Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AIR COMPRESSOR
Compressors are used for producing high compressed air. The working principle of an
reciprocating air compressor is similar to an I.C. Engine. The air is sucked into a cylinder during
suction stroke & compressed to a high pressure & delivered at the end of the Compression
stroke.
CLASSIFICATION:
Compressors are classified as
1) Single acting & Double acting compressor.
2) Single stage & Multi stage compressor.
In a single acting reciprocating compressor, the suction, compression and delivery of the air
takes place on one side of the piston.
In a double acting reciprocating compressor the suction, compression and delivery of the air
takes place on both side of the piston.
In a single stage compressor, the compression is carried out is done only one cylinder.
In a multistage compressor, the compression is carried out is more than one cylinder.
Uses of Compressed air:The compressed air has wide application in industry as well as in commercial equipments.
1) It is used in operating drills & hammers in road building.
2) Excavating
3) Tunneling & mining
4) Starting diesel engines &
5) Operating brakes in buses, trucks & trains.
6) A large quantity of air at moderate pressure is used in smelting of various metals such as
melting iron, in blowing converters & cupola work.
7) Large quantities of air are used in the air conditioning & drying.
8) Used in air lift pumps for pumping water from deep bore wells.
9) Used in foundary for sand blasting
Work done in a single stage air compressor:i).Without clearance
The P-V diagram for a single stage air compressor without clearance is as shown in fig:-
Process 4-1 :- The suction of air is drawn at the pressure P1, Inlet value opens, volume V1
Process 1-2 :- The compression of air is polytropically.
Inlet and outlet closed.
PVn=C1,
Pr P1 to P2 , volume decreases from V1 to V2.
Temperature increases from T1 to T2.
Process 2-3 :- The discharge of air at a pressure P2. Outlet value opens.
Compressed air Volume is V2 & temp T2.
b) with clearance volume :All reciprocating compressors will havw a clearance volume. The clearance Volume is
that volume which remain in the cylinder after the piston has reached the end of its inward
stroke.
At the end of the delivery strike, the high pressure air is left in the clearance volume as shown in
P-V diagram. The next cycle starts only when the air pressure falls to atmosphere pressure. This
is given by Expansion curve 3-4. As summing the compression & expansion of the air follow
thw same law.
: X = 3265 + 6217 5417
= P2V2 + P2 P1V1 - P1V1
n-1
= (P2 P1V1) + P2V2 P1V1
n-1
1/ n 1
= (P2 P1V1) ( 1 +
)
= n (P2 P1V1)
n-1
=Work done n P1V1 P2V2 - 1
( n 1)
P1V1
P1V1n = P2V2n for polytropic process
V2
V1
= P1
P2
:W = n
n-1
1/n
= P2
P1
P1V1
-1/n
P2 P2
P1 P1
-1/n - 1
----------- (1)
= n P1V1
n-1
P2
P1
W= n mRT1
n-1
n-1/n
P2
P1
-1
n-1/n - 1
-1
Where m is the mass of air delivered per cycle. If the air delivered at temp T2 is required then.
T2/T1 = (P2/P1) n-1/n
b) With Clearance Volume :All reciprocating compressors will have a clearance Volume. The clearance volume is that
volume which remain in the cylinder after the piston has reached the end of its inward stroke.
At the end of the delivery stroke, the light pressure air is left in the clearance volume as shown
in PV diagram. The next cycle starts only when the air pressure fath to atmosphere pressure. This
is given by expansion curve 3-4. Assuming the compression & expansion of the air follow the
same law.
Work done / cycle = Area 1 2 3 4 1
W=Wc We
Area 12561 Area 34653
W+ n P1V1 [P2] n-1/n 1] - n P4V4 [P3]
n-1
[P1]
n-1
n-1/n
[P4]
As P3 P2 and P4 = P1
W=
n P1 (V1 - V4)
n1
P2
n-1/n -1
P1
W= n P1Va P2
n-1
P1
n-1/n
-1
= n
n-1
RT1 P2
P1
n-1
---------------------- (2)
-1
The gas is first compressed is a low pressure cylinder at a pressure P1 where it is compressed to
pressure P2 and is then discharged into the intercooler. The air is called is intercooler at a
constant pressure P2before passing it to the second stage.
