Course Content

1. Basic Unit, Standard Form.

Base quantity
A physical quantity is any quantity that can be measured by a scientific
instrument
E.g of scientific instrument
Stopwatch, metre rule balance, thermometer. Ammeter
A base quantity is a physical quantity which cannot be defined in terms of other
physical quantities.
E.g of physical quantities
Height, mass, size, age, temperature, current, power, thermal energy

Basic physical quantities and their units

Symb S.I Unit Symbol for S.I
Base
ol
unit
quantity

Length

meter

Mass

kilogra
m

kg

Time

second

Current

Amper
e

Temperature

Kelvin

Standard Form

Standard form = A x 10n , 1< A < 10 and n=integer

Standard form is used to simplify the expression of very large and small numbers
Prefixes are units represent a large physical quantity or extremely small
quantity in S.I units
1 x 1012 m = 1 Tm

Derived quantities

Is a physical quantity which combines several quantities through multiplication,

division or both

Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar quantities are quantity which has only magnitude or size (Mass, length,
speed, volume)
Vector quantities are quantity which has magnitude or size and direction
(Velocity, force, displacement, acceleration)

2. Precision, Accuracy and Error.

Accuracy : The ability of an instrument to measure nearest to the actual value

Consistency : The ability of an instrument to measure consistently with little or no
relative deviation among readings
Sensitivity : The ability of an instrument to detect a small change in the quantity
measured

 Errors in measurement

All measurement are approximation only

Error exists in all measurements

Main types of errors

Systematic errors

Occurs due to

A weakness of the instrument

The difference between reaction time of the brain and the action

Zero error is when the pointer is not at zero when not in use

Example

Absolute error refer to smallest reading that can be measured by an

instrument

Parallax error it occurs because the position of the eye is not

perpendicular to the scale of the instrument

Zero error where the pointer is not at zero when not in use

Random error

Occurs due to

Carelessness in making the measurement

Parallax error, incorrect positioning of the eye when taking readings

Sudden change of ambient factors such as temperature or air circulation

Example

Readings are close to the actual value but they are not consistent

Can be minimized by consistently repeating the measurement at

different places in an identical manner
3. Linear Motion, Graph, Vector,

FRICTION

ANALYSING LINEAR MOTION

Types of physical quantity

Scalar quantity : Only have magnitude

Vector quantity : Have both magnitude and direction

Difference between distance and displacement

Distance is length of the path taken

Displacement is the distance of an object from a point in a certain direction

Velocity (v)

Velocity is the rate of change of displacement per second

v=

x
t

- x is in meters, t is in second , so, Velocity has units of ms-1

- Since velocity involves displacement it is also a vector quantity
Speed (v)
Speed is the magnitude (size) of velocity, but has no direction so it is a scalar quantity
Ie. My speed is 60 kmh-1, but my velocity is 60 kmh-1 due East.
The unit of speed is also ms-1
Acceleration (a)
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity per second, ie.

a=

v
t

Where v is in ms-1 and t is in seconds. So acceleration has units of ms -2.

 Graphing Motion: Displacement-Time graphs

A person runs 12 meters in 2

seconds

The gradient of a Displacement-Time graph gives the velocity

Gradient of distance-time graph =

speed
Gradient
of displacement-time graph =
Velocity-Time
graphs

The velocity-time graph below shows a car which accelerates uniformly from rest
to 60 ms-1 in 20 seconds, then travels at a constant velocity of 60 ms-1 for the
next 10 seconds, then decelerates uniformly to rest in 30 seconds. The total
journey took 60 seconds.

- Area under a velocity-time graph

- Area = length width = metres/second seconds = metres

Area under a velocity-time graph gives the displacement.

Area under a speed-time graph gives the distance .

We can divide the graph into 3 distinct sections and calculate the area for
each.
Area Triangle
= base height = x 20 60
= 600 metres.
Area Rectangle = Length Width
= 60 10
= 600 metres.
Area Triangle
= base height = 3060
= 900 metres.
Total displacement = Total area
= 600 + 600 + 900 = 2100 metres
- Gradient of a velocity-time graph

:- 0-20 seconds: Gradient = 60/20 = 3 ms-1. Car is accelerating at 3 ms-1.

