that (KL)x = 2(KL)y , if rx /ry 2, weak axis controls
and tabular loads give the correct answer. Thus, W10 X 45 and W12 X 45 are both acceptable.
4. Since rx /ry for W8 X 40 is less than 2, strong axis bending controls. The strength may be obtained
from the tables by entering with the equivalent (KL)y that corresponds to (KL)x = 30f t.
5. For equal strength with respect to the x and y axes,
(KL)x
rx

(KL)y

(KL)y
ry
(KL)x
30
= 17.3 ft
=
rx /ry
1.73

(16.9-a)
(16.9-b)

For (KL)y = 17.3 ft., the W8 X 40 has a design strength c Pn of only 208 kips; therefore it is not
acceptable.
6. Check of section. It is always advisable to make a nal check of the apparent acceptable solution:W10
X 45,
(KL/r)y
c Fcr
c Pn = c Fcr Ag

= 15(12)/(2.10) = 89.6

(16.10-a)

= 20.1 ksi

= (20.1)(13.3) = 267 k > 236 k

(16.10-b)
(16.10-c)

Therefore use W10 X 45

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1612

Draft

STEEL COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 17

STEEL CONNECTIONS
17.1

Bolted Connections

1 Bolted connections, Fig. 17.1 are increasingly used instead of rivets (too labor intensive) and more
often than welds (may cause secondary cracks if not properly performed).

17.1.1

Types of Bolts

Most common high strength bolts are the A325 and A490.

A325 is made from heat-treated medium carbon steel, min. Fyb 81 92 ksi, Fub = 120 ksi

A490 is a higher strength manufactured from an alloy of steel, min. Fyb 115 130 ksi, and Fub = 150
ksi

Most common diameters are 3/4, 7/8 for building constructions; 7/8 and 1 for bridges, Table 17.1.

Bolt Diameter (in.)


5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1 1/8
1 1/4

Nominal Area (in2 )


0.3068
0.4418
0.6013
0.7854
0.9940
1.2272

Table 17.1: Nominal Areas of Standard Bolts

17.1.2
6

Types of Bolted Connections

There are two types of bolted connections:

Bearing type which transmits the load by a combination of shear and bearing on the bolt, Fig. 17.2.
Slip-critical transmits load by friction, Fig. 17.3. In addition of providing adequate at ultimate load,
it must not slip during service loads.
7 Possible failure modes (or limit states) which may control the strength of a bolted connection are
shown in Fig. 17.4.

172

STEEL CONNECTIONS

Draft
Butt Splice

Lap Splice

Axial Shear

Hanger Connection
Bracket Connection

Tension

Eccentric Shear
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Standard Beam Connection

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0000
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1111
0000
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1111
0000
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0000
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0000
1111

Unstiffened Seat Connection

Stiffened Seat Connection

Structural Tee Connection

Shear and Tension

Figure 17.1: Examples of Bolted Connections

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P

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Figure 17.2: Stress Transfer by Shear and Bearing in a Bolted Connection

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

17.1 Bolted Connections

173

Draft

High-strength bolt
P

T
P
T
T

P= T

T
P
T

Figure 17.3: Stress Transfer in a Friction Type Bolted Connection

* Checked Through Design of Plates

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Shear Failure
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Shear Failure of Plate *

Bearing Failure
Tensile Failure

Bearing Failure of Plate

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Bending Failure

Tensile Failure of Plate *

Figure 17.4: Modes of Failure of Bolted Connections

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

174

STEEL CONNECTIONS

Draft
17.1.3

Nominal Strength of Individual Bolts

Tensile Strength The nominal strength Rn of one fastener in tension is


Rn = Fub An

(17.1)

where Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt, and An the area through the threaded portion, also
known as tensile stress area. The ratio of the tensile stress area to the gross area Ag ranges from
0.75 to 0.79.
Shear Strength is given by
Rn = mAb Fn

(17.2)

where m is the number of shear planes, Fig. 17.5, Ab the gross area of the bolt, and Fn is the
nominal shear strength of bolts
P

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000

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111
000
111
000

m=1

m=2

Figure 17.5: Number of Shearing Planes m in Bolted Connections


Bearing Strength Rn is the force applied against the side of the hole to split or tear the plate, Fig.
17.6. The larger the end distance L, the less likely that of having a splitting failure. Tearing will
occur along lines 1-1 and 2-2. In the most conservative case, is taken as zero, thus
thickness t

thickness t

1
1

P
d

Failure Line
Resisting Shear Stresses

d/2
L

Figure 17.6: Bearing Strength Related to End Distance




d p
Rn = 2t L

2 u

(17.3)

where:
up is the shear strength of the plate 0.7Fu
Fu is the tensile strength of the plate material
d is the nominal bolt diameter.
Thus this equation transforms into
Rn

=
=

which can be approximated as



d
2t L
(0.70Fu )
2


L 1
1.40Fu dt

d
2

 
L
= LtFu
Rn = Fu dt
d

(17.4-a)
(17.4-b)

(17.5)

which applies to the bolt closest to the edge for the design of single bolt connection, or two or
more in line force, when the end distance is less than 1.5d.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

17.1 Bolted Connections

175

Draft
17.1.4

Concentric Loads (Tension Connections)

17.1.4.1

AISC Requirements

AISC RFD requirements for fasteners must satisfy


Rn i Qi

(17.6)

where is the strength resistance factor, Rn the nominal resistance (strength), i the load magnication
factor, and Qi the actual loads.
9

The most important relevant requirements are summarized below:

Shear Strength
No threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.6Fub )mAb

(17.7)

where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, A b the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Threads in shear plane (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = (0.45Fub )mAb

(17.8)

where = 0.65, and m the number of shear planes, Ab the gross-sectional area across the
unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Tension Strength (LRFD-J3.3)
Rn = Fub (0.75)Ab

(17.9)

where = 0.75.
Bearing Strength (LRFD-J3.6). Note that for Bearing strength, Fu is the one of the plate and not
the bolt.
1. Usual conditions (standard holes or short-slotted holes, end distance not less than 1.5d, bolt
spacing center to center not less than 3d, and with two or more bolts in the line of force:
Rn = (2.4dtFu )

(17.10)

where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
2. Long-slotted holes perpendicular to the direction of load transmission, end distance not less
than 1.5d, bolt center-to-center spacing not less than 3d and with two or more bolts in line
of force (LRFD J3-1b)
Rn = (2.0dtFu )

(17.11)

where =0.75, d is the nominal diameter of the bolt (not at threads), t thickness of connected
part.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

176

STEEL CONNECTIONS

Draft

3. For the bolt closest to the edge and when Eqs 17.10 and 17.11 are not satised, then (LRFD
J3-1c)
(17.12)

Rn = LtFu

where L is the end distance of force, from the center of a standard hole or oversized hole, or
from the mid-width of a slotted hole, to an edge of a connected part.
Minimum Spacing of bolts in the direction of transmitted forces must be at least 3 diameters when
Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used. Under all other conditions Eq. 17.5 applies. Solving for L from the
center of the fastener to the edge of the adjacent hole
L

Rn
Fu t

(17.13)

then adding the radius dh /2, and replacing Rn by P/, gives the minimum center to center spacing
Spacing

dh
P
+
Fu t
2

(17.14)

where = 0.75
Minimum End Distance When Eq. 17.10 and 17.11 are used, then the minimum end distances must
be at least 1 1/2 diameters. If higher bearing strengths are used, then Eq. 17.5 gives
L

Rn
Fu t

(17.15)

P
Fu t

(17.16)

thus LRFDJ3.10 results in

where =0.75
In all cases Fub is the tensile strength of the bolt (120 ksi for A325; 150 ksi for A490).
17.1.4.2

Examples

Example 17-1: Analysis of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)


Compute the tensile service load capacity for the bearing-type connection shown below if a) the bolt
threads are excluded from the shear plane and b) the bolt threads are included in the shear plane. 7/8
in diameter A325 bolts in standard holes, and A572 Grade 50 steel plates are used. LL=3 DL
Plates 5/8 x 6
T

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1 1/2"

1 1/2"
3"

Victor Saouma

7/8" hole A325 Bolts


A572 Grade 50 Steel Plates

Structural Engineering

17.1 Bolted Connections

177

Draft
Solution:

1. Determine the strength based on tension members:


Ag

An

Ae
Tn

=
=

Tn

6(0.625) = 3.75 in2





7 1
+
62
(0.625) = 2.50 in2
8 8
U An = 1(2.50) = 2.50 in2
Fy Ag = (0.9)(50)(3.75) = 169 k

= Fu Ae = (0.75)(65)(2.5) = 122 k

(17.17-a)
(17.17-b)
(17.17-c)
(17.17-d)

(17.17-e)

2. Shear strength
Rn

= (0.60Fub )mAb

(17.18-a)

= 0.65(0.60)(120)(1)(0.6013) = 28.1 k/bolt

(17.18-b)

3. Bearing strength for 1.5d end distance and 3d center to center spacing is
Rn

(2.4Fu dt)

(17.19-a)

0.75(2.4)(65)(0.875)(0.625) = 64 k/bolt

(17.19-b)

note that for the bearing strength, Fu is the ultimate strength of the plate.
4. Since bearing strength is larger than shear strength, shear controls and the total design strength
based on the fasteners is
Tn = No. of fasteners Rn = 4(28.1) = 112 k

(17.20)

5. The single shear design strength (112 kip) is smaller than the plate design strength (122 kip) then
Tn =112 kips
6. The end distance L from the center of the hole to the end of the plate should be, Eq. 17.16
L

P
28.1
=
= 0.92 in
Fu t
0.75(65)(0.625)

(17.21)

7. Shear block failure was not checked, it should have been


8. The design strength is related to the service load
Tn

Tu =
112 =
D =
L =
Tmax

Tu

(17.22-a)

1.2D + 1.6L
1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D

(17.22-b)
(17.22-c)

18.7 k
3D = 56.1 k

(17.22-d)
(17.22-e)

D + L = 18.7 + 56.1 = 74.8 k

(17.22-f)

9. If threads are included in the shear plane, the design strength per bolt in single shear is
Rn

Victor Saouma

= (0.45Fub )mAb
= 0.65(0.45)(120)(1)(0.6013) = 21.1 k/bolt

(17.23-a)
(17.23-b)

Structural Engineering

178

STEEL CONNECTIONS

Draft

10. Strength in single shear governs also


Tn

84.4 =
D =
L =
Tmax

No. of fasteners Rn = 4(21.1) = 84.4 k

(17.24-a)

1.2D + 1.6(3D) = 6.0D


14.1 k

(17.24-b)
(17.24-c)

3D = 42.3 k

(17.24-d)

D + L = 14.1 + 42.4 = 56.4 k

(17.24-e)

Example 17-2: Design of Bolted Connections (Salmon and Johnson 1990)


Determine the number of 3/4 in diameter A325 bolts in standard size holes required to carry 7 kips
dead load and 43 kips live load on the plates shown below using A36 steel. Assume the portion of the
double lap splice is a bearing-type connection with threads excluded from the shear plane and a double
row of bolts.
1/4X10 Plates
T

T/2
T/2

T
10"

Solution:
1. The center plate controls the tension strength
(10)(0.25) = 2.50 in2



3 1
+
10 2
0.25 = 2.06 in2
4 8

Ag

An

Ae
Tn

=
=

U An = (1)(2.06) = 2.06 in2


Fy Ag = 0.9(36)(2.50) = 81 k

Tn
Tu

=
=

Fu Ae = 0.75(58)(2.06) = 90 k

1.2D + 1.6L = 1.2(7) + 1.6(43) = 77 k < Tn

(17.25-a)
(17.25-b)
(17.25-c)
(17.25-d)

(17.25-e)
(17.25-f)

2. The shear strength of each A325 bolt is


Rn = (0.60Fub )mAb = 0.65(0.60)(120)(2)(0.4418) = 41.4 k/bolt

(17.26)

3. The design strength in bearing on the 1/4 in plate is


Rn = (2.4Fu dt) = 0.75(2.4)(58)(0.75)(0.25) = 19.6 k/bolt

(17.27)

4. Thus the total number of bolts required is


No. of bolts =
Victor Saouma

77
= 3.9
19.6

(17.28)
Structural Engineering

17.2 Welded Connections

179

Draft

5. The end distance is obtained from Eq. 17.16


P

77
= 19.3 k
4
P
19.3
=
= 1.77 in
Fu t
0.75(58)(0.25)

(17.29-a)
(17.29-b)

6. Select the bolt arrangement shown below


a

2"

11111111
00000000
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
c 11111111
00000000

6"

2"

T
f 11111111
00000000 e
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
00000000
11111111
11111111
00000000

2"

3"

7. We must check shear rupture since the plate is a thin one and heavily loaded
Shear Yielding-Tension Fracture Tn

Shear Fracture-Tension Yielding Tn

0.60Fy Avg + Fu Ant

=
=

0.60(36)(10)0.25 + 58(4 13/16)0.25 (17.30-b)


54 + 46 = 100 k
(17.30-c)

=
=

0.60Fu Ans + Fy Atg


(17.30-d)
0.60(58)[10 3(13/16)]0.25 + 36(4)0.25(17.30-e)
(17.30-f)
66 + 36 = 102 k

(17.30-a)

(17.30-g)
Note that we have used 3/4 + 1/16 for the hole diameter instead of 3/4 + 1/8
8. The design strength Tn gives
Tn = 0.75(102) = 77 k

(17.31)

which equals the factored load Tu = 77 kips that must be supported.


9. Use 2 in. edge distance along the sides, 3 in. longitudinal spacing, and 2 in. end distance, with 4
A325 bolts.

17.1.5

Eccentric Connection (Shear Connections)

17.2

Welded Connections

10

Basic types of welds are shown in Fig. 17.7

b
t

45

t
45

Figure 17.7: Basic Types of Weld

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1710

Draft

STEEL CONNECTIONS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 18

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL


BEAMS
18.1

Introduction

1 In a previous chapter we have examined the behavior of laterally supported beams.


Under those
conditions, the potential modes of failures were either the formation of a plastic hinge (if the section is
compact), or local buckling of the ange or the web (partially compact section).
2 Rarely are the compression ange of beams entirely free of all restraint, and in general there are two
types of lateral supports:

1. Continuous lateral support by embedment of the compression ange in a concrete slab.


2. Lateral support at intervals through cross beams, cross frames, ties, or struts.
3 Now that the beam is not laterally supported, we ought to consider a third potential mode of failure,
lateral torsional buckling.

18.2

Background

4 Whereas it is beyond the scope of this course to derive the governing dierential equation for exural
torsional buckling (which is covered in either Mechanics of Materials II or in Steel Structures), we shall
review some related topics in order to understand the AISC equations later on

There are two types of torsion:

Saint-Venants torsion: or pure torsion (torsion is constant throughout the length) where it is assumed that the cross-sectional plane prior to the application of torsion remains plane, and only
rotation occurs.
Warping torsion: out of plane eects arise when the anges are laterally displaced during twisting.
Compression ange will bend in one direction laterally while its tension ange will bend in another.
In this case part of the torque is resisted by bending and the rest by Saint-Venants torsion.
6

With reference to Fig. 18.1, the governing torsional dierential equation is

Insert Fig. 9.4.1 from Steel Structures by Salmon and Johnson


Figure 18.1: I Shaped Beam in Slightly Buckled Position

ECw

d2
M02
d4

Gj

=0
dz 4
dz 2
EIy

(18.1)

182

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

where:
Cw Torsional warping constant
E
Elastic modulus
G
Shear modulus
J
Saint-Venant Torsional constant
M0 Applied moment in the yz plane
Cw and J are section properties tabulated in the AISC manual.
7

Solution of this equation is


Mcr

= Cb
L




E
L

2
Cw Iy + EIy GJ

(18.2)

where Cb is a factor to account for moment gradient.

18.3

AISC Equations

18.3.1

Dividing values

We identify three failure modes depending on Lb which is the distance between lateral supports (or
unbraced length)
Failure Mode
Conditions
Lb < Lp
very short Plastic hinge
Lp < Lb < Lr short
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
long
Elastic lateral torsional buckling
Lr < Lb
and

where:
Lp
Lr
ry
Fyw
Fr

Lp

Lr

300

ry
Fy , ksi
!
#
ry X1
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
Fyf Fr

(18.3)
(18.4)

Limit dividing line for plastic hinge formation


Dividing line between inelastic and elastic lateral torsional buckling
Radius of gyration with respect to the weak axis, [in.]
Yield stress of the ange, [ksi]
Compressive residual stress, usually taken as 10 ksi. for rolled sections,
and 16.5 ksi for welded shapes.

and

X1

X2

EGJA
2

2
Cw Sx
4
Iy GJ

Sx

(18.5-a)
(18.5-b)

are not really physical properties but a combination of cross-sectional ones which simplies the writing
of Eq. 18.4. Those values are tabulated in the AISC manual.
9

The exural eciency of the member increases when X1 decreases and/or X2 increases.

18.3.2

Governing Moments

1. Lb < Lp : very short Plastic hinge


Mn = Mp = Zx Fy

Victor Saouma

(18.6)

Structural Engineering

18.3 AISC Equations

183

Draft

2. Lp < Lb < Lr : short inelastic lateral torsional buckling





Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
and


Cb = 1.75 + 1.05

M1
M2

Lb Lp
Lr Lp


+ 0.3

M1
M2


Mp

(18.7)

2
2.3

(18.8)

1
where M1 is the smaller and M2 is the larger end moment in the unbraced segment M
M2 is negative
when the moments cause single curvature (i.e. one of them is clockwise, the other counterclockwise),
hence the most severe loading case with constant M gives Cb = 1.75 1.05 + 0.3 = 1.0.

Mr is the moment strength available for service load when extreme ber reach the yield stress Fy ;
Mr = (Fy Fr )Sx

(18.9)

3. Lr < Lb long elastic lateral torsional buckling, and the critical moment is the same as in Eq.18.2

Mcr

= Cb
Lb




E
Lb

2
Cw Iy + EIy GJ Cb Mr and Mp

(18.10)

or if expressed in terms of X1 and X2


Mcr

10

2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2 C M
=
/
 2
b r
Lb
ry
2 Lryb

(18.11)

Fig. 18.2 summarizes the governing equations.

Mn

Mp

Mr

Mp = Zx Fy
Plastic
Lateral Torsional Buckling
Analysis

1
2
s
s

Inelastic &

'

L Lp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr ) Lrb Lp

3
s
Elastic
!
Mcr =

Cb Sx X1

Lb
ry

1+

Lp =

Lr = !

300

ry
Fy

ry X1
Fyf Fr

1+

1 + X2 Fyf Fr

X12 X2

 L 2

b
ry

Lb

2

Figure 18.2: Nominal Strength Mn of Compact Sections as Aected by Lateral-Torsional Buckling

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

184

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft
18.4

Examples

18.4.1

Verication

Example 18-1: Adequacy of an unbraced beam, (?)


Verify the adequacy of a 15 ft W12X87 beam, subjected to a uniform load of 3k/ft and which is
braced only at the ends. The load is 60% live and 40% dead and unfactored. Steel is A36 and Cb = 1.0.
Solution:
1. The factored load and moments are
wu

Mu

1.2(0.4)(3) + 1.6(0.6)(3) = 4.32 k/ft


(4.32)(15)2
wu L2
=
= 121.5 k.ft
8
8

(18.12-a)
(18.12-b)

2. Next we check if the W12X87 is compact, From Eq. 14.12


bf
= 7.5 <
2tf

65
= 10.8
36


(18.13-a)

hc
= 18.9 <
tw

640
= 106.
36


(18.13-b)

Note that those values are taken from the AISC manual.
3. The unbraced length is Lb =15 ft.
4. From AISC manual,
ry

3.07 in

(18.14-a)

X1
X2

=
=

3, 880 ksi
0.000586

(18.14-b)
(18.14-c)

5. Determine Lp from Eq. 18.3


Lp

=
=

300
ry
Fy
300
(3.07) = 153.5 in = 12.8 ft
36

(18.15-a)
(18.15-b)

6. Determine Lr from Eq. 18.4


Lr

=
=
=

Victor Saouma

#
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
!
#
(3.07) in(3, 880) ksi
2
1 + 1 + 0.000586 (36 10)
(36 10) ksi
676.6 in = 56.4 ft
ry X1
Fyf Fr

(18.16-a)
(18.16-b)
(18.16-c)

Structural Engineering

18.4 Examples

185

Draft

7. Hence Lp < Lb < Lr , and failure is caused by inelastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use
Eq. 18.7



Lb Lp
(18.17-a)
Mp
Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr )
Lr Lp
1
= 396 k.ft
(18.17-b)
Mp = Zx Fy = (36) ksi(132) in3
(12) in/ft
1
= 255.7 k.ft
Mr = (Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(118)
(18.17-c)
(12)




15 12.8
Mn = 1.0 396 (396 255.7)
(18.17-d)
= 388.9 k.ft 396 k.ft
56.4 12.8
8. The moment capacity will then be
b Mn = (0.9)(388.9) k.ft = 350 k.ft > 121.5 k.ft

(18.18)

Example 18-2: Adequacy of an unbraced beam, II (?)


Check the design of a 25 ft. long W10X33 beam which is subjected to a factored load (including self
weight) of 1.2 kips/ft. The beam is unbraced and made from A242 steel (Fy =50 ksi). Assume Cb = 1.0.
Solution:
1. The factored moment is

(1.2)(25)2
wu L2
=
= 93.75 k.ft
8
8
2. Check if the W10X33 is compact, From Eq. 14.12
Mu =

bf
= 9.1 <
2tf

65
= 9.19
50


(18.19)

(18.20-a)

hc
= 27.1 <
tw

640
= 90.5
50


(18.20-b)

3. The unbraced length is Lb =25 ft.


4. From AISC manual,
ry
X1

=
=

1.94 in
2, 710 ksi

(18.21-a)
(18.21-b)

X2

0.00251

(18.21-c)

5. Determine Lp from Eq. 18.3


Lp

=
=

Victor Saouma

300
ry
Fy
300
(1.94) = 82.3 in = 6.85 ft
50

(18.22-a)
(18.22-b)

Structural Engineering

186

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

6. Determine Lr from Eq. 18.4


Lr

#
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )2
!
#
(1.94)(2, 710)
2
1 + 1 + 0.00251 (50 10)
=
(50 10)
= 236.5 in = 19.7 ft

ry X1
Fyf Fr

(18.23-a)
(18.23-b)
(18.23-c)

7. Since Lb > Lr , failure is caused by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we must use Eq. 18.8

Mcr

2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2
/
2

Lb
ry
2 Lryb
2
(1.0)(35.0)(2, 710) 2 .
.1 + (2, 710) (0.00251)

2
/
(25)(12)
1.94
2 (25)(12)
1.94

= 1, 021 k.in = 85.1 k.ft

(18.24-a)

(18.24-b)
(18.24-c)

8. The moment capacity will then be


b Mn = (0.9)(85.1) k.ft = 76.6 k.ft < 93.75 k.ft NG

(18.25)

Hence the section is not adequate.

18.4.2

Design

Seeking a design where failure is through a plastic hinge, the objective is to have Lb < Lp . This can
be achieved by setting Lb = Lp , or from Eq. 18.3

11

rymin


Lb Fy
=
300

(18.26)

and from Eq. 18.6


Zxreq =

Mn
Fy

(18.27)

12 If Lb is so large that the previous design objectives can not be met, then the bam will fail by
either inelastic or elastic lateral torsional buckling. Recalling that the limiting cases for the former is
Lp < Lb < Lr , and that the corresponding limiting moments Mp and Mr are given by Eq. 18.6 and 18.9
respectively, then the upper and lower limits would be

Zxreq

<

Sxreq

>

Mn
Fy
Mn
Fy Fr

(18.28-a)
(18.28-b)

Hence, if Lb is close to Lp , then we should select a section using Zxreq , and if Lb is close to Lr , then
we select a section close to Sxreq .
Alternatively, one can use the AISC design charts. In those charts, the design moment b Mn is
plotted in terms of Lb for a given Fy and Cb = 1.0. In those charts, the most economical section by

13

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

18.4 Examples

187

Draft

weight are dierentiated from the others (solid versus dashed lines), and limiting Lp and Lr values are
highlighted by closed and open circles.
To use those charts, one would enter Lb and b Mn , where those two values intersect, then any beam
listed to the right or above will satisfy the necessary requirements (assuming that Cb = 1.0).

14

Note that since all of the strength equations are linear in Cb , we can use Lb /Cb as a substitute of Lb
with Cb = 1
15

Example 18-3: Design of Laterally Unsupported Beam, (?)


Select an economical W section for the beam shown in Fig. 18.3. Lateral support is provided at the
vertical supports, concentrated load points, and at the end of the cantilever. The 26-kip load contains
6 kips dead load and the 11.5-kip load includes 4 kips dead load; the remainder is live load. Use A36
steel. Use W24 section.

DL: 6
LL: 20

24
A

LS

LS

460
+

DL 4
LL: 7.5

28
B

LS

21
C

LS

LL on 52 ft span, not on cantilever

70

101

LL on cantilever, not on 52 f span

353
Factored bending moment envelope due to superimposed load
Figure 18.3: Design of Laterally Unsupported Steel Beam
Solution:
1. The moment envelope resulting from the factored load is rst obtained. It contains two loading
scenario; a) DL+LL on the 52-ft span, and no LL on the cantilever; and b) DL+LL on the cantilever
and no LL on the 52 ft span:
Wu1

= 1.2(6) + 1.6(20) = 39.2 k

(18.29-a)

Wu2

= 1.2(4) + 1.6(7.5) = 16.8 k

(18.29-b)

2. For the rst loading case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support and under the
point load
Mu
Mu
Victor Saouma

= (1.2)(4)(21) = 101 k.ft


24
1
= 460 k.ft
= (39.2)(24)(58) (101)
2
52

(18.30-a)
(18.30-b)
Structural Engineering

188

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

3. For the second load case, the maximum factored moment at the cantilever support is
Mu = (16.8)(21) = 353 k.ft

(18.31)

4. Three laterally unbraced segments must be considered since each length is dierent and is subjected
to a dierent maximum factored moment Mu . By inspection, segment A controls over segment C; both
the moment and the unbraced length are larger on segment A, and the moment gradient is the same
(i.e. Cb =1.75 for both).
5. Segment B has a larger Cb



2
M1
M1
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
2.3
(18.32-a)
+ 0.3
M2
M2



2
0
0
A
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
= 1.75
(18.32-b)
+ 0.3
460
460



2
+101
+101
CbB = 1.75 + 1.05
= 2.0 2.3
(18.32-c)
+ 0.3
+460
+460
which is benecial, but also a larger Lb , hence we should design both segment A and B.
6. For segment A, Mu =460 ft-kips, and Lb = 24 ft. The required Mn is
Mn =

Mu
460
= 511 k.ft
=
b
0.9

(18.33)

7. Aiming for a plastic failure, we use Eq. 18.26 to determine rymin and Zxmin

Lb Fy
(24)(12) 36
=
= 5.76 in
rymin =
300
300
Mn
(511) k.ft(12) in/ft
=
= 170 in3
Zxmin =
Fy
(36) ksi

(18.34-a)
(18.34-b)

8. From the AISC manual we have the following


Section
W24x492

ry
3.41

Zx
1,550

Sx
1,290

Lp

Lr

W24x76
W24x68
W24x55

1.92
1.87
1.34

200.
177.
134

176.
154.
114.

8.0
7.8
5.6

23.4
22.4
16.5

Remarks
Largest W24 section,
ry NG and section too sti (very large Zx )
Zx OK but ry NG
Zx OK but ry NG
Smallest W24 section

Hence it is quite clear that failure will have to be through inelastic or elastic torsional buckling.
9. We try W24x76.
10. Is the section compact?
bf
= 6.66 <
2tf

65
= 10.8
36


hc
= 49 <
tw

640
= 106
36


(18.35-a)

(18.35-b)

Then we can proceed,


11. From Eq. 18.3 and 18.4:

Victor Saouma

Lp

Lr

300
1 300
ry =
1.92 = 8.0 ft
12
Fy
36
!
#
ry X1
2
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
Fyf Fr

(18.36-a)
(18.36-b)
Structural Engineering

18.4 Examples

189

Draft

!
1 (1.92)(1, 760)
=
12
36 10
= 23.4 ft

1+

#
2
1 + (0.0186) (36 10)

(18.36-c)
(18.36-d)

12. Since Lr < Lb , failure is governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
1
= 381. k.ft
(12)

Mr

(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(176)

Cb Mr

Mp

Lb
ry

Mcr

(1.75)(381) = 667 k.ft


(200)(36)
= 600 k.ft
Zx Fy =
12
(24)(12)
= 150
=
1.92
2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2 C M
/
 2
b r
Lb
ry
2 Lryb

(1, 760)2(0.0186)
1 (1.75)(176)(1, 760) 2
1+
(12)
150
2(150)2

Mn
b Mn

(18.37-a)
(18.37-b)
(18.37-c)
(18.37-d)
(18.37-e)

(18.37-f)

643.14 k.ft Cb Mr but > Mp

(18.37-g)

=
=

Mp = 600 k.ft

(0.9)(600) = 540 k.ft

(18.37-h)
(18.37-i)

13. Hence the W24x76 is a satisfactory design.


14. In an attempt to automate the design procedure through a spread-sheet, and seek the most economical design (smallest weight), we consider table 18.1. and note that W24x68 is the most economical
Section

Lb /ry

W24.x76.
W24.x68.
W24.x62.
W24.x55.
W21.x83.
W21.x73.
W21.x68.
W21.x62.
W18.x97.
W18.x86.
W18.x76.
W16.x100.
W16.x89.
W16.x77.
W14.x109.
W14.x99.
W14.x90.
W12.x120.
W12.x106.
W12.x96.
W10.x112.
W10.x100.
W8.x67.
W8.x58.
W6.x25.
W6.x20.

150.00
154.01
208.70
214.93
157.38
159.12
160.00
162.71
108.68
109.51
110.34
114.74
115.66
116.60
77.21
77.63
77.84
92.01
92.60
93.20
107.46
108.68
135.85
137.14
189.47
192.00

Lp
ft.
8.0
7.8
5.8
5.6
7.6
7.5
7.5
7.4
11.0
11.0
10.9
10.5
10.4
10.3
15.5
15.5
15.4
13.0
13.0
12.9
11.2
11.0
8.8
8.8
6.3
6.3

Lr
ft.
23.4
22.4
17.2
16.6
24.9
23.5
22.8
21.7
38.1
35.5
33.3
42.1
38.6
34.9
62.7
58.2
54.1
75.5
67.2
61.4
86.4
77.4
64.0
56.0
31.3
25.6

Mp
ft-kips
600.
531.
459.
402.
588.
516.
480.
432.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.

Mr
ft-kips
381.
334.
284.
247.
371.
327.
303.
275.
407.
360.
316.
379.
336.
290.
375.
340.
542.
353.
314.
284.
273.
243.
131.
113.
36.
29.

Cb Mr
ft-kips
667.
584.
497.
432.
648.
573.
531.
482.
713.
629.
554.
664.
588.
508.
656.
595.
762.
618.
550.
497.
478.
425.
229.
197.
63.
51.

Eq. 18.7
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
669.
0.
0.
0.
918.
792.
679.
879.
759.
632.
945.
846.
762.
914.
798.
709.
722.
632.
330.
276.
74.
53.

Mine
ft-kips
0.
0.
0.
0.
588.
0.
0.
0.
633.
558.
489.
594.
525.
450.
576.
519.
471.
558.
492.
441.
441.
390.
211.
179.
57.
45.

Eq. 18.8
ft-kips
643.
523.
298.
239.
0.
555.
491.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.

Mel.
ft-kips
600.
523.
298.
239.
0.
516.
480.
414.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.

b M n
ft-kips
540.
471.
268.
215.
529.
464.
432.
372.
570.
502.
440.
535.
473.
405.
518.
467.
424.
502.
443.
397.
397.
351.
190.
161.
51.
40.

Table 18.1: Unbraced Beam Design


design. Should we increase the depth, then the weight increases (as expected for a beam).
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1810

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Draft

15. Next, we must consider segment B, it has a steeper moment gradient than segment A, i.e. Cb > 1.75



2
+101
+101
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05
= 2.0 2.3
(18.38)
+ 0.3
+460
+460

however the laterally unbraced length of 28 ft is now longer.


16. Check the W24x68
!
#
ry X1
2
Lr =
1 + 1 + X2 (Fyf Fr )
Fyf Fr
!
#
1 (1.87)(1, 590)
=
1 + 1 + (0.0290) (36 10)2
12
36 10
= 22.4 ft
Mp = b Zx Fy
1
= 531 k.ft
= (177)(36)
12
Since Lr < Lb , the beam fails by linear elastic torsional buckling and

(18.39-b)

1
= 333.7 k.ft
(12)

(18.40-a)

Mr

(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(154)

Cb Mr

Mcr

(2.0)(333.7) = 667 k.ft


2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2 C M
/
b r
 2
Lb
ry
2 Lryb

Lb
ry

=
=

(18.39-a)

(18.39-c)
(18.39-d)
(18.39-e)

(18.40-b)
(18.40-c)

(28)(12)
= 154.
1.87

(18.40-d)


(1, 590)2 (0.0290)
1 (2.0)(154)(1, 590) 2
1+
(12)
154
2(154)2
468 k.ft Cb Mr and > Mp

(18.40-e)
(18.40-f)

17. We observe that Mcr = 468 k.ft for segment B, and 523 k.ft for segment A. Hence, segment B
controls.
18. Checking for the ultimate moment
b Mn = (0.9)(468) = 421 < Mu (460)

(18.41-a)

19. Hence, we must increase the section to W24x76. From above Lr = 23.4 ft. since Lr < Lb , failure is
governed by elastic lateral torsional buckling, and we use Eq. 18.11
=

(Fy Fr )Sx = (36 10)(176)

Cb Mr

Mp

Lb
ry

Mcr

(2.0)(381) = 762 k.ft


(200)(36)
= 600 k.ft
Zx Fy =
12
(28)(12)
= 175
=
1.92
2
Cb Sx X1 2 .
.1 + X1 X2 C M
/
 2
b r
Lb
ry
2 Lryb

(1, 760)2 (0.0186)
1 (2.0)(176)(1, 760) 2
1+
(12)
175
2(175)2

=
=
b Mn
Victor Saouma

1
= 381. k.ft
(12)

Mr

581 k.ft Cb Mr and > Mp

(0.9)(581) = 523 k.ft

(18.42-a)
(18.42-b)
(18.42-c)
(18.42-d)
(18.42-e)

(18.42-f)
(18.42-g)
(18.42-h)

Structural Engineering

18.5 Summary of AISC Governing Equations

1811

Draft

20. Note that Mc r is 581 for segment B, and was 600 for segment A.
21. Use W24x76

18.5

Summary of AISC Governing Equations

Table 18.2 summarizes the AISC design equations covered so far.


Braced Beams
p
Mn = ZFy
hc

p
tw
b
p < 2tff r
bf
2tf

Compact

Mn = Mp (Mp Mr )( r pp ) Mp

Partially compact

Plastic Hinge
Inelastic lateral torsional buckling
Elastic lateral torsional buckling

p < thwc r
Unbraced Beams
Lb < Lp
Mn = Mp&= Zx Fy
'

L L
Mp
Lp < Lb < Lr Mn = Cb Mp (Mp Mr ) Lrb Lpp
!
2
X X
Lr < Lb
Mcr = Cb SxLXb 1 2 1 +  1L 22 Cb Mr
2

ry

Elastic Buckling
Inelastic Buckling

b
ry

Columns
2
c 1.5
Fcr = 0.658c Fy
c > 1.5
Fcr = 0.877
2 Fy
c

Table 18.2: Summary of AISC Governing Equations

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1812

Draft

UNBRACED ROLLED STEEL BEAMS

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 19

Beam Columns, (Unedited)


UNEDITED
Examples taken from Structural Steel Design; LRFD, by T. Burns, Delmar Publishers, 1995

19.1

Potential Modes of Failures

19.2

AISC Specications
Pu
8
+
c Pn
9

19.3

Examples

19.3.1

Verication


Mux
Muy
+
b Mnx
b Mny
Pu
Mux
+
2c Pn
b Mnx

Pu
.20 (19.1)
c Pn
Pu
1.0 if
.20 (19.2)
c Pn

1.0 if

Example 19-1: Verication, (?)


A W 12 120 is used to support the loads and moments as shown below, and is not subjected
to sidesway. Determine if the member is adequate and if the factored bending moment occurs about
the weak axis. The column is assumed to be perfectly pinned (K = 1.0) in both the strong and weak
directions and no bracing is supplied. Steel is A36 and assumed Cb = 1.0.

192

Beam Columns, (Unedited)

Draft

Solution:
1. Calculate the slenderness ratios in both the weak and strong directions (even though when unbraced
in both directions, the weak axis will of course be critical).
Klx
rx
Kly
ry

=
=

(1.0)(15) ft(12) in/ft


= 32.67
(5.51) in
(1.0)(15) ft.(12) in/ft)
= 57.50
(3.13) in

2. Using Table 16.1, we can nd the design axial stress (c Fcr ) as 25.71 ksi. And, multiplying that
with the area of the section, we can nd the design axial capacity (c Pn ) as follows:
c Pn

=
=

c Fcr Ag
(25.71) ksi(35.3) in2 = 907.6 k

3. Since the factored axial load is 400 kips, the ratio of

Pu
c Pn

is as follows:

(400) k
= .44 > .20
(907.6) k
therefore we must use Eq. as the beam-column analysis.


Pu
Mux
8
Muy
+
+
1.0
c Pn
9 b Mnx
b Mny
4. To start, calculate the design moment capacity (b Mn ) of the W 12 120. The beam is compact
and the unbraced length, lb , is 15 feet. This value of unbraced length is then compared to limits
referred to as Lp and Lr to determine whether plastic behavior can be developed or whether
buckling behavior controls the bending behavior. The values for Lp and Lr can be calculated
using Eq. 6-1 and 6-2 respectively or they can be found in the beam section of the LRFD manual.
In either case these values for a W 12 120 are:
Lp
Lr

Victor Saouma

= 13 ft
= 75.5 ft

Structural Engineering

19.3 Examples

193

Draft

5. Since our unbraced length falls between these two values, the beam will be controlled by inelastic
buckling, and the nominal moment capacity Mn can be calculated from Eq. 6-5. Using this
equation we must rst calculate the plastic and elastic moment capacity values, Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr

Fy Zx = (36) ksi(186) in3 (12)ftin = 558 k.ft


(Fyw 10) ksiSx
(36 10) ksi(163) in3 = 353.2 k.ft

=
=

6. Using Eq. 6-5 (assuming Cb is equal to 1.0) we nd:


Mn

Mn

=
=

l L

Cb [Mp (Mp Mr )] Lbr Lpp

(1513) ft
1.0[558 (558 453.2)] k.ft (75.515)
ft
551.4 k.ft

7. Therefore the design moment capacity is as follows:


b Mn = 0.90(551.4) k.ft = 496.3 k.ft
8. Now consider the eects of moment magnication on this section. Based on the alternative method
and since the member is not subjected to sidesway (Mlt = 0)
Mu
B1

=
=

Cm
Cm
Pu
Pe

=
=
=
=

1
.60 .4 M
M2
50
.60 .4 50 = 1.0
400 k
2 EAg
(Eulers Buckling Load Equation)
Kl 2

Pe

2 (29,000 ksi)(35.3
32.672

B1 Mnt
Cm
u
1 P
Pe

in2 )

= 9, 456 k

9. Therefore, calculating the B1 magnier we nd:


B1 =

1
1

(400) k
(9,456) k

= 1.044

Calculating the amplied moment as follows:


Mu
Mu

=
=

B1 Mnt
1.044(50) k.ft = 52.2 k.ft

Therefore the adequacy of the section is calculated from Eq. as follows:


Pu
8 Mu x
c Pn + 9 b Mn x
(52.2)
94000 k
+ 89 (496.3) k.ft
(907.6) k
k.ft

1.0
=

.53 < 1.0

1 When dealing with unbraced frames, the procedure gets more involved since the calculation of sidesway
eects (sidesway moments and sidesway axial loads) is required to utilize the alternate method that we
perform to estimate the secondary eects. This generally means that a single load case on an unbraced
frame that causes sidesway must be analyzed as if it were two separate load casesone that would
have a negligible sidesway eect (typically the vertical gravity loads) and one that would cause sidesway
(typically the lateral loads). This is illustrated in Figure 19.1
2 As the forces and moments for each of these broken-down load cases are calculated for a member,
the same basic procedure is then followed as it was in the rst example.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

194

Beam Columns, (Unedited)

Draft

Figure 19.1: Rigid Frame Subjected to Lateral Loading

The analysis of frames and frames subject to sidesway is not within the scope of this course.

You should be aware that as unbraced members are encountered, the B2 magnier will become active
as the frame exhibits sidesway behavior. The following example illustrates this situation.

Example 19-2: 8.2, (?)


In the unbraced frame shown below, determine the adequacy of either W 14 90 columns under the
factored loads given. The steel is A36 and assume that the columns have a Ky = 1.0 and Kx = 1.5 The
lateral load is causing bending to occur about the x-axis.

Solution:
1. Typically, we would start this problem by separating the loads into those that cause sidesway
eects (the lateral load) and those that have little inuence on such eects (the vertical loads).
As shown below, the eects on the columns from the lateral load and the vertical load can be
computed separately by various standard techniques of analysis such as moment distribution.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

19.3 Examples

195

Draft

2. From these techniques, we nd that each column is under approximately 20 kips of factored axial
load and a moment of 40 kip-feet in no sidesway case. And, they are under 20 kips of factored
axial load (dierent directions) and a moment of 200 kip-feet (assuming pinned supports) in the
sidesway case.
3. To begin the evaluation, calculate the column sections design axial capacity c Pn . Calculating
the slenderness ratios about both axis (although the weak axis will control in this case):
Kl
ry
Kl
rx

=
=

1.0(240) in
(3.70) in
1.5(240) in
(6.14) in

= 64.8
= 58.6

4. Since the weak axis controls, nd the design axial stress c Fcr that can be taken from Table 16.1.
In this case the design axial stress corresponding to the critical slenderness ratio is 24.54 ksi. This
would make the design axial capacity of this section as follows:
c Pn
c Pn
Pu
5. Since Pc Pun =
section.

40 k
650.3 k

= c Fcr Ag
= (24.54) ksi(26.5) in2 ) = 650.3 k
= (20) k (no sidesway) + (20) k (sidesway) = 40 k

= .061 < .20 Eq. controls and should be used to check the adequacy of the

6. Calculate the design bending capacity of these sections about the strong axis. The unbraced length
of this column is assumed to be 20 feet and the nominal moment capacity depends on what bending
behavior controls in this case. Compare the unbraced length (20 ft.) to the Lp and Lr limits that
were discussed in Chapter 6.
7. These values can be calculated from Equations 6-1 and 6-2 or taken from the LRFD manual. Since
the Lp value for a W 14 90 is 15.4 feet and the Lr , value is 54.1 feet, the sections capacity is
controlled by Case 2 (compact beams exhibiting inelastic lateral torsional buckling).
8. The capacity of this section is found by calculating Eq. 6-5 (see Chapter 6) as follows and notice
that Cb is equal to 1.67 using Mmax = 40, Ma = 10, Mb = 20, and Mc = 30.
9. Before calculating the nominal moment capacity from Eq. 6-5, rst calculate the plastic and elastic
moment capacity Mp and Mr .
Mp
Mr
Victor Saouma

=
=
=

Fy Zx = (36) ksi(157) in3 (12)ftin = 471 k.ft


(Fyw 10 ksi)Sx
(36 10) ksi(143) in3 = 309.8 k.ft
Structural Engineering

196

Beam Columns, (Unedited)

Draft

Calculating Eq. 6-5:


Mn

= 1.67[(471) k.ft [(471) k.ft(309.8) k.ft)((20 15.4) ft(54.1 15.4) ft)]


= 791.5 k.ft

10. However because the nominal moment capacity cannot be greater than the plastic moment capacity,
use 471 ft.-kips which is the plastic moment capacity. The design moment capacity is:
b Mn = 0.90(471) k.ft = 423.9 k.ft
11. After this we can calculate the magnication factors B1 and B2 , remembering that B1 is used for
the nonsway eects and B2 for the sway eects. In this case, the axis of bending has been stated
to be the x-axis and the eective length factor K was given as 1.5. Therefore for B1
B1

Cm
Cm

=
=

Pe

Pu

=
=

Cm
u
(1 P
Pe

M1
.60 .4 M
2
1
.6 since M
M2 = 0
2 EAg

2
( Kl
r )
2206 k
40 k

2 E(26.5)
58.62

in2

12. Therefore,
B1 = 

.6
1

(40) k
(2,206) k

 = .61 use 1.0

13. Calculating B2 from Eq. 8-5:


B2

1
u
1 P
Pe

Pu
Pe
B2

=
=
=

2(20) k = 40 k (for both columns in the story)


(2, 206) k(2) columns = 4, 412 k
1
40
1 4,412 = 1.01

14. Calculating the nominal moment capacity about the x-axis, Mus , from Equation 8-1 as follows:
Mu
Mux

= B1 Mnt + B2 Mlt
= 1.0(40) k.ft + 1.01(200) k.ft = 242 k.ft

15. Calculating the adequacy per Eq. :


Pu
2c Pn

Mux
b Mnx

(40) k
= (2)(650.3)
k+
= .60 < 1.0

(242) k.ft
(423.9) k.ft

16. Therefore the section is good. Notice that the calculation of Pe for the B1 and B2 magniers is
always taken about the axis of bending, in this case the strong axis.