If the temperature of air leaving the intercooler is less than the original temperature of air, the
cooling is said to be incomplete is the point d doesnt lie on isothermal line of the inter cooling
process is complete, then P1V1 = P2V2
P2 n-1/n
P1
P3
- 1
n-1/n
P4
- 1
P1V1 P2
P1
n-1/n
n-1/n
- 1 + n
n1
P2V2
P3
P2
- 1 +
P2V2
P3
P2
n-1/n
- 1
n-1/n
- 1
n-1/n
+ P3
n-1/n
-2
P2
Condition for Maximum efficiency or Minimum work required for a two stages air compressor
with Inter/ cooler
The work required to drive the compressor will be minimum when the point d lies on the
isothermal line.
WORK Done /Cycle = n P1V1
n1
P2
P1
n-1/n
+ P3
P2
n-1/n
-2
of initial pressure P1 and the final pressure P3 are fixed, the inter mediate pressure P2 can be
determined by differentiating the above eqn with respect to P2 & equating it to zero
Let n-1/n = z constant
W = Z Cost
P2
P1
+ P3
P2
-2
Diff wrt P2
For minimum work done dw =0
dP2
Z
-Z
W = Z Constant ( P2 P1 + (-Z) P2-Z-1 P3Z ) = 0
dw = Constant (Z P2 Z-1 P1-Z P2 (-Z-1) P3Z) = 0
dP2
0 = (Z P2 Z-1 P1-Z - Z P2 (-Z-1) P3Z)
(Z P2 Z-1 P3-Z - Z P2 (-Z-1) P1Z)
P3-Z P2 (-Z-1)
_____________ P2 (Z-1) . P2 (Z+1)
P1 Z
P2 (-Z-1)
P3-Z
___ P2 2Z
P1 Z
P2 2Z = P3Z P1Z
P22Z = (P3P1) Z
P22 = P1P3
P2= P1P3
Hence for Maximum efficiency, the intermediate pressure is the geometric of the initial & final
pressure
Volumetric efficiency of an air compressor
The volumetric efficiency of an air compressor is the ratio of free air delivered to the
displacement of the compressor or It is the ratio of volume of free air inhaled (effective swept
volume) at NTP during suction stroke to the swept volume of piston.
Clearance ratio
= Clearance Volume = Vc
Swept Volume
Clearance ratio C =
V3
V1 V3
Volumetric Efficiency =
V1 V4
V1 V3
Vs
=
Vc
Vs
= V4
P4
1/n
P3
i.e., V4
= V3
P3
1/n
P4
V4
= Vc P3
P4
Va = Vc +Vs Vc
P2
1/n
vol = Va =
______
VS
=
P1 . Ta Va
Pa T1
____________
VS
P1.Ta VC+VS VC (P2/P1 ) 1/n
___ ___ _________________
Pa. T1
Vs
1/n
(V3=Vc)
V1-V3
= V1 V3 (P2/P1)1/n
V3/C
vol = CV1 C(P2/P1)1/n
= C V3(1/C+1) - C(P2/P1)1/n
V3
Volumetric Efficiency = 1 + c c(p2/p1)i/n
vol 1 + c c(v1/v2)
The Volumetric efficiency decreases due to following conditions:(1) Very high speed
(2) Leakage (past) through the piston
(3) Too large a clearance Volume
(4) Obstruction at inlet values
(5) Overheating of air by contact with hot cylinder walls
(6) Inertia effect of air in suction pipe.
The following methods are used to achieve nearly isothermal compression for high speed
compressors. The final temperature T2 is reduced during compression, so that actual work
approaches more closely that of Isothermal Compression.
(1) Spray injection :-
10
In this method water is sprayed into the cylinder, at the end of compression stroke
reducing the temperature of air. The adiabatic equation PV1.4 = Constant reduces
to PV1.2 = Constant.
Disadvantages :(1) It requires special gear for injection.
(2) The injected water interferes with the cylinder lubrication & attacks cylinder walls &
values.
(3) The water mixed with air should be separated before using the air.
(2)Water Jacketing :The water is circulated around the cylinder through the water jacket which helps to cool
the air during Compression.
(3)Inter cooling :Water Jacketing is not much effective when the speed of the compressor is high and
pressure ratio required is also high with single stage Compression. Inter cooling is used in
addition to the water jacketing by dividing the Compression process into two or more stages.
Before taking for second stage, air is cooled in an inter cooler.
(4)External fins :Effective cooling can be achieved for small capacity air compressor with the use of fins
on the external surface of the compressor.
Multi stage Compression :If high pressure is to be delivered by a single machine, then it will require heavy working
parts in order to accommodate the high pressure ratio through the machine. This will increase the
balancing problem & the high torque fluctuation will require a heavier flywheel installation.
Such disadvantages can be overcome by Multi stage Compression.
11
Advantages :(1) The air can be cooled at pressures intermediate between intake and delivery pressure.
