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Review
Abstract
Over the past 30 years, on/in-line near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has proved to be one of the most ecient and advanced tools for
continuous monitoring and controlling of process and product quality in food processing industry. A lot of work has been done in this
area. This review focuses on the use of NIR spectroscopy for the on/in-line analysis of foods such as meat, fruit, grain, dairy products,
beverage and other areas, and mainly looks at the literature published in the last 10 years. The topics covered emphasize the methods
designed for on/in-line measurement of data, chemometric treatment, as well as interpretation of the experimental observations. Finally,
problems relating to the successful applications of on/in-line NIR spectroscopy in production processes have been briey outlined.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Near infrared spectroscopy; Foods and beverages; Quality; On/in-line; Process monitoring
Contents
1.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. NIR spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications in food systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Fruits and vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Grain and grain products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Dairy products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Fish and fish products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8. Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9. Constraints of NIR techniques in food analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10. Conclusions and future outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 571 86971140; fax: +86 571 86971885.
E-mail address: ybying@zju.edu.cn (Y. Ying).
0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.12.022
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1. Introduction
During the last 50 years, there has been a lot of emphasis
on the quality and safety of the food products, of the production processes, and the relationship between the two
(Burns and Ciurczak, 2001). These requirements call for
on-line detection techniques which have the following
advantages: (i) can be assembled in the production line
and take place under realistic environment, (ii) early detection of possible failures, (iii) permanent monitoring of the
conditions, (iv) assessment of conditions at any desired
time (Pemen et al., 1998). These advantages enable detection of quality changes of raw materials and nal product
under steady process conditions Compared to other nondestructive techniques, NIR spectroscopy does not need any
sample preparation. Hence the analysis is very simple and
rapid, which is a requirement for on-line application. Furthermore, NIR technique allows several constituents to be
measured simultaneously. Finally, the relatively weak
absorption due to water enables high-moisture foods to
be analyzed (Osborne, 2000). All these properties make
NIR technique widely acceptable in recent years as one
of most promising on/in line detection methods in food
and other areas.
Industries involved with foods and beverages have
traditionally used NIR measurements for quality control,
blending, and process control (Workman et al., 1999).
Developments in computer science and chemometrics have
prompted parallel developments in the on/in-line NIR
techniques, and have attracted considerable attention from
food researchers. For example, this technique was applied
for on-line detecting fat, moisture, and protein content during meat processing (Isaksson et al., 1996). With respect to
grains, some researchers have installed NIRS equipment in
the harvester for continuous detection of parameters characterizing grain quality such as protein and moisture content (Maertens et al., 2004). These on/in-line applications
have established their control capability in food processing.
1.1. NIR spectroscopy
NIR spectroscopy is based on the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths in the range 780
2500 nm. NIR spectra of foods comprise broad bands arising
from overlapping absorptions corresponding mainly to
overtones and combinations of vibrational modes involving CH, OH, and NH chemical bonds (Osborne,
2000). This makes it very feasible for measurements to be
made in organic and biological systems. Radiation interacting with a sample may be absorbed, transmitted or
reected. Thus, there are dierent NIR spectroscopy measurement modes tting dierent applications. In practice,
the common modes are transmittance, interactance, transectance, diuse transmittance, and diuse reectance,
with the last two being most frequently used. Diuse transmittance measurements are usually carried out in the
region of the spectrum between 800 and 1100 nm where
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Fig. 2. A conceptual view of NIR transmission system. As the fruit passes through a relatively large eld-of-view in the TDIS system (A), a detector
simultaneously accumulates many sequential points over three apples. In contrast, the LAS system (B) takes a simple snapshot, like a camera, over a much
shorter time for a small portion of one fruit (McGlone and Martinsen, 2004).