19.3.2

Design

5 The design of beam-columns is truly a trial and error procedure and depends a great deal on the
designers experience. If the designer can select a good trial section at the very beginning, the work
in obtaining a safe and economical member is greatly simplied although, in any case, the process will
ultimately converge on a solution.

The most popular method of selecting a beam-column is the equivalent axial load method. This method
replaces the factored axial load and moment that are applied to the column with a ctitious concentric

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

19.3 Examples

197

Draft

axial load. This ctitious concentric axial load will be larger than the factored axial load but will produce
approximately the same maximum eect.

7 The following equation is used to convert the factored bending moment into an estimated axial load,
P  . The actual factored axial load Pu , is added to P  resulting in a ctitious axial load called the
equivalent factored axial load Puequiv . This idea is shown below:

Pu + P  = Puequiv
where
Pu
P
Puequiv

actual factored axial load


estimated axial load caused by moment
Equivalent factored axial load

8 Although there are equations that would estimate the equivalent factored axial load based on the
assumptions used by the interaction formulas separately (Eq. and ), it is much faster to use the following
combined approximation developed from these formulas. This approximation is as follows:

(19.3)

Puequiv = Pu + Mux m + Muy mU

In this formula, Pu is again the actual factored load expressed in kips and Mux and Muy are the bending
moments expressed in kip-feet.
9 If bending should occur about one axis only, the corresponding term regarding the other axis will then
drop out. The value of m is taken from Table 19.1.

10

12

14

All
Shapes

2.0

1.9

1.8

Preliminary Beam-Column Design


Fy = 36 ksi, Fy = 50 ksi
Values of m
36 ksi
16 18 20 22 and
10 12 14
over
1st Approximation
1.7 1.6 1.5
1.3
1.9 1.8 1.7

W4
W6
W8
W8
W10
W12
W14

3.1
3.2
2.8
2.5
2.1
1.7
1.5

2.3
2.7
2.5
2.3
2.0
1.7
1.5

1.7
2.1
2.1
2.2
1.9
1.6
1.4

1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4

Fy
KL(f t)

Subsequent
1.1 1.0
1.4 1.2
1.5 1.3
1.8 1.6
1.7 1.6
1.5 1.4
1.3 1.3

Approximation
0.8
2.4 1.8
1.0
2.8 2.2
1.1
2.5 2.2
1.4
2.4 2.2
1.4
2.0 1.9
1.3
1.7 1.6
1.2
1.5 1.4

1.4
1.7
1.8
2.0
1.8
1.5
1.4

50 ksi
16 18

20

22 and
over

1.6

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.7
1.5
1.3

1.0
1.1
1.3
1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3

0.9
1.0
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.3
1.2

0.8
0.9
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.2
1.2

Table 19.1: Values of m for use in Beam-Column Design Equation, (from a paper in AISC Engineering
Journal by Uang, Wattar, and Leet (1990))
.
The value of U , which is the bending moment conversion factor, is taken from the column load tables that
are shown in Appendix C. (A full set of the column load tables can be found in the column section of the LRFD
manual as well).

10

11 The procedure using this approximate formula is an iterative process that begins by assuming the value of m
from Table 8-1 and a typical value of U (usually about 2.0). After a section is selected, the section is checked
against the applicable AISC interactions formulas (Eq. and ). With successive trials the values of m and U can
be rened to a point where their values begin to stabilize.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

198

Beam Columns, (Unedited)

Draft

Example 19-3: Design of Steel Beam-Column, (?)

Design the most economical W 12 section subjected to the loads and moments shown below. The value of
K = 1.0 in both strong and weak directions and steel is A36. Assume this member to be part of a frame that is
not subjected to sidesway.
Solution:

Using the equivalent load formula and choosing the rst trial values of m = 1.9 as suggested In Table 8-1 and
U = 2.0 (approximate), the equivalent load is as follows:
=
=
=

Puequiv
Puequiv

Pu + Mux m + Muy mU
(300) k + (120) k.ft(1.9) + (80) k.ft(1.9)(2.0)
832 k

From Column Load tables found in Appendix C for Kl =12 ft. try a W 12 x 106 (with an axial design strength
of 853 kips)
Checking this section with the interaction formulas we nd the following:
Pu
Since P
= (300) k = .352 > .20, the Eq. will control.
n
(853) k
Calculating the design moment capacity about each axis we nd the following:
Lp = 13.0 ft
Since this value is greater than 12 ft. which is this W 12 x 106s unbraced length, the section is able to develop
as plastic capacity. Therefore,
b Mnx

b Mny

0.90(36) ksi(164) in3

1
= 442.8 k.ft
in/ft
3
ft
.90(36) ksi(75.1) in 12 in = 202.8 k.ft
12

Calculating the magnier, B1 , similar to what was done previously, we would nd the following:
Cmx
Cmy
Kl
rx
Kl
ry

.6 .4 120
= 1.0
120
1.0( similarly)
26.3(c = .295)
46.3(c = .519)

=
=
=
=

Calculating the Euler buckling load as follows:

Victor Saouma

Pe

Pex
Pex

=
=

Pey
Pey
B1x
B1y

=
=
=
=

Ag Fy
2
c
(31.2)

in (36)
.2952

ksi

(12, 907) k (based on c = .295)


2
(31.2) in (36) ksi
.5192

(4, 162) k (based on c = .519)


1
300
12,907
= 1.023
1
1
300

=
1.078
1
4,162

Structural Engineering

19.3 Examples

199

Draft

This would make the magnied factored as shown below:


Mu
Mux
Muy

=
=
=

B1 Mnt
(120) k.ft(1.023) = 122.76 k.ft
(80) k.ft(1.078) = 86.24 k.ft

Applying AISC Eq. to the above information:

8
(300) k
+
(853) k
9

(86.24) k.ft
(122.76) k.ft
+
(442.8) k.ft
(202.8) k.ft



= .976 < 1.0

which works well and therefore is a very good choice!

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

1910

Draft

Beam Columns, (Unedited)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft

Part II

STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING II;


CVEN 3235

Draft

Draft
Chapter 20

ARCHES and CURVED


STRUCTURES
1

This chapter will concentrate on the analysis of arches.

2 The concepts used are identical to the ones previously seen, however the major (and only) dierence
is that equations will be written in polar coordinates.
3 Like cables, arches can be used to reduce the bending moment in long span structures. Essentially,
an arch can be considered as an inverted cable, and is transmits the load primarily through axial
compression, but can also resist exure through its exural rigidity.

A parabolic arch uniformly loaded will be loaded in compression only.

5 A semi-circular arch unirmly loaded will have some exural stresses in addition to the compressive
ones.

20.1

Arches

6 In order to optimize dead-load eciency, long span structures should have their shapes approximate the
coresponding moment diagram, hence an arch, suspended cable, or tendon conguration in a prestressed
concrete beam all are nearly parabolic, Fig. 20.1.
7 Long span structures can be built using at construction such as girders or trusses. However, for spans
in excess of 100 ft, it is often more economical to build a curved structure such as an arch, suspended
cable or thin shells.
8 Since the dawn of history, mankind has tried to span distances using arch construction. Essentially
this was because an arch required materials to resist compression only (such as stone, masonary, bricks),
and labour was not an issue.
9 The basic issues of static in arch design are illustrated in Fig. 20.2 where the vertical load is per unit
horizontal projection (such as an external load but not a self-weight). Due to symmetry, the vertical
reaction is simply V = wL
2 , and there is no shear across the midspan of the arch (nor a moment). Taking
moment about the crown,


wL L L

M = Hh
=0
(20.1)
2
2
4

Solving for H
H=

wL2
8h

(20.2)

We recall that a similar equation was derived for arches., and H is analogous to the C T forces in a
beam, and h is the overall height of the arch, Since h is much larger than d, H will be much smaller

202

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft
2

M = w L /8

L
w=W/L

IDEALISTIC ARCH
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM

C
RISE = h
-C
BEAM
+T
W/2

M-ARM small
C C-T large
BEAM
T

-C
+T
SAG = h

W/2

IDEALISTIC SUSPENSION
SHAPE GIVEN BY
MOMENT DIAGRAM

NOTE THAT THE "IDEAL" SHAPE FOR AN ARCH OR SUSPENSION


SYSTEM IS EQUIVILENT TO THE DESIGN LOAD MOMENT DIAGRAM

Figure 20.1: Moment Resisting Forces in an Arch or Suspension System as Compared to a Beam, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)

wL/2

H
h

H = wL2 /8h

L/2
R

R
V = wL/2

R = V 2+ H

V = wL/2
2

MCROWN = VL/2 - wL /8 - H h = 0
M BASE

= wL2 /8 - H h = 0

Figure 20.2: Statics of a Three-Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

Victor Saouma

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20.1 Arches

203

Draft

than C T in a beam.
Since equilibrium requires H to remain constant across thee arch, a parabolic curve would theoretically
result in no moment on the arch section.

10

Three-hinged arches are statically determinate structures which shape can acomodate support settlements and thermal expansion without secondary internal stresses. They are also easy to analyse through
statics.

11

An arch carries the vertical load across the span through a combination of axial forces and exural
ones. A well dimensioned arch will have a small to negligible moment, and relatively high normal
compressive stresses.

12

An arch is far more ecient than a beam, and possibly more economical and aesthetic than a truss
in carrying loads over long spans.

13

If the arch has only two hinges, Fig. 20.3, or if it has no hinges, then bending moments may exist
either at the crown or at the supports or at both places.

14

h
M base

H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h

APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE

APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE

H<H H<H

M crown

M base

h
H

L
V

Figure 20.3: Two Hinged Arch, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)


Since H varies inversely to the rise h, it is obvious that one should use as high a rise as possible. For
a combination of aesthetic and practical considerations, a span/rise ratio ranging from 5 to 8 or perhaps
as much as 12, is frequently used. However, as the ratio goes higher, we may have buckling problems,
and the section would then have a higher section depth, and the arch advantage diminishes.

15

In a parabolic arch subjected to a uniform horizontal load there is no moment. However, in practice
an arch is not subjected to uniform horizontal load. First, the depth (and thus the weight) of an arch
is not usually constant, then due to the inclination of the arch the actual self weight is not constant.
Finally, live loads may act on portion of the arch, thus the line of action will not necessarily follow the
arch centroid. This last eect can be neglected if the live load is small in comparison with the dead load.

17 Since the greatest total force in the arch is at the support, (R =


V 2 + H 2 ), whereas at the crown
we simply have H, the crown will require a smaller section than the support.
16

h
M base

H=wl /8h<
2
wl /8h

APPARENT LINE OF
PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
INCLUDING BASE

APPARENT LINE
OF PRESSURE WITH
ARCH BENDING
EXCEPT AT THE BASE

H<H H<H
V

M crown

M base

L
V

Figure 20.4: Arch Rib Stiened with Girder or Truss, (Lin and Stotesbury 1981)

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204

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft
20.1.1

Statically Determinate

Example 20-1: Three Hinged Arch, Point Loads. (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the three-hinged arch shown in Fig. 20.5

Figure 20.5:
Solution:
Four unknowns, three equations of equilibrium, one equation of condition statically determinate.
(+ )
MzC

(+ ) Fx
(+ ) Fy
(+ )
MzB

=
=
=

0; (RAy )(140) + (80)(3.75) (30)(80) (20)(40) + RAx (26.25)


140RAy + 26.25RAx
0;
80 RAx RCx
0;
RAy + RCy 30 20
0;
(Rax )(60) (80)(30) (30)(20) + (RAy )(80)
80RAy + 60RAx

Solving those four equations simultaneously we have:


140 26.25 0 0
RAy
2, 900

80
R
1
0
1
Ax

=
1
R
0
1 0

Cy
50

3, 000
RCx
80
60
0 0

RAy

RAx

RCy

RCx

15.1 k

29.8 k
=

34.9 k

50.2 k

=
=
=
=
=
=

0
2.900
0
0
0
3, 000
(20.3)

We can check our results by considering the summation with respect to b from the right:

(+ ) MzB = 0; (20)(20) (50.2)(33.75) + (34.9)(60) = 0

(20.4)

(20.5)

Example 20-2: Semi-Circular Arch, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the three hinged statically determined semi-circular arch under its own
dead weight w (per unit arc length s, where ds = rd). 20.6
Solution:
I Reactions The reactions can be determined by integrating the load over the entire structure
Victor Saouma

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20.1 Arches

205

Draft

dP=wRd

R cos

Figure 20.6: Semi-Circular three hinged arch


1. Vertical Reaction is determined rst:
(+ )
MA

0; (Cy )(2R) +

wRd

R(1 +
cos ) = 0
dP
moment arm
 =
wR
wR
=
[ sin ] |=0
(1 + cos )d =
2
2
=0
wR
[( sin ) (0 sin 0)]
2

2 wR

(20.6-a)

=0

Cy

=
=
=

2. Horizontal Reactions are determined next

(+ ) MB

0; (Cx )(R) + (Cy )(R)

=
2
=0

Cx

=
=

wR

wR
2
2


2 1 wR

=
2

cos d =
=0

(20.6-b)

wRd




R cos

dP

moment arm

=0

(20.7-a)

=
wR wR[sin ] |=02 = wR wR( 0)
2
2
2
(20.7-b)

By symmetry the reactions at A are equal to those at C


II Internal Forces can now be determined, Fig. 20.7.
1. Shear Forces: Considering the free body diagram of the arch, and summing the forces in the
radial direction (FR = 0):


wRd sin + V = 0
(20.8)
( 1)wR cos + wR sin
=0
 2

2


Cx

Cy

V = wR ( 2 1) cos + ( 2 ) sin

(20.9)

2. Axial Forces: Similarly, if we consider the summation of forces in the axial direction (FN =
0):

( 2 1)wR sin + 2 wR cos
wRd cos + N = 0
(20.10)
=0

$
%
N = wR ( 2 ) cos ( 2 1) sin

(20.11)

3. Moment: Now we can consider the third equation of equilibrium (Mz = 0):
(+ )
M

( 2 1)wR R sin 2 wR2 (1 cos ) +



wRd R(cos cos ) + M = 0
=0

M = wR2
Victor Saouma

2 (1

sin ) + ( 2 ) cos

(20.12)
%

(20.13)

Structural Engineering

206

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

dP=wRd

R sin

R cos

C x=( /2-1)wR

R(1-cos )
R cos

C = /2 wR

R cos( )

Figure 20.7: Semi-Circular three hinged arch; Free body diagram


III Deection are determined last
1. The real curvature is obtained by dividing the moment by EI
'
wR2 &

M
=
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos
EI
EI 2
2

(20.14)

1. The virtual force P will be a unit vertical point in the direction of the desired deection,
causing a virtual internal moment
M =

R
[1 cos sin ]
2

(20.15)

p
2. Hence, application of the virtual work equation yields:

1


= 2

dx

20.1.2

' R

wR2 &
(1 sin ) + ( ) cos [1 cos sin ] 

Rd
2
2
=0 EI

2

M
EI

%
wR4 $ 2
7 18 12
16EI

.0337 wR
EI

(20.16-a)

Statically Indeterminate

Example 20-3: Statically Indeterminate Arch, (Kinney 1957)


Victor Saouma

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20.1 Arches

207

Draft

Determine the value of the horizontal reaction component of the indicated two-hinged solid rib arch,
Fig. 20.8 as caused by a concentrated vertical load of 10 k at the center line of the span. Consider
shearing, axial, and exural strains. Assume that the rib is a W24x130 with a total area of 38.21 in2 ,
that it has a web area of 13.70 in2 , a moment of inertia equal to 4,000 in4 , E of 30,000 k/in2 , and a
shearing modulus G of 13,000 k/in2 .

Figure 20.8: Statically Indeterminate Arch


Solution:

1. Consider that end C is placed on rollers, as shown in Fig. ?? A unit ctitious horizontal force is
applied at C. The axial and shearing components of this ctitious force and of the vertical reaction
at C, acting on any section in the right half of the rib, are shown at the right end of the rib in
Fig. 13-7.
2. The expression for the horizontal displacement of C is

1 Ch = 2


M
C

M
ds + 2
EI

V
C

V
ds + 2
Aw G

N
C

N
ds
AE

(20.17)

3. From Fig. 20.9, for the rib from C to B,

Victor Saouma

P
(100 R cos )
2
1(R sin 125.36)
P
sin
2
cos
P
cos
2

(20.18-a)
(20.18-b)
(20.18-c)
(20.18-d)
(20.18-e)
Structural Engineering

208

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

Figure 20.9: Statically Indeterminate Arch; Horizontal Reaction Removed


N
ds

=
=

sin
Rd

(20.18-f)
(20.18-g)

4. If the above values are substituted in Eq. 20.17 and integrated between the limits of 0.898 and
/2, the result will be
Ch = 22.55 + 0.023 0.003 = 22.57
(20.19)
5. The load P is now assumed to be removed from the rib, and a real horizontal force of 1 k is assumed
to act toward the right at C in conjunction with the ctitious horizontal force of 1 k acting to the
right at the same point. The horizontal displacement of C will be given by
 B
 B
 B
M
V
N
ChCh = 2
ds + 2
ds + 2
ds
(20.20-a)
M
V
N
EI
A
G
AE
w
C
C
C
= 2.309 + 0.002 + 0.002 = 2.313 in
(20.20-b)
6. The value of the horizontal reaction component will be
HC =

Ch
22.57
= 9.75 k
=
ChCh
2.313

(20.21)

7. If only exural strains are considered, the result would be


HC =

22.55
= 9.76 k
2.309

(20.22)

Comments
1. For the given rib and the single concentrated load at the center of the span it is obvious that the
eects of shearing and axial strains are insignicant and can be disregarded.
2. Erroneous conclusions as to the relative importance of shearing and axial strains in the usual solid
rib may be drawn, however, from the values shown in Eq. 20.19. These indicate that the eects of
the shearing strains are much more signicant than those of the axial strains. This is actually the
case for the single concentrated load chosen for the demonstration, but only because the rib does
not approximate the funicular polygon for the single load. As a result, the shearing components
on most sections of the rib are more important than would otherwise be the case.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

20.2 Curved Space Structures

209

Draft

3. The usual arch encountered in practice, however, is subjected to a series of loads, and the axis of
the rib will approximate the funicular polygon for these loads. In other words, the line of pressure
is nearly perpendicular to the right section at all points along the rib. Consequently, the shearing
components are so small that the shearing strains are insignicant and are neglected.
4. Axial strains, resulting in rib shortening, become increasingly important as the rise-to-span ratio
of the arch decreases. It is advisable to determine the eects of rib shortening in the design of
arches. The usual procedure is to rst design the rib by considering exural strains only, and then
to check for the eects of rib shortening.

20.2

Curved Space Structures

Example 20-4: Semi-Circular Box Girder, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the reactions of the semi-circular cantilevered box girder shown in Fig. 20.10 subjected
x

x
wRd
d

O
R

V
r

C
A

A
y

Figure 20.10: Semi-Circular Box Girder


to its own weight w.
Solution:
I Reactions are again determined rst From geometry we have OA = R, OB = R cos , AB = OA
BO = R R cos , and BP = R sin . The moment arms for the moments with respect to the x
and y axis are BP and AB respectively. Applying three equations of equilibrium we obtain



FzA = wR

(20.23-a)

(wRd)(R sin ) = 0

MxA = 2wR2

(20.23-b)

(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0

MyA = wR2

(20.23-c)

=0
=

MxA


wRd = 0

FzA

=0
=

MyA
=0

II Internal Forces are determined next


1. Shear Force:


(+ ) Fz = 0 V

Victor Saouma

wRd = 0 V = wr

(20.24)

Structural Engineering

2010

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

2. Bending Moment:


MR = 0 M

(wRd)(R sin ) = 0 M = wR2 (1 cos )

(20.25)

(wRd)R(1 cos ) = 0 T = wR2 ( sin )

(20.26)

3. Torsion:


MT = 0 +
0

III Deection are determined last we assume a rectangular cross-section of width b and height d = 2b
and a Poissons ratio = 0.3.
1. Noting that the member will be subjected to both exural and torsional deformations, we
seek to determine the two stinesses.
3

b(2b)
=
2. The exural stiness EI is given by EI = E bd
12 = E 12

2Eb4
3

= .667Eb4 .

3. The torsional stiness of solid rectangular sections J = kb d where b is the shorter side of the
E
E
= 2(1+.3)
=
section, d the longer, and k a factor equal to .229 for db = 2. Hence G = 2(1+)
4
4
.385E, and GJ = (.385E)(.229b ) = .176Eb .
4. Considering both exural and torsional deformations, and replacing dx by rd:


M
T
P
Rd

=
M
Rd
T
+


EI
GJ
z
0
0


W
Torsion
Flexure



U

(20.27)

where the real moments were given above.


5. Assuming a unit virtual downward force P = 1, we have
M
T

= R sin

(20.28-a)

= R(1 cos )

(20.28-b)

6. Substituting these expression into Eq. 20.27




wR2
wR2

=
(R
sin
)
(1

cos
)
Rd
+
1




EI
GJ
0 

P

4

=
=

20.2.1

( sin ) R(1 cos ) Rd







1
( cos sin + sin cos ) d
(sin sin cos ) +
.265

wR
EI
0
wR4
( 

2. + 18.56

)
EI
Flexure Torsion
4

20.56 wR
EI

(20.29-a)

Theory

Adapted from (Gerstle 1974)


Because space structures may have complicated geometry, we must resort to vector analysis1 to
determine the internal forces.

18

19

In general we have six internal forces (forces and moments) acting at any section.
1 To

which you have already been exposed at an early stage, yet have very seldom used it so far in mechanics!

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

20.2 Curved Space Structures

2011

Draft
20.2.1.1

Geometry

In general, the geometry of the structure is most conveniently described by a parameteric set of
equations
y = f2 ();
z = f3 ()
(20.30)
x = f1 ();

20

as shown in Fig. 20.11. the global coordinate system is denoted by X Y Z, and its unit vectors are

Figure 20.11: Geometry of Curved Structure in Space


denoted2 i, j, k.
The section on which the internal forces are required is cut and the principal axes are identied as
N S W which correspond to the normal force, and bending axes with respect to the Strong and
Weak axes. The corresponding unit vectors are n, s, w.

21

22

The unit normal vector at any section is given by


n=

dxi + dyj + dzk


dxi + dyj + dzk
=
ds
(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 )1/2

(20.31)

The principal bending axes must be dened, that is if the strong bending axis is parallel to the XY
plane, or horizontal (as is generally the case for gravity load), then this axis is normal to both the N
and Z axes, and its unit vector is
nk
(20.32)
s=
|nk|

23

24

The weak bending axis is normal to both N and S, and thus its unit vector is determined from
w = ns

20.2.1.2
25

(20.33)

Equilibrium

For the equilibrium equations, we consider the free body diagram of Fig. 20.12 an applied load P
2 All

vectorial quantities are denoted by a bold faced character.

Victor Saouma

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ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

Figure 20.12: Free Body Diagram of a Curved Structure in Space


is acting at point A. The resultant force vector F and resultant moment vector M acting on the cut
section B are determined from equilibrium
F = 0;

P + F = 0;

F = P

(20.34-a)

M = 0; LP + M = 0; M = LP
B

(20.34-b)

where L is the lever arm vector from B to A.


The axial and shear forces N, Vs and Vw are all three components of the force vector F along the
N, S, and W axes and can be found by dot product with the appropriate unit vectors:

26

N
Vs

=
=

Fn
Fs

(20.35-a)
(20.35-b)

Vw

Fw

(20.35-c)

Similarly the torsional and bending moments T, Ms and Mw are also components of the moment
vector M and are determined from

27

Mn

(20.36-a)

Ms
Mw

=
=

Ms
Mw

(20.36-b)
(20.36-c)

Hence, we do have a mean to determine the internal forces. In case of applied loads we summ, and
for distributed load we integrate.

28

Example 20-5: Internal Forces in an Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder, (Gerstle 1974)


Determine the internal forces N, Vs , and Vw and the internal moments T, Ms and Mw along the
helicoidal cantilevered girder shown in FIg. 20.13 due to a vertical load P at its free end.
Solution:
1. We rst determine the geometry in terms of the angle
x = R cos ;
Victor Saouma

y = R sin ;

z=

(20.37)
Structural Engineering

20.2 Curved Space Structures

Draft

2013

Figure 20.13: Helicoidal Cantilevered Girder

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2014

ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Draft

2. To determine the unit vector n at any point we need the derivatives:


dx = R sin d;

dy = R cos d;

dz =

H
d

(20.38)

and then insert into Eq. 20.31


n =
=

R sin i + R cos j + H/k


%1/2
R2 sin2 + R2 cos2 + (H/)2
1
$
%1/2 [sin i + cos j + (H/R)k]
1 + (H/R)2


(20.39-a)
(20.39-b)

Since the denominator depends only on the geometry, it will be designated by K.


3. The strong bending axis lies in a horizontal plane, and its unit vector can thus be determined from
Eq. 20.32:
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
H "
(20.40-a)
nk =
sin cos R
"
K ""
0
0
1 "
1
=
(cos i + sin j)
(20.40-b)
K
and the absolute magnitude of this vector |kn| =

1
K,

and thus

s = cos i + sin j

(20.41)

4. The unit vector along the weak axis is determined from Eq. 20.33
"
"
"
i
j
k ""
1 ""
cos sin
0 ""
w = sn =
K ""
H "
sin cos R


1
H
H
=
sin i
cos j + k
K R
R

(20.42-a)

(20.42-b)

5. With the geometry denition completed, we now examine the equilibrium equations. Eq. 20.34-a
and 20.34-b.
F = 0; F
Mb = 0; M
where

= P
= LP

(20.43-a)
(20.43-b)




L = (R R cos )i + (0 R sin )j + 0 H k

and
LP =

"
"
i
"
R "" (1 cos )
"
0

j
sin
0

k
H
R
P

"
"
"
"
"
"

(20.44)

(20.45-a)

P R[ sin i (1 cos )j]

(20.45-b)

M = P R[sin i + (1 cos )j]

(20.46)

=
and

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

20.2 Curved Space Structures

2015

Draft

6. Finally, the components of the force F = P k and the moment M are obtained by appropriate
dot products with the unit vectors

Victor Saouma

1
H
P R
Fn = K

(20.47-a)

Vs

Fs = 0

(20.47-b)

Vw

1
Fw = K
P

(20.47-c)

Mn = PKR (1 cos )

(20.47-d)

Ms

Ms = P R sin

(20.47-e)

Mw

Mw =

PH
K (1

cos )

(20.47-f)

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ARCHES and CURVED STRUCTURES

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 21

STATIC INDETERMINANCY;
FLEXIBILITY METHOD
All the examples in this chapter are taken verbatim from White, Gergely and Sexmith

21.1

Introduction

1 A statically indeterminate structure has more unknowns than equations of equilibrium (and equations
of conditions if applicable).

The advantages of a statically indeterminate structures are:


1. Lower internal forces
2. Safety in redundancy, i.e. if a support or members fails, the structure can redistribute its internal
forces to accomodate the changing B.C. without resulting in a sudden failure.

Only disadvantage is that it is more complicated to analyse.

Analysis mehtods of statically indeterminate structures must satisfy three requirements

Equilibrium
Force-displacement (or stress-strain) relations (linear elastic in this course).
Compatibility of displacements (i.e. no discontinuity)
5

This can be achieved through two classes of solution

Force or Flexibility method;


Displacement or Stiness method
6 The exibility method is rst illustrated by the following problem of a statically indeterminate cable
structure in which a rigid plate is supported by two aluminum cables and a steel one. We seek to
determine the force in each cable, Fig. 21.1

1. We have three unknowns and only two independent equations of equilibrium. Hence the problem
is statically indeterminate to the rst degree.
2. Applying the equations of equilibrium
right
left
Mz = 0; PAl
= PAl

Fy = 0; 2PAl + PSt = P
Thus we eectively have two unknowns and one equation.

(21.1-a)

212

Draft

STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Figure 21.1: Statically Indeterminate 3 Cable Structure


3. We need to have a third equation to solve for the three unknowns. This will be derived from the
compatibility of the displacements in all three cables, i.e. all three displacements must be
equal:
(21.2)
DAl = DSt
4. Finally, those isplacements are obtained from the Force-Displacement relations:

= PA
PL
L =
= L
L
AE

= E
PAl L
PSt L
PAl
(EA)Al
=

=
EAl AAl
ESt ASt
PSt
(EA)St



DAl

(21.3)

(21.4)

DSt

or
(EA)St PAl + (EA)Al PSt = 0

(21.5)

5. Solution of Eq. 21.1-a and 21.5 yields



 


PAl
P
2
1
=
PSt
0
(EA)St (EA)Al

 
1 

PAl
2
1
P

=
PSt
(EA)
 St (EA)Al   0
1
P
(EA)Al 1
=
0
2(EA)Al + (EA)St (EA)St 2



Determinant
6. We observe that the solution of this sproblem, contrarily to statically determinate ones, depends
on the elastic properties.
7

Another example is the propped cantiliver beam of length L, Fig. 21.2


1. First we remove the roller support, and are left with the cantilever as a primary structure.
2. We then determine the deection at point B due to the applied load P using the virtual force
method

M
1.D =
M
dx
(21.6-a)
EI

 L/2
 L/2 
PL
px
=
dx +
+ P x (x)dx
(21.6-b)
0

EI
2
0
0

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

21.1 Introduction

213

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L/2

L/2

x
P

Primary Structure Under Actual Load

-PL

PL/2

f BB

Primary Structure Under Redundant Loading

-(1)L/2

QL/2

+
Bending Moment Diagram

PL/4

Figure 21.2: Propped Cantilever Beam

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STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

=
=
=


PL
x + P x2 dx
2
0

"L/2
2
P x3 ""
1 P Lx
+
EI
4
3 "0
1
EI

L/2 

(21.6-c)
(21.6-d)

5 P L3
48 EI

(21.6-e)

3. We then apply a unit load at point B and solve for the displacement at B using the virtual force
method

M
1fBB =
dx
(21.7-a)
M
EI
 L/2
x
=
(x)
dx
(21.7-b)
EI
0
(1)L3
(21.7-c)
=
24EI
4. Then we argue that the displacement at point B is zero, and hence the displacement fBB should
be multiplied by RB such that
RB fBB = D
(21.8)
to ensure compatibility of displacements, hence
RB =

21.2

D
=
fBB

5
3
48 P L EI
(1)L3
24EI

5
2P

(21.9)

The Force/Flexibility Method

8 Based on the previous two illustrative examples, we now seek to develop a general method for the
linear elastic analysis of statically indeterminate structures.

1. Identify the degree of static indeterminancy (exterior and/or interior) n.


2. Select n redundant unknown forces and/or couples in the loaded structure along with n corresponding releases (angular or translation).
3. The n releases render the structure statically determinate, and it is called the primary structure.
4. Determine the n displacements in the primary structure (with the load applied) corresponding to
the releases, Di .
5. Apply a unit force at each of the releases j on the primary structure, without the external load, and
determine the displacements in all releases i, we shall refer to these displacements as the exibility
coecients, fij , i.e. displacement at release i due to a unit force at j
6. Write the compatibility of displacement relation

f11 f12 f1n


R1
f21 f22 f2n R2

fn1 fn2 fnn


Rn


[f ]


D1

D2
=

Dn


D

D10
D20

Dn0

(21.10)

D0i

and
0
1
[R] = [f ]1 D D0i

(21.11)

Note that D0i is the vector of initial displacements, which is usually zero unless we have an initial
displacement of the support (such as support settlement).
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215

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7. The reactions are then obtained by simply inverting the exibility matrix.

Note that from Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, the exibility matrix [f ] is always symmetric.

21.3

Short-Cut for Displacement Evaluation

Since deections due to exural eects must be determined numerous times in the exibility method,
Table 21.1 may simplify some of the evaluation of the internal strain energy. You are strongly discouraged
to use this table while still at school!.

10

g2 (x)
a

g1 (x)

Lac

Lac
2

Lc(a+b)
2

Lac
2

Lac
3

Lc(2a+b)
6

Lac
2

Lac
6

Lc(a+2b)
6

La(c+d)
2

La(2c+d)
6

La(2c+d)+Lb(c+2d)
6

La(c+4d+e)
6

La(c+2d)
6

La(c+2d)+Lb(2d+e)
6

c
c

L
c

L
d
c
L
c

d e
L

Table 21.1: Table of

g1 (x)g2 (x)dx
0

21.4

Examples

Example 21-1: Steel Building Frame Analysis, (White et al. 1976)


A small, mass-produced industrial building, Fig. 21.3, is to be framed in structural steel with a
typical cross section as shown below. The engineer is considering three dierent designs for the frame:
(a) for poor or unknown soil conditions, the foundations for the frame may not be able to develop any
dependable horizontal forces at its bases. In this case the idealized base conditions are a hinge at one of
the bases and a roller at the other; (b) for excellent soil conditions with properly designed foundations,
the bases of the frame legs will have no tendency to move horizontally, and the idealized base condition
is that of hinges at both points A and D; and (c) a design intermediate to the above cases, with a steel
tie member capable of carrying only tension running between points A and D in the oor of the building.
The foundations would not be expected to provide any horizontal restraint for this latter case, and the
hinge-roller details at points A and D would apply.
Critical design loads for a frame of this type are usually the gravity loads (dead load + snow load)
and the combination of dead load and wind load. We will restrict our attention to the rst combination,
and will use a snow load of 30 psf and an estimated total dead load of 20 psf. With frames spaced at 15
ft on centers along the length of the building, the design load is 15 (30 + 20) = 750 lb/ft.

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Figure 21.3:
If the frame is made of steel beam sections 21 in. deep and weighing 62 lb/ft of length (W 21 62),
and the tie member for design (c) is tentatively chosen as a 2-in.2 bar, determine the bending moment
diagrams for the three designs and discuss the alternate solutions.
Solution:
Structure a This frame is statically determinate since it has three possible unknown external
forces acting on it, and the bending moment is shown in Fig. 21.6-a.
Structure b Hinging both legs of the frame results in another unknown force, making the structure
statically indeterminate to the rst degree (one redundant).
1. A lateral release at point A is chosen. with the redundant shearing force R1 . The displacement D1Q
in the primary structure, as a result of the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.4-a. D1Q is computed by
virtual work.
2. The virtual force system in Figure 21.4-b produces a virtual bending moment M , which is uniform

Figure 21.4:
across the top member of the frame. The virtual moment acting through the real angle changes gives
the internal work term
 40

M
dx
(21.12)
M
M d =
EI
0

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3. Equating this to the external virtual work of 1 D1Q , we have




40

1 D1Q =
0

(12)(1/2)(.75)(Lx x2 )
dx
EI

(21.13)

or

48, 000
k ft3
(21.14)
EI
4. The equation of consistent displacement is D1Q +f11 R1 = 0. The exibility coecient f11 is computed
by applying a unit horizontal force at the release and determining the displacement at the same point.
5. It is seen that the real loading and the virtual loading are identical for this calculation, and
 12 2
 20 2 
x dx
12 dx
+
(21.15)
1 f11 = 2
EI
EI
0
0
D1Q =

or
f11 =
6. Solving for R1

6, 912
k ft3
EI

(21.16)

1
[48, 000 + 6, 912R1] = 0
EI

(21.17)

R1 = 6.93 k

(21.18)

or
7. The bending moment diagram is given below
Structure c The frame with the horizontal tie between points A and D has three unknown external
forces. However, the structure is statically indeterminate to the rst degree since the tie member provides
one degree of internal redundancy.
8. The logical release to choose is a longitudinal release in the tie member, with its associated longitudinal
displacement and axial force.
9. The primary structure Fig. 21.5 is the frame with the tie member released. The compatibility

Figure 21.5:
equation is based on the fact that the displacement at the release must be zero; that is, the relative
displacement of the two sections of the tie at the point of release must be zero, or
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0
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STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

where
D1Q = displacement at release 1 in the primary structure, produced by the loading,
f11 = relative displacement at release 1 for a unit axial force in the tie member,
R1 = force in the tie member in the original structure.
10. Virtual work is used to determine both displacement terms.
11. The value of D1Q is identical to the displacement D1Q computed for structure (b) because the tie
member has no forces (and consequently no deformations) in the primary structure. Thus
D1Q =

(48, 000)(1, 728)


= 2.08 in
(30 103 )(1, 327)

(21.20)

12. The exibility coecient f11 is composed of two separate eects: a exural displacement due to the
exibility of the frame, and the axial displacement of the stressed tie member. The virtual and real
loadings for this calculation are shown in Figure 21.5. The virtual work equation is
 12 2

 20
x1 dx1
(12)2 dx
pL
+
(21.21-a)
1 f11 = 2
+ P
EI
EI
EA
0
0
6, 912 1(1)(40)
=
+
(21.21-b)
EI
EA
40(12)
(6, 912)(1, 728)
+
(21.21-c)
=
(30 103 )(1, 327) (30 103 )(2)
= 0.300 + 0.008 = 0.308
(21.21-d)
and
f11 = 0.308in./k

(21.22)

13. The equation of consistent deformation is


D1Q + f11 R1 = 0

(21.23)

2.08 .308R1 = 0

(21.24)

R1 = 6.75 k (tension)

(21.25)

or
or
14. The two displacement terms in the equation must carry opposite signs to account for their dierence
in direction.
Comments The bending moment in the frame, Figure 21.6-c diers only slightly from that of
structure (b). In other words, the tie member has such high axial stiness that it provides nearly as
much restraint as the foundation of structure (b). Frames with tie members are used widely in industrial
buildings. A lesson to be learned here is that it is easy to provide high stiness through an axially loaded
member.

Figure 21.6:
The maximum moment in frames (b) and (c) is about 55% of the maximum moment in frame (a).
This eect of continuity and redundancy is typical the positive bending moments in the members are
lowered while the joint moments increase and a more economical design can be realized.
Finally, we should notice that the vertical reactions at the bases of the columns do not change with
the degree of horizontal restraint at the bases. A question to ponder is Does this type of reaction
behavior occur in all frames, or only in certain geometrical congurations?
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21.4 Examples

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Example 21-2: Analysis of Irregular Building Frame, (White et al. 1976)

The structural steel frame for the Church of the Holy Spirit, Peneld, New York is shown below. In
this example we will discuss the idealization of the structure and then determine the forces and bending
moments acting on the frame.
Solution:
1. A sectional view of the building is given in Figure 21.8-a.

Figure 21.7:
The two main horizontal members of the frame are supported at points A and D by masonry walls.
2. The connection used at these points is not intended to transmit axial forces from the frame to the
wall; accordingly, the axial forces in the horizontal members are assumed to be zero and the joints at A
and D are idealized as rollers that transmit vertical forces only.
3. The base joint E is designed to resist both horizontal and vertical loads, but not moment, and is
assumed to be a hinge.
4. Finally, joints B and C are designed to provide continuity and will be taken as rigid; that is, the
angles of intersection of the members at the joint do not change with applied loading.
5. The frame is simplied for analysis by removing the small 4-in. wide ange members EF and F G
and replacing their load eect by applying the roof load which acts on EF directly to the segment AG.
6. The idealized frame is shown in Figure 21.8-b.
7. The dead load on the higher portion of the frame is wAB = 25 psf times the frame spacing of 13.33
ft, or wAB = 25(13.33) = 334 lb/ft along the frame.
8. The dead load on CD is less because the weight of the frame member is substantially smaller, and
the dead load is about 19 psf, or wCD = 19(13.33) = 254 lb/ft of frame.
9. Snow load is 35 psf over both areas, or w = 35(13.33) = 467 lb/ft.
10. Total loads are then

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Figure 21.8:

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Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2111

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Member AB:
Member CD:

w = 334 + 467 = 800 lb/ft = 0.8 k/ft


w = 254 + 467 = 720 lb/ft = 0.72 k/ft

11. The frame has four unknown reaction components and therefore has one redundant. Although
several dierent releases are possible, we choose an angular (bending) release at point B.
12. The resulting primary structure is shown in Figure 21.8-c, where the redundant quantity R1 is the
bending moment at point B.
13. The equation of compatibility is
(21.26)
1Q + 11 R1 = 0
where 1Q is the relative angular rotation corresponding to release 1 as produced by the actual loading,
and 11 is the exibility coecient for a unit moment acting at the release.
14. From virtual work we have


M
dx
(21.27)
1 1Q = M d = M
EI


and

1 11 =

M d =

M
dx
EI

(21.28)

where m is a real unit load and M and M are dened in Figure 21.8-d and e.
15. Then

1Q

=
+
=

1
(EI)AB


0

61.42

x
(24.6x 0.4x2 )dx
61.42

(21.29-a)

 21.33
1
x
(7.68x 0.36x2 )dx
(EI)CD 0
21.33
7750
295
+
(EI)AB
(EI)CD

(21.29-b)
(21.29-c)

16. with IAB = 4, 470 in.4 and ICD = 290 in.4


1Q =

2.75
1.733 1.0107
+
=
E
E
E

(21.30)

17. Similarly
11

 x 2
dx
61.42
0
 21.33 
 8
1
x 2
1
+
dx +
(1)2 dx
(EI)CD 0
21.33
(EI)BC 0
1
(EI)AB

18. with IBC = 273 in4


11 =

61.42

20.5
7.11
8.0
0.0585
+
+
=
(EI)AB
(EI)CD
(EI)BC
E

(21.31-a)
(21.31-b)

(21.32)

Note that the numerators of 1Q and 11 have the units k-ft2 /in4 .
19. Applying the compatibility equation,
2.75 0.0585
+
R1 = 0
E
E

(21.33)

and the bending moment at point B is R1 = 47.0 ft-k . The reactions and moments in the structure
are given in Figure 21.8-f.

Example 21-3: Redundant Truss Analysis, (White et al. 1976)


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Structural Engineering

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STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Figure 21.9:
Determine the bar forces in the steel truss shown below using the force method of analysis. The truss
is part of a supporting tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on
the tank.
Solution:
1. Applying the criteria for indeterminacy, 2 4 = 8 equations, 6 members + 3 reactions one degree
of indeterminacy. A longitudinal release in any of the six bars may be chosen.
2. Because the truss members carry only axial load, a longitudinal release is identical to actually cutting
the member and removing its axial force capability from the truss.
3. In analyzing trusses with double diagonals it is both convenient and customary to select the release
in one of the diagonal members because the resulting primary structure will be the conventional truss
form to which we are accustomed.
4. Choosing the diagonal member BC for release, we cut it and remove its axial stiness from the
structure. The primary structure is shown in Figure 21.9-b.
5. The analysis problem reduces to applying an equation of compatibility to the changes in length of
the release member. The relative displacement D1Q of the two cut ends of member BC, as produced by
the real loading, is shown in Figure 21.9-c.
6. The displacement is always measured along the length of the redundant member, and since the
redundant is unstressed at this stage of the analysis, the displacement D1Q is equal to the relative
displacement of joint B with respect to joint C.
7. This displacement must be eliminated by the relative displacements of the cut ends of member BC
when the redundant force is acting in the member. The latter displacement is written in terms of the
axial exibility coecient f11 , and the desire equation of consistent deformation is
D1Q + f11 R1 = 0

(21.34)

1 D1Q = P (l) = P (P L/AE)

(21.35)

8. The quantity D1Q is given by

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21.4 Examples

2113

where P and P are given in Figure 21.9-d and c, respectively.