(2) The power required to drive a multi stage machine is less than would be required by a
single stage machine delivering the same quantity of air at the same delivery pressure.
(3) Multi stage machines have better Mechanical balance.
(4) The pressure range(& also temp) may be kept within the desirable limits. This results in
(i) reduced losses due to air leakage.
(ii) improved lubrication, due to lower temperature.
(iii) improved volumetric efficiency.
(5) The cylinder , in asingle stage machine must be robust enough to withstand the delivery
pressure. The down pressure cylinders of a multi stage machine is lighter in construction.
REFRIGERATION
The process of producing the effect of cooling & maintaining low temperature as long as
required is called Refrigeration.
Net Refrigerating Effect (N) :The amount of heat extracted from a body in a given amount of time is called Net
Refrigerating Effect (N).
Co-efficient of performance is the measure of performance of refrigerator & is the ratio of net
refrigerating effect to that of work done.
COP = N > 1
W
N & W are measured theoretically, the COP measured is called Theoretical COP.
Theoretical COP
Th. N
Th. W
In practice, N & W are measured when refrigerator is working & COP thus obtained is called
Actual COP.
12
Actual COP
= Act.N
Act.W
13
COP = N/W
N = net refrigerating effect (process 4-1)
= CP(T1-T4) kJ/kg air
W = compressor work expn work
= n
n1
= n
n-1
P2V2 P1V1
P3V3 P4V4
n-1
R [(T2 T1) (T3 T4)]
if PV=RT
14
Process 1-2 :- Air is compressed adiabatically/ polytropically inside r.p air compressor.
Process 2-3 :- High pressure and temperature air is cooled in air cooler under constant pressure
by circulating cooling water externally in the air cooler.
Process 3-4 :- High pressure & relatively low temperature air is expanded behind the piston of air
expansion cylinder, because of which temperature will be lowered to about -800C.
Process 4-1 :- Low temperature air enters into the cold chamber. In cold chamber, the articles to
be cooled are kept (vegetables, fruits, medicine, etc..) which are at atmospheric temperature.
Low temperature air extracts heat from the articles, produces refrigeration effect & comes out of
cool chamber at high temperature.
In open-air system, low temperature air comes in direct contact with the articles kept in
cold chamber. Pressure in the cold chamber is of 1 atmosphere. Normally moisture content
associated with the articles will be carried away by air & moisture becomes ice when
temperature becomes very low.
In dense air refrigeration system, as in fig, low temperature air flows inside coils. There is no
direct contact between air & articles to be cooled. Hence there is no chance of ice formation.
Pressure of air can be more than 1 atmosphere as it is closed circuit. Hence, compact refrigerator
is possible.
Shafts of compressor &expansion cylinder are connected to common shaft. Hence, network
supplied to compressor is Compressor Work Expansion Work.
N = net refrigerating effect = Cp( T1-T4)
W = compressor work expansion work
= n
P2V2 P1V1
n1
= n
n
n-1
n-1
COP = N/W
=
Cp (T1 - T4 )
n
n-1
P3V3 P4V4
15
Pb 1:-It is required to produce 10 tonnes of ice from water at 250C to ice at -50C in 24hrs.
Assume relative COP of 90%, find HP required to run the compressor. Air is compressed from
1atm to 4atm in an open air system.
P2
T1
P1
n-1/n
T2 = 283(4)1.35-1/1.35 = 405.4K
Similarly
T3
P2
T4
T4
n-1/n
P1
=
303
= 220K (-52.950C)
(4)1.3-1/1.3
N
W = n
R(T2 T1) n
n1
=
R(T3 T4)
n-1
= 33.10 kJ/kg
1.3-1
16
25 C
00C water
cool
00C ice
cool
-50C
Heat to be extracted from 1kg of water at 250C to produce 1kg of ice at -50C
1 x 4.2 x(25.0) +336 + 1 x 2.1 x (0 + 5)= 451.5 kJ/kg of ice
Actual N = (10 x 1000 x 451.5)/ 24 kJ/kg = 18.8125 x 104 kJ/hr
Act COP = Ac. N/ Ac.W
1.73 = 18.8125 x 104/ Act. W=x
Act W = x / 3600 kW = 30.21 kW
Act N = 18.25 x 104/60 x 212 = 14 TR
(1 TR =212 kJ/min)
VAPOUR COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION SYSTEM :In VCR system, vapours like ammonia, SO2, CO2 & frcon are used & they have better
thermodynamic properties when compared to air.
