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The maximum current required by the circuit components to meet their power requirements.
The current drawn is termed the load.
The amount of variation in DC output permitted under constant load; this is referred to as the
amount of ripple.
The amount of variation in DC output permitted with changes in load; this is referred to as the
amount of regulation required.
Rectifier Circuits
Rectification is described as the changing of an alternating current (AC) to a unidirectional or direct
current (DC). The normal PN junction diode is well suited for this purpose as it conducts very heavily
when forward-biased (low resistance direction) and only slightly when reverse-biased (high
resistance direction). Figure 1 is a block diagram of a power supply showing an AC input to, and a
DC output from, a block labeled Positive Power Supply and Filter Network. Although Figure 1 shows
a power supply that provides a unidirectional current, which causes a positive voltage output, it might
well be designed to furnish a negative voltage output.
Many electronic circuits depend upon DC for proper operation. This is the reason why a change of
AC to DC is necessary. As already pointed out, the PN junction diode conducts more easily in one
direction than in the other. Transistors are also unidirectional and a constantly alternating source
voltage would be undesirable. Before describing how an AC input is converted into a DC output, the
definition of "load" as it applies to power supplies must be understood. Load is the current supplied
to the power-consuming device or devices connected to the power supply. The power-consuming
device needs voltage and current for proper operation and this voltage and current is supplied by the
power supply. The power-consuming device may be a simple resistor or one or more electronic
circuits using resistors, capacitors, coils, and active devices.
The induced voltage across L2 (the transformer secondary) will be as shown in Figure 2. The dots
(polarity marks) on the transformer indicate points of the same polarity. During the portion of the
input cycle that is going positive (solid line), CR1, the PN junction diode, will be forward-biased and
current will flow through the circuit. L2, acting as the source voltage, will have current flowing from
the top to the bottom. This current then flows up through RL causing a voltage drop across RL equal
to the value of current flowing times the value of RL. This voltage drop will be positive at the top of
RL, with respect to its other side; and the output will therefore be a positive voltage with respect to
ground.
It is common practice for the end of a resistor receiving current to be given a sign representing a
negative polarity of voltage, and the end of the resistor through which current leaves to be assigned
a positive polarity of voltage. The voltage drop across RL, plus the voltage drop across the
conducting diode will equal the applied voltage. Although the output voltage will nearly equal the
peak applied voltage, it cannot reach this value due to the voltage drop, no matter how small, across
CR1. In a half-wave rectifier circuit the average DC output voltage is 0.318 of the peak value of one
half AC cycle.
The broken line illustrates the negative half-cycle of the input. When the negative half-cycle is felt on
CR1, the PN junction diode is reverse-biased. The reverse current will be very small, but it will exist.
The voltage resulting from the reverse current, as shown below the line in the output is exaggerated
to bring out the point of its existence. Although only one cycle of input is shown inFigure 2, it should
be realized that the action described above continually repeats itself, so long as there is an AC input.
By reversing the diode connection in Figure 2, having the anode on the right instead of the left, the
output would now become a negative voltage. The current would be going from the top of RL toward
the bottom, making the output at the top of RL negative with respect to the bottom or ground side.
The same negative output can be obtained from Figure 2 if the reference point (ground) is changed
from the bottom (where it is shown) to the top, or cathode-connected end, of the resistor. The bottom
of RL is shown as being negative with respect to the top, and reading the output voltage from the
"hot" side of the resistor to ground would result in a negative voltage output.
Bridge Rectifier
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification.
This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes and with single component bridges
where the diode bridge is wired internally. Now, the PN junction diode will be described as it is used
in a bridge rectifier circuit. Figure 4 shows such a circuit capable of producing a positive output
voltage.
forward-biased and offers the least opposition to current flow, and current takes this path to return to
its source.
As can be seen, the diodes in the bridge circuit operate in pairs; first one pair (CR1 and CR3)
conducts heavily and then the other pair (CR2 and CR4) conducts heavily. As shown in the output
waveform, we get one pulse out for every half-cycle of the input or two pulses out for every cycle in.
This is the same as for the full-wave rectifier circuit explained previously.
that is, a current that is always positive or negative with respect to ground. Although this current is
not of a steady value, it has "ripple." Ripple can be defined as "the departure of the waveform of a
rectifier from pure DC." Ripple is the amplitude excursions, positive and negative, of a waveform from
the pure DC value the alternating component of the rectifier voltage. Ripple contains two factors that
must be considered: frequency and amplitude. Ripple frequency, in the rectifiers that were
presented, are either the same as line frequency for a half-wave rectifier, or twice the line frequency
for full-wave rectifiers. In the half-wave rectifier, one pulse of DC output was generated for one cycle
of AC input; the ripple frequency is the same as the input frequency. In the full-wave rectifiers
(center-tapped and bridge), two pulses of DC output were produced for each cycle of AC input: the
ripple frequency is twice that of the line frequency. With a 40Hz input frequency, there is a 40Hz
ripple frequency in the output of the half-wave rectifier and an 80Hz ripple frequency in the output of
the full-wave rectifier. The purpose of power supply filters is to smooth out the ripple contained in the
pulses of DC obtained from the rectifier circuit while increasing the average output voltage or current.
Filter circuits used in power supplies are of two general types: Capacitor input and Choke input.
There are several combinations that may be used, although they are referred to by different names
(Pi, RC, L section, etc). The closest element electrically to the rectifier determines the basic type of
filter being used. Figure 6 depicts the basic types. In the capacitor input filter, a capacitor is placed in
parallel with the load resistor. Rapid variations in voltage are shunted to ground by the capacitor. This
provides a smoother overall output for the output.
While Figure 9 shows two choke input sections being used as a multiple section filter, more sections
may be added as desired. While the multiple section filter does reduce the ripple content, and they
are found in applications where only a minimum ripple content can be tolerated in the output voltage,
they also result in reduced regulation. The additional sections add more resistance in series with the
power supply, which results in increased voltage variations in the output when the load current
varies.
Pi Filter
The Pi filter, named because of its resemblance to the Greek letter Pi is a combination of the simple
capacitor input filter and the choke input filter. This filter is shown in Figure 10.
action takes place across C1, which charges through the conducting diode(s) and discharges
through R, L, and C2. As in the simple capacitor input filter, the charge time is very fast compared to
the discharge time. The inductor smoothes out the peaks of the current pulses felt across C2,
thereby providing additional filtering action. The voltage across C2, since C2 is in parallel with the
output, is the output voltage of the power supply. Although the voltage output is lower in this filter
than it would be if taken across C1 and the load, the amount of ripple is greatly reduced. Even
though C1 will charge to the peak voltage of the input when the diodes are conducting, and
discharge through R when they are cut off, the inductor is also in the discharge path and opposes
any changes in load current. The voltage dividing action of L and C2 is responsible for the lower
output voltage in the Pi filter when compared to the voltage available across C1. As shown in Figure
10 the charge path for both C1 and C2 is through the transformer secondary, and, in the case of C2,
through L. Both charge paths are through the conducting diode. However, the discharge path for C1
is through R and L while the discharge path for C2 is through R only.
should be understood by all, because of their importance to the proper operation of equipment
following the power supply.