9. Similarly,
f11 = P (P L/AE)

(21.36)

Draft

10. Evaluating these summations in tabular form:


Member
AB
BC
CD
AC
AD
BC

P
0
0
+20
+20
28.28
0

P
0.707
0.707
0.707
0.707
+1
+1

L
3
3
3
3
4.242
4.242

P P L
0
0
42.42
42.42
119.96
0
-204.8

P P L
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
4.242
4.242
14.484

11. Since A = constant for each member


D1Q = P
then

204.8
PL
14.484
=
andf11 =
AE
AE
AE

(21.37)

1
[204.8 + 14.484R1] = 0
AE

(21.38)

12. The solution for the redundant force value is R1 = 14.14 kN .


13. The nal values for forces in each of the truss members are given by superimposing the forces due
to the redundant and the forces due to the real loading.
14. The real loading forces are shown in Figure 21.9-c while the redundant force eect is computed by
multiplying the member forces in Figure 21.9-d by 2.83, the value of the redundant.
15. It is informative to compare the member forces from this solution to the approximate analysis
obtained by assuming that the double diagonals each carry half the total shear in the panel. The
comparison is given in Figure 21.10; it reveals that the approximate analysis is the same as the exact

Figure 21.10:
analysis for this particular truss. The reason for this is that the stiness provided by each of the diagonal
members (against shear deformation of the rectangular panel) is the same, and therefore they each
carry an equal portion of the total shear across the panel.
16. How would this structure behave if the diagonal members were very slender?

Example 21-4: Truss with Two Redundants, (White et al. 1976)


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Another panel with a second redundant member is added to the truss of Example 21-3 and the new
truss is supported at its outermost lower panel points, as shown in Figure 21.11. The truss, which is
similar in form to trusses used on many railway bridges, is to be analyzed for bar forces under the given
loading.
Solution:
1. The twice redundant truss is converted to a determinate primary structure by releasing two members
of the truss; we choose two diagonals (DB and BF ).
2. Releasing both diagonals in a single panel, such as members AE and DB, is inadmissible since it
leads to an unstable truss form.
3. The member forces and required displacements for the real loading and for the two redundant forces

Figure 21.11:
in members DB and BF are given in Figure 21.11.
4. Although the real loading ordinarily stresses all members of the entire truss, we see that the unit forces
corresponding to the redundants stres only those members in the panel that contains the redundant; all
other bar forces are zero.
5. Recognizing this fact enables us to solve the double diagonal truss problem more rapidly than a frame
with multiple redundants.
6. The virtual work equations for computing the six required displacements (two due to load and four
exibilities) are


PL
1 D1Q = P 1
(21.39-a)
AE


PL
1 D2Q = P 2
(21.39-b)
AE


P 1L
1 f11 = P 1
(21.39-c)
AE


P 1L
1 f21 = P 2
(21.39-d)
AE
= f21 by the reciprocal theorem
(21.39-e)
f12
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Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2115

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1 f22

= P 2

P 2L
AE

(21.39-f)

7. If we assume tension in a truss member as postive, use tensile unit loads when computing the exibility
coecients corresponding to the redundants, and let all displacement terms carry their own signs, then
in the solution for the redundants a positive value of force indicates tension while a negative value means
the member is in compression.
8. The calculation of f22 involves only the six members in the left panel of the truss; f21 involves only
member BE.
9. The simple procedures used for performing the displacement analyses, as summarized in tabular form
in Table 21.2, leads one quickly to the compatibility equations which state that the cut ends of both
Member
AB
BC
CF
EF
DE
AD
AE
BE
CE
BD
BF

P
-9.5
-9.5
-9.5
0
+4
-5.5
+7.78
.15
+13.43
0
0

P1
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
-0.707
+1
-0.707
0
+1
0

P2
0
-0.707
-0.707
-0.707
0
0
0
-0.707
+1
0
+1

L
120
120
120
120
120
120
170
120
170
170
170

D1Q
P 1 P L
+806
0
0
0
-340
+466
+1,322
+1,272
0
0
0
+3,528

D2Q
P 2 P L
0
+806
+806
0
0
0
0
+1272
+2,280
0
0
+5,164

f11
P 1 P 1 L
60
0
0
0
60
60
170
60
0
170
0
+580

f21
P 2 P 1 L
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
60
0
0
0
+60

f22
P 2 P 2 L
0
60
60
60
0
0
0
60
170
0
170
+580

Table 21.2:
redundant members must match (there can be no gaps or overlaps of members in the actual structure).
10. The equations are

or

1
AE

D1Q + f11 R1 + f12 R2

= 0

(21.40-a)

D2Q + f21 R1 + f22 R2

= 0

(21.40-b)

580 60
60 580



R1
R2


=

1
AE

3, 528
5, 164


(21.41)

and
R1

5.20 k

(21.42-a)

R2

8.38 k

(21.42-b)

11. The nal set of forces in the truss is obtained by adding up, for each member, the three separate
eects. In terms of the forces shown in Figure 21.11 and Table 21.2, the force in any member is given by
F = P + R1 P 1 + R2 P 2 . The nal solution is given in Figure 21.11-e. The truss is part of a supporting
tower for a tank, and the 20 kN horizontal load is produced by wind loading on the tank.
12. NOTE: A mixture of internal redundant forces and external redundant reactions is no more dicult
than the preceding example. Consider the two-panel truss of this example modied by the addition of
another reaction component at joint E, Figure 21.12. The three releases for this truss can be chosen
from a number of possible combinations: diagonals DB and BF and the reaction at E; the same two
diagonals and the reaction at F ; the same diagonals and the top chord member BC, etc. The only
requirement to be met is that the primary structure be stable and statically determinate.
13. For any set of releases there are four new displacement components: the displacement at the third
release resulting from the actual load on the primary structure, and the three exibility coecients
f31 , f32 , and f33 . Judicious choice of releases often results in a number of the exibility coecients being
zero
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Figure 21.12:

Example 21-5: Analysis of Nonprismatic Members, (White et al. 1976)


The nonprismatic beam of Figure 21.13-a is loaded with an end moment MA at its hinged end A.
Determine the moment induced at the xed end B by this loading.

Figure 21.13:
Solution:
1. The beam has one redundant force; we select MB as the redundant R1 , and obtain the primary
structure shown in Figure 21.13-c. It can be shown that the exibility co-ecients for unit moments
applied at each end are those shown in Fig. 21.13-d and e, with a sign convention of counterclockwise
as positive.
2. The equation of consistent displacements at B is

3 l
MA l
+
R1 = 0
8EI
16 EI

(21.43)

and the value of MB is


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21.4 Examples

2117

Draft

2
MA
(21.44)
3
3. The resulting moment diagram is given in Figure 21.13-f. We note that the inection point is 0.40l
from the xed end. If the beam had a uniform value of I across its span, the inection point would be
L/3 from the xed end. Thus the inection point shifts toward the section of reduced stiness.
4. The end rotation A is given by


l
11 MA l
5 MA l 1 2

MA
=
(21.45)
a =
16 EI
8 3
EL
48 EI
MB = R1 =

5. The ratio of applied end moment to rotation. MA /A , is called the rotational stiness and is
EI
48 EI
MA
= 4.364
=
A
11 l
l

(21.46)

6. If we now reverse the boundary conditions, making A xed and B hinged, and repeat the analysis for
an applied moment MB , the resulting moment diagram will be as given in Figure 21.13-h. The moment
induced at end A is only 40% of the applied end moment MB . The inection point is 0.286l from the
xed end A. The corresponding end rotation B in Figure 21.13-g is
B =
7. The rotational stiness

MB
B

11 MB l
80 EI

(21.47)

is
EI
MB
80 EI
= 7.272
=
B
11 l
l

(21.48)

8. A careful comparison of the rotational stinesses, and of the moment diagrams in Figures 21.13-f and
h, illustrate the fact that exural sections of increased stiness attract more moment, and that inection
points always shift in the direction of decreased stiness.
9. The approach illustrated here may be used to determine moments and end rotations in any type of
nonprismatic member. The end rotations needed in the force analysis may be calculated by either virtual
work or moment area (or by other methods). Complex variations in EI are handled by numerical integration of the virtual work equation or by approximating the resultant M/EI areas and their locations
in the moment area method.

Example 21-6: Fixed End Moments for Nonprismatic Beams, (White et al. 1976)
The beam of example 21-5, with both ends xed, is loaded with a uniform load w, Figure 21.14-a.
Determine the xed end moments MA and MB .
Solution:
1. The beam has two redundant forces and we select MA and MB . Releasing these redundants, R1 and
R2 , the primary structure is as shown in Figure 21.14-c.
2. The equations of consistent deformations are
D1Q + f11 R1 + f12 R2

= 0

(21.49-a)

D2Q + f21 R1 + f22 R2

= 0

(21.49-b)

where R1 is MA and R2 is MB .
3. The values of D1Q and D2Q , the end rotations produced by the real loading on the primary structure,
can be computed by the virtual work method.
4. The exibility coecients are also separately derived (not yet in these notes) and are given in Figures
21.14-d and e of the previous example.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2118

Draft

STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Figure 21.14:
5. We dene counterclockwise end moments and rotations a positive and obtain


 5


l
wl3 0.352
R1
81
16
=
3
R2
EI 18
EI +0.0273
16

(21.50)

from which
R1

MA = 0.0742wl2

(21.51-a)

R2

MB = 0.0961wl2

(21.51-b)

6. The stier end of the beam attracts 30% more than the exible end.
7. For a prismatic beam with constant I, the xed end moments are equal in magnitude (MA = MB =
wl2 /12) and intermediate in value between the two end moments determined above.
8. Fixed end moments are an essential part of indeterminate analysis based on the displacement (stiness) method and will be used extensively in the Moment Distribution method.

Example 21-7: Rectangular Frame; External Load, (White et al. 1976)


Solution:
1. The structure is statically indeterminate to the third degree, and the displacements (exibility terms)
are shown in Fig. 21.15
2. In order to evaluate the 9 exility terms, Fig. 21.16 we refer to Table 21.3
3. Substituting h = 10 ft, L = 20 ft, and EIb = EIc = EI, the exibility matrix then becomes

2, 667 3, 000 300


1
3, 000 6, 667 400
[f ] =
(21.52)
EI
300 400
40
and the vector of displacements for the primary structure is

12, 833
1
31, 333
{D} =

EI
1, 800

(21.53)

where the units are kips and feet.


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2119

Draft

Figure 21.15:

Figure 21.16: Denition of Flexibility Terms for a Rigid Frame

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Victor Saouma

D3Q

D2Q

D1Q

f33

f32

f31

f23

f22

+ h(2h+10L20)
2

Lh(2h+10L20)
2

(2h+15L30)
6

+h

hL

h2

hL

+L2 h

+ h2L

(3010L)
6

L(205L)
2

+L

+ Lh(205L)
2

+L

L2

Lh

L2

+ L3

+ L2 h

Lh

+ L2 h

+Lh2

M M dx
BC

+h

h2

h2

+ h3

CD

(2h+15L30)
6EIc

h(2h+10L20)
2EIc

2h
+ EI
c

Lh(2h+10L20)
2EIc

hL
EI
c

h
EI
c

hL
EI
c

h
+L
EIc

h L
+ 2EI
c

h
EI
c

h L
+ 2EI
c

M
M EI
dx
Total

2h
+ 3EI
c

Table 21.3: Displacement Computations for a Rectangular Frame

f21

h2

f13

+ h2L

f12

+ h3

AB

f11

L(205L)
2EIb

L2 (3010L)
6EIb

Lh(205L)
2EIb

L
EIb

L2
2EIb

Lh
EIb

L2
2EIb

L3
3EIb

L2 h
2EIb

Lh
EIb

L2 h
2EIb

Lh2
EIb

Draft

2120
STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2121

Draft

4. The inverse of the exibility matrix is

[f ]1

2.40
0.00 18.00
= 103 EI 0.00 0.375 3.750
18.000 3.750 197.5

(21.54)

5. Hence the reactions are determined from

2.40
0.00 18.00
1.60
R1
12, 833
1
+5.00
R2
31, 333
= 103 EI 0.00 0.375 3.750
{R} =
=

EI
7.00
R3
1, 800
18.000 3.750 197.5

(21.55)

Example 21-8: Frame with Temperature Eectsand Support Displacements, (White et al. 1976)

The single bay frame, of example 21-7, has a height h = 10 ft and span L = 20 ft and its two suports
rigidly connected and is constructed of reinforced concrete. It supports a roof and wall partitions in
such a manner that a linear temperature variation occurs across the depth of the frame members when
inside and outside temperatures dier. Assume the member depth is constant at 1 ft, and that the
structure was built with xed bases A and D at a temperature of 85 F. The temperature is now 70 F
inside and 20 F outside. We wish to determine the reactions at D under these conditions. Assume that
the coecient of linear expansion of reinforced concrete is = 0.0000055/F.
Solution:
1. Our analysis proceeds as before, using Equation 21.11 with the [D] vector interpreted appropriately.
The three releases shown in Fig. 21.16 will be used.
2. The rst stage in the analysis is the computation of the relative displacements D1 , D2 , D3 of the
primary structure caused by temperature eects. These displacements are caused by two eects: axial
shortening of the members because of the drop in average temperature (at middepth of the members),
and curvature of the members because of the temperature gradient.
3. In the following discussion the contributions to displacements due to axial strain are denoted with a
single prime () and those due to curvature by a double prime ().
4. Consider the axial strain rst. A unit length of frame member shortens as a result of the temperature
decrease from 85 F to 45 F at the middepth of the member. The strain is therefore
T = (0.0000055)(40) = 0.00022

(21.56)

5. The eect of axial strain on the relative displacements needs little analysis. The horizontal member
shortens by an amount (0.00022)(20) = 0.0044 ft. The shortening of the vertical members results in no
relative displacement in the vertical direction 2. No rotation occurs.



6. We therefore have D1
= 0.0044 ft, D2
= 0, and D3
= 0.
7. The eect of curvature must also be considered. A frame element of length dx undergoes an angular
strain as a result of the temperature gradient as indicated in Figure 21.17. The change in length at an
extreme ber is
I = T dx = 0.0000055(25)dx = 0.000138dx
(21.57)
8. with the resulting real rotation of the cross section
d = I/0.5 = 0.000138dx/0.5 = 0.000276dx radians

(21.58)

9. The relative displacements of the primary structure at D are found by the virtual force method.
10. A virtual force Q is applied in the direction of the desired displacement and the resulting moment
diagram M determined.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2122

STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Draft

Figure 21.17:
11. The virtual work equation


QD =

M d

(21.59)

is used to obtain each of the desired displacements D.


12. The results, which you should verify, are

D1

0.0828 ft

(21.60-a)


D2

0.1104 ft

(21.60-b)


D3

0.01104 radians

(21.60-c)

13. Combining the eects of axial and rotational strain, we have


D1
D2
D3

=
=
=



D1
+ D1


D2 + D2


D3 + D3

=
=
=

0.0784 ft
0.1104 ft
0.01104 radians

(21.61)

14. We now compute the redundants caused by temperature eects:


[R] = [f ]1 ([D])

(21.62)



R1
0.0784
$
%
R2 = 103 EI 18.0 3.75 197.5 0.1104 = +0.0106 103 EI
+0.355
R3
+0.01104

(21.63)

where the units are feet and kips.


15. You should construct the moment diagram for this structure using the values of the redundants
found in the analysis.
16. Notice that the stiness term EI does not cancel out in this case. Internal forces and reactions
in a statically indeterminate structure subject to eects other than loads (such as temperature) are
dependent on the actual stinesses of the structure.
17. The eects of axial strain caused by forces in the members have been neglected in this analysis.
This is usual for low frames where bending strain dominates behavior. To illustrate the signicance of
this assumption, consider member BC. We have found R1 = 10.6 106 EI k. The tension in BC has
this same value, resulting in a strain for the member of 10.6 106 EI/EA. For a rectangular member,
I/A = (bd3 /12)(bd) = d2 /12. In our case d = 1 ft, therefore the axial strain is 10.6 106 (0.0833) =
8.83 107 , which is several orders of magnitude smaller than the temperature strain computed for the
same member. We may therefore rest assured that neglecting axial strain caused by forces does not
aect the values of the redundants in a signicant manner for this structure.
18. Now consider the eects of foundation movement on the same structure. The indeterminate frame
behavior depends on a structure that we did not design: the earth. The earth is an essential part of
nearly all structures, and we must understand the eects of foundation behavior on structural behavior.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2123

Draft

For the purposes of this example, assume that a foundation study has revealed the possibility of a
clockwise rotation of the support at D of 0.001 radians and a downward movement of the support at D
of 0.12 ft. We wish to evaluate the redundants R1 , R2 , and R3 caused by this foundation movement.
19. No analysis is needed to determine the values of D1 , D2 , and D3 for the solution of the redundants. These displacements are found directly from the support movements, with proper consideration
of the originally chosen sign convention which dened the positive direction of the relative displacements.
From the given support displacements, we nd D1 = 0, D2 = +0.12 ft, and D3 = 0.001 radians.
Can you evaluate these quantities for a case in which the support movements occurred at A instead of
D?
20. The values of the redundants is given by
[R] = [f ]1 ([D])

(21.64)





R1
$
% 0.12
18.0
6
R2 = 103 EI 18.0 3.75 197.5
= 10 EI
252.5
+0.001
R3

(21.65)

with units in kips and feet.


21. A moment diagram may now be constructed, and other internal force quantities computed from
the now known values of the redundants. The redundants have been valuated separately for eects of
temperature and foundation settlement. These eects may be combined with those due to loading using
the principle of superposition.

Example 21-9: Braced Bent with Loads and Temperature Change, (White et al. 1976)

The truss shown in Figure 21.18 reperesents an internal braced bent in an enclosed shed, with
lateral loads of 20 kN at the panel points. A temperature drop of 30 C may occur on the outer members
(members 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, and 5-6). We wish to analyze the truss for the loading and for the temperature
eect.
Solution:
1. The rst step in the analysis is the denition of the two redundants. The choice of forces in diagonals
2-4 and 1-5 as redundants facilitates the computations because some of the load eects are easy to
analyze. Figure ??-b shows the denition of R1 and R2 .
2. The computations are organized in tabular form in Table 21.4. The rst column gives the bar forces
P in the primary structure caused by the actual loads. Forces are in kN. Column 2 gives the force in each
bar caused by a unit load (1 kN) corresponding to release 1. These are denoted p1 and also represent the
bar force q1 /Q1 caused by a virtual force Q1 applied at the same location. Column 3 lists the same
quantity for a unit load and for a virtual force Q2 applied at release 2. These three columns constitute
a record of the truss analysis needed for this problem.
3. Column 4 gives the value of L/EA for each bar in terms of Lc /EAc of the vertical members. This is
useful because the term L/EA cancels out in some of the calculations.
4. The method of virtual work is applied directly to compute the displacements D1Q and D2Q corresponding to the releases and caused by the actual loads. Apply a virtual force Q1 at release 1. The
internal virtual forces q1 are found in column 2. The internal virtual work q1 l is found in column 5 as
the product of columns 1, 2, and 4. The summation of column 5 is D1q = 122.42 Lc /EAc . Similarly,
column 6 is the product of columns 1, 3, and 4, giving D2Q = 273.12 Lc /EAc .
5. The same method is used to compute the exibilities fij . In this case the real loading is a unit load
corresponding rst to release 1 leading to f11 , and f21 , and then to release 2 leading to f12 and f22 .
Column 7 shows the computation for f11 . It is the product of column 2 representing force due to the
real unit load with column 2 representing force due to a virtual load Q1 at the same location (release
1) multiplied by column 4 to include the Lc /EAc term. Column 8 derives from columns 2, 3, and 4 and
leads to f21 . Columns 9 and 10 are the computations for the remaining exibilities.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Victor Saouma

multiply by
1-2
60.0
2-3
20.00
3-4
0
4-5
0
5-6
20.00
6-1
40.00
2-5
20.00
1-5
0
2-6
56.56
2-4
0
3-5
28.28

0
0.707
0.707
0.707
0
0
0.707
0
0
1.00
1.00

p1
0.707
0
0
0
0.707
0.707
0.707
1.00
1.00
0
0

p2

L/EA
Lc /EAc
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
2.828
2.828
2.828
2.838

D1Q
q1 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
14.14
0
0
0
0
28.28
0
0
0
80.00
122.42

D2Q
q2 P L/EA
Lc /EAc
42.42
0
0
0
14.14
56.56
28.28
0
160.00
0
0
273.12

f11
q1 p1 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0.50
1.00
0.50
0
0
1.00
0
0
2.83
2.83
8.66

f21
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00

f12
qp2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.00
0
0
0
0
1.00

f22
q2 p2 L/EA
Lc /EAc
0.50
0
0
0
0.50
1.00
1.00
2.83
2.83
0
0
8.66

/temp
Lc
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0.0003
0
0
0
0
0
0

D1
q1 /
104 Lc
0
2.12
2.12
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6.36

D2
q2 /
104 Lc
2.12
0
0
0
2.12
0
0
0
0
0
0
4.24

Draft

2124
STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

Structural Engineering

21.4 Examples

2125

Draft

Figure 21.18:
6. We have assumed that a temperature drop of 30 C occurs in the outer members. The corresponding
length changes are found in column 11. Again using the virtual work method, column 12 tabulates the
internal virtual work of virtual forces q1 through displacements l where for each bar, l = lT .
Column 12 is therefore the product of columns 2 and 11. The summation of the elements of column 12
is the displacement D1 corresponding to release 1. Column 13 repeats this process for D2 corresponding
to release 2.
7. The tabulated information provides the necessary terms for a matrix solution of the problem. We
have


Dq

therefore
f 1 =


8.66 1.00
Lc /EAc
1.00 8.66


122.42
Lc /EAc
273.12


6.36
(10)4 Lc
4.24

0.117
0.0134
0.0134 0.117

(21.66-a)
(21.66-b)
(21.66-c)


EAc /Lc

(21.67)

8. The redundant forces due to the applied loading are


R

=
=

f 1 (DQ )




$
%
10.66
122.42
0.0134 0.117 EAc /Lc
Lc /EAc =
30.32
273.12

(21.68-a)
(21.68-b)

9. thus R1 = 10.66 kN, R2 = 30.32 kN.


10. The redundant forces due to the temperature drop are R = f 1 (D )




$
%
6.87
6.36
105 EAc
104 Lc =
= 0.0134 0.117 EAc /Lc
4.11
4.24
11. Thus with E = 200 kN/mm2 , Ac = 500 mm2 , we have
R1 =
R2 =
Victor Saouma

6.87(105)(200)(500) =
4.11(10

)(200)(500) =

6.87kN

(21.69-a)

4.11kN

(21.69-b)
Structural Engineering

2126

Draft

STATIC INDETERMINANCY; FLEXIBILITY METHOD

12. Using the redundant forces from each of these analyses, the remainder of the bar forces are computed
by simple equilibrium. The information in Table 21.4 contains the basis for such computations. The bar
force in any bar is the force of column 1 added to that in column 2 multiplied by R1 plus that in column
3 multiplied by R2 . This follows from the fact that columns 2 and 3 are bar forces caused by a force
of unity corresponding to each of the redundants. The results of the calculations are shown in Figure
??-c for the applied loading and ??-d for the temperature drop. The forces caused by the temperature
drop are similar in magnitude to those caused by wind load in this example. Temperature dierences,
shrinkage, support settlement, or tolerance errors can cause important eects in statically indeterminate
structures. These stresses are self-limiting, however, in the sense that if they cause yielding or some
ductile deformation failure does not necessarily follow, rather relief from th

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 22

APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1

Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justied by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of an ultimate
failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties

Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.

We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).

Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.

In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.

6 The key to the approximate analysis method is our ability to sketch the deected shape of a structure
and identify inection points.
7 We begin by considering a uniformly loaded beam and frame. In each case we consider an extreme
end of the restraint: a) free or b) restrained. For the frame a relativly exible or sti column would be
analogous to a free or xed restrain on the beam, Fig. 22.1.

22.1
8

Vertical Loads

With reference to Fig. 22.1, we now consider an intermediary case as shown in Fig. 22.2.

9 With the location of the inection points identied, we may now determine all the reactions and
internal forces from statics.

If we now consider a multi-bay/multi-storey frame, the girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders,
we may make the following assumptions

10

1. Girders at each oor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.


2. Inection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.

222

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

111
000
000
111

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

111
000
000
111

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
2

wL/24
2

wL/12

0.21 L

0.21 L

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000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

111111111111111111
000000000000000000
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000000000000000000
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0000
1111
000
111
0000
1111
000
111

111
000
000
111
000
111

1111
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000

111
000
000
111
000
111

111
000
000
111
111
000

Figure 22.1: Uniformly Loaded Beam and Frame with Free or Fixed Beam Restraint

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.1 Vertical Loads

223

Draft

11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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00000000000000000
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000
111
000
111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
111
000
111
000
111
111
000
000

0.5H

0.5H

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000
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000
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1111
0000
111
1111
000
0000

111
000
000
111
000
111

1111
0000
0000
1111
0000
1111

111
000
000
111
000
111

0.1 L

111
000
000
111
000
111

0.1 L

Figure 22.2: Uniformly Loaded Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

224

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns above and
below the oor.

Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls equal to 0.8
the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the inection point is
at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending on the nature of the
connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for the approximate location of
the hinge).

11

12

End forces are given by

Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 22.3

Mrgt

lft

Vrgt
Vlft
0.1L

0.1L

0.8L
L

Figure 22.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments

M+ =

1
1
wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2
8
8

(22.1)

Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 22.3
w
w
M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2
2
2

(22.2)

Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 22.4
V lf t =

Victor Saouma

wL
2

V rgt =

wL
2

(22.3)

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

225

Draft

Pabove

Vrgti-1

Vlfti

Pbelow

Figure 22.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the
column above it. Fig. 22.4
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi1
Vilf t

(22.4)

Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 22.5
rgt
bot
M top = Mabove
Mi1
+ Milf t

M bot = M top

(22.5)

Column Shear Points of inection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns on
the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 22.5

V =

M top
h
2

(22.6)

Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears above and
below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.

22.2

Horizontal Loads

Again, we begin by considering a simple frame subjected to a horizontal force, Fig. 22.6. depending
on the boundary conditions, we will have dierent locations for the inection points.

13

For the analysis of a multi-bays/multi-storeys frame, we must dierentiate between low and high rise
buildings.

14

Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the deected
shape is characterized by shear deformations.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

226

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

h/2

h/2
Mcolabove

lft
i-1

Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt

Vi-1lft

Li-1

Mirgt

Milft

Virgt

Vilft

Mcolbelow

Li
h/2

h/2

Figure 22.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

227

Draft

PH
2

PH
2

PH
4

PH
4

H
P
2

P
2
111
000
111
000

111
000
111
000

PH
L

PH
L
L

P
I

P
2
000
111
000
111
000
111

PH
2L

000
111

P
2

000
111
111
PH 000
4
PH
2L

PH
4

111
000
000
111

111
000
000
111

PH
4

PH
4

Figure 22.6: Horizontal Force Acting on a Frame, Approximate Location of Inection Points

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

228

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the
deected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation.

22.2.1

Portal Method

Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the approximate
analysis of this type of structure is based on

15

1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.


2. Location of inection points.
16

The portal method is based on the following assumptions


1. Inection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second oor.
(b) Mid-height of oor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any oor level will be distributed among
these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as much horizontal shear as each
interior columns of the frame.

17

Forces are obtained from

Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the columns at
each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 22.7

H/2

H/2

Figure 22.7: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
*
V ext =

Victor Saouma

F lateral

2No. of bays

V int = 2V ext

(22.7)

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

229

Draft

Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half the height
of the corresponding column, Fig. 22.7
M top = V

h
2

M bot = M top

(22.8)

Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 22.8

h/2

h/2
Mcolabove

lft
i-1

Mi-1rgt
Vi-1rgt

Vi-1lft

Li-1/2

Li-1/2

Mirgt

Milft

Virgt

Vilft

Mcolbelow

Li/2

Li/2

h/2

h/2

Figure 22.8: ***Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment

rgt
above
below
Milf t = Mcol
Mcol
+ Mi1

Mirgt = Milf t

(22.9)

Girder Shears Since there is an inection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear is obtained
by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 22.8
V lf t =

2M
L

V rgt = V lf t

(22.10)

Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the column
above, Fig. ??
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t

Victor Saouma

(22.11)

Structural Engineering

2210

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft
Pabove

Vrgti-1

Vlfti

Pbelow

Figure 22.9: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
In either case, you should always use a free body diagram in conjunction with this method, and
never rely on a blind application of the formulae.

18

Example 22-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:

0.25K/ft

15K

30K

12

9
1

13
0.50

K/ft

10

14

30

14

11
3

20

16

24

Figure 22.10: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building

Vertical Loads
The analysis should be conducted in conjunction with the free body diagram shown in Fig. 22.11.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2211

6.5
0.51

0.8

6.0
13.0

6.5

0.45

0.7
4.5

6.0

7.5
3.6

0.7

0.56

0.93
3.6

13.0

20.2

5.6

3.6

20.2

7.5

5.0
9.0

9.0
4.5
0.56

0.93

0.51
5.6

5.0

4.5

6.5

3.6

0.8

0.64

3.0

3.0

3.75

5.6

0.64

6.5

10.1

4.5

10.1

3.75

2.5
4.5

4.5

2.5

Draft

0.81

0.45
5.6

3.6

0.81
6.5

Figure 22.11: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Vertical Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2212

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

1. Top Girder Moments


lf t
M12
cnt
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
cnt
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
cnt
M14
rgt
M14

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

0.045w12L212 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2
0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2
lf t
M12
0.045w13L213 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2
0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2
lf t
M13
0.045w14L214 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2
0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2
lf t
M14

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

4.5 k.ft
8.0 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
18.0 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
11.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft

0.045w9 L29 = (0.045)(0.5)(20)2


0.08w9 L29 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2
M9lf t
0.045w10 L210 = (0.045)(0.5)(30)2
0.08w10 L210 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2
lf t
M11
0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.5)(24)2
0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2
lf t
M12

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

9.0 k.ft
16.0 k.ft
9.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
36.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
23.0 k.ft
13.0 k.ft

2. Bottom Girder Moments


M9lf t
M9cnt
M9rgt
lf t
M10
cnt
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
cnt
M11
rgt
M11

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

3. Top Column Moments


M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
M7top
M7bot
M8top
M8bot

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

lf t
+M12
M5top
rgt
lf t
M12
+ M13
= (4.5) + (10.1)
top
M6
rgt
lf t
M13
+ M14
= (10.1) + (6.5)
M7top
rgt
M14
= (6.5)
M8top

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5

k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft

4. Bottom Column Moments


M1top
M1bot
M2top
M2bot
M3top
M3bot
M4top
M4bot

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

+M5bot + M9lf t = 4.5 9.0


M1top
lf t
+M6bot M9rgt + M10
= 5.6 (9.0) + (20.3)
top
M2
rgt
lf t
+M7bot M10
+ M11
= 3.6 (20.3) + (13.0)
top
M3
rgt
+M8bot M11
= 6.5 (13.0)
top
M4

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

4.5 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
5.6 k.ft
5.6 k.ft
3.6 k.ft
3.6 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft

5. Top Girder Shear


lf t
V12
rgt
V12
lf t
V13
rgt
V13
lf t
V14
rgt
V14

Victor Saouma

=
=
=
=
=
=

w12 L12
2
lf t
V12
w13 L13
2
lf t
V13
w14 L14
2
lf t
V14

(0.25)(20)
2

(0.25)(30)
2

(0.25)(24)
2

=
=
=
=
=
=

2.5 k
2.5 k
3.75 k
3.75 k
3.0 k
3.0 k

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2213

Draft

0.25K/ft

12

13
0.50

10

20

30

+8.0k

+18.0k

-4.5k
+16.0k

-9.0

-20.2

+4.5k

+5.6k
-4.5k

+4.5k

+5.6k

-5.6k

-5.6

16

24
+11.5k
-6.5k

+23.0

+32.0k
k

14

11

-10.1k -10.1k -6.5

-9.0k

-4.5k

-4.5k

14

K/ft

k
-20.2k -13.0

+3.6k

-13.0k

+6.5k

-3.6k
-6.5k
k
+3.6
+6.5
k

-3.6k

-6.5k

Figure 22.12: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2214

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

6. Bottom Girder Shear


V9lf t
V9rgt
lf t
V10
rgt
V10
lf t
V11
rgt
V11

= w92L9 = (0.5)(20)
2
= V9lf t
= w102L10 = (0.5)(30)
2
lf t
= V10
= w112L11 = (0.5)(24)
2
lf t
= V11

7. Column Shears
V5

V6

V7

V8

V1

V2

V3

V4

M5top
H5
2
M6top
H6
2
M7top
H7
2
M8top
H8
2
M1top
H1
2
M2top
H2
2
M3top
H3
2
M4top
H4
2

=
=
=
=
=
=

5.00 k
5.00 k
7.50 k
7.50 k
6.00 k
6.00 k

4.5

= 0.64 k

5.6

= 0.80 k

3.6

0.52 k

6.5

0.93 k

=
=

14
2
14
2

14
2
14
2

4.5

= 0.56 k

5.6

= 0.70 k

3.6

0.46 k

6.5

0.81 k

=
=

16
2
16
2

16
2
16
2

8. Top Column Axial Forces


P5
P6
P7
P8

=
=
=
=

lf t
V12
rgt
lf t
V12
+ V13
= (2.50) + 3.75
rgt
lf t
V13
+ V14
= (3.75) + 3.00
rgt
V14

=
=
=
=

2.50
6.25
6.75
3.00

k
k
k
k

9. Bottom Column Axial Forces


P1
P2
P3
P4

=
=
=
=

P5 + V9lf t = 2.50 + 5.0


rgt
P6 V10
+ V9lf t = 6.25 (5.00) + 7.50
rgt
lf t
P7 V11 + V10
= 6.75 (7.50) + 6.0
rgt
P8 V11
= 3.00 (6.00)

=
=
=
=

7.5 k
18.75 k
20.25 k
9.00 k

Horizontal Loads, Portal Method


1. Column Shears
V5
V6
V7
V8
V1
V2
V3
V4

Victor Saouma

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

15
(2)(3)

=
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) =
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5) =
V5
=
15+30
=
(2)(3)
2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5) =
2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5) =
V1
=

2.5 k
5k
5k
2.5 k
7.5 k
15 k
15 k
7.5 k

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2215

Draft

+2.5K

+3.75K

+3.0K

-2.5K
K

+7.5

+5.0K

-3.75K
K

+6.0

-5.0K

-0.64K

-0.56K

-3.0K

-0.80K

-0.70K

-6.0K

-7.5K

+0.51K

+0.45K

+0.93K

+0.81K

Figure 22.13: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2216

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Height
14
16

Span
Load
Load

APROXVER.XLS

Victor E. Saouma

L1
20
0.25
0.5

L2
L3
30
24
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Cnt Rgt
Lft Cnr Rgt
Lft Cnt Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA -10.1 18.0 -10.1AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA -4.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAA
A -6.5
8.0 -4.5 AAAA
11.5 -6.5 AAAA
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AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
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AAAA
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AAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
-4.5 AAAA
-5.6
3.6
6.5
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA
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AA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
4.5 AAAA
5.6
-3.6
-6.5
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
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AAAA
A
A -9.0 16.0
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA -20.3 36.0 -20.3AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -13.0 23.0 -13.0 AAAA
-9.0 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AA
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AAA
-4.5 AAAA
-5.6
3.6
6.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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4.5 AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAA
SHEAR
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
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AAAA -2.50 AAAAAAAA
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AAAAA 2.50AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAA 3.75 AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA -3.00 AAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAA
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AAAA -3.75AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAA
A 3.00 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAA
AAA
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AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
-0.64 AAAA
-0.80
0.52
0.93
AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AA
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A
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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AAAA
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AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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Figure 22.14: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Victor Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5

H
L2
30
0.25
0.5

APROXVER.XLS

M
L3
24
0.25
0.5

Victor E. Saouma

=-0.045*D5*D3^2 =0.08*D5*D3*D3 =+D13

=-F13+I13+G12
=-G14

=-0.045*I5*I3^2 =0.08*I5*I3*I3 =+I13

=-K13+N13+L12
=-L14

=-0.045*N5*N3^2 =0.08*N5*N3*N3 =+N13

=-P13+Q12
=-Q14

=+C28+D22

Bay 2
Beam
0

=+I3*I5/2

=-I22

Column

=2*L14/A5

Bay 3
Beam
0

=+N3*N5/2

=-N22

Col

=2*Q14/A5

=+G28-F22+I22

=-F20+I20

=+L28-K22+N22

=-K20+N20

=+Q28-P22

=-P20

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=+D20

Column

AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Col

Beam
0

=2*G14/A5

=-D22

=2*C14/A5

=+D3*D5/2

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Bay 2
Bay 3
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Rgt
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A

SHEAR
Bay 1
Col

=+D13+C12
=-C14

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Bay 2
Bay 3
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Cnt
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft
Cnr
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft
Cnt
Rgt
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=-0.045*D4*D3^2
=0.08*D4*D3*D3
=+D10
=-0.045*I4*I3^2
=0.08*I4*I3*I3
=+I10
=-0.045*N4*N3^2
=0.08*N4*N3*N3
=N10
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=+D10
=-F10+I10
=-K10+N10
=-P10
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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MOMENTS
Bay 1
Col

29
30

Span
Load
Load

24
25
26
27
28

22
23

16
17
18
19
20
21

13
14
15

A
1
2
3 Height
4 14
5 16
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads

Draft

22.2 Horizontal Loads


2217

Figure 22.15: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Structural Engineering

35

35

30
60

120

60

77.5

35

120

7.5

7.5

35

77.5

77.5

17.5

77.5

2.5

17.5
5

77.5

2.5

17.5

2.5

60
15

15

120
15

2.5

77.5

17.5

17.5

17.5

15

17.5

17.5

Draft

17.5

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

17.5

2218

15

120

7.5

7.5

60

Figure 22.16: Free Body Diagram for the Approximate Analysis of a Frame Subjected to Lateral Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2219

Draft

2. Top Column Moments


M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
M7top
M7bot
M8top
M8bot

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

V1 H5
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M5
V6 H6
= (5)(14)
2
2
top
M6
up
V7 H7
= (5)(14)
2
2
M7top
V8up H8
= (2.5)(14)
2
2
top
M8

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
35.0 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft

3. Bottom Column Moments


M1top
M1bot

=
=

M2top
M2bot

=
=

M3top
M3bot

=
=

M4top
M4bot

=
=

V1dwn H1
2
M1top
V2dwn H2
2
M2top
V3dwn H3
2
M3top
V4dwn H4
2
M4top

(7.5)(16)
2

=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft

(15)(16)
2

=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft

(15)(16)
2

=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft

(7.5)(16)
2

=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft

4. Top Girder Moments


lf t
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
rgt
M14

=
=
=
=
=
=

M5top
lf t
M12
rgt
M12 + M6top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
+ M7top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M14

=
=
=
=
=
=

17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft
17.5 k.ft

5. Bottom Girder Moments


M9lf t
M9rgt
lf t
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
rgt
M11

=
=
=
=
=
=

M1top M5bot = 60 (17.5)


M9lf t
M9rgt + M2top M6bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M10
rgt
M10 + M3top M7bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M11

=
=
=
=
=
=

77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft
77.5 k.ft

6. Top Girder Shear


2M lf t

lf t
V12
rgt
V12

=
=

12
L12
= (2)(17.5)
20
lf t
+V12

=
=

1.75 k
1.75 k

lf t
V13
rgt
V13

=
=

13
L13
= (2)(17.5)
30
lf t
+V13

=
=

1.17 k
1.17 k

lf t
V14
rgt
V14

=
=

14
L14
= (2)(17.5)
24
lf t
+V14

=
=

1.46 k
1.46 k

V9lf t
V9rgt

=
=

L12
= (2)(77.5)
20
9
+V9lf t

=
=

7.75 k
7.75 k

lf t
V10
rgt
V10

=
=

10
L10
= (2)(77.5)
30
lf t
+V10

=
=

5.17 k
5.17 k

lf t
V11
rgt
V11

=
=

11
L11
= (2)(77.5)
24
lf t
+V11

=
=

6.46 k
6.46 k

2M lf t

2M lf t

7. Bottom Girder Shear

Victor Saouma

2M lf t

2M lf t

2M lf t

Structural Engineering

2220

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

15K

12

30K

13

10

20

+17.5K

-35K
+60K

-120K
+17.5K

-120K

+77.5

+77.5

+77.5

-77.5K

-17.5K

-60K

+17.5K

-17.5K
K

16

24

-35K
+120K

-60K

+17.5K

+35K

+35K

14

11

30

-17.5K
+120K

+60K

+17.5K

14

-17.5K

-17.5K

-77.5K

-77.5K

Figure 22.17: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2221

Draft

8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)


P5
P6
P7
P8

=
=
=
=

lf t
V12
=
rgt
lf t
+V12 V13 = 1.75 (1.17) =
rgt
lf t
+V13
V14
= 1.17 (1.46) =
rgt
V14 = 1.46 k

(1.75) k
0.58 k
0.29 k

9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)


P1
P2
P3
P4

=
=
=
=

P5 + V9lf t = 1.75 (7.75)


rgt
P6 + V10
+ V9lf t = 0.58 7.75 (5.17)
rgt
lf t
P7 + V11 + V10
= 0.29 5.17 (6.46)
rgt
P8 + V11 = 1.46 6.46

=
=
=
=

9.5 k
3.16 k
1.58 k
7.66 k

Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load, we now
seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 22.2.
Mem.

Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear

Vert.

Hor.

4.50
7.50
0.56
5.60
18.75
0.70
3.60
20.25
0.45
6.50
9.00
0.81
4.50
2.50
0.64
5.60
6.25
0.80
3.60
6.75
0.51
6.50
3.00
0.93

60.00
9.50
7.50
120.00
15.83
15.00
120.00
14.25
15.00
60.00
7.92
7.50
17.50
1.75
2.50
35.00
2.92
5.00
35.00
2.63
5.00
17.50
1.46
2.50

Design
Values
64.50
17.00
8.06
125.60
34.58
15.70
123.60
34.50
15.45
66.50
16.92
8.31
22.00
4.25
3.14
40.60
9.17
5.80
38.60
9.38
5.51
24.00
4.46
3.43

Table 22.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2222

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft
Portal Method

PORTAL.XLS

A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30

Victor E. Saouma

PORTAL METHOD
# of Bays

# of Storeys
2
Force Shear
H Lat. Tot Ext Int
H1

14 15 15 2.5

H2

16 30 45 7.5 15

L1
20

L2
L3
30
24
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
A 17.5 -17.5 AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 17.5 -17.5 AAAAAAAA
AAAA 17.5 -17.5AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
17.5 AAAA
35.0
35.0
17.5
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
-17.5 AAAA
-35.0
-35.0
-17.5
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAAAAAA
AAAA 77.5 -77.5AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
60.0 AAAA
120.0
120.0
60.0
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
-60.0 AAAA
-120.0
-120.0
-60.0
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
SHEAR
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA -1.75 -1.75 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA -1.46 -1.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -1.17 -1.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
2.50 AAAA
5.00
5.00
2.50
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
2.50 AAAA
5.00
5.00
2.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA -7.75 -7.75 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
7.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
7.50
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
0.00
0.00
0.00
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
1.75
-0.58
0.29
-1.46
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
0.00
0.00
0.00
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
9.50 AAAA
-3.17
1.58
-7.92
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

Figure 22.18: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

22.2 Horizontal Loads

2223

Draft

Portal Method

PORTAL.XLS

A
1 PORTAL METHOD

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

Victor E. Saouma

A
A
A
A
A

AA
AA
AA
AA
AA
AA

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A

AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A3
AL1
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAA
2 AAAA
# of Bays
L2
L3 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
3
A
A
A
A
A
A20
A
A
AA30
A
A
A 24
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A MOMENTS
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Bay 1
Bay 2 AA
Bay 3 AA
A
A
A2
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Force AA
Shear
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
6
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
H Lat. AA Tot
Ext
Lft
Lft
Lft
7
AInt
A Rgt
A Rgt
A Rgt
A
AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N8+O9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+J8+K9
A
A
=-I8 AAAA
=-M8 AAAA
=-Q8 AAAA
8
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F9*B9/2
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9*B9/2
H1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
14 AAAAA
15 AAAAAAAAAA
=+C9
=+D9/(2*$F$2)
9 AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
A=2*E9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+K9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H10
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAA =+K10
=-H9
10
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+O12-O10+N11 =-Q11 AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA=+K12-K10+J11 =-M11 AAAA
A
A
11
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H12-H10 =-I11 AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F12*B12/2
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H12
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
H2
16 30
=SUM($C$9:C12)
=+D12/(2*$F$2)
=2*E12
=+E12*B12/2
=+K12
12 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-K12
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+H13
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+K13
=-H12
13
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
14
A SHEAR
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Bay 1
Bay 2 AA
Bay 3
15 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
16
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
17
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA=-2*I8/I$3 =+I18 AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA =-2*Q8/Q$3
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
=-2*M8/M$3
=+M18
=+Q18
18
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+F9
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+E9
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+F9
A
A
A
A
A
A
=+E9
19
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K19
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S19
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+O19
A
A
A
A
A
A
=+H19
20
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*I11/I$3 =+I21 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-2*M11/M$3 =+M21AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =-2*Q11/Q$3
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
=+Q21AAAA
21
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
=+E12
22
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA=+F12
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA =+E12
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+F12
AAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA=+K22
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA=+S22
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+O22
A
A
A
A
A
A
=+H22
23
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
AA
A AAAAAA
A
A
A
A AAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
24
A AXIAL FORCE
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Bay 1
Bay 2 AA
Bay 3
25
A
A
A
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
26
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAA0
AAAAAAAA
AAA 0
AAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
0
27
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAA
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+J18-M18
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+R18
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
=-I18
=+N18-Q18
28 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA0
AAAAAAAA
AAA 0
AAAAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
0
29
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA AAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+K28+J21-M21
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=+S28+R21
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAA
AA =+O28+N21-Q21
=+H28-I21
30
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
A
A
A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

5 # of Storeys

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

A
A
A
A

Figure 22.19: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2224

APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

Draft

Mem.