17
Fairly dry NH3 vapour is compressed adiabatically so that heat of compression dries up, the
fairly dry ammonia vapour (Process 1-2)
Ammonia vapour is condensed in the coils of condenser to liquid NH3 by circulating external
cooling water (process 2-3)
Liquid NH3 is throttled to a very low pressure through restricted passage of expansion value
corresponding temperature will be around -15oC.(process 3-4)
Low temperature NH3 wet vapour is circulated in coils of evaporator. In evaporator articles to be
cooled are kept . Low temperature NH3 extracts heat from articles & produces the refrigeration
effect (process 4-1)
Cycle is completed and repeated again.
18
W = (h2-h1) kJ/kg
N = (h1-h4) kJ/kg
3-4 is throttling
h3 = h4
N = h1 - h3
Th COP = N/W = h1 - h3 / h2-h1
To improve the performance of Simple Refrigeration Cycle :(1)SUPERHEATING OF VAPOUR AFTER COMPRESSION :-
It can be seen from the T-S & P-h diagram, because of superheating of the refrigerant
after compression, the increase in N is (h1-h5) instead of (h11-h5). Increase in W is (h2h1)instead of (h3-h11).
It is found in practice, the rate at which W increases is more than the rate at which N
increases. Hence COP=N/W, decreases. It is always easy to compress the vapour alone
19
An under cooler is added between a condenser and expansion value. In the U.C a part of
low temperature refrigerant is circulated. Liquid Refrigerant is passed through U.C so
that refrigerant is sub-cooled to below to saturation temperature from 3-4. From 4-5 it is
throttle as usual in expansion value. It is seen from P-h & T-S diagrams that N increases
to (h1-h5)instead of (h1-h51) whereas W remains same as (h2-h1). Hence effect of under
cooling is to improve the COP=N/W.
(3) COMBINED SUPER HEATING & UNDER COOLING :-
It can be seen from T-S & P-h diagram that N increases both in super heating & under
heating.
N= (h1-h6) instead of (h11-h61)
20
During any part of compression, if the refrigerant is wet, then it is called as Wet
compression as in fig 1. Performance of compressor is poor during wet compression.
If entire compression less in super heated region, it is called as dry compression. Dry
compression of refrigerant is always advisible, which improves performance of
compressor.
Pb1: A refrigerating plant works b/w temperature limits of -5 & 25oC. Working fluid ammonia
has a dry fraction of 0.62 entry to compressor. If m/c has relative COP of 55%. Calculate the
amount of ice formed during a period of 24hrs. Ice is to be formed at 00C from water at 150C &
6.4 kg of NH3 is circulated /min.
Sp. heat of H2O = 4.187 kJ/kg
Latent Heat of ice = 335 kJ/kg
Show process on T-S & P-h diagram. Obtain properties from ammonia tables or use P-h chart.
21
hf
hg
sf
sg
1-2 adiabatic
-50C 158.1
1437.95
0.62985
5.4037
S1=S2
25oC 298.8
1466.99
1.12345
5.0355
kJ/kg of refrigerant
= 951.61 kJ/kg
h2 = hf2+x2(hg2-h2f)
= 298.8+ 0.63(1466.99-298.8)
= 1034.76 kJ/kg
h3 = 298.8 kJ/kg (enthalpy of liquid at high temp.)
N = (h1-h4) = (h1-h3) = 652.81 kJ/kg
W = (h2-h1) = 83.23 kJ/kg
Th COP = N/W = 652.81/83.23 = 7.84
Rel COP = Act COP/Th COP
Act COP = 0.55(7.84) = 4.312
Act COP = Act N/Act W
Heat to be extracted from water to produce 1kg ice from 150C to 00C.
Cool
0
15 C
water
Cool
0
0C
water
00C
ice
22
= 2297.89 kJ/min
ice produced/min,
= 2297.89/398 = 5.77 kg/min
= 346.4 kg/hr
= 8313.97 kg/day
= 8.31 tonnes/day
Pb2:- A vapour refrigerating system using NH3 as refrigerant operates b/w evaporater temp of 60C & condenser temp of 230C. Vapour leaving the evaporator is dry & saturated. There is no
under cooling of liquid in condenser. Determine (1) COP (2) Power per ton of refrigeration in
kW (3) mass flow rate of NH3 for 10TR. Use foll. Prop of NH3.
