Refractive Index

The velocity of light is one of the most important of the fundamental

constants of Nature. Its measurement by Foucault and Fizeau gave as the
result a speed greater in air than in water, thus deciding in favor of the
undulatory and against the corpuscular theory. Again, the comparison of
the electrostatic and the electromagnetic units gives as an experimental
result a value remarkably close to the velocity of light. Albert Abraham
Michelson (Studies in Optics)

(Snell Descartes Law)

By: 196 DAYS (Sonya Hu & Connor

Squellati), Period 1B
May 01, 2015 May 11, 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS
-

Abstract (Sonya)..2
Introduction (Sonya)................3
History (Sonya)7
Context (Connor).9
Proof (Connor)...11
Conclusion (Sonya)....13
Bibliography (Sonya).14
Appendix I.16

ABSTRACT

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The refractive index of a material is a numerical value that is expressed relatively to the
speed of light within a vacuum. When light travels from a vacuum to a different transparent
medium, such as water or glass, or, when light travels from medium to medium, the speed of
light is adjusted in relation to the refractive index, or optical density, of the material. This report
will analyze the reasons that refractive index occurs, the historical background in its discovery,
the social context, or importance, of refractive index, and then will provide a generalized proof
of the refractive index. It will analyze Snells Law in depth.

INTRODUCTION

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In 1676, Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer discovered that the speed of light, commonly
denoted as c, is a universal physical constant that has a value of approximately 3.00108 meters
per second. It was also established that the speed of a wave is equal to the wavelength times the
frequency, which can be expressed by the following equation:
c=df
However, the speed that Roemer established was only true when light traveled within a
vacuum. When light that was traveling in a vacuum enters a different transparent medium, the
speed of the light is reduced in proportion to the refractive index of this new medium. Refraction
is the bending of the path of a light wave as it passes through one material to another.1 It
occurs at the boundary and is caused by a change in the speed of the light wave upon crossing
the boundary. The tendency of a ray of light to bend one direction or another is dependent upon
whether the light wave speeds up or slows down upon crossing.2 The refractive index of a
material is a numerical value that is expressed relatively to the speed of light within a vacuum.
In a vacuum, the refractive index (represented by the symbol n) is equal to 1.0000. In other
materials, the refractive index can be expressed by the following equation:
8

3.0010 m/s
nmaterial =
v material

It can be better explained by Figure 1, which was also shown on the cover page:
1 The Physics Classroom. The Physics Classroom [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Classroom; c1996-2015. Optical
Density and Light Speed; n.d. [cited 2015 May 04]; [about 4 pages]. Available from:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-1/Optical-Density-and-Light-Speed

2 ibid
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Figure 1
Figure 1 depicts the refractive index via what is commonly known as Snells Law.
Although it labels the areas above and under the center axis air and water, it does not have to
be those two mediums; it can be any. It may be better and easier to understand to label the upper
part vacuum and the lower medium. i represents the angle of incidence of a ray in a
cacuum, and r represents the angle of refraction. This allows the refractive index n to be
defined by the following equation:
n=

sini
sin r
Similar to any other wave, the speed of a light wave is dependent on the properties of the

medium through which it travels. However, in the case of a light wave, or electromagnetic wave,
as it is otherwise known, is dependent upon the optical density of that material. However, the
optical density is, by all means, not the same as the physical density of a material. The physical
density refers to the mass to volume ration, whereas the optical density refers to the sluggish
tendency of the atoms of a material to maintain the absorbed energy of an electromagnetic wave

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in the form of vibrating electrons before reemitting it as a new electromagnetic disturbance.3

The more optically dense a medium is, the slower that a wave will travel through that material.
The index of refraction, or refractive index, of a material is one indicator of the optical density
that a material has.
In order to better understand this concept, let us further analyze the mechanism by which a light
wave is transported through a medium. This occurs by particle-to-particle interaction, quite
similar to the method at which any other wave is transported. A light wave is produced by a
vibrating electric charge, and, as previously stated, it travels at the speed of c in a vacuum. The
Physics Classroom provides an explanation of the transportation of a light wave: When a wave
impinges upon a particle of matter, the energy is absorbed and sets electrons within the atoms
into vibrational motion. If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave does not match the
resonant frequency of vibration of the electron, then the energy is reemitted in the form of an
electromagnetic wave. This new electromagnetic wave has the same frequency of the
electromagnetic wave has the same frequency as the original wave and it too will travel at a
speed of c through the empty space between atoms. The newly emitted light wave continues to
move through the interatomic space until it impinges upon a neighboring particle. The energy is
absorbed by this new particle and sets the electrons of its atoms into vibration motion. And once
more, if there is no match between the frequency of the electromagnetic wave and the resonant
frequency of the electron, the energy is reemitted in the form of a new electromagnetic wave.
The cycle of absorption and reemission continues as the energy is transported from particle to
particle through the bulk of a medium. Every photon (bundle of electromagnetic energy) travels
3 The Physics Classroom. The Physics Classroom [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Classroom; c1996-2015. Optical
Density and Light Speed; n.d. [cited 2015 May 04]; [about 4 pages]. Available from:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-1/Optical-Density-and-Light-Speed