10

11

12

13

14

-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear

Vert.

Hor.

9.00
16.00
5.00
20.20
36.00
7.50
13.0
23.00
6.00
4.50
8.00
2.50
10.10
18.00
3.75
6.50
11.50
3.00

77.50
0.00
7.75
77.50
0.00
5.17
77.50
0.00
6.46
17.50
0.00
1.75
17.50
0.00
1.17
17.50
0.00
1.46

Design
Values
86.50
16.00
12.75
97.70
36.00
12.67
90.50
23.00
12.46
22.00
8.00
4.25
27.60
18.00
4.92
24.00
11.50
4.46

Table 22.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 23

KINEMATIC
INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS
METHOD
23.1

Introduction

23.1.1

Stiness vs Flexibility

There are two classes of structural analysis methods, Table 23.1:

Flexibility: where the primary unknown is a force, where equations of equilibrium are the starting
point, static indeterminancy occurs if there are more unknowns than equations, and displacements
of the entire structure (usually from virtual work) are used to write an equation of compatibility
of displacements in order to solve for the redundant forces.
Stiness: method is the counterpart of the exibility one. Primary unknowns are displacements, and
we start from expressions for the forces written in terms of the displacements (at the element
level) and then apply the equations of equilibrium. The structure is considered to be kinematically
indeterminate to the nth degree where n is the total number of independent displacements. From
the displacements, we then compute the internal forces.

Primary Variable (d.o.f.)


Indeterminancy
Force-Displacement
Governing Relations
Methods of analysis

Flexibility
Forces
Static
Displacement(Force)/Structure
Compatibility of displacement
Consistent Deformation

Stiness
Displacements
Kinematic
Force(Displacement)/Element
Equilibrium
Slope Deection; Moment Distribution

Table 23.1: Stiness vs Flexibility Methods


2 In the exibility method, we started by releasing as many redundant forces as possible in order to render
the structure statically determinate, and this made it quite exible. We then applied an appropriate set
of forces such that kinematic constraints were satisifed.
3 In the stiness method, we follow a dierent approach, we stien the structure by constraining all the
displacements, hence making it kinematically determinate, and then we will release all the constraints
in such a way to satisfy equilibrium.

232

Draft

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

In the slope deection method, all constraints are released simultaneously, thus resulting in a linear
system of n equations with n unknowns. In the Moment Distribution method, we release the constraints
one at a time and essentially solve for the system of n equations iteratively.
4

23.1.2

Sign Convention

5 The sign convention in the stiness method is dierent than the one previously adopted in structural
analysis/design, Fig. 26.3.
6 In the stiness method the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate system.
Hence, we dene a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise at the end of the element, Fig.
26.3.

Figure 23.1: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis

23.2
7

Degrees of Freedom

A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.

8 The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u
and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.

Figure 23.2: Independent Displacements


9 We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term to include
translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may be none, one or more
than one such displacement.

10

The types of degrees of freedom for various types of structures are shown in Table 26.4

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.3 Kinematic Relations

Draft

233

Type

Node 1
1 Dimensional
Fy1 , Mz2

{p}

Node 2

Fy3 , Mz4

Beam
{}

v1 , 2
2 Dimensional
Fx1

{p}

v3 , 4
Fx2

Truss
{}
{p}

u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3

u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6

Frame
{}

u1 , v2 , 3
3 Dimensional
Fx1 ,

{p}

u4 , v5 , 6
Fx2

Truss
{}
{p}

u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6

u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12

{}

u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6

u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12

Frame

Table 23.2: Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems


Fig. 26.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties associated
with each type of element.

11

23.2.1
12

Methods of Analysis

There are three methods for the stiness based analysis of a structure

Slope Deection: (Mohr, 1892) Which results in a system of n linear equations with n unknowns,
where n is the degree of kinematic indeterminancy (i.e. total number of independent displacements/rotation).
Moment Distribution: (Cross, 1930) which is an iterative method to solve for the n displacements
and corresponding internal forces in exural structures.
Direct Stiness method: (
1960) which is a formal statement of the stiness method and cast in
matrix form is by far the most powerful method of structural analysis.
The rst two methods lend themselves to hand calculation, and the third to a computer based analysis.

23.3

Kinematic Relations

23.3.1

Force-Displacement Relations

Whereas in the exibility method we sought to obtain a displacement in terms of the forces (through
virtual work) for an entire structure, our starting point in the stiness method is to develop a set of
relationship for the force in terms of the displacements for a single element.

V1

v1

M1
1

=
(23.1)
V2
v2

M2
2

13

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

234

Draft

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Figure 23.3: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.3 Kinematic Relations

235

Draft

We start from the dierential equation of a beam, Fig. 23.4 in which we have all positive known
displacements, we have from strength of materials

14

1
M2

V2

V1
M1

v2

v1
2

1
L
Figure 23.4: Flexural Problem Formulation

d2 v
= M1 V1 x + m(x)
(23.2)
dx2
where m(x) is the moment applied due to the applied load only. It is positive when counterclockwise.
M = EI

15

Integrating twice

where f (x) =
16

17

18

EIv 

EIv

=
(

m(x)dx, and g(x) =

(23.4)

=
=

EI1
EIv1

(23.5)

Applying the boundary conditions at x = L and combining with the expressions for C1 and C2


v  = 2
EI2 = M1 L 12 V1 L2 + f (L) EI1
(23.6)

v = v2
EIv2 = 12 M1 L2 16 V1 L3 + g(L) EI1 L EIv1
Since equilibrium of forces and moments must be satised, we have:
(L
0

V1 + q + V2 = 0

M1 V1 L + m(L) + M2 = 0

(23.7)

p(x)dx, thus
V1 =

20

(23.3)

f (x)dx.

Applying the boundary conditions at x = 0




v  = 1
C1

v = v1
C2

where q =

19

1
M1 x V1 x2 + f (x) + C1
2
1
1
2
M1 x V1 x3 + g(x) + C1 x + C2
2
6

1
(M1 + M2 )
+ m(L)
L
L

V2 = (V1 + q)

Substituting V1 into the expressions for 2 and v2 in Eq. 23.6 and rearranging

2EIz
2
z
M1 M2 = 2EI
L 1 + L 2 + m(L) L f (L)
6EIz
6EIz
6EIz
2M1 M2 = L 1 L2 v1 L2 v2 + m(L) L62 g(L)

(23.8)

(23.9)

Solving those two equations, we obtain:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

236

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
M1

2EIz
6EIz
(21 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + M1F
2
L
L


II

M2

(23.10)

2EIz
6EIz
(1 + 22 )
(v2 v1 ) + M2F
2
L
L


(23.11)

II

where
M1F

M2F

2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
%
1 $
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L

(23.12-a)
(23.12-b)

M1F and M2F are the xed end moments for 1 = 2 = 0 and v1 = v2 = 0, that is xed end moments.
They can be obtained either from the analysis of a xed end beam, or more readily from the preceding
two equations.
In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 we observe that the moments developed at the end of a member are caused
by: I) end rotation and displacements; and II) xed end members.

21

22

Finally, we can substitute those expressions in Eq. 23.8


V1

6EIz
12EIz
(1 + 2 )
(v2 v1 ) + V1F
2
3
L


L


II

V2

(23.13)

6EIz
12EIz
= 2 (1 + 2 ) +
(v2 v1 ) + V2F
3
L
L


(23.14)

II

where

23

V1F

V2F

6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3

6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] + q
L

(23.15-a)
(23.15-b)

The relationships just derived enable us now to determine the stiness matrix of a beam element.

V1

M1
V2

M2

v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz

M
1
L2
12EIz
V2
L3
6EIz
M
2
L2

23.3.2

1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L

ke

v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2

2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L

v1

v2

(23.16)

Fixed End Actions

As mentioned above, the end actions developed in a member involve the end displacements, rotations,
and the in-span loads. In-spans loads exhibit themselves in the form of xed-end forces.

24

The xed-end actions can be determined from the equations derived above, or by analyzing a xed-end
beam under the applied loads.

25

26

Note that in both cases, the load has to be assumed positive, i.e. pointing up for a beam.

The equations derived for calculating the xed-end actions can be summarized as follows. We recall
that, with the x axis directed to the right, positive loads and shear forces act upward and positive

27

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.3 Kinematic Relations

237

Draft

moments are counterclockwise. To calculate the xed end actions the only thing we need is an expression
for the moment of the applied loads (without the end reactions) in the analysis sign convention. Thus
with
m(x)

f (x)

moment due to the applied loads at section x

(23.17-a)

m(x)dx

(23.17-b)

f (x)dx

(23.17-c)

p(x)dx = total load on the span

(23.17-d)


g(x)

=


and

23.3.2.1
28

M1F

M2F

V1F

V2F

2
[Lf (L) 3g(L)]
L2
%
1 $
2 L2 m(L) 4Lf (L) + 6g(L)
L
6
[Lf (L) 2g(L)]
L3
6
3 [Lf (L) 2g(L)] q
L

(23.18)
(23.19)
(23.20)
(23.21)

Uniformly Distributed Loads

For a uniformly distributed load w over the entire span,


1
1
1
m(x) = wx2 ; f (x) = wx3 ; g(x) = wx4 ; q = wL
2
6
24

29

(23.22)

Substituting
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F

23.3.2.2

 



2
2
1
1
3
4
wL
wL
L

= wL
12
L2
6
24
 





1
1
1
1
= 2 L2 wL2 4L wL3 + 6 wL4
=
L
2
6
24
 



6
1
1
3
4
wL
wL
=
L

= wL
2
L3
6
24
 



6
1
1
= 3 L wL3 2 wL4
wL = wL
2
L
6
24
=

(23.23-a)
wL2
12

(23.23-b)
(23.23-c)
(23.23-d)

Concentrated Loads

For a concentrated load we can use the unit step function to nd m(x). For a concentrated load P
acting at a from the left-hand end with b = L a,

30

m(x) =
f (x) =
g(x) =

P (x a)Ha
21 P (x a)2 Ha
61 P (x a)3 Ha

gives m(L) = P b
f (L) = 12 P b2
g(L) = 16 P b3

(23.24)

where we dene Ha = 0 if x < a, and Ha = 1 if x a.


31

and
q
M1F

= P
 



2
2
1 2
1 3
=
L Pb 3 Pb
== PLb2 a
2
L
2
6

Victor Saouma

(23.25-a)
(23.25-b)
Structural Engineering

238

Draft
M2F

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD








1
1 2
1 3
Pb 
2
= 2 L (P b) 4L P b + 6 P b
= 2 L2 2Lb + b2
L
2
6
1
=

V1F
V2F

32

P ba2
L2

(23.25-c)
(23.25-d)

 



2
6
1 2
1 3
P b2
P
b
P
b
=
(3L 2b) = PLb3 (3a + b)
L

L3
2
6
L3

 




2
6
1 2
1 3
=
L Pb 2 Pb
+ P = PLa3 (a + 3b)
L3
2
6

(23.25-e)
(23.25-f)

If the load is applied at midspan (a = B = L/2), then the previous equation reduces to
M1F
M2F
V1F
V2F

PL
8
PL
=
8
P
=
2
P
=
2
=

(23.26)
(23.27)
(23.28)
(23.29)

23.4

Slope Deection; Direct Solution

23.4.1

Slope Deection Equations

33 In Eq. 23.10 and 23.11 if we let = v2 v1 (relative displacement), = /L (rotation of the chord
of the member), and K = I/L (stiness factor) then the end equations are:

34

M1

2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F

(23.30)

M2

2EK(1 + 22 3) + M2F

(23.31)

Note that will be positive if counterclockwise, negative otherwise.

From Eq. 23.30 and 23.31, we note that if a node has a displacement , then both moments in the
adjacent element will have the same sign. However, the moments in elements on each side of the node
will have dierent sign.

35

23.4.2

Procedure

To illustrate the general procedure, we consider the two span beam in Fig. 23.5 under the applied
load, we will have three rotations 1 , 2 , and 3 (i.e. three degrees of freedom) at the supports. Separating
the spans from the supports, we can write the following equilibrium equations for each support

36

M12
M21 + M23

= 0
= 0

(23.32-a)
(23.32-b)

M32

= 0

(23.32-c)

The three equilibrium equations in turn can be expressed in terms of the three unknown rotations,
thus we can analyze this structure (note that in the slope deection this will always be the case).

37

38

Using equations 23.30 and 23.31 we obtain

Victor Saouma

M12

F
= 2EK12 (21 + 2 ) + M12

(23.33-a)

M21
M23

= 2EK12 (1 + 22 ) +
= 2EK23 (22 + 3 )

F
M21

(23.33-b)
(23.33-c)

M32

= 2EK23 (2 + 23 )

(23.33-d)
Structural Engineering

23.4 Slope Deection; Direct Solution

Draft

239

1
111
000
000
111

1111
0000
1111
0000

111
000
111
000

L1
P

M 12

M21

M23

M 32

Figure 23.5: Illustrative Example for the Slope Deection Method

39

Substituting into the equations of equilibrium, we obtain

2
K12
0


MF
1
0
1
2EK1212
F
M21
2(K12 + K23 ) K23
2
=


2E
1
2
3
0


Stiness Matrix

(23.34)

Where the xed end moment can be separately determined.


Once the rotations are determined, we can then determine the moments from the slope deection
equation Eq. 23.30.

40

The computational requirements of this method are far less than the one involved in the exibility
method (or method of consistent deformation).

41

23.4.3
42

Algorithm

Application of the slope deection method requires the following steps:


1. Sketch the deected shape.
2. Identify all the unknown support degrees of freedom (rotations and deections).
3. Write the equilibrium equations at all the supports in terms of the end moments.
4. Express the end moments in terms of the support rotations, deections and xed end moments.
5. Substitute the expressions obtained in the previous step in the equilibrium equations.
6. Solve the equilibrium equations to determine the unknown support rotation and/or deections.
7. Use the slope deection equations to determine the end moments.
8. Draw the moment diagram, careful about the dierence in sign convention between the slope
deection moments and the moment diagram.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2310

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
23.4.4

Examples

Example 23-1: Propped Cantilever Beam, (Arbabi 1991)


Find the end moments for the beam of Fig. 23.6
20 kN

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

11111
00000
00000
11111

10 m

5m

Figure 23.6: Slope Deection; Propped Cantilever Beam


Solution:
1. The beam is kinematically indeterminate to the third degree (2 , 3 , 3 ), however by replacing the
the overhang by a xed end moment equal to 100 kN.m at support 2, we reduce the degree of kinematic
indeterminancy to one (2 ).
2. The equilbrium relation is
(23.35)
M21 100 = 0
3. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
M12
M21

2
EI2
10
4
EI2
= 2EK12 (1 + 22 ) =
10
= 2EK12 (21 + 2 ) =

(23.36-a)
(23.36-b)

4. Substituting into the equilibrium equations


2 =
or
M12 =

10
250
M21 =
4EI
EI

(23.37)

10
2
2
(2)EI(50)
EI2 =
EI
M21 =
= 50 kN.m
10
10
4EI
(10)EI

(23.38)

Example 23-2: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection, (Arbabi 1991)


Draw the moment diagram for the two span beam shown in Fig. 23.8 Solution:
1. The unknowns are 1 , 2 , and 3
2. The equilibrium relations are

Victor Saouma

M21 + M23

= 0

(23.39-a)

M32

= 0

(23.39-b)

Structural Engineering

23.4 Slope Deection; Direct Solution

2311

Draft

5 kips
2 kip/ft

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

11
00
11
00

20

111
000
111
000

15

15

0
40.97

79.52

Figure 23.7: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection


3. The xed end moments are given by Eq. 23.23-b and 23.26
(2)(20)2
wL2
=
= 66.67 k.ft
12
12
(5)(30)
PL
=
= 18.75 k.ft
=
8
8

F
M12

F
M21
=

(23.40-a)

F
M23

F
M32

(23.40-b)

4. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)
M12

M21

M23

=
=

M32

=
=

2EI
EI
F
2 + 66.67
2 + M12
=
L1
10
4EI
EI
F
F
2 66.67
2EK12 (22 ) + M21
=
2 + M21
=
L1
5
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
=
(22 + 3 ) + M23
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 + 18.75
7.5
15
2EI
F
F
2EK23 (2 + 23 ) + M32
=
(2 + 23 ) + M32
L2
EI
EI
2 +
3 18.75
15
7.5
F
2EK12 (2 ) + M12
=

(23.41-a)
(23.41-b)

(23.41-c)

(23.41-d)
(23.41-e)

5. Substituting into the equilibrium equations


EI
EI
2 66.67 +
2 +
5
7.5
EI
2 +
15
or

Victor Saouma

EI
3 + 18.75 = 0
15
EI
3 18.75 = 0
7.5

 
 

5 1
718.8
2
EI
=
1 2
3
281.25



Stiness Matrix

(23.42-a)
(23.42-b)

(23.43)

Structural Engineering

2312

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

which will give EI2 = 128.48 and EI3 = 76.38


6. Substituting for the moments
M12

M21

M23

M32

12.85 + 66.67 = 79.52 k.ft


128.48
66.67 = 40.97 k.ft
5

128.48 76.38
+
+ 18.75 = 40.97 k.ft
7.5
15

128.48 76.38
+
18.75 = 0 k.ft
15
7.5

(23.44-a)
(23.44-b)
(23.44-c)
(23.44-d)

The nal moment diagram is also shown in Fig. 23.8. We note that the midspan moment has to be
separately computed from the equations of equilibrium in order to complete the diagram.

43

Example 23-3: Two-Span Beam, Slope Deection, Initial Deection, (Arbabi 1991)
Determine the end moments for the previous problem if the middle support settles by 6 inches, Fig.
23.8.

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

111
000
000
111

11
00
00
11

6"

20

15

15

Figure 23.8: Two Span Beam, Slope Deection, Moment Diagram


Solution:
1. Since we are performing a linear elastic analysis, we can separately analyze the beam for support
settlement, and then add then add the moments to those due to the applied loads.
2. The unknowns are 1 , 2 , and 3
3. The equilibrium relations are
M21 + M23
M32

= 0
= 0

(23.45-a)
(23.45-b)

4. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)



3EI
EI
2 +
M12 = 2EK12 2 3
=
L12
10
400



3EI
EI
2 +
M21 = 2EK12 22 3
=
L12
5
400



EI
EI
EI
M23 = 2EK23 22 + 3 3
2 +
3 +
=
L23
7.5
15
300



EI
EI
EI
2 +
3 +
M32 = 2EK23 2 + 23 3
=
L23
15
7.5
300
Victor Saouma

(23.46-a)
(23.46-b)
(23.46-c)
(23.46-d)

Structural Engineering

23.4 Slope Deection; Direct Solution

2313

Draft

5. Substituting into the equilibrium equations


EI
3EI
EI
EI
EI2 +
+
3 +
5
400
15
300
EI
EI
5EI
2 +
3 +
15
7.5
300




100 20
2
EI
= EI
20 40
3



Stiness Matrix

or

(23.47-a)

(23.47-b)

13
4
1


(23.48)

1+ 5.5

5.5
which will give 2 = 180
= 0.031 radians and 3 = 40 9 = 0.0097 radians
6. Thus the additional moments due to the settlement are

M12

M21

M23

M32

3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0044EI
10
400
3EI
EI
(0.031) +
= 0.0013EI
5
400
EI
EI
EI
(0.031) +
(0.0097) +
= 0.0015EI
7.5
15
300

EI
EI
EI
2 +
(0.0097) +
= 0.
15
7.5
300

(23.49-a)
(23.49-b)
(23.49-c)
(23.49-d)

Example 23-4: dagger Frames, Slope Deection, (Arbabi 1991)


Determine the end moments for the frame shown in Fig. 23.9.

2
2

3 kips/ft

2
3

5
10 kips
5
4
1

20

Figure 23.9: Frame Analysis by the Slope Deection Method


Solution:
1. The eect of the 35 cantilever can be included by replacing it with its end moment.
M3 = wL
Victor Saouma

L
= (3)(6)(3) = 54 k.ft
2

(23.50)
Structural Engineering

2314

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

2. The unknowns displacements and rotations are


2 and 2 at joint 2.
3 and 4 at joints 3 and 4.

We observe that due to the lack of symmetry, there will be a lateral displacement in the frame, and
neglecting axial deformations, 2 = 3 .
3. The equilibrium relations are
M21 + M23
M32 + M34

= 0
= 54

(23.51-a)
(23.51-b)

M43 = 0
V12 + V43 10 = 0

(23.51-c)
(23.51-d)

Thus we have four unknown displacements and four equations. However, the last two equations are in
terms of the shear forces, and we need to have them in term of the end moments, this can be achieved
through the following equilibrium relations
V12

V43

M12 + M21 + 50
L12
M34 + M43
L34

(23.52-a)
(23.52-b)

Hence, all four equations are now in terms of the moments.


4. The xed end moments fro member 23 are
F
M21
F
M23

(10)(10)
PL
=
= 12.5 k.ft
8
8
(3)(20)2
wL2
=
= 100 k.ft
=
12
12
=

(23.53-a)
(23.53-b)

5. The members end moments in terms of the rotations are (Eq. 23.30 and 23.31)


2
F
M12 = 2EK12 2 3
= 0.2EI(2 0.32 ) + 12.5
+ M12
L12


2
F
= 0.2EI(22 0.32 ) 12.5
M21 = 2EK12 22 3
+ M21
L21

(23.54-a)
(23.54-b)

F
2EK23 (22 + 3 ) + M23
= 0.1EI(22 + 3 ) + 100.

(23.54-c)

M32

(23.54-d)

M34

M43

2EK32 (2 + 23 ) +
= 0.1EI(2 + 23 ) 100.


32
2EK34 23 + 4
= 0.2EI(23 + 4 0.32 )
L34


32
2EK43 3 + 24
= 0.2EI(3 + 24 0.32 )
L34

M23

F
M32

(23.54-e)
(23.54-f)

6. Substituting into the equilibrium equations and dividing by EI


62 + 3 0.62
2 + 63 + 24 0.62
3 + 24 0.32

875
EI
460
=
EI
= 0
=

(23.55-a)
(23.55-b)
(23.55-c)

and the last equilibrium equation is obtained by substituting V12 and V43 and multiplying by 10/EI:
2 + 3 + 4 0.42 =
Victor Saouma

83.3
EI

(23.56)
Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

Draft
or

6 1 0 0.6
1 6 2 0.6
EI
0 1 2 0.3
1 1 1 0.4


Stiness Matrix

which will give

3
4

2
3

2315

875

1
460
=
0

EI

83.3

294.8

1
68.4
=
240.6

EI

1, 375.7

(23.57)

(23.58)

7. Substitution into the slope deection equations gives the end-moments

M12

M21

M23
M32

M34

M43

36.0

47.88

47.88
=

115.80

61.78

23.5

Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

23.5.1

Background

(23.59)

The moment distribution is essentially a variation of the slope deection method, however rather than
solving a system of n linear equations directly, the solution is achieved iteratively through a successive
series of operations.

43

The method starts by locking all the joints, and then unlock each joint in succession, the internal
moments are then distributed and balanced until all the joints have rotated to their nal (or nearly
nal) position.

44

45

In order to better understand the method, some key terms must rst be dened.

23.5.1.1

Sign Convention

The sign convention is the same as the one adopted for the slope deection method, counter-clockwise
moment atelements end is positive.

46

23.5.1.2

Fixed-End Moments

Again xed end moments are the same set of forces dened in the slope deection method for a beam
which is rigidly connected at both ends.

47

Consistent with the sign convention, the xed end moments are the moments caused by the applied
load at the end of the beam (assuming it is rigidly connected).

48

23.5.1.3

Stiness Factor

We dene the stiness factor as the moment required to rotate the end of a beam by a unit angle of
one radian, while the other end is xed. From Eq. 23.10, we set 2 = v1 = v2 = 0, and 1 = 1, this will

49

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2316

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
yield

K=

50

4EI
Far End Fixed
L

(23.60)

We note that this is slightly dierent than the denition given in the slope deection method (I/L).

51 If the far end of the beam is hinged rather than xed, then we will have a reduced stiness factor.
From Eq. 23.10 and 23.11, with M2 = v1 = v2 = 0, we obtain

M2
2

2EIz
(1 + 22 ) = 0
L
1
=
2
=

(23.61-a)
(23.61-b)

Substituting into M1
M1
2

=
=

2EIz
L
21

Comparing this reduced stiness


factor

52

(21 + 2 )

3EI
L


M1 =

Far End Pinned

(23.62)

with the stiness of a beam, we dene the reduced stiness

Reduced Stiness Factor =

23.5.1.4

3EI
L 1

3
Kred
= Far End Pinned
K
4

(23.63)

Distribution Factor (DF)

If a member is applied to a xed-connection joint where there is a total of n members, then from
equilibrium:
M = M1 + M2 + + Mn
(23.64)

53

However, from Eq. 23.30, and assuming the other end of the member to be xed, then
M = K1 + K2 + + Kn

(23.65)

or
DFi =

Ki
Mi
=
M
Ki

(23.66)

54 Hence if a moment M is applied at a joint, then the portion of M carried by a member connected
to this joint is proportional to the distribution factor. The stier the member, the greater the moment
carried.

55

Similarly, DF = 0 for a xed end, and DF = 1 for a pin support.

23.5.1.5
56

Carry-Over Factor

Again from Eq. 23.30, and 23.31


M1
M2

=
=

2EK(21 + 2 3) + M1F
2EK(1 + 22 3) + M2F

(23.67-a)
(23.67-b)

we observe that if one end of the beam is restrained (2 = = 0), and there is no member load, then
the previous equations reduce to

1
M1 = 2EK(21 )
(23.68)
M2 = M1
M2 = 2EK(1 )
2
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

2317

Draft

Hence in this case the carry-over factor represents the fraction of M that is carried over from the
rotating end to the xed one.

57

CO =

58

(23.69)

If the far end is pinned there is no carry over.

23.5.2
59

1
Far End Fixed
2

Procedure

The general procedure of the Moment Distribution method can be described as follows:
1. Constrain all the rotations and translations.
2. Apply the load, and determine the xed end moments (which may be caused by element loading,
or support translation).
F
F
3. At any given joint i equilibrium is not satised Mlef
t = Mright , and the net moment is Mi

4. We enforce equilibrium by applying at the node Mi , in other words we balance the forces at the
node.
5. How much of Mi goes to each of the elements connected to node i depends on the distribution
factor.
6. But by applying a portion of Mi to the end of a beam, while the other is still constrained, from
Eq. 23.30, half of that moment must also be carried over to the other end.
7. We then lock node i, and move on to node j where these operations are repeated
(a) Sum moments
(b) Balance moments
(c) Distribute moments (K, DF )
(d) Carry over moments (CO)
(e) lock node
8. repeat the above operations until all nodes are balanced, then sum all moments.
9. The preceding operations can be easily carried out through a proper tabulation.
If an end node is hinged, then we can use the reduced stiness factor and we will not carry over
moments to it.

60

Analysis of frame with unsymmetric loading, will result in lateral displacements, and a two step
analysis must be performed (see below).

61

23.5.3

Algorithm

1. Calculate the stiness (K = 4EI/L, however this can often be simplied to I/L) factor for all the
members and the distribution factors at all the joints.
2. If a member AB is pinned at B, then K AB = 3EI/L, and K BA = 4EI/L. Thus, we must apply
the reduced stiness factor to K AB only and not to K BA .
3. The carry-over factor is

1
2

for members with constant cross-section.

4. Find the xed-end moments for all the members. Note that even if the end of a member is pinned,
determine the xed end moments as if it was xed.
5. Start out by xing all the joints, and release them one at a time.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2318

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

6. If a node is pinned, start by balancing this particular node. If no node is pinned, start from either
end of the structure.
7. Distribute the unbalanced moment at the released joint
8. Carry over the moments to the far ends of the members (unless it is pinned).
9. Fix the joint, and release the next one.

10. Continue releasing joints until the distributed moments are insignicant. If the last moments
carried over are small and cannot be distributed, it is better to discard them so that the joints
remain in equilibrium.
11. Sum up the moments at each end of the members to obtain the nal moments.

23.5.4

Examples

Example 23-5: Continuous Beam, (Kinney 1957)


Solve for moments at A and B by moment distribution, using (a) the ordinary method, and (b) the
simplied method.

10k

1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1

12

11
00

10

12.9

25.8

3.22

3.22 6.29

10

11
00

3.71

37.1
12.9

9.51
M

25.8
Solution:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

2319

Draft

1. For this example the xed-end moments are computed as follows:


F
MBC

F
MCB

PL
(10)(20)
=
= +25.0 k.ft
8
8
25.0 k.ft

(23.70-a)
(23.70-b)

2. Since the relative stiness is given in each span, the distribution factors are

DFAB

KAB
K

DFBA

KBA
K

DFBC

KBC
K

DFCB

KCB
K

5
= 0,
+5
5
= = 0.625,
8
3
= = 0.375,
8
3
= = 1.
3

(23.71-a)

(23.71-b)
(23.71-c)
(23.71-d)

3. The balancing computations are shown below.


Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM

Total

A
AB
5
0

C
Balance
BC
CB
3
3
0.375
1
+25.0
-25.0

+12.5 +25.0 C

-14.1 -7.0
-11.7
B
-23.4

C
+3.5
+7.0

-1.3
-1.1
-0.6
B
-2.2

C
+0.6
+0.3

-0.1
-0.1
B
-0.2
-12.9 -25.8 +25.8
0

CO

BA
5
0.625

BC
AB; CB
BC
AB; CB
BC
AB

4. The above solution is that referred to as the ordinary method, so named to designate the manner of
handling the balancing at the simple support at C. It is known, of course, that the nal moment must
be zero at this support because it is simple.
5. Consequently, the rst step is to balance the xed-end moment at C to zero. The carry-over is
then made immediately to B. When B is balanced, however, a carry-over must be made back to C
simply because the relative stiness of BC is based on end C of this span being xed. It is apparent,
however, that the moment carried back to C (in this case, -7.0) cannot exist at this joint. Accordingly,
it is immediately balanced out, and a carry-over is again made to B, this carry-over being considerably
smaller than the rst. Now B is again balanced, and the process continues until the numbers involved
become too small to have any practical value.
6. Alternatively, we can use the simplied method. It was previously shown that if the support at C is
simple and a moment is applied at B, then the resistance of the span BC to this moment is reduced to
three-fourths of the value it would have had with C xed. Consequently, if the relative stiness of span
BC is reduced to three-fourths of the value given, it will not be necessary to carry over to C.
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM

Total

Victor Saouma

A
AB
5
0

C
Balance
CB
3
3.00
4 3 = 2.25
0.31
1
+25.0
-25.0
+25.0 C
+12.5

-12.9
-11.7
B
-25.8
-12.9 -25.8
+25.8
0
BA
5
0.69

CO

BC

BC
AB

Structural Engineering

2320

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

7. From the standpoint of work involved, the advantage of the simplied method is obvious. It should
always be used when the external (terminal) end of a member rests on a simple support, but it does
not apply when a structure is continuous at a simple support. Attention is called to the fact that when
the opposite end of the member is simply supported, the reduction factor for stiness is always 34 for a
prismatic member but a variable quantity for nonprismatic members.
8. One valuable feature of the tabular arrangement is that of dropping down one line for each balancing
operation and making the carry-over on the same line. This practice clearly indicates the order of
balancing the joints, which in turn makes it possible to check back in the event of error. Moreover, the
placing of the carry-over on the same line with the balancing moments denitely decreases the chance
of omitting a carry-over.
9. The correctness of the answers may in a sense be checked by verifying that M = 0 at each joint.
However, even though the nal answers satisfy this equation at every joint, this in no way a check on
the initial xed-end moments. These xed-end moments, therefore, should be checked with great care
before beginning the balancing operation. Moreover, it occasionally happens that compensating errors
are made in the balancing, and these errors will not be apparent when checking M = 0 at each joint.
10. To draw the nal shear and moment diagram, we start by drawing the free body diagram of each
beam segment with the computed moments, and then solve from statics for the reactions:
12, 9 + 25.8 12VA = 0
25.8 +

VA + VBL
(10)(10) 20VBR

=0
=0

6.29 + VC 10 = 0
VBL VBR + RB = 0
Check: RA + RB + RC 10
+
MBC

VA = RA = 3.22 k

(23.72-a)

(23.72-b)
(23.72-c)

VBL
VBR

= 3.22 k
= 6.29 k
VC = RC 3.71 k
RB = 9.51 k
=

3.22 + 9.51 + 3.71 10 = 0

= (3.71)(10) = 37.1 k.ft

(23.72-d)
(23.72-e)
(23.72-f)
(23.72-g)

Example 23-6: Continuous Beam, Simplied Method, (Kinney 1957)


Using the simplied method of moment distribution, nd the moments in the following continuous
beam. The values of I as indicated by the various values of K, are dierent for the various spans.
Determine the values of reactions, draw the shear and bending moment diagrams, and sketch the deected
structure.

Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments:
F
= (0.5)(10) = 5.0 k.ft
MAO

(23.73)

For the 1 k load:

Victor Saouma

F
MAB

F
MBA

P ab2
(1)(5)(152 )
=
= +2.8 k.ft
2
L
202
P a2 b
(1)(52 )(15)
=
= 0.9 k.ft
L2
202

(23.74-a)
(23.74-b)

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

2321

Draft

For the 4 k load:


F
MAB

PL
8

(4)(20)
8

= +10.0 k.ft

(23.75-a)

= 10.0 k.ft

F
MBA

(23.75-b)

For the uniform load:


F
MCD

F
MDC

(0.2)(152 )
wL2
=
= +3.8 k.ft
12
12
3.8 k.ft

(23.76-a)
(23.76-b)

2. The balancing operation is shown below


Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM

Total

A
AO
0
0
-5.0

-5.0

B
C
D
AB
BA
BC
CB
CD
DC
3
20
60
60
40
40
4 (20) = 15
1
0.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0
+12.8
-10.9
+3.8
-3.8

-7.8
-3.9
s +11.9 +5.9

+2.9

s-3.9 -1.9

-2.9 -5.8
+2.3 +1.1
+0.6

s-0.4 -0.2

-0.7
-0.3

+0.1
+0.2
+5.0
-11.2
+11.2 +0.5 -0.5 -5.9

Balance

CO

A
B
C
B
C
B

BA
CB
DC; BC
CB
DC; BC

3. The only new point in this example is the method of handling the overhanging end. It is obvious that
the nal internal moment at A must be 5.0 k.ft and, accordingly, the rst step is to balance out 7.8 k.ft
of the xed-end moment at AB, leaving the required 5.0 k.ft for the internal moment at AB. Since the
relative stiness of BA has been reduced to three-fourths of its original value, to permit considering the
support at A as simple in the balancing, no carry-over from B to A is required.
4. The easiest way to determine the reactions is to consider each span as a free body. End shears are
rst determined as caused by the loads alone on each span and, following this, the end shears caused by
the end moments are computed. These two shears are added algebraically to obtain the net end shear
for each span. An algebraic summation of the end shears at any support will give the total reaction.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2322

Draft

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Example 23-7: Continuous Beam, Initial Settlement, (Kinney 1957)


For the following beam nd the moments at A, B, and C by moment distribution. The support at
C settles by 0.1 in. Use E = 30, 000 k/in2 .

Solution:
1. Fixed-end moments: Uniform load:

F
MBA

(5)(202 )
wL2
=
= +167 k.ft
12
12
= 167 k.ft

F
MCD

F
MAB

(23.77-a)
(23.77-b)

Concentrated load:

F
MDC

Victor Saouma

(10)(30)
PL
=
= +37.5 k.ft
8
8
= 37.5 k.ft

(23.78-a)
(23.78-b)
Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

2323

Draft

Moments caused by deection:


F
MBC

F
MCB

F
MCD

F
MDC

6EI
6(30, 000)(1, 200)(0.1)
=
= +1, 500 k.in = +125 k.ft
L2
(120)2

(23.79-a)

+125 k.ft
6EI
(6)(30, 000)(7, 200)(0.1)
=
= 1, 000 k.in = 83 k.ft
2
L
(360)2

(23.79-b)

83 k.ft

(23.79-d)

(23.79-c)

2. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM Load
FEM

Total

A
AB
10
0
+167

D
DC
3
20
4 (20) = 15
0.6
1
+38
-38
+125
+125
-83
-83

+60
+121

-84
-28
-56

+35 +17
+17 +35

-3
-7 s -10

+1
+1
+2
+185 -130 +130
+79
-79
0
BA
10
0.5
-167

BC
10
0.5

CB
10
0.4

Balance

CO

D
C
B
C
B

CD
BC
AB; CB
BC

CD

The xed-end moments caused by a settlement of supports have the same sign at both ends of each
span adjacent to the settling support. The above computations have been carried to the nearest k.ft,
which for moments of the magnitudes involved, would be suciently close for purposes of design.

Example 23-8: Frame, (Kinney 1957)


Find all moments by moment distribution for the following frame Draw the bending moment diagram
and the deected structure.

Solution:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2324

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

1. The rst step is to perform the usual moment distribution. The reader should fully understand
that this balancing operation adjusts the internal moments at the ends of the members by a series of
corrections as the joints are considered to rotate, until M = 0 at each joint. The reader should also
realize that during this balancing operation no translation of any joint is permitted.
2. The xed-end moments are
F
MBC

F
MCB

(18)(12)(62 )
= +24 k.ft
182
(18)(6)(122 )
= 48 k.ft
182

(23.80-a)
(23.80-b)

3. Moment distribution
Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM

Total

A
AB
10
0

C
D
BC
CB
CD
DC
20
20
15
15
0.667
0.571
0.429
0
+24.0
-48.0

+10.3
+13.7 +27.4 +20.6

-12.5
-6.3
-25.1
-12.6

s +5.4 +2.7
+3.6 +7.1

-1.2
-0.6
-2.4
-1.2

s +0.5 +0.02
+0.7
+0.3

-0.1
-0.2
-6.9 -13.9 +13.9 -26.5 +26.5 +13.2

Balance

CO

FEM
C
B
C
B
C
B

DC; BC
AB; CB
BC; DC
AB; CB
BC; DC

BA
10
0.333

4. The nal moments listed in the table are correct only if there is no translation of any joint. It is
therefore necessary to determine whether or not, with the above moments existing, there is any tendency
for side lurch of the top of the frame.
5. If the frame is divided into three free bodies, the result will be as shown below.

Inspection of this sketch indicates that if the moments of the rst balance exist in the frame, there is a
net force of 1.53 0.80 = 0.73 k tending to sway the frame to the left. In order to prevent side-sway,
and thus allow these moments to exist (temporarily, for the purpose of the analysis), it is necessary that
an imaginary horizontal force be considered to act to the right at B or C. This force is designated as
the articial joint restraint (abbreviated as AJR) and is shown below.

6. This illustration now shows the complete load system which would have to act on the structure if the
nal moments of the rst balance are to be correct. The AJR, however, cannot be permitted to remain,
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

2325

Draft

and thus its eect must be cancelled. This may be accomplished by nding the moments in the frame
resulting from a force equal but opposite to the AJR and applied at the top.
7. Although it is not possible to make a direct solution for the moments resulting from this force, they
may be determined indirectly. Assume that some unknown force P acts on the frame, as shown below

and causes it to deect laterally to the left, without joint rotation, through some distance . Now,
regardless of the value of P and the value of the resulting , the xed-end moments induced in the ends
of the columns must be proportional to the respective values of KM .
62

Recalling that the xed end moment is M F = 6EI L2 = 6EKm , where Km =

F
MAB
F
MDC

=
=

F
F
MDC
MAB
=
6EKm
6EKm
AB
Km
10
=
DC
Km
15

I
L2

K
L

we can write
(23.81-a)
(23.81-b)

These xed-end moments could, for example, have the values of 10 and 15 k.ft or 20 and 30, or
30 and 45, or any other combination so long as the above ratio is maintained. The proper procedure
is to choose values for these xed-end moments of approximately the same order of magnitude as the
original xed-end moments due to the real loads. This will result in the same accuracy for the results
of the balance for the side-sway correction that was realized in the rst balance for the real loads.
Accordingly, it will be assumed that P , and the resulting , are of such magnitudes as to result in the
xed-end moments shown below
63

8. Obviously, M = 0 is not satised for joints B and C in this deected frame. Therefore these joints
must rotate until equilibrium is reached. The eect of this rotation is determined in the distribution
below

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2326

Draft

Joint
Member
K
DF
FEM

Total

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD


A
AB
10
0
-30.0

D
CD
DC
15
15
0.429
0
-45.0
-45.0

+19.2 +9.6
+12.9 +25.8

+11.4
+5.7
+2.8
+5.7

-1.2
-3.3 s -2.4
-1.6

+0.5
+0.5
+0.2
+1.1

s -0.2 -0.1
-0.3
-27.0 -23.8 +23.8 +28.4 -28.4 -36.7
BA
10
0.333
-30.0

BC
20
0.667

Balance

CO

CB
20
0.571

C
B
C
B
C

BC;
AB;
BC;
AB;

DC
CB
DC
CB

9. During the rotation of joints B and C, as represented by the above distribution, the value of has
remained constant, with P varying in magnitude as required to maintain .
10. It is now possible to determine the nal value of P simply by adding the shears in the columns.
The shear in any member, without external loads applied along its length, is obtained by adding the
end moments algebraically and dividing by the length of the member. The nal value of P is the force
necessary to maintain the deection of the frame after the joints have rotated. In other words, it is the
force which will be consistent with the displacement and internal moments of the structure as determined
by the second balancing operation. Hence this nal value of P will be called the consistent joint force
(abbreviated as CJF).
11. The consistent joint force is given by
CJF =

+27.0 + 23.8 28.4 + 36.7


+
= 1.95 + 2.50 = 4.45 k
26
26

(23.82)

and inspection clearly indicates that the CJF must act to the left.
12. Obviously, then, the results of the last balance above are moments which will exist in the frame when
a force of 4.45 k acts to the left at the top level. It is necessary, however, to determine the moments
resulting from a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level, and some as yet unknown factor z
times 4.45 will be used to represent this force acting to the left.

13. The free body for the member BC is shown above. H = 0 must be satised for this gure, and if
forces to the left are considered as positive, the result is 4.45z 0.73 = 0, and
z = +0.164.