Enthalpy
Entropy
Temp
hf
hg
Sf
Sg
0
23 C
528.36
1707.01
4.5801 8.5613
0
-6 C
392.28
1679.37
4.0979 8.9170
To find x1,
1-2 : adiabatic S1 = S2
Sf1+x1(Sg1-Sf1)=Sg2
4.5801+x1(8.5613-4.5801) = 8.9170
x1 = 0.925
h1 = hf1+x1(hg1 hf1) = 4.2[93.4+0.925(399.85-93.4)]
= 1582.84
h2 = 4.2 X 406.43 = 1707.01
h3 = h4 = hf2 = 125.8 X 4.2 = 528.36
N = h1 h3 = 1054.48 kJ/kg
W = h2 h1 = 124.17 kJ/kg
23
PART B:In above problem, if there is an under cooling of 30C, before expansion. Determine change in
theoretical COP.
(8.557)
Pb 3:- Temperature range in a frcon -12 plant is -60C to 270C. compression is isotropic & there is
no cooling of liquid. Find COP assuming that the refrigerant, (1) after compression is dry &
saturated.. (2) leaving the compressor is dry & saturated properties of frcon12 are as follows:-
24
Temp
-60C
270C
hf
413
445
hg
571
585
sf
4.17
4.28
sg
4.76
4.75
Cp
0.641
0.71
25
To improve the performance of system, as in fig, following additional devices are added :(i)heat exchanger
(ii)analyzer
(iii)rectifier
(iv)moisture absorber
NH3 wet vapour enters into absorber and mixes with water to form strong NH3 solution. During
mixing process heat is generated(exothermic process) & capacity of absorption is reduced. To
keep the temperature of water cool in absorber, cooling water is circulated externally as in fig.
Strong NH3 solution is prepared by using an ordinary centrifugal pump. Therefore strong &
pressurized NH3 solution enters the generator through a heat exchanger. In heat exchanger, NH3
solution is preheated by absorbing heat from warm, weak solution coming from generator &
going to absorber through a pressure reducing value as in fig.
In the generator, pre heated strong NH3 solution is heated by using electrical means or steam
heating or solar heating. Therefore of heating NH3 vapour is separated at same pressure.
In the analyzer, water particles associated with NH3 vapour are separated.
In rectifier, cooling water is circulated to condense any water vapour & this water comes back to
generator.
Strong pressurized NH3 vapour is condensed to liquid NH3 as it is passed through coils of
condenser. Heat of condensation is taken away by cooling water circulated externally.
Any traces of water particles are completely removed in moisture absorption otherwise, moisture
at low temperature becomes ice & may choke the passage.
NH3 liquid is now throttled to low pressure as it passes through a expansion value &
corresponding temperature will be around -150C.
This low temperature NH3 vapour enters coils of evaporator & extracts heat from articles to be
cooled & kept in evaporator. ( Refrigeration effect is performed here)
NH3 vapour leaving the evaporator enters the absorber. Cycle is completed and repeated.
COP =
26
SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS ON STEAM GENERATION AND STEAM NOZZLES :(1)Draw a neat sketch of throttling calorimeter and explain how dryness fraction of steam is
determined. Clearly explain its limitations.
Figure shows a throttle calorimeter which is connected to the steam main pipe.
27
Steam is throttled down to lower pressure and it comes out in a super heated condition. Pressure
and temperature of steam after throttling is measured using a water manometer and a
thermometer respectively.
Let
P1 Gauge pressure of steam at entrance.(bar)
x1 Dryness fraction of steam in the steam main.
Pa Atmospheric pressure(bar)
Ts1 Saturation temperature of steam at (P1+Pa) (K)
hfg1 Latent heat of steam at (P1+Pa) (kJ/kg)
hf1 Sensible heat of steam at (P1+Pa) (kJ/kg)
hW manometer reading above atmospheric pressure(m H2O)
P2 Absolute pressure of steam at exit.
= Pa + hW . 1.03
13.6
(bar)
76
28
Limitations:
(i)If the steam whose dryness fraction is to be determined is very wet, then throttling to
atmospheric pressure may not be sufficient to ensure super heated steam at exit.
(ii)This calorimeter cannot be used if the dryness fraction of the steam is above 0.95.
(2)Steam pipeline supplies steam to a turbine at 20 bar in superheated condition. When coming
out of the generator enthalpy of steam was 3200kJ/kg. due to losses for some reason steam
supplied to the turbine contained only 2700kJ/kg of heat. Determine (i)The temperature of steam
at the steam generator outlet. (ii) The quantity of steam supplied to the turbine.
29
The quantity of the steam at the turbine entry is wet with a dryness fraction, x2 = 0.9485
(3)Describe the process of formation of steam and give its graphical representation also.
Formation of steam:
Consider a cylinder filled with 1kg of water at 00C with volume Vf m3 under a piston which
can freely move upwards and downwards in it. Further, the piston is loaded with a weight as in
fig.As heat is imparted to water, a rise in temperature will be noticed and this rise will continue
till boiling point is reached.