These two systems were each optimally congured to operate at typical grader speeds (500 mm s 1 or approximately
ve fruit per second), and detect the low levels of light diffusely transmitted through apples in the wavelength range
650950 nm. Finally, they concluded LAS system to give
better results. In addition, these two systems were previously tested by McGlone and Martinsen (2004) for their
ability to measure dry matter (DM) in apples. Both these
gave excellent predictions with standard errors of less than
0.5% at the speed of 500 mm s 1. NIRS technique was used
by Golic and Walsh (2006) to sort stone fruits (peaches,
nectarines, and plums) on the basis of total soluble solids
in an in-line setting. Mixed nectarinepeach calibration
and plum models performed well in predicting of total soluble solids (TSS) in nectarines and peaches, and plums,
respectively. The calibration set samples were scanned at
dierent temperatures (5 and 20 C) over several seasons
to conrm the robustness of these mixed models.
Hahn (2004) explored NIR spectral bandwidth eect on
Rhizopus stolonifer spores detector and its on-line behavior
during classication of red tomatoes. The NIR spectra
were acquired before and after inoculating tomatoes in
the laboratory. Discriminant analysis carried out at 5, 2,
and 1 nm wide spectral bandwidths showed 1 nm bandwidth to possess the highest accuracy (88.92%). When the
same was used for on-line classication on an automatic
conveyor, a 92% detection accuracy was encountered for
a spore count of 6.5 104 sporangiospores ml 1.
Xie et al. (2007b) used Vis/NIR diuse reectance spectroscopy combined with multivariate analysis to dierentiate 70 transgenic tomatoes and 94 of their parents. PCA,
discriminant analysis (DA), and PLSDA were applied to
classify these tomatoes with dierent genes into two
groups. After comparison, PLSDA model with the leaveone-out cross-validation technique after second derivative
pre-treatment gave the most satisfactory calibration
and prediction ability. Thereafter, Vis/NIR diuse transmittance spectroscopy, in combination with dierent
chemometrics was used to distinguish transgenic and
non-transgenic tomatoes (Xie et al., 2007a). PCA, SIMCA,
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system, the NIR transmission was used to determine moisture and protein content of the samples while the Vis
segregator was used to determine sound whole kernel of
brown rice. This system enabled rough rice transported
to a rice-drying facility to be classied into six qualitative
grades.
De Temmerman et al. (2007) applied NIR spectroscopy
for in-line determination of moisture concentrations in
semolina pasta immediately after the extrusion process.
Reectance spectra between 308 and 1704 nm were
acquired at the extruded die. PLS regression method was
used to develop an adequate prediction model for the inline moisture content. The best cross-validation results
were obtained for non-transformed data. The results
indicated that NIR spectroscopy could be used for process
control in the pasta industry.
Besides qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis,
NIR spectroscopy technique could also be used for
food structure determination. Bruun et al. (2007) applied
NIR spectroscopy for monitoring changes in gluten protein structures and interactions when the gluten power is
modied by increasing water content and heat treatment.
Second-derivative transformation and extended multiplicative spectral signal correction were used as pretreatments of
spectra, in order to improving the band resolution and
removing physical and quantitative spectral variations.
Then PCA and PLS regression method were applied
for making classication and calibration models. The
results showed NIR spectrum to be able to give important
information on structure changes in gluten proteins,
including secondary changes. Thereafter, with the similar
method mentioned above, the same authors applied NIR
spectroscopy for analysis of protein structures and interactions in hydrated gluten, and obtained satisfactory results.
Kays et al. (1996) used NIR spectroscopy for the prediction of total dietary ber in food. Cereal and grain products, including breakfast cereals, ours, bran, crackers,
and samples containing commercial oat and wheat bers,
were selected for analysis. These samples were dry milled,
and scanned with a NIR spectrometer in the bandwidth
range 11002800 nm. PLS regression method was applied
to develop the models. The results showed that NIR satisfactorily predicted the total dietary ber content in a wide
range of cereal products.
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dried salted coash (bacalao) (Wold et al., 2006). The combination of NIR transectance measurement with spectral
imaging allows rather deep penetrating optical sampling
and large exibility in spatial sampling patterns and calibration approaches. In addition, the technique of reectance,
contact transectance and non-contact trandectance were
compared with a small set of dried salted cod samples.
The result showed the last two were superior to reectance
measurements.
2.7. Beverages
NIR technique has been used for on-line determination
of constituents in alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine,
and distilled spirits; nonalcoholic beverages such as fruit
juices, teas, and soft drinks; and other products such as
infant and adult nutritional formulas. Some of the applications are described below.