(23.83)

If this factor z = +0.164 is applied to the moments obtained from the second balance, the result will
be the moments caused by a force of 0.73 k acting to the left at the top level. If these moments are
then added to the moments obtained from the rst balance, the result will be the nal moments for the
frame, the eect of the AJR having been cancelled. This combination of moments is shown below.
Joint
Member
M from 1st balance
z M from 2nd balance
Final moments

A
AB
-6.9
-4.4
-11.3

B
BA
-13.9
-3.9
-17.8

BC
+13.9
+3.9
+17.8

C
CB
-26.5
+4.7
-21.8

CD
+26.5
-4.7
+21.8

D
DC
+13.2
-6.0
+7.2

14. If the nal moments are correct, the shears in the two columns of the frame should be equal and
opposite to satisfy H = 0 for the entire frame. This check is expressed as
+11.3 + 17.8 21.8 7.2
+
= 0,
26
26

(23.84)

+1.12 1.11 = 0(nearly)

(23.85)

and

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

Draft

2327

The signs of all moments taken from the previous table have been reversed to give the correct signs
for the end moments external to the columns. It will be remembered that the moments considered in
moment distribution are always internal for each member. However, the above check actually considers
each column as a free body and so external moments must be used.
15. The moment under the 18 k load is obtained by treating BC as a free body:

M18 = (5.77)(12) 17.8 = +51.5 k.ft

(23.86)

16. The direction of side-lurch may be determined from the obvious fact that the frame will always lurch
in a direction opposite to the AJR. If required, the magnitude of this side lurch may be found. The
procedure which follows will apply.

A force P of sucient magnitude to result in the indicated column moments and the lurch was applied
to the frame. During the second balance this value of was held constant as the joints B and C rotated,
and the value of P was considered to vary as necessary. The nal value of P was found to be 4.45 k. Since
was held constant, however, its magnitude may be determined from the equation M = 6EI/L2 ,
where M is the xed-end moment for either column, I is the moment of inertia of that column, and L
is the length. This will be the lurch for 4.45 k acting at the top level. For any other force acting
horizontally, would vary proportionally and thus the nal lurch of the frame would be the factor z
multiplied by the determined above.

Example 23-9: Frame with Side Load, (Kinney 1957)


Find by moment distribution the moments in the following frame

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2328

Draft

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Solution:
The rst balance will give the results shown
AB
-7.2

BA
-14.6

BC
+14.6

CB
-22.5

CD
-22.5

DC
0

A check of the member BC as a free body for H = 0 will indicate that an AJR is necessary as follows:
AJR + 0.84 0.87 5.0 = 0

(23.87)

AJR = +5.03 in the direction assumed

(23.88)

from which
The values of KM for the two columns are shown, with KM for column CD being K/2L because of the
pin at the bottom. The horizontal displacement of the top of the frame is

assumed to cause the xed-end moments shown there. These moments are proportional to the values
of KM and of approximately the same order of magnitude as the original xed-end moments due to the
real loads. The results of balancing out these moments are
AB
-34.4

BA
-28.4

CJF =

BC
+28.4

CB
+23.6

CD
-23.6

+34.4 + 28.4 + 23.6


= 3.32 k
26

DC
0
(23.89)

and
5.03 z(3.32) = 0,

(23.90)

z = +1.52.

(23.91)

from which
The nal results are
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

23.5 Moment Distribution; Indirect Solution

Draft

AB
-7.2
-52.1
-59.3

M from 1st balance


z M 2nd balance
Final moments

BA
-14.6
-43.0
-57.6

2329
BC
+14.6
+43.0
+57.6

CB
-22.5
+35.8
+13.3

CD
+22.5
-35.8
-13.3

DC
0
0
0

If these nal moments are correct, the sum of the column shears will be 5.0 k: Sum of column shears:
V =

59.3 + 57.6 + 13.3


= 5.01 k
26

(23.92)

The 5 k horizontal load acting at C enters into the problem only in connection with the determination
of the AJR. If this load had been applied to the column CD between the ends, it would have resulted
in initial xed-end moments in CD and these would be computed in the usual way. In addition, such a
load would have entered into the determination of the AJR, since the horizontal reaction of CD against
the right end of BC would have been computed by treating CD as a free body.

Example 23-10: Moment Distribution on a Spread-Sheet


Analyse the following frame

12

8
20 k
C

I = cst
15

10
D

A
Solution:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2330

KINEMATIC INDETERMINANCY; STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

Sheet1

Artificially Restrained Structure


A
B
C
D
AB BA BC CB CD DC Balance
Lenght
15
15
20
20
10
10
EI
30
30
30
30
30
30 "arbitrary"
K
2.0 2.0 1.5 1.5 3.0 3.0
DF
1.0 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.7 1.0
FEM
38.4 -57.6
-11.0 -21.9 -16.5 -8.2
B
11.0 21.9 43.9 21.9 C
-3.1 -6.3 -4.7 -2.4
B
0.4 0.8 1.6 0.8 C
-0.1 -0.2 -0.2 -0.1
B
0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 C
Total
-14.2 -28.4 28.5 -45.5 45.5 22.8 .
Horizontal displacement Delta

Lenght
EI
K
DF
FEM

A
B
AB BA
15
15
30
30
2.0 2.0
1.0 0.6
-8.0 -8.0
2.3 4.6
-0.8

Total

-6.5

1st
z 2nd
Final

AB
-14.2
-9.6
-23.9

C
BC CB CD
20
20
10
30
30
30
1.5 1.5 3.0
0.4 0.3 0.7
-18.0
3.4 1.7
2.7 5.4 10.9
-1.6 -1.2 -0.6
0.1 0.2 0.4
-0.1 0.0
-5.0 5.0 6.8 -6.8
Final Moments
BA BC CB CD
-28.4 28.5 -45.5 45.5
-7.5 7.5 10.0 -10.0
-35.9 35.9 -35.5 35.5

D
DC Balance
10
30 "arbitrary"
3.0
1.0
-18.0
B
5.4 C
B
0.2 C
B
-12.4 .

CO

V
6EI/L^2 M^F
H_A
-2.84
AB
0.80
-8
H_D 6.826355685 DC
1.80
-18
AJR
3.98
Delta
-10
Delta to the left, will cause -ve M^F
Frame sways to the right

AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC

CO

AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB
BC, DC
AB, CB

H_A
H_D
CJF
z

V
-0.77
-1.9
-2.68
1.49

DC
22.8
-18.4
4.4

Page 1

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 24

REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part I
24.1

Introduction

Recalling that concrete has a tensile strength (ft ) about one tenth its compressive strength (fc ),
concrete by itself is a very poor material for exural members.

2 To provide tensile resistance to concrete beams, a reinforcement must be added.


Steel is almost
universally used as reinforcement (longitudinal or as bers), but in poorer countries other indigenous
materials have been used (such as bamboos).
3 The following lectures will focus exclusively on the exural design and analysis of reinforced concrete rectangular sections. Other concerns, such as shear, torsion, cracking, and deections are left for
subsequent ones.
4 Design of reinforced concrete structures is governed in most cases by the Building Code Requirements
for Reinforced Concrete, of the American Concrete Institute (ACI-318). Some of the most relevant
provisions of this code are enclosed in this set of notes.
5 We will focus on determining the amount of exural (that is longitudinal) reinforcement required at a
given section. For that section, the moment which should be considered for design is the one obtained
from the moment envelope at that particular point.

24.1.1
6

Notation

In R/C design, it is customary to use the following notation


As
b
c
d
fc
fr
fs
ft
fy
h

Area of steel
Width
Distance from top of compressive bers to neutral axis
Distance from the top of the compressive bers to the centroid
of the reinforcement
Concrete compressive strength
Concrete modulus of rupture
Steel stress
Concrete tensile strength
Steel yield stress (equivalent to Fy in AISC)
Height
Steel ratio, Abds

242

Draft
24.1.2

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

Modes of Failure

7 A reinforced concrete beam is a composite structure where concrete provides the compression and steel
the tension.

Failure is initiated by
1. Yielding of the steel when the steel stress reaches the yield stress (fs = fy ). This occurs if we
do not have enough reinforcement that is the section is under-reinforced. This will result in
excessive rotation and deformation prior to failure.
2. Crushing of the concrete, when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate value (c = u = 0.003),
ACI 318: 10.2.3. This occurs if there is too much reinforcement that is the section is overreinforced. This is a sudden mode of failure.

9 Ideally in an optimal (i.e. most ecient use of materials) design, a section should be dimensioned
such that crushing of concrete should occur simultaneously with steel yielding. This would then be a
balanced design.

However since concrete crushing is a sudden mode of failure with no prior warning, whereas steel
yielding is often accompanied by excessive deformation (thus providing ample warning of an imminent
failure), design codes require the section to be moderately under-reinforced.

10

24.1.3
11

Analysis vs Design

In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:

Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and h) as
well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the beam (b and
h) are xed by the architect.
12

We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.

24.1.4

Basic Relations and Assumptions

In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations will be
used:

13

1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the reinforcement
= Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the one obtained from
the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension in steel and compression of
the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain Iu = .003
in compression irrespective of fc .
14

Basic assumptions used:

Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note that those
two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

243

Draft
24.1.5

ACI Code

The ACI code is based on limit strength, or Mn Mu thus a similar design philosophy is used as
the one adopted by the LRFD method of the AISC code, ACI-318: 8.1.1; 9.3.1; 9.3.2

15

16

The required strength is based on (ACI-318: 9.2)


U

17

1.4D + 1.7L

(24.1)

0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W ) (24.2)

We should consider the behaviors of a reinforced concrete section under increasing load:
1. Section uncracked
2. Section cracked, elastic
3. Section cracked, limit state

The second analysis gives rise to the Working Stress Design (WSD) method (to be covered in Structural
Engineering II), and the third one to the Ultimate Strength Design (USD) method.

24.2

Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

24.2.1

Equivalent Stress Block

In determining the limit state moment of a cross section, we consider Fig. 24.1. Whereas the strain
distribution is linear (ACI-318 10.2.2), the stress distribution is non-linear because the stress-strain
curve of concrete is itself non-linear beyond 0.5fc .

18

Thus we have two alternatives to investigate the moment carrying capacity of the section, ACI-318:
10.2.6

19

1. Use the non-linear stress distribution.


2. Use a simpler equivalent stress distribution.
The ACI code follows the second approach. Thus we seek an equivalent stress distribution such
that:

20

1. The resultant force is equal


2. The location of the resultant is the same.
We note that this is similar to the approach followed in determining reactions in a beam subjected to a
distributed load when the load is replaced by a single force placed at the centroid.
21

From the actual stress distribution we have the following relations


C
M

= T = As fs = As fy
= T (d c)

We select an equivalent rectangular stress distribution, often referred to as the Whitney Stress
Block such that the constant stress is equal to 0.85fc and is applied over a depth a = 1 c, ACI-318:
10.2.7

22

Comparing the actual and the equivalent stress distributions, the two requirements previously stated
translate into the following mathematical relations

23

fc bc
c
Victor Saouma

= 0.85fc b1 c
= 12 1 c
Structural Engineering

244

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

Draft

Figure 24.1: Cracked Section, Limit State


Those two equations yield
1

= 2
= .85

We have two equations and three unknowns (, 1 , and ). Thus we need to use test data to solve
this problem1 . From experimental tests, the following relations are obtained

24

fc (ppsi)

< 4,000
.72
.425
.85

5,000
.68
.400
.80

6,000
.64
.375
.75

7,000
.60
.350
.70

8,000
.56
.325
.65

Thus we have a general equation for 1 (ACI-318 10.2.7.3):


1

=
=

.85
1
.85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000

if fc 4, 000
if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000

(24.3)

Figure 24.2: Whitney Stress Block


1 This approach is often used in Structural Engineering. Perform an analytical derivation, if the number of unknowns
then exceeds the number of equations, use experimental data.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

245

Draft
24.2.2

Balanced Steel Ratio

Next we seek to determine the balanced steel ratio b such that failure occurs by simultaneous
yielding of the steel fs = fy and crushing of the concrete c = 0.003, ACI-318: 10.3.2 We will
separately consider the two failure possibilities:

25

Tension Failure: we stipulate that the steel stress is equal to fy :



fy
= Abds
c=
d
As fy = .85fc ab = .85fc b1 c
0.85fc 1

(24.4)

Compression Failure: where the concrete strain is equal to the ultimate strain; From the strain
diagram

.003
c = 0.003
d
(24.5)
c = fs
c
.003
=
+ .003
d
.003+s
Es

26

Balanced Design is obtained by equating Eq. 24.4 to Eq. 24.5 and by replacing by b and fs by fy :

fy
.003
d
fs
f
0.85fc 1 d =
+.003
.003
Es
b y
d
d = fy
fs = fy


.85f
c 1

Es + .003
= b

When we replace Es by 29, 000 ksi we obtain


b = .851

fc 87, 000


fy 87, 000 + fy

(24.6)

This b corresponds to the only combination of b, d and As which will result in simultaneous yielding of
the steel and crushing of the concrete, that is an optimal design.
Because we need to have ample warning against failure, hence we prefer to have an under-reinforced
section. Thus, the ACI code stipulates:

27

< .75b

(24.7)

In practice, depending on the relative cost of steel/concrete and of labour it is common to select lower
values of . If < 0.5b (thus we will have a deeper section) then we need not check for deection.

28

29 A minimum amount of reinforcement must always be used to prevent temperature and shrinkage
cracks:

min

30

200
fy

(24.8)

The ACI code adopts the limit state design method

MD = Mn > Mu

24.2.3

= b = 0.9

(24.9)

Analysis

Given As , b, d, fc , and fy determine the design moment:


1. act =

As
bd
f

2. b = (.85)1 fyc
Victor Saouma

87
87+fy

Structural Engineering

246

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

Draft

3. If act < b (that is failure is triggered by yielding of the steel, fs = fy )


2


As fy
As fy
From Equilibrium
a = .85f
b
c


=

A
f
M
d

0.59
D
s y
fc b
MD = As fy d a2



Mn

Combining this last equation with =

MD

As
bd

yields



fy
= fy bd 1 .59 
fc
2

(24.10)

4. If act > b is not allowed by the code as this would be an over-reinforced section which would
fail with no prior warning. However, if such a section exists, and we need to determine its moment
carrying capacity, then we have two unknowns:
(a) Steel strain s (which was equal to y in the previous case)
(b) Location of the neutral axis c.
We have two equations to solve this problem
Equilibrium: of forces
c=

As fs
.85fc b1

(24.11)

Strain compatibility: since we know that at failure the maximum compressive strain c is equal
to 0.003. Thus from similar triangles we have
c
.003
=
d
.003 + s

(24.12)

Those two equations can be solved by either one of two methods:


(a) Substitute into one single equation
(b) By iteration
Once c and fs = Es are determined then


1 c
MD = As fs d
2

24.2.4

(24.13)

Design

We distinguish between two cases. The rst one has dimensions as well as steel area unknown, the
second has the dimensions known (usually specied by the architect or by other constraints), and we
seek As .

31

b, d and As unknowns and MD known:


1. We assume that = .75b with b determined from Eq. 24.6


f  87, 000
= 0.75 .851 c
fy 87, 000 + fy
Often times, a designer will take a smaller portion of b if the relative cost of steel is higher
than the one of concrete, resulting in deeper sections. The ratio may range from 0.4 to 0.75.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

24.2 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

Draft

2. From Eq. 24.10

247



fy
MD = fy 1 .59  bd2
fc


or



fy
R = fy 1 .59 
fc

(24.14)

which does not depend on unknown quantities2 . Then solve for bd2 :
bd2 =

MD
R

(24.15)

Note that in most case R is around 1 ksi


3. solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their ratio).
4. As = bd
dag b, d and Md known, As unknown: In this case there is no assurance that we can have a design
with b . If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
We will again have an iterative approach
1. Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
2. Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
3. Assume initially that fs = fy
4. Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0)
As =

MD


fs d a2

(24.16)

5. Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0)


a=

As fs
.85fc b

(24.17)

6. Check assumption of fs from the strain diagram


.003
dc
s
=
fs = Es
.003 < fy
dc
c
c
where c =

(24.18)

a
1 .

7. Iterate until convergence is reached.

Example 24-1: Ultimate Strength Capacity


Determine the ultimate Strength of a beam with the following properties: b = 10 in, d = 23 in,
As = 2.35 in2 , fc = 4, 000 psi and fy = 60 ksi.
Solution:
As
bd

2.35
(10)(23) = .0102

f
87
4
87
b = .851 fyc 87+f
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 =
y
As fy
(2.35)(60)
= (.85)(4)(10)
= 4.147 in
a = .85f

cb
2 Note analogy with Eq. 14.5 M = F Z for stell beams.
y
Mn = p (2.35)(60)(23
4.147
2 ) = 2, 950 k.in
MD = Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in

act

Victor Saouma

.02885 > act

Structural Engineering

248

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

Draft

Note that from the strain diagram


c=
Alternative solution
Mn

=
=
=

4.414
a
=
= 4.87 in
0.85
0.85



f
act fy bd2 1 .59act fy
c

f
As fy d 1 .59act fy
c
%
$
(2.35)(60)(23) 1 (.59) 60
4 (.01021) = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft

Example 24-2: Beam Design I


Design a 15 ft beam to support a dead load of 1.27 k/ft, a live load of 2.44 k/ft using a 3,000 psi
concrete and 40 ksi steel. Neglect beam weight
Solution:
wu
MD
b

R
bd2

= 1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft


(5.92)

k/ft(15)2 ft2

=
(12) in/ft = 2, 000 k.in
8
fc
87
= .851 fy 87+fy
3
87
= (.85)(.85) 40
87+40 = 0.040
= .75b = .75(0.04)
 = 0.030
f
= fy 1 .59 fy
%
$ c
= 0.917 ksi
= (0.03)(40) 1. (0.59)(0.03) 40
3
2
2,000
Md
k.in
in
= R = (0.9)(0.917)
= 2, 423 in3
k

#
Assume b = 10 in, this will give d = 2,423
10 = 15.57 in. We thus adopt b = 10 in and d = 16 in.
Finally,
As = bd = (0.030)(10)(16) = 4.80 in2
we select 3 bars No. 11

Example 24-3: Beam Design II


Select the reinforcement for a cross section with b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in to support a design moment
Md = 1, 600 k.in using fc = 3 ksi; and fy = 40 ksi
Solution:
1. Assume a =

d
5

20
5

= 4 in and fs = fy

2. Equilibrium of moments:
As =

1, 600 k.in
MD
==
= 2.47 in2
fy (d a2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20 42 ) in

3. Check equilibrium of forces:


a=

Victor Saouma

(2.47) in2 (40) ksi


As fy
=
= 3.38 in
.85fc b
(.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in
Structural Engineering

24.3 ACI Code

249

Draft

4. We originally assumed a = 4, at the end of this rst iteration a = 3.38, let us iterate again with
a = 3.30

5. Equilibrium of moments:
As =

1, 600 k.in
MD
a ==
fy (d 2 )
(.9)(40) ksi(20

3.3
2 )

in

= 2.42 in2

6. Check equilibrium of forces:


a=

(2.42) in2 (40) ksi


As fy
=
= 3.3 in
.85fc b
(.85)(3) ksi(11.5) in

7. we have converged on a.
8. Actual is act =

2.42
(11.5)(20)

= .011

9. b is equal to

87
fc 87
3
= .037
= (.85)(.85)
fy 87 + fy
40 87 + 40

= .75 = (0.75)(0.037) = .0278 > 0.011 thus fs = fy .


b = .851

10. max

24.3

ACI Code

Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate
strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength reduction factors
specied in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum eects
of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied according to Section
8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through 8.9 may be used.

8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc ( psi) for values of Wc

between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as 57, 000 fc .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000 psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all sections
at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in such combinations
as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design, the
following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest required strength
U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more severe
condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its cross
sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal strength
calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied by a strength
reduction factor .
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2410

Draft

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part I

9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows:


9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of reinforcement
fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to the distance
from the neutral axis, except, for deep exural members with overall depth to clear span ratios greater
than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear distribution of strain shall be
considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression ber shall be assumed equal to
0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specied yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement used
shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy , stress in
reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in exural calculations of reinforced concrete,
except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain may be
assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in prediction of
strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satised by an equivalent rectangular
concrete stress distribution dened by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel to the neutral
axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the ber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from ber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured in a
direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc up to and including 4,000 psi.
For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for each 1000 psi of
strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement reaches the
strain corresponding to its specied yield strength fy just as concrete in compression reaches its assumed
ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For exural members, and for members subject to combined exure and compressive axial
load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc Ag ) or (Pb ), the ratio
of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would produce balanced strain
conditions for the section under exure without axial load. For members with compression reinforcement,
the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement may be
used to increase the strength of exural members.
10.5.1 - At any section of a exural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and 10.5.3, where
positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be less than that given by
min =

Victor Saouma

200
fy

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 25

REINFORCED CONCRETE
BEAMS; Part II
25.1
1

T Beams, (ACI 8.10)

Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 25.1 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI 8.10.2):

b
hf

bw

be

Figure 25.1: T Beams

252

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft
1.

1
2 (b

bw ) 8hf

2. b < 4bw for isolated T beams only


3. hf >
4. b <
2

bw
2

L
4

Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the anges (c < hf ) rectangular section of width b, Fig. 25.2.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) T beam.

Figure 25.2: T Beam as Rectangular Section

hf

.85fc
a=1c

As fy

Figure 25.3: T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram


3 For T beams, we have a large concrete area, start by assuming that failure will occur by steel yielding,
Fig. 25.3.

The approach consists in decomposing As into 2 components


1. Asf resists compression force in (b bw )hf
2. (As Asf ) resists compression force in bw c

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)

253

Draft
25.1.1
5

Review

Given, b, d, hf , As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M , Fig. 25.4.

As

Asf

As-Asf

Figure 25.4: Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams


6 The moment is obtained from
Flanges:

Asf

Mn1

.85fc (bbw )hf


fy
h
Asf fy (d 2f

F = 0
) M = 0

Web:
a =
Mn2 =

(As Asf )fy


.85fc bw

F = 0
(As Asf )fy (d a2 ) M = 0

Total moment:
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2

25.1.2
7

Design, (balanced)

Let us derive an expression for b and use it for design


c
d

As fy

u
= u+
StrainCompatibility
y


= .85fc 1 cbw + .85fc(b bw )hf F = 0


Asf fy

thus,
Asf y
w
f

=
=
=

.85fc 1 cbw + Asf fy


As
bw d
Asf
bwd

wb

b + f

Hence, max

.75(b + f ) (25.2)


u
w = .85 1
+f

fy u + y
fc

(25.1)

Example 25-1: T Beam; Moment Capacity I


For the following beam: As = 8 # 11 ( 12.48 in2 ); fc =3,000 psi; fy = 50,000 psi. Determine Mn

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

254

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft

30"

7"

36"

14"

Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections
(a) be = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in

(b) hf b2u 7 14
2

2. Assume Rectangular section


a=

(12.48)(50)
= 8.16 in > hf
(0.85)(3)(30)

3. For a T section

.85fc hf (bbw )
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(3014)
50
5.71
(14)(36) = .0113

Asf

f
Asw
w

=
= 5.71 in2
=
= 12.48 5.71 = 6.77 in2
12.48
= (14)(36)
= .025

f

87
= .851 fyc 87+f
y
3
87
= (.85)(.85) 50
87+50 = .0275

4. Maximum permissible ratio


max

= .75(b + f )

= .75(.0275 + .0113) = .029 > w

5. The design moment is then obtained from


Mn1
a
Mn2
Md

= (5.71)(50)(36 72 ) = 9, 280 k.in


(6.77)(50)
= (.85)(3)(14)
= 9.48 in
= (6.77)(50)(36 9.48
2 ) = 10, 580 k.in
= (.9)(9, 280 + 10, 580) = 17, 890 k.in 17, 900 k.in

Example 25-2: T Beam; Moment Capacity II

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

25.1 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)

255

Draft

Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume ange dimensions to satisfy ACI
requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.
28"

6"

26"

10"

As = 6#10= 7.59in2
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam

Asf
Asw
w
f
max
Mn1
As Asf
a
Mn2
Md

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

7.59
(28)(26)

= .0104
 3   87 
(.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0214 > fs = fy
(7.59)(60)
(.85)(3)(28) =
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
60

6.37 in > 6 in T beam

= 4.59 in2
7.59 4.59 = 3.00 in2
7.59
(26)(10) = .0292
4.59
(26)(10) = .0177
.75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 Ductile failure
(4.59)(60)(26 3) = 6, 330 k.in
7.59 4.59 = 3. in2
(3)(60)
(.85)(3)(10) = 7.07 in
(3.00)(60)(26 7.07
2 ) = 4, 050 k.in
(.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in

Example 25-3: T Beam; Design


given L = 24 ft; fy = 60 ksi; fc = 3 ksi; Md = 6, 400 k.in; Design a R/C T beam.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

256

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft

3"

20"

11"
47"

Solution:
1. Determine eective ange width:
bw ) 8hf
16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
L
24
= 72 in
4 = 4 12
Center Line spacing
= 47 in
1
2 (b

2. Assume a = 3 in
As

6,400
Md
= 0.9)(60)(20
=
3
fy (d a
2)
2)
As fy
(6.4)(60)
(.85)fc b = (.85)(3)(47) = 3.20

b = 47 in

6.40 in2
in > hf

3. Thus a T beam analysis is required.


Asf

.85fc (bbw )hf


fy

Md1
Md2

=
=

Asf fy (d 2f ) = (.90)(4.58)(60)(20 32 ) = 4, 570 k.in


Md Md1 = 6, 400 4, 570 = 1, 830 k.in

(.85)(3)(4711)(3)
60

= 4.58 in2

d
5

4. Now, this is similar to the design of a rectangular section. Assume a =


As Asf =
5. check

20
5

= 4. in

1, 830
 = 1.88 in2

(.90)(60) 20 42

1.88)(60)
(.85)(3)(11)

As
w
f

=
=
=

b
max

=
=

4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in2


6.46
(11)(20) = .0294
4.58
(11)(20) = .0208

3
87
(.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0214

.75(.0214 + .0208) = .0316 > w

= 4.02 in 4.00

6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.

25.2
8

Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

Negative steel reinforcement is needed to


1. Increase internal moment resistance capacity (not very ecient)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

257

Draft

2. Support stirups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deections)

Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig. 25.5.

d
As
s

.85fc

.85fc

Asfs

Asfy

d-d

+
Asfy

Asfs

As

(As-As)fs

Figure 25.5: Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams

10

If max = .75b we can disregard compression steel

11

As for T beams, we decompose the tension steel into two components


1. As to resist the force in the top steel (assuming both yield)
2. As As to resist compression in the concrete.

and we dene
 =

25.2.1
12

As
bd

(25.3)

Tests for fs and fs

Dierent possibilities: Fig. 25.6

1
yes

no

As yield?

yes

I
f s=fy
fs=fy

As yield?

no

II
fs=fy
fs< fy

yes

As yield?

III
fs< fy
fs=fy

no

IV
fs< fy
fs< fy

not allowed by code


Figure 25.6: Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

258

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft

Test 1 Is As yielding?
Assuming s = y , and fs = fy , we have from the strain diagram
s
fs
c
From equilibrium:

= u dd (u + y )
= Es s
u
= u+
d
y

bdfy =  bdfs + .85fc 1 bc

Combining:
b = 1 = 

fs
u
f
+ .85 c 1
fy
fy u + y


1 =


 fs

fy

+ b

(25.4)

fs
(25.5)Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other
fy
failure is ipso facto by yielding. We also note the similarity with max of T Beams (where 0.75
premultiplied both terms).

thus max

0.75b + 

Test 2 fs = fy is fs = fy ?
We set s = y , and from the strain diagram

s=y

s>y
Figure 25.7: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
c=
from equilibrium

u
d
u y

bdfy =  bdfy + .85fc 1 cb

combining
min 2 =  + .851

fc d 87
fy d 87 fy

(25.6)

which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel at
failure. Thus, if < min then fs < fy .
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs = fy ?
From strain diagram:
c
s
Victor Saouma

=
=

u

u y d
dc
cd y

Structural Engineering

25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

259

Draft

From equilibrium

bdfs =  bdfy + .85fc 1 bc

combining
= 3 =



f c
c d 
+ .851 c
dc
fy d

(25.7)

Summary of the tests are shown in Fig. 25.8

cy

fs< fy

fs = fy

II

fs = fy
III

fs< fy
fs < fy
IV

Figure 25.8: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding

25.2.2

Moment Equations

Case I fs = fy and fs = fy , (small bottom and top reinforcement ratios)


As fy
a

= As fy + .85fc ab
(As As )fy
=
.85f  b
c


a
+ As fy (d d )
MnI = .85fc ab d
2

(25.8)

Case II We have fs = fy and fs < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most common
case)
s
fs
As fy

= u cd
c
= Es s
= As fs + .85fc b1 c

solve for c and fs by iteration.


Using a = 1 c

a
+ As fs (d d )
MnII = .85fc ab d
2

(25.9)

Case III fs < fy and fs = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s
fs
As fs
a
Victor Saouma

=
=
=
=

u dc
c
Es s
As fy + .85fc ab
1 c
Structural Engineering

2510

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft
solve for a


a
MnIII = .85fc ab d
+ As fy (d d )
2

(25.10)

Case IV fs < fy and fs < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement ratios, rare)
s
s
As fs
a

=
=
=
=

u cd
c
u dc
c
As fs + .85fc ab
1 c

solve for a

a
+ As fs (d d )
MnIV = .85fc ab d
2

(25.11)

Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs < fy when fs = fy .
We nevertheless use As in order to ensure ductility, stiness and support for the stirrups.

13

Example 25-4: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review


Given, fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, As = 3 (1.56) = 4.68 in2 , As = 4 (1.56) = 6.24 in2 , determine
the moment carrying capacity of the following beam.

Solution:
b

=
=
=

f

(.85)1 fyc
6.24
(16)(27.3)
4.68
(16)(27.3)

87
87+fy

4
87
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0285
= .0143
= .0107

We can not check yet if < max because fs is yet unknown
min

=
=

f

u
 + .85 fyc 1 dd u
y
4
3
.003
.0107 + (.85) 60 (.85) 27.3
.003 60

= .0278 >

29,000

Hence

< min <


b
.0143 < .0278 < .0285
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

25.2 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams

2511

Draft

and thus fs = fy and fs < fy and we have case II

solve for c

fs

=
=
As fy =
(6.24)(60) =
374.4 =
fs =

Es u cd
= (29, 000)(.003) c3
c
c
c3
87 c
As fs + .85fc b1 c
(4.68)fs + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c
4.68fs + 46.24c
9.9c + 80.2

Note that if we were to plott those two equations,


50

25

-25

-50

-75

-100

We note that f  s increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs decreases with c from equilibrium.
Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c 26.42 = 0
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs = (.003)(29, 000) 4.803
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
Substituting into the moment equation


Mn = .85fc ab d a2 + As fs (d d ) 
+ (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 3)
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3 4.078
2
= 9, 313 k.in
Md = 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft
Check
max

f

= .75b + fys 
= (.75)(.0285) +

32.6
60 (.0107)

= 

.027

Example 25-5: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design


Given Md = 505 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, b = 12 in, h = 24.5 in, d = 21 in, and d = 2.5 in,
determine the reinforcement As and possibly As .
Solution:
Md
b

= (505)(12) = 6, 060 k.in


f
87
4
87
= .851 fyc 87+f
= (.85)(.85) 60
87+60 = .0285
y
max = .75b = (.75)(.0285) = .0213
Amax
= (.0213)(12)(21) = 5.37 in2
s
1 In this problem, unfortunately
As fy
(5.37)(60)
iterative method
if we were to start with a = d5 .
a = .85f
=an(.85)(4)(12)
= 7.89diverges
in

cb




= 4, 943 k.in < 6, 060 k.in
Mmax = (0.9)As fy d a2 = (.9)(5.37)(60) 21 7.89
2
Victor Saouma
Structural Engineering

2512

REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS; Part II

Draft

Thus compression steel is required. Assuming that fs = fy


Md2
As

=
=

As

As

6, 060 4, 943 = 1, 117 k.in


1,117
Md2
2
fy (dd ) = (0.9)(60)(212.5) = 1.12 in
1.12 in2
5.37 + 1.12 = 6.49 in2

check that fs = fy




min

=
=

1.12
(12)(21)
6.49
(12)(21)


= .00444
= .0257
f

u
= + .851 fyc dd u
y

4 2.5
87
= .00444 + (.85)(.85) 60
21.0 8760 = .0229 < (.0257)

Note that if it turns out that fs < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on As (such as As = A2s ,
as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility) and four unknowns
(As , As , fs and c).

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 26

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD


26.1

Introduction

26.1.1

Structural Idealization

1 Prior to analysis, a structure must be idealized for a suitable mathematical representation. Since it is
practically impossible (and most often unnecessary) to model every single detail, assumptions must be
made. Hence, structural idealization is as much an art as a science. Some of the questions confronting
the analyst include:

1. Two dimensional versus three dimensional; Should we model a single bay of a building, or the
entire structure?
2. Frame or truss, can we neglect exural stiness?
3. Rigid or semi-rigid connections (most important in steel structures)
4. Rigid supports or elastic foundations (are the foundations over solid rock, or over clay which may
consolidate over time)
5. Include or not secondary members (such as diagonal braces in a three dimensional analysis).
6. Include or not axial deformation (can we neglect the axial stiness of a beam in a building?)
7. Cross sectional properties (what is the moment of inertia of a reinforced concrete beam?)
8. Neglect or not haunches (those are usually present in zones of high negative moments)
9. Linear or nonlinear analysis (linear analysis can not predict the peak or failure load, and will
underestimate the deformations).
10. Small or large deformations (In the analysis of a high rise building subjected to wind load, the
moments should be amplied by the product of the axial load times the lateral deformation, P
eects).
11. Time dependent eects (such as creep, which is extremely important in prestressed concrete, or
cable stayed concrete bridges).
12. Partial collapse or local yielding (would the failure of a single element trigger the failure of the
entire structure?).
13. Load static or dynamic (when should a dynamic analysis be performed?).
14. Wind load (the lateral drift of a high rise building subjected to wind load, is often the major
limitation to higher structures).
15. Thermal load (can induce large displacements, specially when a thermal gradient is present.).
16. Secondary stresses (caused by welding. Present in most statically indeterminate structures).

262

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
26.1.2

Structural Discretization

2 Once a structure has been idealized, it must be discretized to lend itself for a mathematical representation which will be analyzed by a computer program. This discretization should uniquely dene each
node, and member.
3 The node is characterized by its nodal id (node number), coordinates, boundary conditions, and load
(this one is often dened separately), Table 26.1. Note that in this case we have two nodal coordinates,

Node No.
1
2
3
4

Coor.
X
Y
0.
0.
5.
5.
20. 5.
25. 2.5

X
1
0
0
1

B. C.
Y
1
0
0
1

Z
0
0
0
1

Table 26.1: Example of Nodal Denition


and three degrees of freedom (to be dened later) per node. Furthermore, a 0 and a 1 indicate unknown or
known displacement. Known displacements can be zero (restrained) or non-zero (as caused by foundation
settlement).
4

The element is characterized by the nodes which it connects, and its group number, Table 26.2.
Element
No.
1
2
3

From
Node
1
3
3

To
Node
2
2
4

Group
Number
1
2
2

Table 26.2: Example of Element Denition


5 Group number will then dene both element type, and elastic/geometric properties. The last one is
a pointer to a separate array, Table 26.3. In this example element 1 has element code 1 (such as beam
element), while element 2 has a code 2 (such as a truss element). Material group 1 would have dierent
elastic/geometric properties than material group 2.

Group
No.
1
2
3

Element
Type
1
2
1

Material
Group
1
1
2

Table 26.3: Example of Group Number


6 From the analysis, we rst obtain the nodal displacements, and then the element internal forces. Those
internal forces vary according to the element type. For a two dimensional frame, those are the axial and
shear forces, and moment at each node.
7 Hence, the need to dene two coordinate systems (one for the entire structure, and one for each
element), and a sign convention become apparent.

26.1.3
8

Coordinate Systems

We should dierentiate between 2 coordinate systems:

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.1 Introduction

263

Draft

Global: to describe the structure nodal coordinates. This system can be arbitrarily selected provided
it is a Right Hand Side (RHS) one, and we will associate with it upper case axis labels, X, Y, Z,
Fig. 26.1 or 1,2,3 (running indeces within a computer program).

Figure 26.1: Global Coordinate System


Local: system is associated with each element and is used to describe the element internal forces. We
will associate with it lower case axis labels, x, y, z (or 1,2,3), Fig. 26.2.
The x-axis is assumed to be along the member, and the direction is chosen such that it points from
the 1st node to the 2nd node, Fig. 26.2.

10

Two dimensional structures will be dened in the X-Y plane.

26.1.4

Sign Convention

The sign convention in structural analysis is completely dierent than the one previously adopted in
structural analysis/design, Fig. 26.3 (where we focused mostly on exure and dened a positive moment
as one causing tension below. This would be awkward to program!).

11

In matrix structural analysis the sign convention adopted is consistent with the prevailing coordinate
system. Hence, we dene a positive moment as one which is counter-clockwise, Fig. 26.3

12

13

Fig. 26.4 illustrates the sign convention associated with each type of element.

Fig. 26.4 also shows the geometric (upper left) and elastic material (upper right) properties associated
with each type of element.

14

26.1.5
15

Degrees of Freedom

A degree of freedom (d.o.f.) is an independent generalized nodal displacement of a node.

The displacements must be linearly independent and thus not related to each other. For example, a
roller support on an inclined plane would have three displacements (rotation , and two translations u

16

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

264

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Figure 26.2: Local Coordinate Systems

Figure 26.3: Sign Convention, Design and Analysis

Figure 26.4: Total Degrees of Freedom for various Type of Elements


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.2 Stiness Matrices

265

Draft

and v), however since the two displacements are kinematically constrained, we only have two independent
displacements, Fig. 26.5.

Figure 26.5: Dependent Displacements


We note that we have been referring to generalized displacements, because we want this term to
include translations as well as rotations. Depending on the type of structure, there may be none, one
or more than one such displacement. It is unfortunate that in most introductory courses in structural
analysis, too much emphasis has been placed on two dimensional structures, and not enough on either
three dimensional ones, or two dimensional ones with torsion.

17

In most cases, there is the same number of d.o.f in local coordinates as in the global coordinate system.
One notable exception is the truss element. In local coordinate we can only have one axial deformation,
whereas in global coordinates there are two or three translations in 2D and 3D respectively for each
node.

18

Hence, it is essential that we understand the degrees of freedom which can be associated with the
various types of structures made up of one dimensional rod elements, Table 26.4.

19

20

This table shows the degree of freedoms and the corresponding generalized forces.

We should distinguish between local and global d.o.f.s. The numbering scheme follows the following
simple rules:

21

Local: d.o.f. for a given element: Start with the rst node, number the local d.o.f. in the same order
as the subscripts of the relevant local coordinate system, and repeat for the second node.
Global: d.o.f. for the entire structure: Starting with the 1st node, number all the unrestrained global
d.o.f.s, and then move to the next one until all global d.o.f have been numbered, Fig. 26.6.

26.2

Stiness Matrices

26.2.1

Truss Element

22

From strength of materials, the force/displacement relation in axial members is

A


P

= EI
AE

=
L 

Hence, for a unit displacement, the applied force should be equal to


other end must be equal and opposite.
23

(26.1)

AE
L .

From statics, the force at the

The truss element (whether in 2D or 3D) has only one degree of freedom associated with each node.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

266

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Figure 26.6: Examples of Active Global Degrees of Freedom

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.2 Stiness Matrices

Draft

267

Type

Node 1

Node 2
1 Dimensional
Fy3 , Mz4

{p}

Fy1 , Mz2

{}

v1 , 2

{p}

Fx1

{}
{p}

u1
Fx1 , Fy2 , Mz3

u2
Fx4 , Fy5 , Mz6

{}
{p}

u1 , v2 , 3
Tx1 , Fy2 , Mz3

u4 , v5 , 6
Tx4 , Fy5 , Mz6

{}

1 , v2 , 3

{p}

Fx1 ,

{}
{p}

u1 ,
Fx1 , Fy2 , Fy3 ,
Tx4 My5 , Mz6

u2
Fx7 , Fy8 , Fy9 ,
Tx10 My11 , Mz12

{}

u1 , v2 , w3 ,
4 , 5 6

u7 , v8 , w9 ,
10 , 11 12

Beam
v3 , 4
2 Dimensional
Fx2

Truss

Frame

Grid
4 , v5 , 6
3 Dimensional
Fx2

Truss

Frame

[k]
(Local)

[K]
(Global)

44

44

22

44

66

66

66

66

22

66

12 12

12 12

Table 26.4: Degrees of Freedom of Dierent Structure Types Systems


Hence, from Eq. 26.1, we have

[kt ] =

26.2.2

AE
L

u1 u2
p1 1 1
1
p
2 1

(26.2)

Beam Element

Using Equations 23.10, 23.11, 23.13 and 23.14 we can determine the forces associated with each unit
displacement.

24

[kb ] =

25

V1 Eq.
M
1 Eq.

V2 Eq.
M2 Eq.

v1
23.13(v1
23.10(v1
23.14(v1
23.11(v1

= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

1
23.13(1
23.10(1
23.14(1
23.11(1

= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

v2
23.13(v2
23.10(v2
23.14(v2
23.11(v2

= 1)
= 1)
= 1)
= 1)

Eq.
Eq.
Eq.
Eq.

2
23.13(2
23.10(2
23.14(2
23.11(2

= 1)
= 1)

= 1)
= 1)

(26.3)

The stiness matrix of the beam element (neglecting shear and axial deformation) will thus be

[kb ] =

Victor Saouma

v1
z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz

M
1
L2
12EIz
V2
L3
6EIz
M
2
L2

1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L

v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2

2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L

(26.4)

Structural Engineering

268

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
26

We note that this is identical to Eq.23.16

V1

M1
V2

M2

=


v1

z
V1 12EI
L3
6EIz

M
1
L2
z
V2 12EI
L3
6EIz
M2
L2

1
6EIz
L2
4EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
2EIz
L

v2
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2

12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2

2
6EIz
L2
2EIz
L
z
6EI
L2
4EIz
L

v1

v2

(26.5)

k(e)

26.2.3

2D Frame Element

The stiness matrix of the two dimensional frame element is composed of terms from the truss and
beam elements where kb and kt refer to the beam and truss element stiness matrices respectively.

27

[k2df r ] =

u
t1
P1 k11
V1
0
M
1 0

t
P2
k21
V2 0
M2 0

v1
0
b
k11
b
k21
0
b
k31
b
k41

1
0
b
k12
b
k22
0
b
k32
b
k42

u2
t
k12
0
0
t
k22
0
0

v2
0
b
k13
b
k23
0
b
k33
b
k43

0
b
k14

b
k24

b
k34
b
k44

(26.6)

Thus, we have:

[k2df r ] =

26.2.4

u1
P1 EA
L
V1
0
M
0
1

EA
P2
L

V2 0
M
0
2

v1
0

1
0

12EIz
L3
6EIz
L2

6EIz
L2
4EIz
L

z
12EI
L3

z
6EI
L2

6EIz
L2

2EIz
L

u2
EA
L
0
0
EA
L

0
0

v2
0
z
12EI
L3
6EIz
L2
0

12EIz
L3
z
6EI
L2

2
0
6EIz
L2
2EIz

L
0

6EI
2
L
4EIz

(26.7)

Remarks on Element Stiness Matrices

Singularity: All the derived stiness matrices are singular, that is there is at least one row and one
column which is a linear combination of others. For example in the beam element, row 4 = row
1; and L times row 2 is equal to the sum of row 3 and 6. This singularity (not present in the
exibility matrix) is caused by the linear relations introduced by the equilibrium equations which
are embedded in the formulation.
Symmetry: All matrices are symmetric due to Maxwell-Bettis reciprocal theorem, and the stiness
exibility relation.
28

More about the stiness matrix properties later.

26.3

Direct Stiness Method

26.3.1

Orthogonal Structures

As a vehicle for the introduction to the stiness method let us consider the problem in Fig 26.7-a,
and recognize that there are only two unknown displacements, or more precisely, two global d.o.f: 1
and 2 .
29

30

If we were to analyse this problem by the force (or exibility) method, then

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

269

Draft

Figure 26.7: Problem with 2 Global d.o.f. 1 and 2

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2610

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

1. We make the structure statically determinate by removing arbitrarily two reactions (as long as the
structure remains stable), and the beam is now statically determinate.
2. Assuming that we remove the two roller supports, then we determine the corresponding deections
due to the actual laod (B and C ).
3. Apply a unit load at point B, and then C, and compute the deections fij at note i due to a unit
force at node j.
4. Write the compatibility of displacement equation

 
 


RB
1
0
fBB fBC

=
fCB fCC
RC
2
0

(26.8)

5. Invert the matrix, and solve for the reactions


31

We will analyze this simple problem by the stiness method.