30
The temperature at which water starts boiling depends upon the pressure and as such for each
pressure, there is a different boiling point. This boiling temperature is known as the temperature
of formation of steam or Saturation temperature Ts.
The increase in volume of water upto boiling point is negligible. When heating of water is
continued after saturation point is reached, it will be noted that there will be an increase in
volume which indicates that steam formation is taking place. The heat being supplied does not
show any rise of temperature but changes water into vapour state(steam) and is known as Latent
heat or Hidden heat. So long as the steam is in contact with water, it is called wet steam(fig b). If
heating of steam is further progressed such that all the water particles associated with the steam
are evaporated, the steam so obtained is called dry and saturated steam.
(Figc)During the latent heat addition to steam, the volume increases from Vf to Vg producing
work.
Further if the supply of heat to the dry and saturated steam is continued at constant pressure there
will be an increase in temperature and volume of steam. The steam so obtained is called Super
heated steam and it behaves as a perfect gas. The temperature of the superheated steam will be
Tsup and it will be above Ts. The volume of the steam decreases fron Vg to Vsup.(fig d).
The temperature heat addition diagram shopwn by fig(e) gives the graphical representation of
formation of steam.
( 4 ) In a separating throttling calorimeter the total quantity of steam passed was 40 k.g. and
2.2 kg of water was collected from separator . Steam pressure before throttling are 1200C and
107 .88 kpa . Determine the dryness fraction of steam before entering to calorimeter. Specific
heat of super heated steam may be considered as 2.09 kJ /k.g K.
40 kg
31
mW = 2.2 kg
P3 = 107.88 kPa = 107.88/1000 MPa = 107.88/1000 x 10 bar
P3 = 1.078 bar
T3 = 1200C = 393K
CPs = 2.09 kJ/kgK
From the steam table; with suitable data interpolations
At P1=P2 = 14.7 bar
Ts = 1970C
hf = 840.5 kJ/kg , hfg = 1948.5 kJ/kg , hg = 2789 kJ/kg
At P3 = 1.078 bar
Ts = 99.70C
hf = 418.5 kJ/kg , hfg = 2257.9 kJ/kg , hg = 2676.4 kJ/kg
Consider the throttling calorimeter, since Ts < 1200C the steam is super heated after throttling.
Tsup3 = 1200C = 393K
Ts3 = 99.70C =372.7K
Also;
Enthalpy of steam before throttling = Enthalpy of steam after throttling
h2 = h3
hf2 + x2 . hfg2 = hg3 + Cps ( Tsup3 Ts3 )
840.5 + x2 . 1948.5 = 2676.4 + 2.09 ( 393 372.7 )
x2 = (2676.4 + 43.054 840.5)/1948.5
therefore fraction of steam after throttling, x2 = 0.9643
Consider the separating calorimeter, dryness fraction of steam in the steam main, x1 is equal to
dryness of steam in the separating calorimeter, x2.
Also; x1 = x2 . ms/ ms + mw
32
33
Tsup2 = T2 = 773K
Ts2 = 179.90C = 452.9K
Ts1 = 151.8 = 424.8K
For a constant volume heat addition process with superheated steam in the final state, we have
the relation,
x1 . vg1 = vsup2 = vg2 . Tsup2/Ts2
x1 = vg2/vg1 . Tsup2/Ts2 = 0.194/0.375 x 773/452.9
(i)The dryness fraction of steam : x1 = 0.8829
(ii) The initial specific volume of steam :
v1 = vf1 + x1 ( vg1 vf1 )
v1 = 0.001093 + 0.8829 ( 0.375 0.001093 )
v1 = 0.3312 m3/kg
Also; the specific volume of superheated steam;
vsup = vg2 . Tsup2/Ts2
vsup = 0.194 x 773/452.9
vsup = 0.3311 m3/kg
(iii) The final internal energy of steam ;
u2 = hsup P2. vsup2
u2 = hg2 + Cps (Tsup2 Ts2) P2 vsup2
= 2776.2 + 2.25 ( 773 452.9 ) 10 x 0.3311
u2 = 3493.114 kJ/kg
(6)Define :
(i)Superheated steam
(ii)Internal energy
(iii)Wet steam
(iv)Specific volume
34
(v)Dryness fraction
(i)Superheated steam : When dry steam is heated after it has become dry & saturated to a
temperature above the saturation temperature under a given constant pressure, it is called
Superheated steam.