:- 20-30 seconds: Gradient = 0/10 = 0 ms-1.
Note: No slope No acceleration. Car is travelling at a constant velocity of
60m/s.
:- 30-60 seconds. Gradient = 60/30 = 2 ms -1
Note: Negative slope Negative acceleration, or deceleration. Car is slowing
down.
4. Density, Pressure, Gas Theory, Archimedes Principle. Bernoullis
Principle, Specific Gravity
UNDERSTANDING PRESSURE

The pressure acting on a surface is defined as force per unit area on the
surface

P=

F
A

Pressure,

Unit for pressure is Nm-2 or Pascal (Pa)

A wooden block is placed at different position on the surface of a piece of

plasticine. At what position is the pressure higher? B
Tools like knives, chisels, axes and saws have sharp cutting edges. The surface
area of contact is small when a force is applied on the tool, the small area of
contact will produce a large pressure to cut the material.
The flat base of each metal pole of a tent has a big surface area to
reduce/decrease the pressure exerted on the ground. The poles will not sink
into the ground because of the flat bases.
Example

The diagram below shows a concrete block of dimension 1.5m x 2.0m x

3.0m. Its weight is
60N. Calculate (a) maximum pressure, (b) minimum
pressure:

a) Maximum pressure
P = F/A
= Weight/Minimum Area
= 60N / (2.0 x 1.5)m2
= 20 Pa
b) Minimum pressure
P = F/A
= Weight/Minimum Area
= 60N / (20 x 3.0)m2
= 10 Pa
UNDERSTANDING PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS

Density
Density () is defined as mass per unit volume. The SI unit for density is kgm -3
Density () =

mass
volume

m
V

Example 1: Calculate the density of a stone of mass 250 g if its volume is 100
cm3.
=

m
V

= 250 g
100 cm3
= 2.5 g cm-3
= 2500 kg cm-3
Example 2: Abus weight is 60 kg, when he is totally immersed in a tank of
water, the water level
raise by 55 liter.
=

m
V

= _60000 g_
50000 cm3
= 1.091 g cm-3
= 1091 kg cm-3
Pressure Formula

Pressure in liquids acts in all directions

The pressure in a liquid is the product of depth, density and gravitational

acceleration
P=xgxh

Example

The above formula can be derived from the following steps:

Mass of a cylinder of water, m = V = A h
Weight of the cylinder of water, W =mg = A h g
The pressure of water at the base of the cylinder of water is

UNDERSTANDING GAS PRESSURE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Gas Pressure
- The gas pressure in a container is caused by the collision of gas
molecules with the wall of
the container
- Gas pressure can be measured by using 2 types of instrument known as
- Bourdon gauge (consists of a semi-circular or C-shaped copper tube
that tends to
straighten if more and more gas is pumped (compressed) into it).
- Manometer (consists of a U-tube about 1 m in height. About 50% of
the volume of the Utube is filled with liquid such as mercury or
water).

Atmospheric Pressure
- The atmospheric pressure is caused by the downward force exerted by
the air, s the
weight of the atmosphere on the Earths surface.
- 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg = 10.3 m water = 1.0 x 10 3 Pa
APPLYING PASCALS PRINCIPLE

Pascals Principle state that pressure exerted on an enclosed liquid is

transmitted equally/with same magnitude to every part of the liquid to
every part of the liquid.

Direction of water when the piston is pushed

APPLYING ARCHIMEDES PRINCIPLE

Archimedes Principle states that when an object is wholly or partially

immersed in a fluid, it experiences a buoyant force equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.
For a free floating object, the buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
object
Specific gravity

_
- is the average density of the object or substance and w is the
density of water at 4.00C. - Specific gravity is dimensionless, independent
of whatever units are used for .
- If an object floats, its specific gravity is less than one. If it sinks, its
specific gravity is greater
than one.
- The fraction of a floating object that is submerged equals its specific
gravity.
- If an objects specific gravity is exactly 1, then it will remain suspended
in the fluid, neither
sinking nor floating. Scuba divers try to obtain this
state so that they can hover in the water. - We measure the specific
gravity of fluids, such as battery acid, radiator fluid, and urine, as an
indicator of their condition.
Example
An object of density, 40gcm-3 and mass 500g is immersed in a liquid of density
2 gcm-3
Calculate
a) The volume of liquid displaced
b) The mass of the liquid displaced
c) The buoyant force experienced by the object (g=10ms -2)
Solution
a) V = m/
= 500 / 40
= 12.5 cm3
b) Let liquid mass as m and density
m = V
= (2)(12.5)
= 25g
c)Buoyant force
= Weight of liquid displaced
= mg
= (0.025)(10)
= 0.25N
Bernoullis Principle