1. The rst step consists in making it kinematically determinate (as opposed to statically determinate
in the exibility method). Kinematically determinate in this case simply means restraining all the
d.o.f. and thus prevent joint rotation, Fig 26.7-b.
2. We then determine the xed end actions caused by the element load, and sum them for each d.o.f.,
Fig 26.7-c: FEM1 and FEM2 .
3. In the third step, we will apply a unit displacement (rotation in this case) at each degree of
freedom at a time, and in each case we shall determine the reaction forces, K11 , K21 , and K12 , K22
respectively. Note that we use [K], rather than k since those are forces in the global coordinate
system, Fig 26.7-d. Again note that we are focusing only on the reaction forces corresponding to
a global degree of freedom. Hence, we are not attempting to determine the reaction at node A.
4. Finally, we write the equation of equilibrium at each node:


M1
M2


=

FEM1
FEM2


+

K11
K21

K12
K22



1
2


(26.9)

Note that the FEM being on the right hand side, they are detemined as the reactions to the applied
load. Strictly speaking, it is a load which should appear on the left hand side of the equation, and are
the nodal equivalent loads to the element load (more about this later).

32

As with the element stiness matrix, each entry in the global stiness matrix Kij , corresponds to
the internal force along d.o.f. i due to a unit displacement (generalized) along d.o.f. j (both in global
coordinate systems).

33

Example 26-1: Beam


Considering the previous problem, Fig. 26.7-a, let P1 = 2P , M = P L, P2 = P , and P3 = P , Solve
for the displacements.
Solution:
1. Using the previously dened sign convention:
FEM1

PL
P1 L P2 L
2P L P L
+
=
=
+
=
8
8
8
8
8



BA

FEM2

PL
=

8

(26.10)

BC

(26.11)

CB

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2611

Draft

4EI
AB
BC
2. If it takes 4EI
L (k44 ) to rotate AB (Eq. 26.4) and L (k22 ) to rotate BC, it will take a total force
8EI
of L to simultaneously rotate AB and BC, (Note that a rigid joint is assumed).
3. Hence, K11 which is the sum of the rotational stinesses at global d.o.f. 1. will be equal to K11 = 8EI
L ;
2EI
BC
similarly, K21 = L (k42 ) .
2EI
BC
BC
4. If we now rotate dof 2 by a unit angle, then we will have K22 = 4EI
L (k22 ) and K12 = L (k42 ) .
5. The equilibrium relation can thus be written as:

  P L   8EI 2EI  

8
PL
1
L
L
=
+
(26.12)
2EI
4EI
2
0
PL


8  L
L 

M
F EM
K

or

P L + P8L
+ P8L


=

8EI
L
2EI
L



2EI
L
4EI
L

1
2


(26.13)

We note that this matrix corresponds to the structures stiness matrix, and not the augmented one.
6. The two by two matrix is next inverted
  8EI 2EI 1 
 3 17 P L2 2

P L + P8L
1
L
L
112 EI 2
(26.14)
= 2EI 4EI
=
5 PL
2
+ P8L
112
L
L
EI
7. Next we need to determine both the reactions and the internal forces.
8. Recall that for each element {p} = [k]{}, and in this case {p} = {P} and {} = {} for element
AB. The element stiness matrix has been previously derived, Eq. 26.4, and in this case the global and
local d.o.f. are the same.
9. Hence, the equilibrium equation for element AB, at the element level, can be written as:

12EI
2P

6EI
6EI
0
12EI
p1

3
2
3
2
L
L
L
L

6EI

2P2L
4EI
2EI

0
p2
6EI
2
2
L
L
L
L
8

= 12EI
+
(26.15)
12EI
2P

0
p3
L3
6EI
6EI

L2
L3
L2
2
2

6EI
2EI
4EI
17 P L
p4
6EI
2P8 L
2
L2
L
L



L
 112
EI 


{p}
[k]
FEM
{ }
solving
 p1

p2

p3

10. Similarly, for element BC:

12EI
6EI
p1

L3
L2

6EI
4EI
p2
2
L
L

= 12EI
p3
L3
6EI

L2

6EI
2EI
p4
L2
L

p4  = 

12EI
L3
6EI
L2
12EI
L3
6EI
L2

107
56 P

6EI
L2
2EI
L
6EI
L2
4EI
L

31
56 P L

5
56 P

5
14 P L

17 P L2
112 EI

0
2

5 PL
112
EI

(26.16)

P
2
PL
8
P
2
P8L

(26.17)

or
 p1

p2

p3

p4  = 

7
8P

9
14 P L

P7

0 

(26.18)

11. This simple example calls for the following observations:


1. Node A has contributions from element AB only, while node B has contributions from both AB
and BC.
= pBC
eventhough they both correspond to a shear force at node B, the
12. We observe that pAB
3
1
dierence betweeen them is equal to the reaction at B. Similarly, pAB
= pBC
due to the externally
4
2
applied moment at node B.
2. From this analysis, we can draw the complete free body diagram, Fig. 26.7-e and then the shear
and moment diagrams which is what the Engineer is most interested in for design purposes.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2612

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft
26.3.2

Local and Global Element Stiness Matrices ([k(e) ] [K(e) ])

In the previous section, in which we focused on orthogonal structures, the assembly of the structures
stiness matrix [K(e) ] in terms of the element stiness matrices was relatively straight-forward.

34

The determination of the element stiness matrix in global coordinates, from the element stiness
matrix in local coordinates requires the introduction of a transformation.

35

This section will examine the 2D transformation required to obtain an element stiness matrix in
global coordinate system prior to assembly (as discussed in the next section).

36

37

38

Recalling that
{p} =

[k(e) ]{}

(26.19)

{P} =

(e)

(26.20)

[K

]{}

Let us dene a transformation matrix [(e) ] such that:


{}

{p} =

[(e) ]{}
(e)

(26.21)

]{P}

(26.22)

Note that we use the same matrix (e) since both {} and {p} are vector quantities (or tensors of order
one).
39

Substituting Eqn. 26.21 and Eqn. 26.22 into Eqn. 26.19 we obtain
[(e) ]{P} = [k(e) ][(e) ]{}

(26.23)

{P} = [(e) ]1 [k(e) ][(e) ]{}

(26.24)

premultiplying by [(e) ]1

40

But since the rotation matrix is orthogonal, we have [(e) ]1 = [(e) ]T and
{P} = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]{}


(26.25)

[K(e) ]

[K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]

(26.26)

which is the general relationship between element stiness matrix in local and global coordinates.
26.3.2.1

2D Frame

The vector rotation matrix is dened in terms of 9 direction cosines of 9 dierent angles. However
for the 2D case, Fig. 26.8, we will note that four angles are interrelated (lxX , lxY , lyX , lyY ) and can all
be expressed in terms of a single one , where is the direction of the local x axis (along the member
from the rst to the second node) with respect to the global X axis. The remaining 5 terms are related
to another angle, , which is between the Z axis and the x-y plane. This angle is zero because we select
an orthogonal right handed coordinate system. Thus, the rotation matrix can be written as:

cos sin 0
cos
cos( 2 ) 0
lxX lxY lxZ
cos
0 = sin cos 0
(26.27)
[] = lyX lyY lyZ = cos( 2 + )
0
0
1
0
0
1
lzX lzY lzZ

41

and we observe that the angles are dened from the second subscript to the rst, and that counterclockwise angles are positive.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2613

Draft

Figure 26.8: 2D Frame Element Rotation

42

The element rotation matrix [(e) ] will then be given by


cos sin 0
p1
0

sin

cos

0
p
0

0
0
1
p3
0
=

p4
0
0 0
cos

sin
0
0
0

5
0
0 0
p6
0


(e)
[ ]

26.3.3

0
0
0
sin
cos
0

0
0
0
0
0
1

P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6

(26.28)

Global Stiness Matrix

The physical interpretation of the global stiness matrix K is analogous to the one of the element,
i.e. If all degrees of freedom are restrained, then Kij corresponds to the force along global degree of
freedom i due to a unit positive displacement (or rotation) along global degree of freedom j.

43

For instance, with reference to Fig. 26.9, we have three global degrees of freedom, 1 , 2 , and 3 .
and the global (restrained or structures) stiness matrix is

K11 K12 K13


(26.29)
K = K21 K22 K23
K31 K32 K33

44

and the rst column corresponds to all the internal forces in the unrestrained d.o.f. when a unit displacement along global d.o.f. 1 is applied.
26.3.3.1

Structural Stiness Matrix

The structural stiness matrix is assembled only for those active dgrees of freedom which are active
(i.e unrestrained). It is the one which will be inverted (or rather decomposed) to determine the nodal
displacements.

45

26.3.3.2

Augmented Stiness Matrix

The augmented stiness matrix is expressed in terms of all the dof. However, it is partitioned into two
groups with respective subscript u where the displacements are known (zero otherwise), and t where
the loads are known.



 
Ktt Ktu
Pt
t ?
(26.30)

=
Ru ?
Kut Kuu
u

46

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2614

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

Figure 26.9: *Frame Example (correct K32 and K33 )


We note that Ktt corresponds to the structural stiness matrix.
47

The rst equation enables the calculation of the unknown displacements.


t = K1
tt (Pt Ktu u )

48

(26.31)

The second equation enables the calculation of the reactions

Ru = Kut t + Kuu u

(26.32)

For internal book-keeping purpose, since we are assembling the augmented stiness matrix, we proceed
in two stages:

49

1. First number all the global unrestrained degrees of freedom


2. Then number all the global restrained degrees of freedom (i.e. those with known displacements,
zero or otherwise) and multiply by -11 .

26.3.4

Internal Forces

The element internal forces (axia and shear forces, and moment at each end of the member) are
determined from

50

(e)

pint = k(e) (e)

(26.33)

1 An

alternative scheme is to separately number the restrained dof but assign a negative number. This will enable us
later on to distinguish the restrained from unrestrained dof.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

Draft

2615

(e)

at the element level where pint is the six by six array of internal forces, k(e) the element stiness matrix
in local coordinate systems, and (e) is the vector of nodal displacements in local coordinate system.
Note that this last array is obrained by rst identifying the displacements in global coordinate system,
and then premultiplying it by the transofrmation matrix to obtain the displacements in local coordinate
system.

26.3.5

Boundary Conditions, [ID] Matrix

51 Because of the boundary condition restraints, the total structure number of active degrees of freedom
(i.e unconstrained) will be less than the number of nodes times the number of degrees of freedom per
node.

52

To obtain the global degree of freedom for a given node, we need to dene an [ID] matrix such that:
ID has dimensions l k where l is the number of degree of freedom per node, and k is the number of
nodes).
ID matrix is initialized to zero.
1. At input stage read ID(idof,inod) of each degree of freedom for every node such that:

0
if unrestrained d.o.f.
ID(idof, inod) =
1
if restrained d.o.f.

(26.34)

2. After all the node boundary conditions have been read, assign incrementally equation numbers
(a) First to all the active dof
(b) Then to the other (restrained) dof.
(c) Multiply by -1 all the passive dof.
Note that the total number of dof will be equal to the number of nodes times the number of
dof/node NEQA.
3. The largest positive global degree of freedom number will be equal to NEQ (Number Of Equations),
which is the size of the square matrix which will have to be decomposed.
53

For example, for the frame shown in Fig. 26.10:


1. The input data le may contain:
Node No.
1
2
3
4

[ID]T
000
110
000
100

2. At this stage, the [ID] matrix is equal to:

0
ID = 0
0

1 0
1 0
0 0

1
0
0

3. After we determined the equation numbers, we would have:

1 1 5 3
ID = 2 2 6 8
3 4 7 9

Victor Saouma

(26.35)

(26.36)

Structural Engineering

2616

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

Figure 26.10: Example for [ID] Matrix Determination

26.3.6

LM Vector

The LM vector of a given element gives the global degree of freedom of each one of the element degree
of freedoms. For the structure shown in Fig. 26.10, we would have:

54

LM
LM
LM

26.3.7

=  1 2 4 5 6 7  element 1 (2 3)
=  5 6 7 1 2 3 
element 2 (3 1)
=  1 2 3 3 8 9 
element 3 (1 4)

Assembly of Global Stiness Matrix

As for the element stiness matrix, the global stiness matrix [K] is such that Kij is the force in
degree of freedom i caused by a unit displacement at degree of freedom j.

55

Whereas this relationship was derived from basic analysis at the element level, at the structure level,
this term can be obtained from the contribution of the element stiness matrices [K(e) ] (written in global
coordinate system).

56

For each Kij term, we shall add the contribution of all the elements which can connect degree of
freedom i to degree of freedom j, assuming that those forces are readily available from the individual
element stiness matrices written in global coordinate system.

57

Kij is non-zero if and only if degree of freedom i and degree of freedom j are connected by an element
or share a node.

58

There are usually more than one element connected to a dof. Hence, individual element stiness
matrices terms must be added up.

59

Because each term of all the element stiness matrices must nd its position inside the global stiness matrix [K], it is found computationally most eective to initialize the global stiness matrix
[KS ](N EQAN EQA ) to zero, and then loop through all the elements, and then through each entry of
(e)
the respective element stiness matrix Kij .
60

(e)

The assignment of the element stiness matrix term Kij (note that e, i, and j are all known since
we are looping on e from 1 to the number of elements, and then looping on the rows and columns of the

61

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2617

Draft

S
element stiness matrix i, j) into the global stiness matrix Kkl
is made through the LM vector (note
that it is k and l which must be determined).

Since the global stiness matrix is also symmetric, we would need to only assemble one side of it,
usually the upper one.

62

63

Contrarily to the previous method, we will assemble the full augmented stiness matrix.
Example 26-2: Assembly of the Global Stiness Matrix
As an example, let us consider the frame shown in Fig. 26.11.
50kN

4 kN/m
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1

8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

7.416 m

8m

Figure 26.11: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code


The ID matrix is initially set to:

1
[ID] = 1
1

0 1
0 1
0 1

(26.37)

We then modify it to generate the global degrees of freedom of each node:

4 1 7
[ID] = 5 2 8
6 3 9

(26.38)

Finally the LM vectors for the two elements (assuming that Element 1 is dened from node 1 to node
2, and element 2 from node 2 to node 3):


2
3
4 5 6 1
(26.39)
[LM ] =
1
2
3 7 8 9
Let us simplfy the operation by designating the element stiness matrices in global coordinates as follows:

K (1)

4 A11
5
A21
6
A31
1
A41
2 A51
3 A61

5
A12
A22
A32
A42
A52
A62

6
A13
A23
A33
A43
A53
A63

1
A14
A24
A34
A44
A54
A64

2
A15
A25
A35
A45
A55
A65

A16
A26

A36

A46

A56
A66

1
1 B11
2
B21
3
B31
7
B41
8 B51
9 B61

2
B12
B22
B32
B42
B52
B62

3
B13
B23
B33
B43
B53
B63

7
B14
B24
B34
B44
B54
B64

8
B15
B25
B35
B45
B55
B65

B16
B26

B36

B46

B56
B66

K (2)

Victor Saouma

(26.40-a)

(26.40-b)

Structural Engineering

2618

Draft

We note that for each element we have shown the


Now, we assemble the global stiness matrix

A44 + B11 A45 + B12 A46 + B13


A54 + B21 A55 + B22 A56 + B23

A64 + B31 A65 + B32 A66 + B33

A14
A15
A16

K=
A
A26
A
24
25

A
A
A36
34
35

B
B
B43
41
42

B51
B52
B53
B61
B62
B63

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD


corresponding LM vector.
A41
A51
A61
A11
A21
A31
0
0
0

A42
A52
A62
A12
A22
A32
0
0
0

A43
A53
A63
A13
A23
A33
0
0
0

B14
B24
B34
0
0
0
B44
B54
B64

B15
B25
B35
0
0
0
B45
B55
B65

B16
B26
B36
0
0
0
B46
B56
B66

(26.41)

We note that some terms are equal to zero because we do not have a connection between the corresponding degrees of freedom (i.e. node 1 is not connected to node 3).

26.3.8
64

Algorithm

The direct stiness method can be summarized as follows:

Preliminaries: First we shall


1. Identify type of structure (beam, truss, grid or frame) and determine the
(a) Number of spatial coordinates (1D, 2D, or 3D)
(b) Number of degree of freedom per node (local and global)
(c) Number of cross-sectional and material properties
2. Determine the global unrestrained and restrained degree of freedom equation numbers for
each node, Update the [ID] matrix (which included only 0s and 1s in the input data le).
Analysis :
1. For each element, determine
(a) Vector LM relating local to global degree of freedoms.
(b) Element stiness matrix [k(e) ]
(c) Angle between the local and global x axes.
(d) Rotation matrix [(e) ]
(e) Element stiness matrix in global coordinates [K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]
2. Assemble the augmented stiness matrix [K(S) ] of unconstrained and constrained degree of
freedoms.
3. Extract [Ktt ] from [K(S) ] and invert (or decompose into into [Ktt ] = [L][L]T where [L] is a
lower triangle matrix.
4. Assemble load vector {P} in terms of nodal load and xed end actions.
5. Backsubstitute and obtain nodal displacements in global coordinate system.
6. SOlve for the reactions.
7. For each element, transform its nodal displacement from global to local coordinates {} =
[(e) ]{}, and determine the internal forces [p] = [k]{}.
65

Some of the prescribed steps are further discussed in the next sections.
Example 26-3: Direct Stiness Analysis of a Truss

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2619

Draft

5
1

6
8

50k

12

100k

16

16

Figure 26.12:
Using the direct stiness method, analyse the truss shown in Fig. 26.12.
Solution:
1. Determine the structure ID matrix
Node #
1
2
3
4
5

ID

Bound.
X
0
0
1
0
0

0 0
1 0

1 0
1 0

Cond.
Y
1
0
1
0
0
0
0


(26.42-a)

N ode 1 2 3 4

1 2 2 4
1 3 3 5

5

6
7

(26.42-b)

2. The LM vector of each element is evaluated next


LM 1
LM 2
LM 3
LM 4
LM 5
LM 6
LM 7
LM 8

=  1
=  1
=  2
=  4

1 4
1 2

5 
3 

4 5 
6 7 
=  2 3 4 5 
=  2 3 6 7 
=  2 3 0 0 
=  2 3 6 7 
3
5

(26.43-a)
(26.43-b)
(26.43-c)
(26.43-d)
(26.43-e)
(26.43-f)
(26.43-g)
(26.43-h)

3. Determine the element stiness matrix of each element in the global coordinate system noting that
for a 2D truss element we have
[K (e) ] =
=

Victor Saouma

[(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ]


2
cs
c
2
EA
cs
s

2
L c cs
cs s2

c2 cs
cs s2

c2
cs
cs
s2

(26.44-a)
(26.44-b)

Structural Engineering

2620

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

x2 x1
L ;

where c = cos =


Element 1 L = 20 , c =

Y2 Y1
L

s = sin =

160
20

120
20

= 0.8, s =

= 0.6,

EA
L

(30,000

ksi)(10 in2 )
20

= 15, 000 k/ft.

1
1
4
5

1
9600
7200 9600 7200
1
5400 7200 5400
7200

4 9600 7200 9600


7200
5 7200 5400 7200
5400

[K1 ] =

EA
L

Element 2 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,

Element 3 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,

[K3 ] =

Element 4 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,

[K4 ] =

Element 5 L = 20 , c =

160
20

EA
L

2 0
3
0
4 0
5 0
EA
L

3
0
25, 000
0
25, 000

0
0

0
0

(26.46)

4
0
0
0
0

0
25, 000

0
25, 000

(26.47)

= 18, 750 k/ft.

4 18, 750
5
0

6 18, 750
7
0

5
0
0
0
0

6
18, 750
0
18, 750
0
EA
L

0
0

0
0

(26.48)

= 15, 000 k/ft.

2
3
4
5

2 9600 7200 9600 7200


3
7200 5400
7200 5400

4 9600 7200
9600 7200
5
7200 5400 7200 5400

Element 6 L = 20 , c = 0.8 , s = 0.6 ,

[K6 ] =

2
18, 750
0
18, 750
0

= 25, 000 k/ft.

= 0.8 , s = 0.6 ,

[K5 ] =

EA
L

[K7 ] =

EA
L

(26.49)

= 15, 000 k/ft.

2
3
6
7

2 9600
7200 9600 7200
3
5400 7200 5400
7200

6 9600 7200 9600


7200
7 7200 5400 7200
5400

Element 7 L = 16 , c = 1 , s = 0 ,

Victor Saouma

= 18, 750 k/ft.

1
1

1
18, 750
0
1
0
0

2 18, 750 0
3
0
0

[K2 ] =

(26.45)

(26.50)

= 18, 750 k/ft.

2 18, 750
3
0

0 18, 750
0
0

3
0
0
0
0

0
18, 750
0
18, 750
0

0
0

0
0

(26.51)

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

Draft

2621

EA
L

Element 8 L = 12 , c = 0 , s = 1 ,

2
3

6
7

[K8 ] =

= 25, 000 k/ft.


2
0
0
0
0

3
0
25, 000
0
25, 000

6
7

0
0
0 25, 000

0
0
0 25, 000

(26.52)

4. Assemble the global stiness matrix in k/ft Note that we are not assembling the augmented stiness
matrix, but rather its submatrix [Ktt ].
0 9600 + 18, 750

18, 750
0
9600
7200
0
0

0
9600 + (2) 18, 750
7200
0
0
9600
7200

100k

5400 + 25, 000


0
25, 000
7200
5400

0
18, 750 + (2)9600
7200 7200
18, 750
0
=

0
SYMMETRIC
25, 000 + 5400(2)
0
0

50k

18, 750 + 9600


7200
0

25, 000 + 5400


(26.53)

5. convert to k/in and simplify


2362.5
1562.5
0
800
600
0
0
0

3925.0
600
0
0
800
600
0

2533.33
0
2083.33
600
450

100
3162.5
0
1562.5
0
0
=

2983.33
0
0
SYMMETRIC
0

2362.5
600
50

2533.33
0
6. Invert stiness matrix and solve for displacements


U1
0.0223 in

U
0.00433 in

V3
0.116 in

=
U4
0.0102 in

0.0856 in

0.00919 in

V7
0.0174 in

U1

U2

V3

U4

V5

U6

V7
(26.54)

7. Solve for member internal forces (in this case axial forces) in local coordinate systems

U1


 


u1
V1
c
s c s
=
u2
U2
c s
c
s

V2

(26.55)

(26.56)

Element 1


p1
p2

1
= (15, 000 k/ft)(

=

52.1 k
52.1 k

1 ft
)
12 in

0.0223

0.8
0.6 0.8 0.6
0
(26.57-a)
0.8 0.6
0.8
0.6
0.0102

0.0856

Compression

(26.57-b)

Element 2


Victor Saouma

p1
p2

2
= 18, 750 k/ft(

1 ft
)
12 in

0.0233

1 0 1 0
0
(26.58-a)
1 0
1 0
0.00433

0.116
Structural Engineering

u1
u2
v3
u4
v5
u6
v7

2622

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft


=

43.2 k
43.2 k


Tension

(26.58-b)

Element 3


3

p1
p2

= 25, 000 k/ft(



=

63.3 k
63.3 k

1 ft
)
12 in

0
1 0
0 1 0

0.00433

1
0.116
1
0.0102

0.0856

Tension

(26.59-a)

(26.59-b)

Element 4


4

p1
p2

18, 750 k/ft(




1.58 k
1.58 k

1 ft
)
12 in

1 0 1
1 0
1

0.0102

0
0.0856
0
0.00919

0.0174

Tension

(26.60-a)

(26.60-b)

Element 5


5

p1
p2




1 ft
0.8
0.6
0.8 0.6
0.0102
= 15, 000 k/ft(
)
(26.61-a)
0.8 0.6 0.8
0.6
0.0856
12 in


54.0 k
=
Compression
(26.61-b)
54.0 k

Element 6


p1
p2

6
=
=


 0.116
1 ft
0.8
0.6 0.8 0.6
0.00919 (26.62-a)
15, 000 k/ft(
)
0.8 0.6
0.8
0.6

12 in
0.0174


60.43 k
Tension
(26.62-b)
60.43 k

Element 7


p1
p2

7

1 ft
1 0
)
1 0
12 in


6.72 k
Compression
=
6.72 k
= 18, 750 k/ft(

 0.116
1 0
0
1 0

(26.63-a)

(26.63-b)

Element 8


p1
p2

8
=

25, 000 k/ft(




=
Victor Saouma

36.3 k
36.3 k

1 ft
)
12 in

0
1 0
0 1 0


Compression

1
1

0
0
0.00919

0.0174

(26.64-a)

(26.64-b)
Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2623

Draft

8. Determine the structures MAXA vector

1 3

2 5

[K] =

9
8
7
6

14
13
12
11
10

19
18
17
16
15

25
24
23
22
21
20

4
6
MAXA =

10

15

20

(26.65)

Thus, 25 terms would have to be stored.

Example 26-4: Analysis of a Frame with MATLAB


The simple frame shown in Fig. 26.13 is to be analysed by the direct stiness method. Assume:
E = 200, 000 MPa, A = 6, 000 mm2 , and I = 200 106 mm4 . The complete MATLAB solution is shown
below along with the results.
50kN

4 kN/m
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11

8m
3m
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111

7.416 m

8m

Figure 26.13: Simple Frame Anlysed with the MATLAB Code

% zero the matrices


k=zeros(6,6,2);
K=zeros(6,6,2);
Gamma=zeros(6,6,2);
% Structural properties units: mm^2, mm^4, and MPa(10^6 N/m)
A=6000;II=200*10^6;EE=200000;
% Convert units to meter and kN
A=A/10^6;II=II/10^12;EE=EE*1000;
% Element 1
i=[0,0];j=[7.416,3];
[k(:,:,1),K(:,:,1),Gamma(:,:,1)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Element 2
i=j;j=[15.416,3];
[k(:,:,2),K(:,:,2),Gamma(:,:,2)]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j);
% Define ID matrix
ID=[
-4 1 -7;
-5 2 -8;
-6 3 -9];
% Determine the LM matrix
LM=[
-4 -5 -6 1 2 3;
1 2 3 -7 -8 -9];
% Assemble augmented stiffness matrix
Kaug=zeros(9);
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2624

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

for elem=1:2
for r=1:6
lr=abs(LM(elem,r));
for c=1:6
lc=abs(LM(elem,c));
Kaug(lr,lc)=Kaug(lr,lc)+K(r,c,elem);
end
end
end
% Extract the structures Stiffness Matrix
Ktt=Kaug(1:3,1:3);
% Determine the fixed end actions in local coordinate system
fea(1:6,1)=0;
fea(1:6,2)=[0,8*4/2,4*8^2/12,0,8*4/2,-4*8^2/12];
% Determine the fixed end actions in global coordinate system
FEA(1:6,1)=Gamma(:,:,1)*fea(1:6,1);
FEA(1:6,2)=Gamma(:,:,2)*fea(1:6,2);
% FEA_Rest for all the restrained nodes
FEA_Rest=[0,0,0,FEA(4:6,2)];
% Assemble the load vector for the unrestrained node
P(1)=50*3/8;P(2)=-50*7.416/8-fea(2,2);P(3)=-fea(3,2);
% Solve for the Displacements in meters and radians
Displacements=inv(Ktt)*P
% Extract Kut
Kut=Kaug(4:9,1:3);
% Compute the Reactions and do not forget to add fixed end actions
Reactions=Kut*Displacements+FEA_Rest
% Solve for the internal forces and do not forget to include the fixed end actions
dis_global(:,:,1)=[0,0,0,Displacements(1:3)];
dis_global(:,:,2)=[Displacements(1:3),0,0,0];
for elem=1:2
dis_local=Gamma(:,:,elem)*dis_global(:,:,elem);
int_forces=k(:,:,elem)*dis_local+fea(1:6,elem)
end
function [k,K,Gamma]=stiff(EE,II,A,i,j)
% Determine the length
L=sqrt((j(2)-i(2))^2+(j(1)-i(1))^2);
% Compute the angle theta (carefull with vertical members!)
if(j(1)-i(1))~=0
alpha=atan((j(2)-i(2))/(j(1)-i(1)));
else
alpha=-pi/2;
end
% form rotation matrix Gamma
Gamma=[
cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
-sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0 0
0
0;
0
0
1 0
0
0;
0
0
0 cos(alpha) sin(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 -sin(alpha) cos(alpha) 0;
0
0
0 0
0
1];
% form element stiffness matrix in local coordinate system
EI=EE*II;
EA=EE*A;
k=[EA/L,
0,
0, -EA/L,
0,
0;
0,
12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2,
0, -12*EI/L^3, 6*EI/L^2;
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2625

Draft

0,
6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L;
-EA/L,
0,
0, EA/L,
0,
0;
0, -12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2,
0, 12*EI/L^3, -6*EI/L^2;
0,
6*EI/L^2,
2*EI/L,
0, -6*EI/L^2,
4*EI/L];
% Element stiffness matrix in global coordinate system
K=Gamma*k*Gamma;
This simple proigram will produce the following results:
Displacements =
0.0010
-0.0050
-0.0005
Reactions =
130.4973
55.6766
13.3742
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557

int_forces =

int_forces =

141.8530
2.6758
13.3742
-141.8530
-2.6758
8.0315

149.2473
9.3266
-8.0315
-149.2473
22.6734
-45.3557

We note that the internal forces are consistent with the reactions (specially for the second node of
element 2), and amongst themselves, i.e. the moment at node 2 is the same for both elements (8.0315).

Example 26-5: Analysis of a simple Beam with Initial Displacements


The full stiness matrix of a beam element is given by

[K] =

v1

V1
12EI/L3
2
M1
6EI/L 3
V2 12EI/L
M2 6EI/L2

1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L

v2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L

6EI/L2
4EI/L

(26.66)

This matrix is singular, it has a rank 2 and order 4 (as it embodies also 2 rigid body motions).
66

We shall consider 3 dierent cases, Fig. 26.14

Cantilivered Beam/Point Load


1. The element stiness matrix is

k=

Victor Saouma

3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2
1
12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2

4
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L

1
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

Structural Engineering

2626

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

Figure 26.14: ID Values for Simple Beam


2. The structure stiness matrix is assembled
1

1
12EI/L2
2 6EI/L2
3 12EI/L3
4 6EI/L2

K=

2
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L

3. The global matrix can be rewritten as


12EI/L2
6EI/L2
P
2
6EI/L
4EI/L
0
=
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R3 ?
2
6EI/L

R4 ?

2EI/L

3
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

1 ?
2 ?

3
4

4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix

L3 /3EI

L2 /2EI

12EI/L3

6EI/L2

L2 /2EI

L/EI

6EI/L2

2EI/L

12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L

12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
4EI/L

5. Next we compute the equivalent load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by


L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
P


2
0
L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
Pt Ktu u =
L /2EI

12EI/L3 6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
0
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

0
0
0

Victor Saouma


6. Now we solve for the displacement t = K1
tt Pt ,

L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
1

2
2
L/EI
= L /2EI

12EI/L3
6EI/L2
2
0
2EI/L
6EI/L

3 /3EI
P
L

Pt

P L2 /2EI
0
0

and overwrite Pt by t

12EI/L3 6EI/L2
P

0
6EI/L2
2EI/L
0

12EI/L3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2

4EI/L

Structural Engineering

26.3 Direct Stiness Method

2627

Draft

7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Ru = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru

P L3 /3EI
3
L3 /3EI
L2 /2EI
12EI/L3 6EI/L2

P L /3EI

P L2 /2EI

L/EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
L /2EI
P L2 /2EI

= 12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
R
3

R4
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
0

P L3 /3EI

P L2 /2EI
=

P
PL

Simply Supported Beam/End Moment


1. The element stiness matrix is
3

3 12EI/L3
1 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
2
6EI/L2

k=

1
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L

4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

2. The structure stiness matrix is assembled


1

1
4EI/L
2 2EI/L
3 6EI/L2
4 6EI/L2

K=

2
2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
6EI/L2

3
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3

3. The global stiness matrix can be rewritten as



0

4EI/L
2EI/L
6EI/L2

2EI/L
4EI/L
6EI/L2
=
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

R3 ?

6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3


R4 ?

4. Ktt is inverted

L3 /3EI

L/6EI

6EI/L
6EI/L2

5. We compute the equivalent

0
Pt Ktu u

M
0
0
0
M
0
0

6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3

L/6EI

6EI/L2

6EI/L2

L/3EI

6EI/L2

6EI/L2

6EI/L2
6EI/L2

12EI/L3
12EI/L3

12EI/L3
12EI/L3

load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite


3
L /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2


L/3EI
6EI/L2
L/6EI

6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2 6EI/L2 12EI/L3

Victor Saouma

1 ?

?
2

3
4

Pt by Pt
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3


6. Solve for the displacements, t = K1
tt Pt , and overwrite Pt

L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2

2
L/3EI
6EI/L2
= L/6EI

6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
2
2
0
6EI/L
12EI/L3
6EI/L

M L/6EI

6EI/L2
2
6EI/L
12EI/L3
12EI/L3

M L/3EI
0
0

by t

M
6EI/L2
0

12EI/L3
6EI/L2

12EI/L3

Structural Engineering

2628

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

7. Solve for the reactions, Rt = Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite

M L/6EI
L3 /3EI
L/6EI
6EI/L2

2
M L/3EI

L/6EI
L/3EI
6EI/L

=
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
R1
6EI/L2

2
2
3
6EI/L

R2

6EI/L

12EI/L

M L/6EI

M L/3EI

M/L

M/L

u by Ru
6EI/L2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
12EI/L3

M L/6EI

M L/3EI

Cantilivered Beam/Initial Displacement and Concentrated Moment


1. The element stiness matrix is
2

2 12EI/L3
3 6EI/L2
4 12EI/L3
1
6EI/L2

k=

3
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L

4
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L

3
2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

2. The structure stiness matrix is assembled


1

1
4EI/L
2 6EI/L2
3 2EI/L
4 6EI/L2

K=

3. The global matrix can be



M
R2 ?
=
R3 ?
R4 ?

2
6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

rewritten as
4EI/L
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2

6EI/L2
12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

1 ?
2

3
4

4. Ktt is inverted (or actually decomposed) and stored in the same global matrix

L/4EI

6EI/L2

2EI/L
6EI/L2

6EI/L2

2EI/L

6EI/L2

12EI/L3

6EI/L2

12EI/L3
6EI/L2
12EI/L3

6EI/L2
12EI/L3

4EI/L
6EI/L2

5. Next we compute the equivalent load, Pt = Pt Ktu u , and overwrite Pt by Pt

L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2

0
M

6EI/L2

3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
Pt Ktu u =

2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2

00

6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2


12EI/L3
0

0
2

M + 6EI /L

0
0
0

Victor Saouma

0
0
0


6. Now we solve for the displacements, t = K1
tt Pt , and overwrite Pt by t

0
2
L/4EI
6EI/L2
2EI/L
6EI/L2

M + 6EI /L

2
3
2
3
0
12EI/L
6EI/L
12EI/L
0
= 6EI/L

2EI/L
6EI/L2
4EI/L
6EI/L2
0
00

6EI/L2 12EI/L3 6EI/L2


12EI/L3

M L/4EI + 3 /2L

Structural Engineering

26.4 Computer Program Organization

2629

Draft

7. Finally, we solve for the reactions, Rt

M L/4EI + 30 /2L

R2

=
R3

R4

26.4
66

= Kut tt + Kuu u , and overwrite u by Ru


L/4EI

6EI/L2

2EI/L

6EI/L2

6EI/L2

12EI/L3

6EI/L2

12EI/L3

2EI/L

6EI/L2

4EI/L

6EI/L2

6EI/L2

12EI/L3

6EI/L2

12EI/L3

M L/4EI + 30 /2L

0
0

0
M L/4EI + 30 /2L
3M/2L 3EI0 /L3

M/2 3EI0 /L2

3M/2L + 3EI0 /L3

Computer Program Organization

The main program should,


1. Read
(a) title card
(b) control card which should include:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Number of nodes
Number of elements
Type of structure: beam, grid, truss, or frame; (2D or 3D)
Number of dierent element properties
Number of load cases

2. Determine:
(a) Number of spatial coordinates for the structure
(b) Number of local and global degrees of freedom per node
3. For each node read:
(a) Node number
(b) Boundary conditions of each global degree of freedom [ID]
(c) Spatial coordinates
Note that all the above are usually written on the same data card
4. For each element, read:
(a) Element number
(b) First and second node
(c) Element Property number
5. For each element property group read the associated elastic and cross sectional characteristics.
Note these variables will depend on the structure type.
6. Determine the vector u which stores the initial displacements.
7. Loop over all the elements and for each one:
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2630

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

(a) Retrieve its properties

(b) Determine the length


(c) Call the appropriate subroutines which will determine:
i. The stiness matrix in local coordinate systems [k(e) ].
ii. The angle and the transformation matrix [(e) ].
8. Assembly of the global stiness matrix
(a) Initialize the global stiness matrix to zero
(b) Loop through each element, e, and for each element:
i. Retrieve its stiness matrix (in local coordinates) [k(e) ] and transformation matrix [(e) ].
ii. Compute the element stiness matrix in global coordinates from [K(e) ] = [(e) ]T [k(e) ][(e) ].
iii. Dene the {LM} array of the element
iv. Loop through each row i and column j of the element stiness matrix, and for those
degree of freedom not equal to zero, add the contributions of the element to the structures
stiness matrix K S [LM (i), LM (j)] = K S [LM (i), LM (j)] + K (e) [i, j]
9. Extract the structures stiness matrix [Ktt ] from the augmented stiness matrix.
10. Invert the structures stiness matrix (or decompose it).
11. For each load case:
(a) Determine the nodal equivalent loads (xed end actions), if any.
(b) Assemble the load vector
(c) Load assembly (once for each load cae) once the stiness matrix has been decomposed, than
the main program should loop through each load case and,
i. Initialize the load vector (of length NEQ) to zero.
ii. Read number of loaded nodes. For each loaded node store the non-zero values inside the
load vector (using the [ID] matrix for determining storage location).
iii. Loop on all loaded elements:
A. Read element number, and load value
B. Compute the xed end actions and rotate them from local to global coordinates.
C. Using the LM vector, add the xed end actions to the nodal load vector (unless the
corresponding equation number is zero, ie. restrained degree of freedom).
D. Store the xed end actions for future use.
(d) Apply Eq. 26.31 to determine the nodal displacements t = K1
tt (Pt Ktu u )
(e) Apply Eq. 26.32 to determine the nodal reactions Rt = Kut t + Kuu u
(f) Determine the internal forces (axial, shear and moment)
i. For each element retrieve:
A. nodal coordinates
B. rotation matrix [(e) ].
C. element stiness matrix [k(e) ].

4
5
ii. Compute nodal displacements in local coordinate system from (e) = [(e) ] {}
5
4
iii. Compute element internal forces from {p} = [k(e) ] (e)
iv. If the element is loaded, add corresponding xed end actions
v. print the interior forces

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

Draft
26.5

2631

Computer Implementation with MATLAB

You will be required, as part of your term project, to write a simple MATLAB (or whatever other
language you choose) program for the analysis of two dimensional frames with nodal load and initial
displacement, as well as element load.

67

To facilitate the task, your instructor has taken the liberty of taking a program written by Mr. Dean
Frank (as part of his term project with this instructor in the Advanced Structural Analysis course, Fall
1995), modied it with the aid of Mr. Pawel Smolarki, and is making available most, but not all of it to
you. Hence, you will be expected to rst familiarize yourself with the code made available to you, and
then complete it by essentially lling up the missing parts.

68

26.5.1

Program Input

From Dean Franks Users Manual


It is essential that the structure be idealized such that it can be discretized. This discretization should
dene each node and element uniquely. In order to decrease the required amount of computer storage
and computation it is best to number the nodes in a manner that minimizes the numerical separation of
the node numbers on each element. For instance, an element connecting nodes 1 and 4, could be better
dened by nodes 1 and 2, and so on. As it was noted previously, the user is required to have a decent
understanding of structural analysis and structural mechanics. As such, it will be necessary for the user
to generate or modify an input le input.m using the following directions. Open the le called input.m
and set the existing variables in the le to the appropriate values. The input le has additional helpful
directions given as comments for each variable. After setting the variables to the correct values, be sure
to save the le. Please note that the program is case-sensitive.

69

In order for the program to be run, the user must supply the required data by setting certain variables
in the le called indat.m equal to the appropriate values. All the user has to do is open the text le
called indat.txt, ll in the required values and save the le as indat.m in a directory within MATABs
path. There are helpful hints within this le. It is especially important that the user keep track of
units for all of the variables in the input data le. All of the units MUST be consistent. It is suggested
that one always use the same units for all problems. For example, always use kips and inches, or kilonewtons and millimeters.

70

26.5.1.1

Input Variable Descriptions

A brief description of each of the variables to be used in the input le is given below:
npoin This variable should be set equal to the number of nodes that comprise the structure. A node
is dened as any point where two or more elements are joined.
nelem This variable should be set equal to the number of elements in the structure. Elements are
the members which span between nodes.
istrtp This variable should be set equal to the type of structure. There are six types of structures
which this program will analyze: beams, 2-D trusses, 2-D frames, grids, 3-D trusses, and 3-D frames. Set
this to 1 for beams, 2 for 2D-trusses, 3 for 2D- frames, 4 for grids, 5 for 3D-trusses, and 6 for 3D-frames.
An error will occur if it is not set to a number between 1 and 6. Note only istrp=3 was kept.
nload This variable should be set equal to the number of dierent load cases to be analyzed. A load
case is a specic manner in which the structure is loaded.
ID (matrix) The ID matrix contains information concerning the boundary conditions for each node.
The number of rows in the matrix correspond with the number of nodes in the structure and the number
of columns corresponds with the number of degrees of freedom for each node for that type of structure
type. The matrix is composed of ones and zeros. A one indicates that the degree of freedom is restrained
and a zero means it is unrestrained.
nodecoor (matrix) This matrix contains the coordinates (in the global coordinate system) of the
nodes in the structure. The rows correspond with the node number and the columns correspond with
the global coordinates x, y, and z, respectively. It is important to always include all three coordinates
for each node even if the structure is only two- dimensional. In the case of a two-dimensional structure,
the z-coordinate would be equal to zero.
71

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DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

lnods (matrix) This matrix contains the nodal connectivity information. The rows correspond with
the element number and the columns correspond with the node numbers which the element is connected
from and to, respectively.
E,A,Iy (arrays) These are the material and cross-sectional properties for the elements. They are
arrays with the number of terms equal to the number of elements in the structure. The index number of
each term corresponds with the element number. For example, the value of A(3) is the area of element
3, and so on. E is the modulus of elasticity, A is the cross-sectional area, Iy is the moment of inertia
about the y axes
Pnods This is an array of nodal loads in global degrees of freedom. Only put in the loads in the
global degrees of freedom and if there is no load in a particular degree of freedom, then put a zero in its
place. The index number corresponds with the global degree of freedom.
Pelem This an array of element loads, or loads which are applied between nodes. Only one load
between elements can be analyzed. If there are more than one element loads on the structure, the
equivalent nodal load can be added to the nodal loads. The index number corresponds with the element
number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. These should be in local
coordinates.
a This is an array of distances from the left end of an element to the element load. The index number
corresponds to the element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its
place. This should be in local coordinates.
w This is an array of distributed loads on the structure. The index number corresponds with the
element number. If there is not a load on a particular member, put a zero in its place. This should be
in local coordinates
dispflag Set this variable to 1 if there are initial displacements and 0 if there are none.
initial displ This is an array of initial displacements in all structural degrees of freedom. This
means that you must enter in values for all structure degrees of freedom, not just those restrained. For
example, if the structure is a 2D truss with 3 members and 3 node, there would be 6 structural degrees
of freedom, etc. If there are no initial displacements, then set the values equal to zero.
angle This is an array of angles which the x-axis has possibly been rotated. This angle is taken
as positive if the element has been rotated towards the z-axis. The index number corresponds to the
element number.
drawflag Set this variable equal to 1 if you want the program to draw the structure and 0 if you do
not.
26.5.1.2

Sample Input Data File

The contents of the input.m le which the user is to ll out is given below:
%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: indat.m (EXAMPLE 2D-FRAME INPUT DATA)
%
% Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main data input file for the computer aided
% structural analysis program CASAP. The user must supply
% the required numeric values for the variables found in
% this file (see users manual for instructions).
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% HELPFUL INSTRUCTION COMMENTS IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NPOIN EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF NODES IN THE STRUCTURE
npoin=3;
% SET NELEM EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF ELEMENTS IN THE STRUCTURE

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nelem=2;

% SET NLOAD EQUAL TO THE NUMBER OF LOAD CASES


nload=1;
% INPUT THE ID MATRIX CONTAINING THE NODAL BOUNDARY CONDITIONS (ROW # = NODE #)
ID=[1 1 1;
0 0 0;
1 1 1];
% INPUT THE NODE COORDINATE (X,Y) MATRIX, NODECOOR (ROW # = NODE #)
nodecoor=[
0 0;
7416 3000;
15416 3000
];
% INPUT THE ELEMENT CONNECTIVITY MATRIX, LNODS (ROW # = ELEMENT #)
lnods=[
1 2;
2 3
];
% INPUT THE MATERIAL PROPERTIES ASSOCIATED WITH THIS TYPE OF STRUCTURE
% PUT INTO ARRAYS WHERE THE INDEX NUMBER IS EQUAL TO THE CORRESPONDING ELEMENT NUMBER.
% COMMENT OUT VARIABLES THAT WILL NOT BE USED
E=[200 200];
A=[6000 6000];
Iz=[200000000 200000000];
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
%

INPUT THE LOAD DATA. NODAL LOADS, PNODS SHOULD BE IN MATRIX FORM. THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND
TO THE GLOBAL DEGREE OF FREEDOM IN WHICH THE LOAD IS ACTING AND THE THE ROW NUMBER CORRESPONDS
WITH THE LOAD CASE NUMBER. PELEM IS THE ELEMENT LOAD, GIVEN IN A MATRIX, WITH COLUMNS
CORRESPONDING TO THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND ROW THE LOAD CASE. ARRAY "A" IS THE DISTANCE FROM
THE LEFT END OF THE ELEMENT TO THE LOAD, IN ARRAY FORM. THE DISTRIBUTED LOAD, W SHOULD BE
IN MATRIX FORM ALSO WITH COLUMNS = ELEMENT NUMBER UPON WHICH W IS ACTING AND ROWS = LOAD CASE.
ZEROS SHOULD BE USED IN THE MATRICES WHEN THERE IS NO LOAD PRESENT. NODAL LOADS SHOULD
BE GIVEN IN GLOBAL COORDINATES, WHEREAS THE ELEMENT LOADS AND DISTRIBUTED LOADS SHOULD BE
GIVEN IN LOCAL COORDINATES.