(ii)Internal energy : It is defined as the actual energy stored in the steam. The internal energy (u)
of steam can be found by subtracting work of evaporation from the total heat or enthalpy of
steam (h).
Therefore, Internal energy of 1kg of steam at pressure P, u = h-P vg/J
kJ/kg
(7)Determine the density of 1kg of steam initially at a pressure if 10 bar having a dryness
fraction 0.78. If 500kJ/kg of heat is added at constant pressure, determine the condition &
internal energy of the final state of steam. Take Cps = 2.1 kJ/kg K.
Given:
Mass of steam, m = 1 kg
Pressure, P = 10 bar
Dryness fraction initially, x1 = 0.78
35
= 1
v1
v1
= 1
0.1518
= 6.5876 kg/m3
The enthalpy of steam in its initial state ;
h1 = hf1 + x1 . hfg1
= 762.6 + 0.78 x 2013.6
h1 = 2333.208 kJ/kg
When heat is added at constant pressure, the final enthalpy of steam ;
h2 = h1 + h = 2333.208 + 500
h2 = 2833.208 kJ/kg
Since h2 > hg , the steam is superheated in its final state hence x2 = 1
The enthalpy of super heated steam ;
hsup = hg +Cps (Tsup2 Ts) = h2
36
vf + x . vfg
=
0.15
0.15
0.0010839 + 0.8 ( 0.4622 0.0010839 )
37
Let m2 be the mass of 1m3 of wet steam at 4 bar and dryness fraction 0.8.
Then ; V2 = m2[ vf + x . vfg ]
m2 =
v2
vf + x ( vg vf )
1
0.0010839 + 0.80.4622 0.0010839 )
m2 = 2.7028 kg
The heat of 1m3 of steam;
h = m2 [hf + x . hfg ]
= 2.7028 [ 604.7 + 0.8 x 2132.9 ]
h = 6246.224 kJ
(9)Wet steam of dryness fraction 0.8 at a pressure of 8 bar is heated under constant volume until
the steam becomes fully dry. Find the final pressure and hence the heats transfer during the
process.
Given:
Initial pressure of steam, p1 = 8bar
Initial dryness fraction, x1 = 0.8
Let the final pressure of steam be p2.
At the end of constant volume heat addition process the steam is fully dry therefore x2 = 1
From steam tables, at p1 = 8 bar
Ts1 = 170.410C, vf1 = 0.0011150 m3/kg, vg1 = 0.24026 m3/kg
hf1 = 720.9 kJ/kg, hg1 = 2767.5 kJ/kg, hfg1 = 2046.5 kJ/kg
Initial enthalpy of the steam;
h1 = hf1 + x1 . hfg1 = 720.9 + 0.8 x 2046.5
= 2358.1 kJ/kg
The initial specific volume of steam;
38
v1 = vf1 + x1 . vfg1
= vf1 + x1 (vg1 vf1)
= 0.001115 + 0.8 (0.24026 0.001115 )
= 0.19243 m3/kg
Since heat addition is under constant volume;
v1 = v2
v1 = vf2 + x ( vg2 vf2 )
= vf2 + 1 ( vg2 vf2 )
v1 = vg2
vg2 = 0.19243 m3/kg
From the steam tables, comparing the above values of vg with an appropriate value of pressure,
with suitable approximation, we get the final pressure of steam for vg = 0.19243 m3/kg ; P2 =
10.2 bar
Likely; at P2 = 10.2 bar
hf2 = 764.6 kJ/kg, hfg2 = 2012.2 kJ/kg, hg2 = 2776.8 kJ/kg
Final enthalpy of steam;
h2 = hg2 = 2776.8 kJ/kg
Therefore, heat transfer during the constant volume process,
dh = h2 h1
= 2776.8 2358.1
dh = 418.7 kJ/kg
(10)Steam at 20 bar and 4000C expands to a turbine to 0.1 bar isotropically. Steam flow rate is 5
kg/s. Calculate (i)Work done (ii)Power developed.
Given:
Initial pressure of steam, P1 = 20 bar
Initial temperature of steam, T1 = 4000C = 673K
39
40
41
42
Figure shows a separating calorimeter. Steam is drawn from the main pipe through the sample
tube and then passed into the separating calorimeter. The inlet pressure of steam is P1 and its
dryness fraction is x1.
In the separating calorimeter, the steam is passed on perforated trays. Due to the inertia of the
water droplets, the moisture from the steam is separated mechanically. The mass of the water
droplets (mW) collected is measured using a weighing machine.
A peizometer is used to measure the pressure P2 of the steam after passing into the separating
calorimeter. However, the drop in pressure is negligible and hence P1 approx. equal to P2.