Figure above shows that water flows through a horizontal tube from left to right.
The velocity of
water increases gradually from left side of the tube to the right
side of the tube. The water pressure is
higher on the left side of the tube than the
right side of the tube. This can be seen from the gradual decrease in water column of the
vertical tubes P, Q and R. The relationship between velocity and
pressure is in
accordance to Bernoullis Principle.

Figure below shows an aerofoil. The upper region of the aerofoil has higher air
velocity than the lower
region of the aerofoil. By Bernoullis principle, the lower
region has higher pressure than the upper
region of the aerofoil. This causes a
lifting force on the aerofoil.

Example

Air flows through a horizontal tube as shown in the figure causing water
columns to rise in three vertical glass tubes. Compare and tabulate the value of
air velocity and pressure in the three positions A, B and C of the horizontal
tubes.
Solutions :

5. Circular Motion

Uniform circular motion

Example

Revolution of the Earth around the Sun

Rotating fly wheel

Electrons revolving around the nucleus

Spinning top

The motion of a fan blade

Revolution of the moon around the Earth

The bodies or particles travel in a circular path

Travel in circular path with a constant speed

The magnitude of velocity in circular motion remains constant but the

direction changes continuously.

Let consider m moving with a velocity v along the circle of radius r with centre
O. P is the position of the particle at a given instant of time such that the radial
line OP makes an angle with the reference line DA.
The magnitude of the velocity remains constant, but its direction changes
continuously. The linear velocity always acts tangentially to the position of
the particle (i.e) in each position, the linear velocity

is perpendicular to the

radius vector

Angular displacement
If r be the radius of the circle, then
the angular displacement is by
d =

ds
r

The angular displacement is

measured in terms of radian

Angular velocity
Rate of change of angular displacement is called the angular velocity
of the particle

Let d be the angular displacement made by the particle in time dt ,

then the angular velocity of the particle is

Its unit is rad s 1 and dimensional formula is T1.

For one complete revolution T is the time taken for one complete revolution,
known as period, then the angular velocity of the particle is

If the particle makes n revolutions per second, then

where n =

is the frequency of

revolution.

Angular acceleration

If the angular velocity of the body performing rotatory motion is nonuniform, then the body is said to possess angular acceleration.

The rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration.

If the angular velocity of a body moving in a circular path changes from 1

to 2 in time t then its angular acceleration is

The angular acceleration is measured in terms of rad s2 and its

dimensional formula is T 2.

Centripetal acceleration

Centripetal acceleration (a) is measure in metres per second per second

(ms-2). It is always directed towards the center of the circle.

Centripetal force

When an object moves in a circle the centripetal force (F) always acts
towards the centre of the circle. The centripetal force, measured in newtons

(N) can be different forces in different settings it can be gravity, friction,

tension, lift, electrostatic attraction etc.

Centrifugal reaction
According to Newtons third law of motion, the agent which exerts a centripetal
force, is subjected to a reaction called centrifugal reaction.

It is equal and opposite to the centripetal force and is directed away from the
centre of the circular path.

In the case of a stone whirled round by a string in hand, the stone exerts an
outward force namely centrifugal reaction on the hand.

In the case of a train taking a turn along a curved track, the centrifugal reaction
is the lateral thrust of the wheels on the outer rails.

6. Work, Energy

Work is said to be done by a force or against the direction of the force, when
the point of application of the force moves towards or against the direction of
the force.

If no displacement takes place, no work is said to be done.

For work to be done, two essential conditions should be satisfied

A force must be exerted

The force must cause a motion or displacement

Magnitude of the above dot product is F

cos ds.
dw = F ds cos = (F cos ) ds where
= angle between
F and ds.

Work is a scalar quantity and has magnitude but no direction

The work done by a force when the body is displaced from position P to P1 can
be obtained by integrating the above equation,
7. Dynamic ada dlm cp pge 85

8. Simple Harmonic Motion, sound, wave ada dalam cp pge 163