Pnods=[18.75 -46.35 0];


Pelem=[0 0];
a=[0 0];
w=[0 4/1000];
% IF YOU WANT THE PROGRAM TO DRAW THE STUCTURE SET DRAWFLAG=1, IF NOT SET IT EQUAL TO 0.
% THIS IS USEFUL FOR CHECKING THE INPUT DATA.
drawflag=1;
% END OF INPUT DATA FILE

26.5.1.3

Program Implementation

In order to run the program, open a new MATLAB Notebook. On the rst line, type the name of the
main program CASAP and evaluate that line by typing ctrl-enter. At this point, the main program reads
the input le you have just created and calls the appropriate subroutines to analyze your structure.
In doing so, your input data is echoed into your MATLAB notebook and the program results are also
displayed. As a note, the program can also be executed directly from the MATAB workspace window,
without Microsoft Word.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2634

Draft
26.5.2

Program Listing

26.5.2.1

Main Program

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

%**********************************************************************************************
%Main Program: casap.m
%
% This is the main program, Computer Aided Structural Analysis Program
% CASAP. This program primarily contains logic for calling scriptfiles and does not
% perform calculations.
%
% All variables are global, but are defined in the scriptfiles in which they are used.
%
% Associated scriptfiles:
%
% (for all stuctures)
% indat.m (input data file)
% idrasmbl.m
% elmcoord.m
% draw.m
%
% (3 - for 2D-frames)
% length3.m
% stiffl3.m
% trans3.m
% assembl3.m
% loads3.m
% disp3.m
% react3.m
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMMENT CARDS ARE IN ALL CAPITALS
% SET NUMERIC FORMAT
format short e
% CLEAR MEMORY OF ALL VARIABLES
clear
% INITIALIZE OUTPUT FILE
fid = fopen(casap.out, wt);
% SET ISTRTP EQUAL TO THE NUMBER CORRESPONDING TO THE TYPE OF STRUCTURE:
% 3 = 2DFRAME
istrtp=3;
% READ INPUT DATA SUPPLIED BY THE USER
indat
% REASSAMBLE THE ID MATRIX AND CALCULATE THE LM VECTORS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE IDRASMBL
idrasmbl
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX
elmcoord
% 2DFRAME CALCULATIONS

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% CALCULATE THE LENGTH AND ORIENTATION ANGLE, ALPHA FOR EACH ELEMENT
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LENGTH3.M
length3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN LOCAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE STIFFL3.M
stiffl3
% CALCULATE THE 2DFRAME ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE TRANS3.M
trans3
% ASSEMBLE THE GLOBAL STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
% CALL SCRIPTFILE ASSEMBL3.M
assembl3
%

PRINT STRUCTURAL INFO

print_general_info
% LOOP TO PERFORM ANALYSIS FOR EACH LOAD CASE
for iload=1:nload
print_loads
% DETERMINE THE LOAD VECTOR IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% CALL SCRIPTFILE LOADS3.M
loads3
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DISP3.M
disp3
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS AT THE RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM
% CALL SCRIPTFILE REACT3.M
react3
% CALCULATE THE INTERNAL FORCES FOR EACH ELEMENT
intern3
% END LOOP FOR EACH LOAD CASE
end
% DRAW THE STRUCTURE, IF USER HAS REQUESTED (DRAWFLAG=1)
% CALL SCRIPTFILE DRAW.M
draw
st=fclose(all);
% END OF MAIN PROGRAM (CASAP.M)
disp(Program completed! - See "casap.out" for complete output);

26.5.2.2

Assembly of ID Matrix

%************************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: IDRASMBL.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file re-assambles the ID matrix such that the restrained
% degrees of freedom are given negative values and the unrestrained

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DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

% degrees of freedom are given incremental values begining with one


% and ending with the total number of unrestrained degrees of freedom.
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%************************************************************************************************
% TAKE CARE OF SOME INITIAL BUSINESS: TRANSPOSE THE PNODS ARRAY
Pnods=Pnods.;
% SET THE COUNTER TO ZERO
count=1;
negcount=-1;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX
if istrtp==3
ndofpn=3;
nterm=6;
else
error(Incorrect structure type specified)
end
% SET THE ORIGINAL ID MATRIX TO TEMP MATRIX
orig_ID=ID;
% REASSEMBLE THE ID MATRIX, SUBSTITUTING RESTRAINED DEGREES OF FREEDOM WITH NEGATIVES,
% AND NUMBERING GLOBAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM
for inode=1:npoin
for icoord=1:ndofpn
if ID(inode,icoord)==0
ID(inode,icoord)=count;
count=count+1;
elseif ID(inode,icoord)==1
ID(inode,icoord)=negcount;
negcount=negcount-1;
else
error(ID input matrix incorrect)
end
end
end
% CREATE THE LM VECTORS FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
LM(ielem,1:ndofpn)=ID(lnods(ielem,1),1:ndofpn);
LM(ielem,(ndofpn+1):(2*ndofpn))=ID(lnods(ielem,2),1:ndofpn);
end
% END OF IDRASMBL.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.3

Element Nodal Coordinates

%**********************************************************************************************
%SCRIPTFILE NAME: ELEMCOORD.M
%
%MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
%Description : This file assembles a matrix, elemcoor which contains the coordinates
% of the first and second nodes on each element, respectively.
%

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26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

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% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% ASSEMBLE THE ELEMENT COORDINATE MATRIX, ELEMCOOR FROM NODECOOR AND LNODS
for ielem=1:nelem
elemcoor(ielem,1)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),1);
elemcoor(ielem,2)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),2);
%elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,1),3);
elemcoor(ielem,3)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),1);
elemcoor(ielem,4)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),2);
%elemcoor(ielem,6)=nodecoor(lnods(ielem,2),3);
end
% END OF ELMCOORD.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.4

Element Lengths

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : length3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the length of each element and the
% angle alpha between the local and global x-axes. This file can be used
% for 2-dimensional elements such as 2-D truss, 2-D frame, and grid elements.
% This information will be useful for transformation between local and global
% variables.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% ielem = counter for loop
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,4) = xj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,1) = xi-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,5) = yj-coordinate of element ielem
% elemcoor(ielem,2) = yi-coordinate of element ielem
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% COMPUTE THE LENGTH AND ANGLE BETWEEN LOCAL AND GLOBAL X-AXES FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
L(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
alpha(ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
% END OF LENGTH3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.5

Element Stiness Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: stiffl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%

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Structural Engineering

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DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

% Main program: casap.m


%
% When this file is called, it computes the element stiffenss matrix
% of a 2-D frame element in local coordinates. The element stiffness
% matrix is calculated for each element in the structure.
%
% The matrices are stored in a single matrix of dimensions 6x6*i and
% can be recalled individually later in the program.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which the appear)
%
% ielem = counter for loop
% nelem = number of element in the structure
% k(ielem,6,6)= element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
% E(ielem) = modulus of elasticity of element ielem
% A(ielem) = cross-sectional area of element ielem
% L(ielem) = lenght of element ielem
% Iz(ielem) = moment of inertia with respect to the local z-axis of element ielem
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
for ielem=1:nelem
k(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
% END OF STIFFL3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.6

Transformation Matrices

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : trans3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% This file calculates the rotation matrix and the element stiffness
% matrices for each element in a 2D frame.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% ielem = counter for the loop
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% rotation = rotation matrix containing all elements info
% Rot = rotational matrix for 2d-frame element
% alpha(ielem) = angle between local and global x-axes
% K = element stiffness matrix in global coordinates
% k = element stiffness matrix in local coordinates
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
% FOR EACH ELEMENT IN THE STRUCTURE
for ielem=1:nelem
% SET UP THE ROTATION MATRIX, ROTATAION
rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem)=...
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
ktemp=k(1:6,1:6,ielem);
% CALCULATE THE ELEMENT STIFFNESS MATRIX IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Rot=rotation(1:6,1:6,ielem);
K(1:6,1:6,ielem)=

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26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

Draft

2639

XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX


end
% END OF TRANS3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.7

Assembly of the Augmented Stiness Matrix

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : assembl3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% This file assembles the global structural stiffness matrix from the
% element stiffness matrices in global coordinates using the LM vectors.
% In addition, this file assembles the augmented stiffness matrix.
%
% Variable Descritpions (in order of appearance):
%
% ielem = Row counter for element number
% nelem = Number of elements in the structure
% iterm = Counter for term number in LM matrix
% LM(a,b) = LM matrix
% jterm = Column counter for element number
% temp1 = Temporary variable
% temp2 = Temporary variable
% temp3 = Temporary variable
% temp4 = Temporary variable
% number_gdofs = Number of global dofs
% new_LM = LM matrix used in assembling the augmented stiffness matrix
% aug_total_dofs = Total number of structure dofs
% K_aug
= Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt
= Structural Stiffness Matrix (Upper left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix)
% Ktu = Upper right part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kut = Lower left part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
% Kuu = Lower rigth part of Augmented structural stiffness matrix
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************

% RENUMBER DOF INCLUDE ALL DOF, FREE DOF FIRST, RESTRAINED NEXT
new_LM=LM;
number_gdofs=max(LM(:));
new_LM(find(LM<0))=number_gdofs-LM(find(LM<0));
aug_total_dofs=max(new_LM(:));
% ASSEMBLE THE AUGMENTED STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
K_aug=zeros(aug_total_dofs);
for ielem=1:nelem
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
Tough one!
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
% SET UP SUBMATRICES FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ktt=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Ktu=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Kut=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
Kuu=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE
% END OF ASSEMBL3.M SCRIPTFILE

Victor Saouma

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XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
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26.5.2.8

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Print General Information

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_general_info.m
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% Prints the general structure info to the output file
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
fprintf(fid,\n\nNumber of Nodes: %d\n,npoin);
fprintf(fid,Number of Elements: %d\n,nelem);
fprintf(fid,Number of Load Cases: %d\n,nload);
fprintf(fid,Number of Restrained dofs: %d\n,abs(min(LM(:))));
fprintf(fid,Number of Free dofs: %d\n,max(LM(:)));
fprintf(fid,\nNode Info:\n);
for inode=1:npoin
fprintf(fid,
Node %d (%d,%d)\n,inode,nodecoor(inode,1),nodecoor(inode,2));
freedof= ;
if(ID(inode,1))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, X );
end
if(ID(inode,2))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Y );
end
if(ID(inode,3))>0
freedof=strcat(freedof, Rot);
end
if freedof==
freedof= none; node is fixed;
end
fprintf(fid,
Free dofs:%s\n,freedof);
end
fprintf(fid,\nElement Info:\n);
for ielem=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element %d (%d->%d),ielem,lnods(ielem,1),lnods(ielem,2));
fprintf(fid,
E=%d A=%d Iz=%d \n,E(ielem),A(ielem),Iz(ielem));
end

26.5.2.9

Print Load

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : print_loads.m
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% Prints the current load case data to the output file
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Load_case=iload
if iload==1
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);
end
fprintf(fid,Load Case: %d\n\n,iload);
fprintf(fid,
Nodal Loads:\n);
for k=1:max(LM(:));
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

2641

Draft

switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof= M;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
if Pnods(k)~=0
fprintf(fid,
Node: %2d %s = %14d\n,node, dof, Pnods(k));
end

end
fprintf(fid,\n
Elemental Loads:\n);
for k=1:nelem
fprintf(fid,
Element: %d
Point load = %d at %d from left\n,k,Pelem(k),a(k));
fprintf(fid,
Distributed load = %d\n,w(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);

26.5.2.10

Load Vector

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name: loads3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program: casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the fixed end actions for elements which
% carry distributed loads for a 2-D frame.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% ielem = counter for loop
% nelem = number of elements in the structure
% b(ielem) = distance from the right end of the element to the point load
% L(ielem) = length of the element
% a(ielem) = distance from the left end of the element to the point load
% Ffl = fixed end force (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% w(ielem) = distributed load on element ielem
% L(ielem) = length of element ielem
% Pelem(ielem) = element point load on element ielem
% Mfl = fixed end moment (reaction) at the left end due to the point load
% Ffr = fixed end force (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% Mfr = fixed end moment (reaction) at the right end due to the point load
% feamatrix_local = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in local coordinates
% feamatrix_global = matrix containing resulting fixed end actions in global coordinates
% fea_vector = vector of feas in global dofs, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_abs = vector of feas in every structure dof
% dispflag = flag indicating initial displacements
% Ffld = fea (vert force) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Mfld = fea (moment) on left end of element due to initial disp
% Ffrd = fea (vert force) on right end of element due to initial disp
% Mfrd = fea (moment) on right end of element due to initial disp
% fea_vector_disp = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas due to initial disp, used to calc reactions
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE FIXED END ACTIONS AND INSERT INTO A MATRIX IN WHICH THE ROWS CORRESPOND
% WITH THE ELEMENT NUMBER AND THE COLUMNS CORRESPOND WITH THE ELEMENT LOCAL DEGREES
% OF FREEDOM
for ielem=1:nelem
b(ielem)=L(ielem)-a(ielem);
Ffl=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(3*a(ielem)+b(ielem));
Mfl=((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
Ffr=((w(ielem)*L(ielem))/2)+((Pelem(ielem)*(a(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^3)*(a(ielem)+3*b(ielem));

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2642

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Mfr=-((w(ielem)*(L(ielem))^2))/12+(Pelem(ielem)*a(ielem)*(b(ielem))^2)/(L(ielem))^2;
feamatrix_local(ielem,1:6)=[0 Ffl Mfl 0 Ffr Mfr];
% ROTATE THE LOCAL FEA MATRIX TO GLOBAL
feamatrix_global=...
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
% CREATE A LOAD VECTOR USING THE LM MATRIX
% INITIALIZE FEA VECTOR TO ALL ZEROS
for idofpn=1:ndofpn
fea_vector(idofpn,1)=0;
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for idof=1:6
if ielem==1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
elseif ielem>1
if LM(ielem,idof)>0
fea_vector(LM(ielem,idof),1)=fea_vector(LM(ielem,1))+feamatrix_global(idof,ielem);
end
end
end
end
for ielem=1:nelem
for iterm=1:nterm
if feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem)==0
else
if new_LM(ielem,iterm)>number_gdofs
fea_vector_react(iterm,1)=feamatrix_global(iterm,ielem);
end
end
end
end
% END OF LOADS3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.11

Nodal Displacements

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : disp3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it computes the displacements in the global
% degrees of freedom.
%
% Variable descriptions: (in the order in which they appear)
%
% Ksinv = inverse of the structural stiffness matrix
% Ktt = structural stiffness matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements for the global degrees of freedom
% Pnods = vector of nodal loads in the global degrees of freedom
% fea_vector = vector of fixed end actions in the global degrees of freedom
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

2643

Draft

%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CREATE A TEMPORARY VARIABLE EQUAL TO THE INVERSE OF THE STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS MATRIX
Ksinv=inv(Ktt);
% CALCULATE THE DISPLACEMENTS IN GLOBAL COORDINATES
Delta=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
%

PRINT DISPLACEMENTS WITH NODE INFO

fprintf(fid,
Displacements:\n);
for k=1:size(Delta,1)
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;
dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=delta X;
case {2,5}, dof=delta Y;
otherwise, dof=rotate ;
end
%PRINT THE DISPLACEMENTS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Delta(k));
end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF DISP3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.12

Reactions

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : react3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the reactions at the restrained degrees of
% freedom.
%
% Variable Descriptions:
%
% Reactions = Reactions at restrained degrees of freedom
% Kut = Upper left part of aug stiffness matrix, normal structure stiff matrix
% Delta = vector of displacements
% fea_vector_react = vector of feas in restrained dofs
%
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525 - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% Edited by Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
% CALCULATE THE REACTIONS FROM THE AUGMENTED STIFFNESS MATRIX
Reactions=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
fprintf(fid,
Reactions:\n);
for k=1:size(Reactions,1)
%WORK BACKWARDS WITH LM MATRIX TO FIND NODE# AND DOF
LM_spot=find(LM==-k);
elem=fix(LM_spot(1)/(nterm+1))+1;

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2644

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

dof=mod(LM_spot(1)-1,nterm)+1;
node=lnods(elem,fix(dof/4)+1);
switch(dof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
%PRINT THE REACTIONS
fprintf(fid,
(Node: %2d %s) %14d\n,node, dof, Reactions(k));

end
fprintf(fid,\n);
% END OF REACT3.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.13

Internal Forces

%**********************************************************************************************
% Scriptfile name : intern3.m (for 2d-frame structures)
%
% Main program : casap.m
%
% When this file is called, it calculates the internal forces in all elements
% freedom.
%
%
By Pawel Smolarkiewicz, 3/16/99
% Simplified for 2D Frame Case only
%
%**********************************************************************************************
Pglobe=zeros(6,nelem);
Plocal=Pglobe;
fprintf(fid,
Internal Forces:);
%LOOP FOR EACH ELEMENT
for ielem=1:nelem
%FIND ALL 6 LOCAL DISPLACEMENTS
elem_delta=zeros(6,1);
for idof=1:6
gdof=LM(ielem,idof);
if gdof<0
elem_delta(idof)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
else
elem_delta(idof)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
end
end
%SOLVE FOR ELEMENT FORCES (GLOBAL)
Pglobe(:,ielem)=K(:,:,ielem)*elem_delta+feamatrix_global(:,ielem);
%ROTATE FORCES FROM GLOBAL TO LOCAL COORDINATES
%ROTATE FORCES TO LOCAL COORDINATES
Plocal(:,ielem)=
XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX COMPLETE XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX
%PRINT RESULTS
fprintf(fid,\n
Element: %2d\n,ielem);
for idof=1:6
if idof==1
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,1));
end
if idof==4
fprintf(fid,
At Node: %d\n,lnods(ielem,2));
end
switch(idof)
case {1,4}, dof=Fx;
case {2,5}, dof=Fy;
otherwise, dof=M ;
end
fprintf(fid,
(Global : %s ) %14d,dof, Pglobe(idof,ielem));

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

Draft

fprintf(fid,

2645

(Local : %s ) %14d\n,dof, Plocal(idof,ielem));

end
end
fprintf(fid,\n_________________________________________________________________________\n\n);

26.5.2.14

Plotting

%************************************************************************************************
% SCRIPTFILE NAME : DRAW.M
%
% MAIN FILE : CASAP
%
% Description : This file will draw a 2D or 3D structure (1D structures are generally
% boring to draw).
%
% Input Variables : nodecoor - nodal coordinates
% ID - connectivity matrix
% drawflag - flag for performing drawing routine
%
% By Dean A. Frank
% CVEN 5525
% Advanced Structural Analysis - Term Project
% Fall 1995
%
% (with thanks to Brian Rose for help with this file)
%
%************************************************************************************************
% PERFORM OPERATIONS IN THIS FILE IF DRAWFLAG = 1
if drawflag==1
if istrtp==1
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==2
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==3
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==4
drawtype=2;
elseif istrtp==5
drawtype=3;
elseif istrtp==6
drawtype=3;
else
error(Incorrect structure type in indat.m)
end

ID=orig_ID.;
% DRAW 2D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=2
if drawtype==2
% RETREIVE NODAL COORDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
%IF 2D-TRUSS, MODIFY ID MATRIX
if istrtp==2
for ipoin=1:npoin
if ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;0]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;0;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[0;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[0;1;0]
elseif ID(1:2,ipoin)==[1;1]
ID(1:3,ipoin)=[1;1;0]
end

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2646

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

end
end

%if size(ID,1)==2
% ID=[ID;zeros(1,size(ID,2))];
%end
% IF GRID, SET ID=ZEROS
if istrtp==4
ID=ID*0;
end
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max(max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y))/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% CALC NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
number_fixities=size(ID,2);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max(axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3))/40;
% DRAW SUPPORTS
for i=1:number_fixities
% DRAW HORIZ. ROLLER
if ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW PIN SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]
plot([x(i),x(i)-circlesize,x(i)+circlesize,x(i)],[y(i),y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize,y(i)],r)
% DRAW HOERIZ. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[0 1 1]
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i),y(i)],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i),cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)+circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize/2+y(i),r)
% DRAW VERT. ROLLER SUPPORT
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
% DRAW ROLLER SUPPORT WITH NO ROTATION
elseif ID(:,i)==[1 0 1]
plot([x(i),x(i)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+circlesize,r)
plot(sin(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2+x(i)-circlesize*.5,cos(0:0.1:pi*2)*circlesize/2-circlesize,r)
end
% DRAW HORIZ. PLATFORM
if min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 1 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[0 1 1])
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

2647

Draft

plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2],r)
% DRAW FIXED SUPPORT

elseif ID(:,i)==[1 1 1]
plot([x(i)-circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*1.5]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*0,x(i)-circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*.5,x(i)-circlesize*(0.5)],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1,x(i)+circlesize*0],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*1.5,x(i)+circlesize*.5],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1],[y(i)-circlesize,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
plot([x(i)+circlesize*2,x(i)+circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)-circlesize*2]+circlesize,r)
% DRAW VERT. PLATFORM
elseif min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 0]) | min(ID(:,i)==[1 0 1])
xf=[x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*2];
yf=[y(i),y(i)- circlesize];
plot(xf,yf,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*1.5,r)
plot(xf,yf+circlesize*2,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize*1.5,x(i)-circlesize*2],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)+ circlesize*1.5],r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*.5,r)
plot(xf,yf-circlesize*1,r)
plot([x(i)-circlesize,x(i)-circlesize*1.5],[y(i)-circlesize*1.5,y(i)- circlesize*2],r)
plot([xf(1),xf(1)],[y(i)+circlesize*2,y(i)-circlesize*2],r);
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENTS
for i=1:number_elements
plot([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],b);
if i==1
end
end
% DRAW JOINTS
for i=1:number_nodes
if ~max(ID(:,i))
plot(x(i),y(i),mo)
end
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_elements
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_nodes
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2648

Draft

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
% DRAW 3D STRUCTURE IF DRAWTYPE=3
elseif drawtype==3
% RETREIVE NODE COORIDINATES
x=nodecoor(:,1);
y=nodecoor(:,2);
z=nodecoor(:,3);
% SET UP FIGURE
handle=figure;
margin=max([max(x)-min(x),max(y)-min(y),max(z)-min(z)])/10;
axis([min(x)-margin, max(x)+margin, min(y)-margin, max(y)+margin, min(z)-margin, max(z)+margin])
axis(equal)
hold on
% RETREIVE NUMBER OF NODES, ETC.
number_nodes=length(x);
number_elements=size(lnods,1);
axislimits=axis;
circlesize=max([axislimits(2)-axislimits(1),axislimits(4)-axislimits(3),axislimits(6)-axislimits(5)])/40;
% DRAW ELEMENTS
for i=1:number_elements
plot3([x(lnods(i,1)),x(lnods(i,2))],[y(lnods(i,1)),y(lnods(i,2))],[z(lnods(i,1)),z(lnods(i,2))],b);
end
% DRAW JOINTS
for i=1:number_nodes
plot3(x(i),y(i),z(i),mo)
end
% DRAW ELEMENT NUMBERS

for i=1:number_elements
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,blue)
text( (x(lnods(i,1))+x(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(y(lnods(i,1))+y(lnods(i,2)))/2+circlesize,(z(lnods(i,1))+z(lnods(i,2)
end
% DRAW JOINT NUMBERS
for i=1:number_nodes
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,magenta)
text(x(i)+circlesize,y(i)+circlesize,z(i)+circlesize,int2str(i))
end
if exist(filename)
title(filename)
end
xlabel(x)
ylabel(y)
zlabel(z)
% DRAW GROUND
X=x;
Y=y;
Z=z;
X=axislimits(1)-margin:margin:axislimits(2)+margin;
Y=axislimits(3)-margin:margin:axislimits(4)+margin;
Z=zeros(length(X),length(Y));
mesh(X,Y,Z)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

26.5 Computer Implementation with MATLAB

2649

Draft
size(X)
size(Y)
size(Z)

hold off
set(handle,DefaultTextColor,white)
hAZ=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .95 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,360,...
callback,[az,el]=view; az=get(gco,val); view(az,el););
hEL=uicontrol(style,slider,position,[.7 .89 .3 .05],units,normalized,min,0,max,180,...
callback,[az,el]=view; el=get(gco,val); view(az,el););

hdef=uicontrol(style,pushbutton,callback,view(-37.5, 30),position,[.88 .83 .12 .05],units,normalized,Strin


%set(handle,units,normalized)
%text(.68,.95,azimuth)
%text(.68,.89,elevation)
end
end
% END OF DRAW.M SCRIPTFILE

26.5.2.15

Sample Output File

CASAP will display gure 26.15.


8000

6000

4000
2

2000

1
0

2000

4000

6000

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

Figure 26.15: Structure Plotted with CASAP


Number
Number
Number
Number
Number

of
of
of
of
of

Nodes: 3
Elements: 2
Load Cases: 1
Restrained dofs: 6
Free dofs: 3

Node Info:
Node 1 (0,0)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Node 2 (7416,3000)
Free dofs: X Y Rot
Node 3 (15416,3000)
Free dofs: none; node is fixed
Element Info:
Element 1 (1->2)
Element 2 (2->3)

Victor Saouma

E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000


E=200 A=6000 Iz=200000000

Structural Engineering

2650

DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD

Draft

_________________________________________________________________________
Load Case: 1
Nodal Loads:
Node: 2 Fx = 1.875000e+001
Node: 2 Fy = -4.635000e+001
Elemental Loads:
Element: 1
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 0
Element: 2
Point load = 0 at 0 from left
Distributed load = 4.000000e-003
Displacements:
(Node: 2 delta X) 9.949820e-001
(Node: 2 delta Y) -4.981310e+000
(Node: 2 rotate ) -5.342485e-004
Reactions:
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 1
(Node: 3
(Node: 3
(Node: 3

Fx) 1.304973e+002
Fy) 5.567659e+001
M ) 1.337416e+004
Fx) -1.492473e+002
Fy) 2.267341e+001
M ) -4.535573e+004

Internal Forces:
Element: 1
At Node: 1
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
At Node: 2
(Global :
(Global :
(Global :
Element: 2
At Node: 2
(Global
(Global
(Global
At Node: 3
(Global
(Global
(Global

Fx )
Fy )
M )

1.304973e+002
5.567659e+001
1.337416e+004

(Local : Fx )
(Local : Fy )
(Local : M )

1.418530e+002
2.675775e+000
1.337416e+004

Fx ) -1.304973e+002
Fy ) -5.567659e+001
M ) 8.031549e+003

(Local : Fx ) -1.418530e+002
(Local : Fy ) -2.675775e+000
(Local : M ) 8.031549e+003

: Fx ) 1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 9.326590e+000
: M ) -8.031549e+003

(Local : Fx ) 1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 9.326590e+000
(Local : M ) -8.031549e+003

: Fx ) -1.492473e+002
: Fy ) 2.267341e+001
: M ) -4.535573e+004

(Local : Fx ) -1.492473e+002
(Local : Fy ) 2.267341e+001
(Local : M ) -4.535573e+004

_________________________________________________________________________

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 27

COLUMNS
27.1

Introduction

1 Columns resist a combination of axial P and exural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically applied
load).

27.1.1

Types of Columns

Types of columns, Fig. 27.1


Tied column
tie steel
main longitudinal steel reinforcement

Spiral column

Composite column

Pipe column

Figure 27.1: Types of columns

Lateral reinforcement, Fig. 27.2


1. Restrains longitudinal steel from outward buckling
2. Restrains Poissons expansion of concrete
3. Acts as shear reinforcement for horizontal (wind & earthquake) load
4. Provide ductility

very important to resist earthquake load.

27.1.2
3

Possible Arrangement of Bars

Bar arrangements, Fig. 27.3

272

COLUMNS

Draft
P
Spiral

tied

Figure 27.2: Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement

4 bars

6 bars

8 bars

Corner column

10 bars
12 bars

Wall column

16 bars
14 bars

Figure 27.3: Possible Bar arrangements

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

273

Draft
27.2

Short Columns

27.2.1

Concentric Loading

No moment applied,

Elastic Behaviour
P

= fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )

Ultimate Strength
Pd
Pn

= Pn
= .85fc Ac + fy As

note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data
2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety

27.2.2
5

Eccentric Columns

Sources of exure, Fig. 27.4

ML

MR

Figure 27.4: Sources of Bending


1. Unsymmetric moments M L = M R
2. uncertainty of loads (must assume a minimum eccentricity)
3. unsymmetrical reinforcement
6

Types of Failure, Fig. 27.5


1. large eccentricity of load failure by yielding of steel
2. small eccentricity of load failure by crushing of concrete
3. balanced condition

Assumptions As = As ; =

Victor Saouma

As
bd

As
bd

= fs = fy
Structural Engineering

274

COLUMNS

Draft

Pn
P0

e=0

Compression
failure range
Radial lines show
Mn
constant e=
Pn

e small

Load path for


givin e

Tension failure
range

eb

e=

e large

Mn

M0

Figure 27.5: Load moment interaction diagram


27.2.2.1

Balanced Condition

There is one specic eccentricity eb =

M
P

such that failure will be triggered by simultaneous

1. steel yielding
2. concrete crushing
From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 27.6

c
y
c

= .003
fy
=
Es
u
=
d=
u + y

(27.1-a)
(27.1-b)
.003
fy
Es

+ .003

(27.1-c)
(27.1-d)

Furthermore,
s
c d

s

c
c
c d
c
c

(27.2-a)
(27.2-b)

thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. s = y ) for c = .003 and d = 2 in if c > 6 in
10

Equilibrium:
Pn
fs
As

=
=
=

.85fc ab + As fy As fs a


a
fy
c

b
As

Pn
= .85f

cb
= 1 c b
= fy.003 d
Es

+.003

Pn,b = .851 fc bd

.003
fy
Es

+ .003

(27.3)

or
Pnb = .851 fc bd

Victor Saouma

87, 000
fy + 87, 000

(27.4)

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

275

Draft

d
d
h/2
As

As
b

cs

s
A sf y

s
Pn

A sf s

c
A sf s

0.85fc
Asf s

Asf y

a
e
e

Figure 27.6: Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

276

COLUMNS

Draft

To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this must be
equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 27.6.

11

a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )


2



M
ext

12

(27.5)

Mint

Note: Internal moments due to As fy and As fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.

27.2.2.2

Tension Failure

Case I, e is known and e > eb In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by
fy in As we must have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = As fy
Fy = 0 Pn
M = 0 Pn e

= .85fc ab a =

Pn
.85fc b

(27.6-a)

a
= Pn (d ) + As fy (d d )
2

(27.6-b)

Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

Assume a (a < h2 )
From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
Fy = 0 solve for Pn
M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement, solve for Pn
If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from Fy = 0

2. Combine them into a quadratic equation in Pn


 
2







d
e
e
e
Pn = .85fc bd ( 1) +
+ 2 1
1
+

d
d
d
d
where
=
=

(27.7)

As
As
bd = bd
fy
.85fc

In this case, we only have two unknown, Pn and fs .


a
fs
fs

=
def

=
=

Pn

Mn

1 c

(27.8-a)

fy

(27.8-b)

c d
c Es
c
0.85fc ab

fy

(27.8-c)
(27.8-d)

C + As fs As fy




h
ha
h
 

+ as f s
d + As fs d
C
2
2
2

(27.8-e)
(27.8-f)

Note this approach is favoured when determining the interaction diagram.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

277

Draft
27.2.2.3

Compression Failure

Case I e is known and e < eb ; Pn , a and fs are unknown


Case II c is known and c < cb ; Pn is unknown
Compression failure occurs if e < eb u = .003, assume fs = fy , and fs < fy
From geometry
c

=
=

fs
Es

dc
u
d fs = Es u
c
+ u

Es u

a
1

(27.9-a)

a
1

.85fc ab + As fy As fs
(27.9-b)
a




Pn e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
(27.9-c)
2
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration
Pn

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Assume a (a h)
Solve for M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
From strain compatibility solve for fs
Check that Fy = 0 & solve for a
If ai+1 = ai go to step 2

In this case
a

= 1 c

fs

= c Es

fs
C
Pn
Mn

27.2.3

(27.10-a)

dc
c
c d
= c Es
c
= 0.85fc ab

fy

(27.10-b)

fy

(27.10-c)
(27.10-d)

As fs

= C + As fs +




h
ha
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
= C
2
2
2

(27.10-e)
(27.10-f)

ACI Provisions

Case II: c is known and c > cb ; fs , fs , and Pn are unknown


1.
min
max
s

=
=
=
=
=

1%
8%
A
f
0.45( Agc 1) fyc
0.7 for tied columns
0.75 for spiral columns

ACI 10.9.1
ACI 10.5

(27.11)

2. where
minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
s
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
3. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
4. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals(10.9.2)
5. increases linearly to 0.9 as Pn decreases from 0.10fc Ag or P0 , whichever is smaller, to zero
(ACI 9.3.2).
6. Maximum strength is 0.8P0 for tied columns ( = 0.7) and 0.85P0 for spirally reinforced columns
( = 0.75).
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

278

COLUMNS

Draft
27.2.4
13

Interaction Diagrams

Each column is characterized by its own interaction diagram, Fig. 27.7

Tied:
Pn(max)=0.80P0
Spirally reinf: Pn(max)=0.85P0

P0
Pn(max)

Compression
control region

e
ure

Pn-Mn

Pn(max)

(MnPn)

min

Pu-Mu
(MnbPnb)

ed

nc

la
Ba

fail

Tension
control region

eb

0.10fcAg

Mn

Mn

Figure 27.7: Column Interaction Diagram

27.2.5

Design Charts

To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term of non
As +As
fy
e
Pn
Mn
and = .85f
dimensionalized parameters = bhf
 vs bh2 f  = h for various t where t =

bh

14

Example 27-1: R/C Column, c known


A 12 by 20 in. column is reinforced with four No. 4 bars of area 1.0 in2 each, at each corner.
= 3.5 ksi, fy = 50 ksi, d = 2.5 in. Determne: 1) Pb and Mb ; 2) The load and moment for c = 5 in; 3)
load and moment for c = 18 in.
Solution:
fc

Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere substitution into previously derived equation.
d

cb

h d = 20 2.5 = 17.5 in
.003
.003
d = 50
17.5 = 11.1 in
fy
29,000 + .003
E + .003

(27.12-a)
(27.12-b)

a
fs

=
def

fs

Pnb

Mnb

=
=

Victor Saouma

1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in

(27.12-c)

fy = 50 ksi
(27.12-d)

cd
11.1 2.5
c = (29, 000)(
(0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi(27.12-e)
Es
c
11.1
(27.12-f)
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k
C + As fs As fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(50) = 337 k
a
Pnb e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )

 2
9.44
337 17.5
+ (2.0)(50)(17.5 2.5) = 3, 280 k.in = 273 k.ft
2

(27.12-g)
(27.12-h)
(27.12-i)

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

Draft

eb

279
3, 280
= 9.72 in
337

(27.12-j)

Tension failure, c = 5 in
fs
fs

def

=
=

=
a

fy = 50 ksi
c d
c Es
c

(27.13-a)
fy

(27.13-b)

5.0 2.5
= 43.5 ksi
5.0
1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in

(27.13-c)

(0.003)(29, 000)

(27.13-d)

0.85fc ab

=
=

(0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k

(27.13-e)
(27.13-f)

Pn

C + As fs As fy

(27.13-g)

152 + (2.0)(43.5) (2.0)(50) = 139 k


(27.13-h)




h
ha
h
+ as fs
d + As fs d
C
about section centroid
(27.13-i)
2
2
2






20
20
20 4.25
2.5 + (2.0)(50) 17.5
+ (2.0)(43.5)
(27.13-j)
(152)
2
2
2

Mn

=
=

2, 598 k.in = 217 k.ft

(27.13-k)

2, 598
= 18.69 in
139

(27.13-l)

Compression failure, c = 18 in
a

fs

=
=

fs

=
=

C
Pn

Mn

As fs

(27.14-b)
(27.14-c)
(27.14-d)
(27.14-e)
(27.14-f)

C+

(27.14-h)
546 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(2) = 650 k




h
ha
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
C
about section centroid
(27.14-i)
2
2
2






20
20
20 15.3
2.5 + (2.0)(2.0) 17.5
+ (2.0)(50)
(27.14-j)
(546)
2
2
2

+ As fs

(27.14-a)

1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in
dc
fy
c Es
c
17.5 18.0
= 2 ksi As is under compression
(0.003)(29, 000)
18.0

cd
fy
c Es
c
18.0 2.5
= 75 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi
(0.003)(29, 000)
18.0
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k

(27.14-g)

2, 000 k.in = 167 k.ft

(27.14-k)

2, 000
= 3.07 in
650

(27.14-l)

Example 27-2: R/C Column, e known


Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2710

COLUMNS

Draft

For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb fc = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each
bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"

20"
3"

3"

24"

c
y

.003

Cc

Balanced Condition:
fy
40
= .001379
=
Es
29, 000
u
(.003)(21)
d=
= 14.4 in
u + y
.003 + .001379
1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in
.85fc ab = (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k
.003
(14.4 12) = .0005
14.4
(29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars

cb

a
Cc

=
=

sc

fsc

Cs

= (.0005)(29, 000)(2)(1.56) = 45.2 k

(27.15-g)

= 624 + 45.2 = 671 k

(27.15-h)

Pnb

(27.15-a)
(27.15-b)
(27.15-c)
(27.15-d)
(27.15-e)
(27.15-f)

assuming that both edge bars are yielding and cancel each other.
Alternatively
Pnb = 624 + (2 1.56)[15 (.85)(3)] (4 1.56)(.85)(3) = 647 k
Note the dierence

671647
647

(27.16)

100 = 3.7%

Taking moment about centroid of section


Mnb

eb

= Pnb e


a
+ Asc fy (9) + As (fy .85fc )(12 d )
= .85fc ab 12
2 

12.2
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12
+ 4(1.56)(9)(40)
2
+4(1.56)(40 .85 3)(12 3)

(27.17-a)
(27.17-b)

(27.17-c)

= 3, 671 + 2, 246 + 2, 103

(27.17-d)

8, 020 k.in; 668 k.ft

(27.17-e)

8, 020
= 12.4 in
647

(27.17-f)

e= .1 h e = (.1)(24) = 2.4 in < eb failure by compression. Pn , a and fs are unknown

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

2711

Draft

12

h-c-d

.003

23.5

1. Assume a = 20 in
c=

a
20
= 23.5 in
=
1
.85

(27.18)

2. For center steel (from geometry)


sc
c h2

.003
c

(27.19-a)

sc

(27.19-b)

fsc

c h2
.003
c
Es sc
c
c

(27.19-d)

Es

29, 000

h
2

(27.19-c)

.003

23.5 12
.003 = 42.5 ksi > fy fsc = fy
23.5

(27.19-e)

3. Take moment about centroid of tensile steel bar


a
h
= 0.85fc ab(d ) + As fy (h 2d ) + Asc fy ( d )
(27.20-a)
2
2
20
(27.20-b)
Pn (9 + 2.4) = (.85)(3)(20)(20)(21 ) + 4(1.56)(40)(24 6) + 2(1.56)(40)(9)
2
= 11, 220 + 4, 493 + 259.7
(27.20-c)
Pn e

Pn

= 1, 476 k

(27.20-d)

4. Get s in tension bar

.003
c
.003
(24 3 23.5)
23.5
.000319

Es = (29, 000)(0.000319) = 9.25 ksi

s
h d 23.5

fs

(27.21-a)
(27.21-b)
(27.21-c)
(27.21-d)

5. Take F = 0 to check assumption of a


Pn =
1, 476 k =
1, 476 =

e=h

Pn

Mn

0.85fc ab + As fy + Asc fsc + As fs


(.85)(3)(a)(20) + (6)(1.56)(40) + (4)(1.56)(9.25)

(27.22-a)
(27.22-b)

51a + 374.4 + 57.7

20.4 in

(27.22-c)
(27.22-d)

1, 476 k

(27.22-e)

(1, 476)(2.4) = 3, 542 k.in = 295 k.ft

(27.22-f)

1. In this case e = 24 in > eb failure by tension. Pn and a are unknown.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2712

COLUMNS

Draft

2. Assume a = 7.9 in c =

a
1

7.9
.85

= 9.3 in

3. Steel stress at centroid


c
.003
sc
fsc

12 c
sc
12 9.3
.003 = .00087
=
9.3
= (29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi

(27.23-a)
(27.23-b)
(27.23-c)

4. Iterate
F = 0 Pn

= (.85)fc ab + Asc fsc

(27.24-a)

= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) 2(1.56)(25.3)
(27.24-b)
= 403 79 = 324 k
(27.24-c)
a
M = 0 Pn (e + h/2 d ) = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
d d
)
(27.24-d)
Asc fsc (
2
7.9
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21
) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 3)
2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9)
(27.24-e)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 710 = 10, 653 k.in

Pn = 323 k

(27.24-f)
(27.24-g)

5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft

(27.25)

% e is known solve for P_n and M_n


%
% input data
b=20;h=24;A_s=4*1.56; Ap_s=A_s;A_sc=A_s/2;fp_c=3;f_y=40;E_s=29000;dp=3;
d=h-dp;
% solve for balanced conditions first
epsi_y=f_y/E_s;
c_b=0.003*d/(0.003+epsi_y);
a=0.85*c_b;
C_c=0.85*fp_c*a*b;
epsi_sc=0.003*(c_b-h/2)/c_b;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
C_s=epsi_sc*E_s*A_s;
P_nb=C_c+A_sc*f_sc
M_nb=0.85*fp_c*a*b*(h/2-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(h/2-dp)+Ap_s*(f_y-0.85*fp_c)*(h/2-dp)
e_b=M_nb/P_nb
%
% e=0.1h failure by compression; assume a=20
%
e=0.1*h;
error=1.;
a=17;
iter=0;
while abs(error) > 0.1
iter=iter+1;
c=a/0.85;
epsi_sc=0.003*(c-h/2)/c ;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
if(f_sc>f_y)
f_sc=f_y;
end
M_n=0.85*fp_c*a*b*(d-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(h-2*dp)+A_sc*f_y*(h/2-dp);
P_n=M_n/(h/2-dp+e);
epsi_s=0.003*(h-dp-c)/c;
f_s=abs(E_s*epsi_s);
a_new=(P_n-Ap_s*f_y-A_sc*f_sc-A_s*f_s)/(0.85*fp_c*b);
error=(a_new-a)/(a_new);

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

27.2 Short Columns

Draft

2713

a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n
M_n=P_n*e
%
% e=h; failure by tension
%
e=h;
error=1.;
a=10;
iter=0;
while abs(error) > 0.1
iter=iter+1;
c=a/0.85
epsi_sc=0.003*(c-h/2)/c ;
f_sc=E_s*epsi_sc;
if(f_sc>f_y)
f_sc=f_y;
end
P_n_1=0.85*fp_c*a*b+A_sc*f_sc
P_n_2=(0.85*fp_c*a*b*(d-a/2)+Ap_s*f_y*(d-dp)+A_sc*f_sc*(d-dp)/2)/(e+h/2-dp);
a_new=(P_n_2-A_sc*f_sc)/(0.85*fp_c*b);
error=(a_new-a)/a_new;
a=a_new;
end
iter
P_n_1
M_n=P_n_1*e
%================================
Balanced Conditions
d=21
epsi_y=0.0014
c_b=14.3858
a=12.2280
C_c=623.6256
epsi_sc=4.9754e-04
f_sc= 14.4286
C_s= 90.0343
P_nb= 668.6427
M_nb= 8.0203e+03
e_b= 11.9948
Failure by Compression
e=2.4000
error=1
a=17
iter=0
iter=1
c=20
epsi_sc=0.0012 05
f_sc=34.8000
M_n=1.6454e+04
P_n=1.4433e+03
epsi_s=1.5000e-04
f_s=4.3500
a_new=20.7445
error=0.1805
a= 20.7445
iter= 2
c=24.4053
epsi_sc=0.0015
f_sc=44.2224
f_sc=40
M_n=1.6860e+04
P_n=1.4789e+03
epsi_s=-4.1859e-04
f_s=12.1392
Failure by Tension
e=24
error=1

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

2714

COLUMNS

Draft
a=10
iter=0
iter=1
c=11.7647
epsi_sc=-6.0000ef_sc=-1.7400
P_n_1=504.5712
P_n_2=381.9376
a_new=7.5954
error=-0.3166
a=7.5954
iter=2
c=8.9358
epsi_sc=-0.0010
f_sc=-29.8336
P_n_1=294.2857
P_n_2=312.6867
a_new=7.9562
error=0.0453
a=7.9562
iter=2
P_n_1=294.2857

Example 27-3: R/C Column, Using Design Charts


Design the reinforcement for a column with h = 20 in, b = 12 in, d = 2.5 in, fc = 4, 000 psi,
fy = 60, 000 psi, to support PDL = 56 k, PLL = 72 k, MDL = 88 k.ft, MLL = 75 k.ft,
Solution:
1. Ultimate loads
Pu
Mu

=
=

(1.4)(56) + (1.7)(72) = 201 k


(1.4)(88) + (1.7)(75) = 251 k.ft

Pn
Mn

=
=

201
0.7
251
0.7

= 287 k
= 358 k.ft

(27.26)

2. Chart parameters
e
h

e
h

(358)(12)
= 0.75
(287)(20)
20 (2)(2.5)
= 0.75 interpolate between A3 and A4
20
Pn
287
= 0.3
=

bhfc
(12)(20)(4)

(27.27-b)

(0.3)(0.75) = 0.225

(27.27-d)

(27.27-a)

(27.27-c)

3. Interpolating between A.3 and A.4 t = 0.4


4. Reinforcement
t

=
=

At
bh
fy
.85fc

2
At =

(0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc )
1
= 5.45 in2 (27.28-a)
= (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4)
fy
(60)
(27.28-b)

use 4 # 9 & 2 # 8, At = 5.57 in2

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 28

DESIGN II
28.1

Frames

28.1.1

Beam Column Connections

The connection between the beam and the column can be, Fig. 28.1:

Flexible

Rigid

)
M=K(

s s b- c
b = c
Semi-Flexible

Figure 28.1: Flexible, Rigid, and Semi-Flexible Joints


Flexible that is a hinge which can transfer forces only. In this case we really have cantiliver action
only. In a exible connection the column and beam end moments are both equal to zero, Mcol =
Mbeam = 0. The end rotation are not equal, col = beam .
Rigid: The connection is such that beam = col and moment can be transmitted through the connection.
In a rigid connection, the end moments and rotations are equal (unless there is an externally applied
moment at the node), Mcol = Mbeam = 0, col = beam .
Semi-Rigid: The end moments are equal and not equal to zero, but the rotation are dierent. beam =

col , Mcol = Mbeam = 0. Furthermore, the dierence in rotation is resisted by the spring Mspring =
Kspring (col beam ).