5 | Page

between the interatomic void at a speed of c; yet time delay involved in the process of being
absorbed and reemitted by the atoms of the material lowers the net speed of transport from one
end of the medium to the other. Subsequently, the net speed of an electromagnetic wave in any
medium is somewhat less than its speed in a vacuum.4
The table below lists the refractive index values for a number of mediums:
Material
Vacuum
Air
Ice
Water
Ethyl Alcohol
Plexiglas
Crown Glass
Light Flint Glass
Dense Flint Glass
Zircon
Diamond
Rutile
Gallium phosphide

Index of Refraction
1
1.0003
1.31
1.333
1.36
1.51
1.52
1.58
1.66
1.923
2.417
2.907
3.50

HISTORY
4 The Physics Classroom. The Physics Classroom [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Classroom; c1996-2015. Optical
Density and Light Speed; n.d. [cited 2015 May 04]; [about 4 pages]. Available from:
http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-1/Optical-Density-and-Light-Speed

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Controversies concerning the refraction of light have been dotted throughout history. In
350 B.C., Greek scientist Euclid established that light travels in a straight line at a constant
speed, which was later discovered to be approximately 3.00108 meters per second. Centuries
later, Descartes, using analogies of moving balls, the walking stick of a blind man, and wine
grapes being stomped on in a vat, formed the laws of reflection and refraction. He reasoned that
the sines of the angles of incidents and refraction are proportional to the different ease of lights
passage through the two media. This was written in his famous Discourse on Method and
submitted for publication in 1637.
However, Descartes was not the first to discover this law. Thomas Harriot discovered the
concept of refraction in 1602, based on his observations in 1597 and 1598, but regrettably passed
away before he could publish the concept. In 1621, Snel of the Netherlands rediscovered the
law, but could not publish it before he was stuck with death in 1626. This was described by The
Physics Hypertextbook, which states that although he discovered the law of refraction, a basis
of modern geometric optics, in 1621, he did not publish it and only in 1703 did it become known
when Huygens published Snell's law in Dioptrica. Snell also studied navigation and proposed the
method of triangulation, which is the foundation of geodesy (the branch of mathematics dealing
with the measurement of features on the earth). For some reason, the law named after the man is
spelled incorrectly. Snel the man vs. Snell the law. This form of Snell's law was actually
published by Ren Descartes (15961650) France in La Dioptrique (1637). Snell did discover the
relationship but articulated it in a different way. Today it is the form used by Descartes that is
called Snell's law.5 Therefore, the first to successfully publish the law was Descartes in 1637,
which is why the law is known as Descartess Law in France. However, due to the widespread
5 Glenn Elert, author. The Physics Hypertextbook [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Hypertextbook. c19982015 [cited 2015 May 11]. Refraction; [about 9 pages]. Available from: http://physics.info/refraction/
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understanding that Snel was a precursor in the discovery of the law, in many other countries, the
law is attributed to him. This law, Snels Law, is depicted in Figure 1 in the Introduction, as well
as on the cover page, and is also known as the Descartes-Snel Law.
After Descartes findings were published, Pierre de Fermat took it upon himself to rebuke
Descartes findings, only to discover in 1664 that Descartes was correct. However, he believed
that Descartess method of showing and providing proof of this law was flawed. In his final
correspondence found in the Works in 1664, he wrote, the opinion of M. Descartes on the
proportion of refractions is quite true his demonstration is quite false, and full of
paralogisms!6

CONTEXT

6 Larouchepac. Larouchepac [Internet]. Leesburg (VA): Lyndon LaRouche Political Action Committee; c2015.
Fermats Work on Refraction: A History; n.d. [cited 2015 May 11]; [about 3 pages]. Available
from:http://science.larouchepac.com/fermat/history.html

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The concept of the refractive index as a whole has substantially encouraged and improved not
only technology but also modern day industry. One tool created on the basis of the refractive
index is the refractometer, a relatively inexpensive piece of test equipment used to determine the
sugar content in a liquid. The refractometer developed a kind of revolution in the push for
industrial advances. It aids in pharmaceutical drug diagnosis, veterinarian medicine, aquatic
upkeep/improvement, gemology, farming/agriculture, and even beverage enhancement. When
using the refractometer, one can tell different materials from each other (i.e., rock from soil) by
the contrast in soluble liquids/loose solids. For example, in the scientific field of geology, the use
of a refractometer helps identify specific metals in the ground and can even assist in the location
of rare geodes or gems. But of all impacts, the refractometer mostly benefits farming and
agriculture. It is an all-in-one tool that can be used to test the health of crops via plant sap or
fruit/vegetable juices. Because the refractometer reacts differently to light depending on the
amount of sugar present within the sap/juice, a measuring system known as BRIX helps measure
the health and care of crops. The higher the level on the BRIX rating the better the crop condition
is, while the lower the level indicates poor crop health. Some of the reasons for receiving a low
BRIX rating can be the dilution of nutrients, an imbalance in the soil and/or mineral load, or a
low calcium content.
But with all advancements the discovery of the refractive index has brought, there is a
minor controversy in the use of such physical detection. Although it is indirectly argued upon,
the refractive index plays an important role in the Abraham-Minkowski Controversy. A physicist
in 1908, Hermann Minkowski, was one of the first to finalize an idea describing the momentum
transfer between matter and electromagnetic fields. However, one year later (1909), Max
Abraham had achieved the same concept using the same tools/theories as Minkowski, but