Recently, Zeaiter et al. (2006) applied Vis/NIR spectroscopy to the study of on-line monitoring the alcohol content
during alcoholic wine fermentation. For the determination,
samples were scanned in transmission mode over the range
of 2002500 nm at 2 nm intervals using a NIR spectrometer.
For calibration, PLS regression method was used to develop
the models. In order to correct prediction model used in
spectroscopy-based process monitoring, a new method
called dynamic orthogonal projection (DOP) was applied.
The results showed this method to improve the robustness
of the calibration model. NIR spectroscopy combined with
multivariate analysis (PCA, DPLS, and linear discriminant
analysis (LDA)) has been used for in-line monitoring the
progress of red wine fermentation in a pilot scale (Cozzolino
et al., 2006). Samples (n = 652) were collected at dierent
times from several pilot scale fermentations, and scanned
in transmission mode with the spectra range between 400
and 2500 nm. They used PCA to demonstrate consistent
progressive spectral changes that occur through the time
course of the fermentation. Linear LDA showed that regardless of variety or vintage, samples belonging to a particular
time point in fermentation could be correctly classied.
In addition, continuous processing of apple, grape, pear,
applecherry and applebanana juices for soluble solids
and total solids/total moisture can also be assessed (Singh
et al., 1996). Three in-line sensors: NIR, guided microwave
and Maselli refractometer were compared for their in-line
performance of testing. The result showed NIR and guided
microwave to be good for assessing the soluble and total
solids, and Maselli refractometer to be excellent for predicting soluble solids under dierent operating conditions.
Leon et al. (2005) applied NIR transectance spectroscopy
for detection of adulteration of apple juice samples. Two
types of adulterants were assessed: a high fructose corn
syrup (HFCS) and a sugar solution. DPLS regression
method was used. The results showed that the accuracy
of detection of authentic apple juice and adulterated apple
juice were 86100% and 91100%, respectively, depending
on the adulterant type and level of adulteration.
2.8. Others
On-line application using NIR methods on other kinds
of food are also known. Although these foods are not
among the ve categories mentioned above, the methodology and interpretation there from are very important and
should not be ignored. NIR methods have been used for
on-line viscosity and conductivity measurements in frozen
model sorbet in a continuous freezer/extrusion process
(Bolliger et al., 1998). Monitoring of colour and composition in an extruder during the extrusion of yellow corn
our (Apruzzese et al., 2000), and on-line classication of
poultry carcass quality (Chen et al., 2003) by Vis/NIR
spectrophotometer system has been known. In baking area,
Sinelli et al. (2004) used FT-NIR spectrometer with an
optic probe for monitoring the kinetics of dough proong
and bread staling.
2.9. Constraints of NIR techniques in food analysis
Although the operating cost of NIRS is low, the instrument itself is highly priced; this limits its practical application. Eorts by researchers and industrial organizations to
develop simple and low-cost instruments could revolutionize the use of NIR techniques for on/in-line quality monitoring of foods.
Some calibration models based on NIR spectroscopy,
especially for on-line application, are not reliable and stable enough when used practically. Hence, it is imperative
for researchers to choose proper chemometrics to build
robust models. In some cases, conventional methods may
not oer a satisfactory solution to a given problem due
to complexity of the data. This also necessitates the development of new chemometric methods so as to further
improve the reliability and accuracy of the calibration
models.
In addition, there are other limitations of NIR spectroscopy technique. The technique is not sensitive to the
mineral content, since there is no absorbtion of minerals
in the NIR spectrum region. An alternative way to solve
this problem eciently is to combine dierent detection
techniques with NIR spectroscopy, such as X-ray uorescence spectroscopy, UV light, and electronic nose technique. Some papers describing the use of a combination
of techniques using dierent detection methods have been
published in recent years (Cimander et al., 2002; Navratil
et al., 2004), although more eorts should be made to solve
this issue.
2.10. Conclusions and future outlook
On/in line applications of NIR spectroscopy in food
science are reviewed in meats, fruit and vegetables, grain,
and grain products, milk and dairy products, and beverages and other areas. At present, NIR technique is widely
accepted as one of the most promising on/in-line process
control techniques NIR is obviously a nondestructive,
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