28.1.2

Behavior of Simple Frames

2 For vertical load across the beam rigid connection will reduce the maximum moment in the beam (at
the expense of a negative moment at the ends which will in turn be transferred to the columns).
3 The advantages of a rigid connection are greater when the frame is subjected to a lateral load. Under
those conditions, the connection will stien the structure and reduce the amount of lateral deection,
Fig. 28.2.
4 Fig. 28.3 illustrates the deformation, shear, moment and axial forces in frames with dierent boundary
conditions under both vertical and horizontal loads.

282

Draft

DESIGN II

PI

PI

PI

PI

PI

PI

PI

PI

Figure 28.2: Deformation of Flexible and Rigid Frames Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads, (Lin
and Stotesbury 1981)

28.1.3

Eccentricity of Applied Loads

5 A concentric axial force P and moment M , applied on a support sytem (foundation, columns, prestressing) can be replaced by a static equivalent one in which the moment M is eliminated and the force
P applied with an eccentricity

e=

M
P

(28.1)

The induced stresses can be decomposed into uniform (P/L) (assuming a unit width) and linearly
varying one ( = M/S) and the end stresses are

min
max

L
P
= +
L
=

(28.2-a)
(28.2-b)

We note that the linearly varying stress distribution must satisfy two equilibrium requirements: F = 0,
thus the neutral axis (where the stress is equal to zero) passes through the centroid of the section, and
M = 0, i.e. Mint = Mext .
7

If we seek the eccentricity ecr for which max equals zero, then =

The net tensile force due to the eccentric load is


T =

P
L

1 L

2 2

(28.3)

If we want this net tensile force to be equal and opposite to the compressive force, then

T = L
T = PL
4
P
= A
applied at 23 L2 from the centroid

(28.4)

Thus the net internal moment is


Mint = 2T

Victor Saouma

P 2L
PL
2L
=2
=
32
432
6

(28.5)

Structural Engineering

28.1 Frames

283

Draft
2

Frame Type
L

W=wL, M=wL/8, M=Ph

Moment

Shear

Deformation
w/2

Axial

M
-w/2
w/2

w/2

a
h

P
p

POST AND BEAM STRUCTURE


M

w/2

M
-w/2
w/2

w/2

c
-M/L
p

SIMPLE BENT FRAME

M/L

-M/L

w/2

M
-w/2
w/2

w/2

e
-M/L

M/L

-M/L

f
p
THREE-HINGE PORTAL

w/2

-w/2

M
M/h

-M/h

M/h
M/2

-M/L

M/2

p/2

THREE-HINGE PORTAL

w/2

0.4M

0.4M

-0.36M/h

w/2

M/2

-M/L

0.4M/h

0.64M

0.36M/h

-w/2

M/2

w/2

0.45M

0.45M

w/2
M/4

-0.5M/L

0.68M/h

0.55M

0.68M/h

-0.68M/h

-w/2

M/L

-M/L

p/2

TWO-HINGE FRAME

w/2

M/4

p/2

RIGID FRAME
M/4

M/4

M/2L

p/2
p/2

-M/2L

w/2

p/2
p/2

M/L

p/2
p/2

w/2

-M/L

w/2

Figure 28.3: Deformation, Shear, Moment, and Axial Diagrams for Various Types of Portal Frames
Subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

284

DESIGN II

Draft

9 To satisfy the equilibrium equation, this internal moment must be equal and opposite to the external
moment Mext = P ecr hence
PL
= P ecr
(28.6)


6


Mext

Mint

or
ecr =

L
6

(28.7)

in other words to avoid tensile stresses on either side, the resultant force P must be placed within the
midle third kernel, Fig. 28.4
L/2

L/2

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/6

L/2

L/2

L/3

P
L/3

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/3

L/6
L/3

L/3

L/6

P/A
+

M/S

Figure 28.4: Axial and Flexural Stresses

10

This equation is fundamental in preventing tensile forces in


1. Prestressed concrete beams: If the prestressing cable is within the kernel (i.e middle third), then
there will not be any tensile stresses caused by prestressing alone.
2. Foundations: If the eccentricity is within the middle kernel, then we have compressive stresses only
under the foundation and no undesirable uplift.
3. Buildings: If the eccentricity of the vertical load is within the middle third, all columns will be
loaded under compression only.

28.1.4

Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch

Adapted from (Kinney 1957)


Design a two-hinged, solid welded-steel arch rib for a hangar. The moment of inertia of the rib is to
vary as necessary. The span, center to center of hinges, is to be 200 ft. Ribs are to be placed 35 ft center
to center, with a rise of 35 ft. Roof deck, purlins and rib will be assumed to weight 25 lb/ft2 on roof
surface, and snow will be assumed at 40 lb/ft2 of this surface. Twenty purlins will be equally spaced
around the rib.
1. The center line of the rib will be taken as the segment of a circle. By computation the radius of
this circle is found to be 160.357 ft, and the length of the arc AB to be 107.984 ft.
2. For the analysis the arc AB will be considered to be divided into ten segments, each with a length
of 10.798 ft. Thus a concentrated load is applied to the rib by the purlins framing at the center of
each segment. (The numbered segments are indicated in Fig. ??.
3. Since the total dead and snow load is 65 lb/ft2 of roof surface, the value of each concentrated force
will be
(28.8)
P = 10.798 35 65 = 24.565 k
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

28.1 Frames

285

Draft

Figure 28.5: Design of a Statically Indeterminate Arch


4. The computations necessary to evaluate the coodinates of the centers of the various segments,
referred to the hinge at A, are shown in Table 28.1. Also shown are the values of x, the horizontal
projection of the distance between the centers of the several segments.
5. If experience is lacking and the designing engineer is therefore at a loss as to the initial assumptions
regarding the sectional variation along the rib, it is recommended that the rst analysis be based
on the assumption of a constant moment of inertia. Even the experienced engineer will often nd
that this is the best procedure.
6. The value of H having thus been determined, moments and axial thrusts are computed throughout
the rib. Cross-sectional areas at the various sections are then designed for these moments and axial
thrusts. A new value for H, as well as revised values for moments and axial thrust throughout the
rib, are determined for the new rib with the varying cross section. Stresses are checked in the rib,
and the whole process is repeated if necessary. This procedure will be followed in the present case.
7. By the general method, assuming that end A is on rollers,
Ah + HA AhAh = 0

(28.9)

8. Deections will be computed by virtual work, and thus this expression becomes
)

)
M
M
S + HA M
S = 0
EI
EI

(28.10)

9. Since E and S are constant and, for the rst analysis, the moment of inertia is constant, the
nal expression for HA is
*
M M
HA = *
(28.11)
M M
All the computations necessary for the rst evaluation of HA are shown in Table 28.2 yielding
*
2 M M
2 2, 158, 100
= 333.97k
(28.12)
=
HA =
2 6461.9
2M M
10. The moments at the centers of the various segments of the rib, using the approximate value just
determined for HA , are computed in Table 28.3, where a moment is considered to be positive if it
tends to cause compression on the upper surface of the rib.
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

286

DESIGN II

Draft
Segment

sin

cos

x =
R sin
(ft)

A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

38 34 49
36 39 05
32 47 36
28 56 07
25 04 38
21 13 09
17 21 40
13 30 11
09 38 42
05 47 13
01 55 44

0.62361
0.59695
0.54161
0.48382
0.42384
0.36194
0.29840
0.23350
0.16754
0.10083
0.03367

0.78173
0.80229
0.84063
0.87516
0.90574
0.93220
0.95444
0.97236
0.98586
0.99490
0.99943

100.000
95.725
86.851
77.584
67.966
58.040
47.851
37.443
26.866
16.169
5.399

y =
R cos
(ft)

x =
100 x
(ft)

y =
y  125.36
(ft)

x
(ft)

125.36
128.65
134.80
140.34
145.24
149.48
153.05
155.92
158.09
159.54
160.27
160.36

0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.000

0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00

4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399

Table 28.1: Geometry of the Arch

Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
*

(2)

(3)

x
(ft)
0.0
4.275
13.149
22.416
32.034
41.960
52.149
62.557
73.134
83.831
94.601
100.00

y = M
(ft k)
0.0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.91
35.00

(4)
Shear
to
right
(k)
245.650
221.085
196.520
171.955
147.390
122.825
98.260
73.695
49.130
24.565
0.000

(5)

(6)

x
(ft)

M
increment
(ft k)

(7)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)

4.275
8.874
9.267
9.618
9.926
10.189
10.408
10.577
10.697
10.770
5.399

1,050
1,962
1,821
1,654
1,463
1,251
1,023
779
526
265
0

1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790

(8)

(9)

M M

M M

3,500
28,400
72,400
129,100
191,800
254,800
312,400
360,000
394,100
411,600

10.9
89.2
224.4
395.4
582.2
767.0
934.4
1,071.4
1,168.4
1,218.6

2,158,100

6,461.9

Table 28.2: Calculation of Horizontal Force

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

28.1 Frames

287

Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

y
(ft)
0
3.29
9.44
14.98
19.88
24.13
27.69
30.57
32.73
34.18
34.19
35.00

M
simple
beam
(ft k)

HA y
(ft k)

Total M
at segment
(ft k)

1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790

1,100
3,150
5,000
6,640
8,060
9,250
10,210
10,930
11,420
11,660
11,690

50
140
170
150
110
50
+10
+70
+110
+130
+100

Table 28.3: Moment at the Centers of the Ribs


11. The thrust N , normal to the cross section at the center of each segment, must be computed before
the section requirements can be determined. As a matter of interest the various values of S, the
total shear on the cross section, will also be computed for the center of each segment.
12. N and S are obtained by combining components of H and the vertical shear V at the center of
each segment, a combination which is shown in Fig. 28.6 From this gure it is apparent that
os

Hc

in

Hs

Vc

os

in

Vs

Figure 28.6: Normal and Shear Forces


S

= V cos H sin

(28.13-a)

= V sin + G cos

(28.13-b)

13. Values of S and N are computed in Table . The values of S are included in support of the statement
previously made to the eect that shearing forces are small in the usual arch rib.
14. Inspection of the values for the moment M in Table 28.3 and for the thrust N in Table 28.3 will
indicate that segment 3 is critical in the region of negative moment and segment 10 in the region of
positive moment. The necessary sections for the rib, at the centers of these two segments, must be
determined in accordance with the specications of the American Institute of Steel Construction
before Table 28.5 can be completed.
15. Flanges are 12 in. 1 in., and the allowable stress for bending is FB =20 k/in2 . The web thickness
is 34 in., and the allowable axial stress1 is FA =17,000-0.485 L/r.
1 In

this equation the value of L is 10.798, since ribs are laterally braced at purlin framing points.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

288

Draft
Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

DESIGN II
V (k)
245.6
221.1
196.5
172.0
147.4
122.8
98.3
73.7
49.1
24.6
0.0

V cos
192
177
165
150
133
114
94
72
48
244
0

H sin
-208
-199
-181
-162
-142
-121
-100
-78
-56
-34
-11

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

S (k)
-16
-22
-16
-12
-9
-7
-6
-6
-8
-10
-11

V sin
153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0

+H cos
+ 261
+268
+281
+292
+303
+311
+319
+325
+329
+332
+334
+334

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

N (k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334

Table 28.4: Values of Normal and Shear Forces


16. Thickness of ange and web plates and width of web plates are matters of judgment. The total
depth determined for the center of segment 3 is used from the center of this segment to the end of
the rib. The depth determined for the center of segment 10 is arbitrarily used for the rib depth at
the crown. The total depth of the rib from the center of segment 3 to the crown is made to vary
linerarly. The adequacies of the sections thus determined for the centers of the several segments
are checked in Table 28.5.
17. It is necessary to recompute the value of HA because the rib now has a varying moment of inertia.
Equation 28.11 must be altered to include the I of each segment and is now written as
*
M M /I
(28.14)
HA = *
M M /I
18. The revised value for HA is easily determined as shown in Table 28.6. Note that the values in
column (2) are found by dividing the values of M M for the corresponding segments in column (8)
of Table 28.2 by the total I for each segment as shown in Table 28.5. The values in column (3) of
Table 28.6 are found in a similar manner from the values in column (9) of Table 28.2. The simple
beam moments in column (5) of Table 28.6 are taken directly from column (7) of Table 28.2.
19. Thus the revised HA is
*
2 M M /I
= f rac2 1, 010.852 3.0192 = 334.81k
HA = *
2 M M /I

(28.15)

20. The revised values for the axial thrust N at the centers of the various segments are computed in
Table 28.7.
21. The sections previously designed at the centers of the segments are checked for adequacy in Table
28.8. From this table it appears that all sections of the rib are satisfactory. This cannot be
denitely concluded, however, until the secondary stresses caused by the deection of the rib are
investigated.

28.1.5

Temperature Changes in an Arch

Adapted from (Kinney 1957)


Determine the eects of rib shortening and temperature changes in the arch rib of Fig. 28.5. Consider
a temperature drop of 100 F.
1. In order to determine the eects of rib shortening it is rst necessary to nd the horizontal displacement of end A which will result if the elastic axial strains, which occur in the actual loaded
arch, are introduced into the rib while end A is on rollers. It is then necessary to nd the horizontal
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Victor Saouma

Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

(3)

Area
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85
34.50

(2)

Total
depth
(in.)
23.00
23.00
23.00
23.00
22.07
21.13
20.20
19.27
18.32
17.40
16.47
16.00
I
(in4 )
3483
3483
3483
3483
3172
2865
2585
2329
2071
1838
1631
1527

(4)

50
140
170
150
110
50
10
70
110
130
100

M
(ft k)

(5)

2.0
5.9
6.8
6.3
4.9
2.3
0.5
3.7
6.3
7.9
6.3

(k/in2 )

Allowable
Fa
(k/in2 )
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.88
15.90
15.92
15.94
15.96
15.97
15.99
16.01
16.03

Mc
I

N
A

(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.7
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7

(9)

(8)
fb =

(7)
fa =

Table 28.5: Design of the Arch

Axial
thrust N
(k)
414
400
387
375
365
355
348
342
337
334
334
334

(6)

0.66
0.63
0.61
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.60

fa
Fa

(10)

0.10
0.28
0.34
0.32
0.24
0.11
0.02
0.19
0.31
0.40
0.32

fb
Fb

(11)

Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.73
0.89
0.94
0.91
0.82
0.70
0.61
0.77
0.90
1.00
0.92

(12)

Draft

28.1 Frames
289

Structural Engineering

2810

Draft

DESIGN II
(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

Segment

Mn
I

m2
I

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown
*

1.00
8.16
20.79
40.67
66.95
98.57
134.13
173.82
214.41
252.35

0.0031
0.0256
0.0644
0.1247
0.2032
0.2967
0.4012
0.5174
0.6357
0.7472

1010.85

3.0192

Revised
HA y
(ft k)
1,100
3,160
5,020
6,660
8,080
9,270
10,240
10,960
11,450
11,690
11,720

(5)
M
simple
beam
(ft k)
1,050
3,010
4,830
6,490
7,950
9,200
10,220
11,000
11,530
11,790
11,790

(6)
Revised
moment
(ft k)
-50
-150
-190
-170
-130
-70
-20
+40
+80
+100
+70

Table 28.6:
Segment

V sin

A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

153
132
106
83
62
44
29
17
8
2
0

H cos

262
269
282
293
303
312
320
326
330
333
335
335

Revised
N
(k)
415
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335
335

Table 28.7:
N
A

Segment
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Crown

(k/in2 )
10.4
10.1
9.8
9.5
9.4
9.3
9,3
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.6
9.7

Mc
I

(k/in2 )
2.0
6.0
7.6
7.1
5.7
3.3
1.0
2.1
4.5
6.1
4.4

N/A
FA

0.66
0.64
0.62
0.60
0.59
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.58
0.59
0.60
0.61

Mc /I
FB

0.11
0.30
0.38
0.36
0.29
0.17
0.05
0.11
0.23
0.31
0.23

Decimal
of
capacity
0.66
0.75
0.92
0.98
0.95
0.87
0.75
0.63
0.69
0.82
0.91
0.84

Table 28.8:
Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

28.1 Frames

2811

Draft

N
(k)
401
388
376
365
356
349
343
338
335
335

Segment
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*

N = cos
(k)
0.8023
0.8406
0.8752
0.9057
0.9322
0.9544
0.9724
0.9859
0.9949
0.9994

A
(in2 )
39.75
39.75
39.75
39.05
38.35
37.65
36.95
36.24
35.55
34.85

N N
A

8.07
8.21
8.30
8.49
8.68
8.86
9.04
9.22
9.41
9.60
87.88

N
A

0.0162
0.0178
0.0193
0.0210
0.0227
0.0242
0.0256
0.0268
0.0286
0.0278
0.2300

Table 28.9:
displacement of end A, caused by a horizontal force of 1 k acting at A, considering both exural
and axial strains in the rib. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening
caused by the real loads, is given by
) N N
L
(28.16)
AE
where N is the axial thrust taken from Table 28.7, N is the axial thrust caused by a 1 k ctitious
horizontal force acting at A and equal to cos in Table 28.1, L is the length of each segment,
and A is the right sectional area.
2. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by a 1 k horizontal
force acting at A, is given by
) N
N L
(28.17)
AE
3. The necessary computations for evaluating these two deections of A are shown in Table 28.9.
4. The horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the rib shortening caused by the real load, is
)

2 87.88 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.760 in
AE
30, 000

(28.18)

5. That resulting from the rib shortening caused by a 1 k horizontal load at A is


)

2 0.2300 10.798 12
N
L =
= 0.002 in
AE
30, 000

(28.19)

6. The relative value of the horizontal displacement of A, resulting from the exural strain caused
by a 1 k horizontal force at A, has previously been determined in column (3) of Table ??. The
absolute value for this displacement is
2 3.019 10.798 1728 1728
= 3.755 in .
30, 000

(28.20)

7. The total value for the displacement of A due to both exural and axial strains resulting from a 1
k horizontal force at A is therefore
3.755 + 0.002 = 3.757 in

(28.21)

8. The reduction in HA due to rib shortening is given by


0.760
= 0.20 k
3.757
Victor Saouma

(28.22)
Structural Engineering

2812

DESIGN II

Draft

9. An additional reduction in HA will result from any drop in the temperature of the rib below
that temperature at which the arch is erected. This occurs, of course, because some additional
shortening of the rib will result. The decrease in the length of the horizontal projection of the rib
resulting from a temperature drop of 100F will be
L = 0.0000065 100 200 12 = 1.56 in

10. The resulting decrease in HA will be

(28.23)

1.56
= 0.42 k
3.757

(28.24)

11. The total decrease in HA due to both rib shortening and temperature drop is
0.20 + 0.42 = 0.62 k

(28.25)

This will have the eect of increasing the moment near the center of the span.
12. Inspection of column (6) in Table 28.8 indicates that segment 10 should be checked for possible
overstress as the result of this increase. The increase in moment at segment 10 will be given by
M = HA (yfor segment10) = 0.62 34.91 = 21.6 ft k

(28.26)

13. The moment of 100 ftk, as previously determined for segment 10, is accurate only in the rst two
places, and hence the revised total moment for segment 10 will be
100 + 20 = 120 ft k

(28.27)

14. The thrust of 335 k, previously determined for segment 10, is accurate to three places. The change
in HA due to rib shortening and temperature change must therefore be rounded to 1 k in order to
determine the corrected thrust in segment 10. This corrected thrust will be
335 1 = 334 k

(28.28)

15. The extreme ber stress is


f=

Mc
120 8.23 12
2
=
= 7.25 k/in
I
1631

(28.29)

16. The section at segment 10 is checked, as indicated in Table 28.8, by


334/34.85 7.25
N/A Mc /I
+
= 0.60 + 0.36 = 0.96
+
=
FA
FB
16.01
20

(28.30)

and obviously the section at segment 10 is adequate.


17. No consideration has been given to the eects of a temperature rise, since such a rise can occur
only during the summer months when no snow loading is possible. Consequently, this phase of the
problem has no practical signicance.
18. The method of analysis just demonstrated will apply equally well to a reinforced concrete or a
timber two-hinged arch. As previously stated, however, very few reinforced concrete arches are
built with two hinges.
19. Of special note here is the fact that, in addition to axial strain and temperature drop, the shrinkage
of the concrete in a reinforced concrete rib will also cause rib shortening. The shrinkage coecient
should be determined for the mix to be used and applied in the analysis in the same general way
as demonstrated above for the temperature coecient.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 29

INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)


UNEDITED
An inuence line is a diagram whose ordinates are the values of some
function of the structure (reaction, shear, moment, etc.) as a unit load
moves across the structure.
The shape of the inuence line for a function (moment, shear, reaction,
etc.) can be obtained by removing the resistance of the structure to that
function, at the section where the inuence line is desired, and applying
an internal force associated with that function at the section so as to
produce a unit deformation at the section. The deformed shape that the
structure will take represents the shape of the inuence line.

292

Draft

INFLUENCE LINES (unedited)

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
Chapter 30

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL
RELIABILITY
30.1

Introduction

C
Traditionally, evaluations of structural adequacy have been expressed by safety factors SF = D
, where
C is the capacity (i.e. strength) and D is the demand (i.e. load). Whereas this evaluation is quite simple
to understand, it suers from many limitations: it 1) treats all loads equally; 2) does not dierentiate
between capacity and demands respective uncertainties; 3) is restricted to service loads; and last but
not least 4) does not allow comparison of relative reliabilities among dierent structures for dierent
performance modes. Another major deciency is that all parameters are assigned a single value in an
analysis which is then deterministic.

2 Another approach, a probabilistic one, extends the factor of safety concept to explicitly incorporate
uncertainties in the parameters. The uncertainties are quantied through statistical analysis of existing
data or judgmentally assigned.
3 This chapter will thus develop a procedure which will enable the Engineer to perform a reliability
based analysis of a structure, which will ultimately yield a reliability index. This is turn is a universal
indicator on the adequacy of a structure, and can be used as a metric to 1) assess the health of a
structure, and 2) compare dierent structures targeted for possible remediation.

30.2

Elements of Statistics

4 Elementary statistics formulaes will be reviewed, as they are needed to properly understand structural
reliability.

When a set of N values xi is clustered around a particular one, then it may be useful to characterize
the set by a few numbers that are related to its moments (the sums of integer powers of the values):

Mean: estimates the value around which the data clusters.


=

N
1 )
xi
N i=1

(30.1)

it is the arithmetic average of all the data points.


Expected Value: If data are not available, an expected value is assigned based on experience and
judgment, and E(x) = x .
Both the mean and the expected values are termed rst moment, and they correspond to the
centroid of a probability density distribution.
(

= xf (x)dx Continuous systems
*N
(30.2)
E(x) = x
= i=1 xf (x)
Discrete systems

302

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY

Draft

Median: of a sorted series (xi1 < xi < xi+1 ) is dened as:


3
x N +1
2
xmed =
1
2 (x N + x N +1 )
2

N odd
N even
=
or

(30.3)

1
N (xi )2
N 1 i=1

(30.4)

1 N
(xi )2
(30.5)Note
Variance: is an indication of the width of the cluster: 2 =
N i=1
that if N is less than 10, it is more appropriate to use the second equation, otherwise use the rst
one.
Standard Deviation: is dened as the square root of the Variance
=

(30.6)

Coecient of Variation: is the standard deviation normalized with respect to the mean:
V=

(30.7)

When insucient data are available to accurately compute the moments, the coecient of variation
is often estimated on the basis of experience.
Covariance: Pairs of random variables may be correlated or independent. If correlated, then the
likelihood of y depends on the likelihood of x. Thus, covariance xy measures the combined eect
of how two variables vary together.
xy =

N
1 )
(xi x )(yi y )
N i=1

(30.8)

Correlation Coecient: xy is a nondimentional measure of the degree of correlation


xy =

xy
x y

(30.9)

A correlation coecient of 1.0 or 1.0 indicates a perfect linear correlation. A positive value
indicates that the variables either increase or decrease together, a negative one indicates that one
value increases while the other decreases. A zero value indicates that there is no linear correlation
between the variables.
Skewness: characterizes the degree of asymmetry of a distribution around its mean. It is dened in a
non-dimensional value. A positive one signies a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending
out toward more positive x

3
xi
1 N
(30.10)
Skew = i=1
N

Kurtosis: is a nondimensional quantity which measures the atness or peakedness of a distribution.


It is normalized with respect to the curvature of a normal distribution. Hence a negative value
would result from a distribution resembling a loaf of bread, while a positive one would be induced
by a sharp peak:

4
xi
1 N
Kurt = i=1
3
(30.11)
N

the 3 term makes the value zero for a normal distribution.


6 The expected value (or mean), standard deviation and coecient of variation are interdependent:
knowing any two, we can determine the third.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

30.3 Distributions of Random Variables

303

Draft
30.3
7

Distribution of variables can be mathematically represented.

30.3.1
8

Uniform Distribution

Uniform distribution implies that any value between xmin and xmax is equaly likely to occur.

30.3.2
9

Distributions of Random Variables

Normal Distribution

The general normal3.0


(or 2.5
Gauss)
distribution
given0.0by, 0.5
Fig. 30.1:
2.0
1.5 1.0 is0.5
1.0 1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.40
0.35
0.30

PDF

0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

CDF

0.00
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0
x

Figure 30.1: Normalized Gauss Distribution, and Cumulative Distribution Function

1 x 2
1
e 2 [ ]
(x) =
2

10

(30.12)

A normal distribution N (, 2 ) can be normalized by dening

y=

(30.13)

and y would have a distribution N (0, 1):


y2
1
(y) = e 2
2

(30.14)

The normal distribution has been found to be an excellent approximation to a large class of distributions, and has some very desirable mathematical properties:

11

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

304

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY

Draft

1. f (x) is symmetric with respect to the mean .


2. f (x) is a bell curve with inection points at x = .

3. f (x) is a valid probability distribution function as:



f (x) = 1

(30.15)

4. The probability that xmin < x < xmax is given by:




xmax

P (xmin < x < xmax ) =

f (x)dx

(30.16)

xmin

5. Cumulative distribution functions (cdf) of the normal distribution dened as:


 s
1 x 2
1
(s) =
e 2 [ ] dx
2

(30.17)

and is expressed in terms of the error function (erf).


6. The cdf of normalized normal distribution function is given by:
 s
1
x2
e 2 dx
(s) =
2

(30.18)

and is usually tabulated in books.

30.3.3

Lognormal Distribution

A random variable is lognormally distributed if the natural logarithm of the variable is normally
distributed.

12

13

It provides a reasonable shape when the coecient of variation is large.

30.3.4

Beta Distribution

Beta distributions are very exible and can assume a variety of shapes including the normal and
uniform distributions as special cases.

14

15

On the other hand, the beta distribution requires four parameters.

16

Beta distributions are selected when a particular shape for the probability density function is desired.

30.3.5

BiNormal distribution

30.4

Reliability Index

30.4.1

Performance Function Identication

Designating F the capacity to demand ratio C/D (or performance function), in general F is a function
of one or more variables xi which describe the geometry, material, loads, and boundary conditions

17

F = F (xi )

(30.19)

and thus F is in turn a random variable with its own probability distribution function, Fig. 30.2.
A performance function evaluation typically require a structural analysis, this may range from a
simple calculation to a detailled nite element study.

18

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

30.4 Reliability Index

305

Draft
30.4.2

Denitions

Reliability indices, are used as a relative measure of the reliability or condence in the ability of
a structure to perform its function in a satisfactory manner. In other words they are a measure of the
performance function.

19

Probabilistic methods are used to systematically evaluate uncertainties in parameters that aect
structural performance, and there is a relation between the reliability index and risk.

20

21 Reliability index is dened in terms of the performance function capacity C, and the applied load or
demand D. It is assumed that both C and D are random variables.
22 The safety margin is dened as Y = C D. Failure would occur if Y < 0 Next, C and D can be
combined and the result expressed logarithmically, Fig. 30.2.

X = ln

C
D

(30.20)

Failure would occur for negative values of X


The probability of failure Pf is equal to the ratio of the shaded area to the total area under the
curve in Fig. 30.2.

23

10

140

Demand
8

=300; =50
=150; =30

PDF

100

Capacity

80

60

pdf ln(C/D)

120
6

ln(C/D)
4

Failure

40
0
1.00

20

0
0.0

0.50

0.00

0.50
ln(C/D)

1.00

1.50

2.00

Failure
100.0

200.0
300.0 Denition
400.0
500.0
Figure
30.2:
of Reliability
Index
Tensile Stress [psi]

 C
If X is assumed to follow a Normal Distribution than it has a mean value X = ln D
and a
m
standard deviation .

24

25

We dene the safety index (or reliability index) as the distance between mean performance value
ln C/D
=
(30.21)
ln C/D
2

and the limit state normalized with respect to the standard deviation

26

ln C/D ln 2C/D
 
2 


ln 1 + C/D
C/D

(30.22)

C
The limit state is dened as a ratio of capacity to demand approaching unity (i.e. ln D
0).

Alternatively, the reliability index can be expressed in terms of the individual means of C and D, and
their respective coecients of variations

27

ln C
= 2 D 2
VC + VD
Victor Saouma

(30.23)

Structural Engineering

306

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY

Draft

1
For standard distributions and for = 3.5, it can be shown that the probability of failure is Pf = 9,091
4
or 1.1 10 . That is 1 in every 10,000 structural members designed with = 3.5 will fail because of
either excessive load or understrength sometime in its lifetime.
28

30.4.3

Mean and Standard Deviation of a Performance Function

In general, some of the analysis parameters are constants, and others are variables. The variables will
be characterized by a mean and a standard deviation, and a distribution function.

29

The objective is to determine the mean and standard deviation of the performance function dened
in terms of C/D.

30

31

Those two parameters, in turn, will later be required to compute the reliability index.

30.4.3.1

Direct Integration

32 Given a function random variable x, the mean value of the function is obtained by integrating the
function over the probability distribution function of the random variable

[F (x)] =
g(x)f (x)dx
(30.24)

33

For more than one variable,


 

[F (x)] =

F (x1 , x2 , , xn )F (x1 , x2 , , xn )dx1 dx2 dxn

(30.25)

34 Note that in practice, the function F (x) is very rarely available for practical problems, and hence this
method is seldom used.

30.4.3.2
35

Monte Carlo Simulation

The performance function is evaluated for many possible values of the random variables.

Assuming that all variables have a normal distribution, then this is done through the following algorithm

36

1. initialize random number generators


2. Perform n analysis, for each one:
(a) For each variable, determine a random number for the given distribution
(b) Transform the random number
(c) Analyse
(d) Determine the performance function, and store the results
3. From all the analyses, determine the mean and the standard deviation, compute the reliability
index.
4. Count the number of analyses, nf which performance function indicate failure, the likelihood of
structural failure will be p(f ) = nf /n.
A sample program (all subroutines are taken from (Press, Flannery, Teukolvsky and Vetterling 1988)
which generates n normally distributed data points, and then analyze the results, determines mean and
standard deviation, and sort them (for histogram plotting), is shown below:

37

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

30.4 Reliability Index

Draft

307

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

program nice
parameter(ns=100000)
real x(ns), mean, sd
write(*,*)enter mean, standard-deviation and n
read(*,*)mean,sd,n
c initialize
tmp=gasdev(-1)
do i=1,n
c obtain gausian distribution and adjust for mean and standard deviation
x(i)=gasdev(1)*sd+mean
end do
c compute mean and standard deviation
call moment(x,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c sort and print results
call sort(n,x)
write(*,*)(x(i),i=1,n)
write(*,*) average standard deviation,ave,sdev
stop
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function gasdev(idum)
c*** Function to produce a normally distributed variable with zero
c
mean and unit ariance.
data iset/0/
if (iset.eq.0) then
1
v1=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
v2=2.*ran1(idum)-1.
r=v1**2+v2**2
if(r.ge.1..or.r.eq.0.)go to 1
fac=sqrt(-2.*log(r)/r)
gset=v1*fac
gasdev=v2*fac
iset=1
else
gasdev=gset
iset=0
endif
return
end
c----------------------------------------------------------------------------function ran1(idum)
c *** Returns a uniform random variable between 0.0 and 1.0,
c
set idum to any negative value to initialize, or reinitialize the sequence
dimension r(97)
parameter (m1=259200,ia1=7141,ic1=54773,rm1=3.8580247e-6)
parameter (m2=134456,ia2=8121,ic2=28411,rm2=7.4373773e-6)
parameter (m3=243000,ia3=4561,ic3=51349)
data iff /0/
if (idum.lt.0.or.iff.eq.0) then
iff=1
ix1=mod(ic1-idum,m1)
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ix1,m2)
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix3=mod(ix1,m3)
do 11 j=1,97
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ia2*ix2+ic2,m2)
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
11
continue
idum=1
endif
ix1=mod(ia1*ix1+ic1,m1)
ix2=mod(ia2*ix2+ic2,m2)
ix3=mod(ia3*ix3+ic3,m3)
j=1+(97*ix3)/m3
if(j.gt.97.or.j.lt.1)pause
ran1=r(j)
r(j)=(float(ix1)+float(ix2)*rm2)*rm1
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

308

Draft

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

subroutine moment(data,n,ave,adev,sdev,var,skew,curt)
c given array of data of length N, returns the mean AVE, average
c
deviation ADEV, standard deviation SDEV, variance VAR, skewness SKEW,
c
and kurtosis CURT
dimension data(n)
if(n.le.1)pause n must be at least 2
s=0.
do 11 j=1,n
s=s+data(j)
11
continue
ave=s/n
adev=0.
var=0.
skew=0.
curt=0.
do 12 j=1,n
s=data(j)-ave
adev=adev+abs(s)
p=s*s
var=var+p
p=p*s
skew=skew+p
p=p*s
curt=curt+p
12
continue
adev=adev/n
var=var/(n-1)
sdev=sqrt(var)
if(var.ne.0.)then
skew=skew/(n*sdev**3)
curt=curt/(n*var**2)-3.
else
pause no skew or kurtosis when zero variance
endif
return
end
c-----------------------------------------------------------------------------subroutine sort(n,ra)
dimension ra(n)
l=n/2+1
ir=n
10
continue
if(l.gt.1)then
l=l-1
rra=ra(l)
else
rra=ra(ir)
ra(ir)=ra(1)
ir=ir-1
if(ir.eq.1)then
ra(1)=rra
return
endif
endif
i=l
j=l+l
20
if(j.le.ir)then
if(j.lt.ir)then
if(ra(j).lt.ra(j+1))j=j+1
endif
if(rra.lt.ra(j))then
ra(i)=ra(j)
i=j
j=j+j
else
j=ir+1
endif
go to 20
endif
ra(i)=rra
go to 10
end

30.4 Reliability Index

309

Draft

As an example, using the above program, and assuming a normal distribution with a mean of 100.
and a standard deviation of 20, results shown in Table 30.1 are obtained.

38

n
10
100
1,000
10,000
100,000

100.33
100.49
100.123
99.964
100.029

7.17
9.73
9.73
9.88
9.97

xmin
91.05
77.01
72.54
66.20
53.65

xmax
111.29
120.92
131.43
134.31
145.39

Table 30.1: Tabulated Results of a Simple Monte-Carlo Simulation.


Note that for monte carlo simulations to be eective, hundreds (and occasionally thousands) of analyses must be performed.

39

30.4.3.3

Point Estimate Method

As noted above, even for the simplest problem a successful Monte-Carlo simulation can be computationally very expensive. This is even more though when the evaluation of the performance function can
only be achieved through a nite element analysis.

40

Whereas in the Monte Carlo simulations numerous random analyses had to be performed, in this
method we select only few points such that they match the mean, standard deviation, and coecient of
skewness of the distribution1 , (Harr 1987, Wol 1985).

41

42

This is accomplished by limiting ourselves to all possible combinations of i i .

43

For each analysis we determine SFF, as well as its logarithm.

Mean and standard deviation of the logarithmic values are then determined from the 2n analyses,
and then is the ratio of the mean to the standard deviation.

44

30.4.3.4

Taylors Series-Finite Dierence Estimation

In the previous method, we have cut down the number of deterministic analyses to 2n , in the following
method, we reduce it even further to 2n + 1, (Anonymous 1992, Anonymous 1993, Bryant, Brokaw and
Mlakar 1993).

45

This simplied approach starts with the rst order Taylor series expansion of Eq. 30.19 about the
mean and limited to linear terms, (Benjamin and Cornell 1970).

46

(30.26)

F = F (i )
where i is the mean for all random variables.
47

For independent random variables, the variance can be approximated by

1 Such

V ar(F ) = F2

F
xi

)  F
xi

2
i

Fi+ Fi
2i

(30.27-a)
(30.27-b)

a simplication is behind the development of the Whitney stress block in the ACI code; a complex stress
distribution is replaced by a simpler one (rectangular), such that both have the same resultant force and location.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3010

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY

Draft

Fi+
Fi

= F (1 , , i + i , , n )
= F (1 , , i i , , n )

(30.27-c)
(30.27-d)

where i are the standard deviations of the variables. Hence,


F =

) F+ F 
i

(30.28)

Finally, the reliability index is given by


=

48

ln F
F

(30.29)

The procedure can be summarized as follows:


1. Perform an initial analysis in which all variables are set equal to their mean value. This analysis
provides the mean .
2. Perform 2n analysis, in which all variables are set equal to their mean values, except variable i,
which assumes a value equal to i + i , and then i i .
3. For each pair of analysis in which variable xi is modied, determine
(a) The standard deviation, which will provide an indication of the sensitivity of the results to
variation of this particular variable.
 + 
Fi Fi
(b)
2
 + 
Fi Fi
terms. from the 2n
4. The standard deviation is then determined by simply adding all the
2
analyses. by the mean.
5. Having determined the mean and standard deviation of C/D, the corresponding values for the
logarithm of C/D, ln C/D and ln C/D , and are determined from Eq. 30.22.

30.4.4

Overall System Reliability

Reliability indices for a number of components, or a number of modes of performance may be used
to estimate the overall reliability of a structure.

49

50

We consider two extreme cases:

Series System: Such a system will perform poorly if any one component perform unsatisfactorily. If
a system has n components in series, the probability of unsatisafcatorily performance of the ith
component is pi and its reliability Ri = 1 pi , then the reliability of the system, or probability
that all components will perform satisfactorily is
R =
=

R1 R2 Ri Rn
(1 pi )(1 p2 ) (1 pi ) (1 pn )

(30.30-a)

Parallel Systems: Such a system will only perform unsatisfactorily if all component perform unsatisfactorily. Hence the reliability is
R = 1 p1 p2 pi pn

30.4.5

(30.31)

Target Reliability Factors

Reliability indices are a relative measure of the current condition and provide a qualitative estimate
of the structural performance.

51

Structures with relatively high reliable indices will be expected to perform well. If the value is too
low, then the structure may be classied as a hazard.

52

53

Target values for are shown in Table 30.2, and in Fig. 30.3

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

30.4 Reliability Index

3011

Draft

Probability of Failure in terms of

10

Good

10

Poor

10

Unsatisfactory

10

Above Average

Below Average

10

Hazardous

1/(Probability of Failure)

10

10

10

0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Figure 30.3: Probability of Failure in terms of

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

3012

Draft

ELEMENTS of STRUCTURAL RELIABILITY


Expected Performance
High
Good
Above Average
Below Average
Poor
Unsatisfactory
Hazardous

5
4
3
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0

Failures
3/10 million
3/100,000
1/1,000
6/1,000
2.3/100
7/100
16/100

Table 30.2: Selected values for Steel and Concrete Structures

30.5

Reliability Analysis

The steps involved in a reliability analysis are:


1. Model Develop a model which describes the performance mode and limit state to be evaluated.
2. Limit state determine the limit states in terms of ratios of capacity to demand.
3. Parameters Identify material properties and structure geometric parameters which enter into the
analysis/ Separate those which may be considered constants from those which should be treated
as random variables.
4. Variables Assign means, standard deviation, and coecients of correlations to random variables
based on available or obtainable information. These may be derived from distributions, calculated
directly from data, or assigned judgmentally.
5. Performance function Formulate the performance function C/D, in terms of constants and variables
that describe the performance mode of interest.
6. Means and standard deviations of performance functions Determine the means and standard deviations of the performance function (C/D) for the performance modes of interest.
7. Calculate reliability index Calculate using any of the methods described above.

Victor Saouma

Structural Engineering

Draft
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