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resulted in a completely different conclusion. The main difference between the twos results was
that Minkowski believed that waves that travel through mediums at a slow rate have a lower
momentum, later thought to be canonical momentum [Equation 1]. Abraham on the other hand
believed that waves traveling through a medium at a slow rate has a higher momentum, later
thought to be kinetic momentum [Equation 2]. The two ideas conflicted with each other even in
modern day times. In either situation, if one theory were to be proven correct over another, it
would ensure the development of a reactionless drive, a device that generates motion without
propellant.

PROOF
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In order to prove that the speed of light travels at different speeds in different mediums,
thus proving that the refractive index is valid, Snells Law would need to be analyzed and
simplified to a single equation, the refractive index equation. First, directly from Snells Law, the
concept of refracted light (through two separate mediums in respect to dielectric indices),would
need a four quadrant grid to best express refraction. Quadrant I would be Medium 1, Quadrant II
would be Incident Ray (Overall Value of N1), Quadrant III would be Medium 2, and Quadrant
IV would be Refracted Ray (Overall Value of N2). Two parallel lines should be drawn, the
leftmost at approximately y = -x. When the leftmost line reaches the origin (0,0), it continues
through Quadrant IV at an angle between the x-axis and y-axis (2) smaller than the angle in
Quadrant II between the x-axis and y-axis (aprrox. 45, 1). The rightmost line would continue
until the x-axis where it passes through Quadrant IV parallel to the leftmost line in Quadrant IV.
Based on what is already drawn, two right triangle can be made, sharing one side with each other
along the positive x-axis (PQB, PAB) [Refer to Figure 1].
Because segment PQ must happen in the real-world at the same time as segment AB, the
equation N1 sin1 = N2 sin2 (foundation of Snells Law). This can be further simplified into
N1N2 = sin2 sin1. The sin1 and sin2 can further be expressed by the speed of incident (v2)
and speed of recracted (v1), leaving the equation N1N2 = v2 v1. The relationship between the
refractive index 1 over the refractive index 2 (N1/N2) is equivalent to one-half of the two
indices, represented as Nt (the combined/total value of the refractive indices of v2/v1). The
equation now stands as Nt = v2 v1. Because we are proving that the speed of light travels
differently per medium via refractive index and v2 is the speed of incident, the experimentational
equivalent of the speed of incident is the speed of light (v2 = c). The final equation stands as Nt
= c v1, proving the refractive index equation, thus proving validity and success.
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Refer to Appendix I for a formal, mathematical proof of Snells Law.

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CONCLUSION
To conclude, despite the various controversies surrounding the refractive index
throughout history, the concept was cemented by Descartes, and established through Snells Law.
Although the concept is seemingly pointless to know, and appears to just be another addition to
the endless of archive of information, despite not having any modern-day impact, that is, in fact,
not the case. The index of refraction has encouraged and improved modern-day technology and
industry; an example of which is the refractometer.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Glenn Elert, author. The Physics Hypertextbook [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Hypertextbook.
c1998-2015 [cited 2015 May 11]. Refraction; [about 9 pages]. Available from:
http://physics.info/refraction/

Michael W. Davidson. Optical Microscopy Primer [Internet]. Molecular Expressions; c2014.

Speed of Light in Transparent Materials; 2014 [cited 2015 May 4]; [about 3 pages]. Available
from: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/speedoflight/

Kevin Brown. Reflections on Relativity. Lulu [Internet]. Lulu; c2015. 3.3 De Mora Luminis;
2015 [cited 2015 May 4]; [about 9 pages]. Available from: http://mathpages.com/rr/s3-03/303.htm

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Larouchepac. Larouchepac [Internet]. Leesburg (VA): Lyndon LaRouche Political Action

Committee; c2015. Fermats Work on Refraction: A History; n.d. [cited 2015 May 11]; [about 3
pages]. Available from: http://science.larouchepac.com/fermat/history.html

Physics 2000. Physics 2000 [Internet]. Colorado.edu; c2015. Speed of Light; n.d. [cited 2015
May 04]; [about 4 pages]. Available from:
http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/waves_particles/lightspeed-1.html

The Physics Classroom. The Physics Classroom [Internet]. n.c.: The Physics Classroom; c19962015. Optical Density and Light Speed; n.d. [cited 2015 May 04]; [about 4 pages]. Available
from: http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/refrn/Lesson-1/Optical-Density-and-Light-Speed

The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica [Internet]. Encyclopaedia

Britannica; c2015. Refractive Index; 2014 [cited 2015 May 4]; [about 1 page]. Available from:
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/495677/refractive-index

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APPENDIX I

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