The steam then goes into the bucket calorimeter, from which the mass of dry steam (ms) can be
found. Therefore, the dryness fraction of steam in the steam main;
x1 = ms
ms + mW
(13)Show that dA = 1 . dP 1 - 1 for relationship b/w area, velocity and pressure in nozzle
flow.
A
r
P M2
Consider a convergent nozzle as shown below. A saturated steam flows through the nozzle.
Let :
P Steam pressure (bar)
V Specific volume ( m3/kg)
T Steam temperature (K)
h Enthalpy of steam (kJ/kg)
V Steam velocity (m/s)
A cross sectional area of the nozzle (m2)
43
Consider the expansion of steam through the nozzle to be adiabatic. Then; PVr = c1 constant
r Index for expansion process.
Taking natural logarithm; ln p + r . ln v = ln 0
Differentiating; 1 . dp + r . 1
P
dv = - 1
v
. dv = 0
. dp
(2)
h1 + v12
+ gz1 + d = m20
dt
h2 + v22 + gz2
2
dW
dt
44
h1 + v12
2
= h2 + v22
2
(14)Derive an expression for the optimum pressure ratio for maximum discharge through the
steam nozzle.
Derive an expression for the mass flow rate of steam through a nozzle in terms of pressure ratio
and determine the condition for maximum discharge.
Show that the maximum discharge of steam through the nozzle takes place when the ratio of
steam pressure at the throat to the inlet pressure is given by :
( p2/ p1 ) = (2 / n + 1) . n / n-1 , where n is the index of expansion.
Consider a convergent nozzle as shown below:
(14)Derive an expression for the optimum pressure ratio for maximum discharge through the
steam nozzle.
45
Derive an expression for the mass flow rate of steam through a nozzle in terms of pressure ratio
and determine the condition for maximum discharge.
Show that the maximum discharge of steam through the nozzle takes place when the ratio of
steam pressure at the throat to the inlet pressure is given by :
( p2/ p1 ) = (2 / n + 1) . n / n-1 , where n is the index of expansion.
Consider a convergent nozzle as shown below:
Let:
P Steam pressure (K)
V Specific volume (m3/kg)
T1 Steam temperature (K)
h Enthalpy of steam (kJ/ kg)
v Velocity of steam flow (m/s)
A Cross sectional area of the nozzle (m2)
Subscripts 1 & 2 represent the inlet & outlet conditions respectively.
Consider the expansion of steam through the nozzle to be polytropic.
Then, the work done in expansion of steam,
( P1V1 P2V2 ) = Rankine Cycle area
W= n
n1
n1
n1
( P1V1 P2V2 )
46
Or V22 = 2n P1V1
1 - P2
n1
V2
P1
(1)
V1
V2
V1 =
P2
V2
P1
1/n
(2)
V2
Also
V2 = V1 . 1
(3)
rp 1/n
(2) in (1):
V22 = 2n . P1 V1 [ 1 rp . 1
rp 1/n
n-1
v2 = 2n . P1 V1 [ 1 rp n-1/n ]
n1
We have the mass flow rate, m0 = A V
Where, = density = 1/v ( for unit mass)
Also; From continuity equation;
m0 = A1 V1 = A2 V2
V1
V2
(4)
47
m0 = A2 V2
Consider,
V2
From (3) & (4);
2n . P1V1[ 1 rp n-1/n ]
m0 = A2
V1 . rp -1/n
or
m0 =
n-1
2n .
A2
n-1
m0 = A2
2n .
n-1
m0 = A2
2n .
n-1
(5)
V1
(1) gives the expression for mass flow rate of steam through the nozzle in terms of pressure
ratio rp .
Condition for maximum discharge: Discharge through the nozzle is maximum when
dm0 = 0
drp
Therefore, differentiating (5) w.r.t rp, we write the following expression excluding the
constants;
2 . rp 2/n-1 ( n+1) rp n+1/n 1 = 0
n
n
2 . rp 2-n/n = ( n+1) rp n+1-n/n 1 = 0
n
n
1/n (2-n)/n
2 = rp
n+1
rp1-2+n/n = 2
n+1
rpn-1/n
= 2
n+1
48
rpc
= ( 2 )n/n-1
(6)
n+1
The pressure ratio rpc is given by (6) is optimum pressure. Therefore, the discharge through the
nozzle will be maximum when rp = rpc
(15)Explain the concept of super saturation flow of steam.
Explain the super saturated or metastable flow of steam through a nozzle and significance of
Wilsons line.
Explain Wilsons line.
Concept of super saturation flow of steam / meta stable flow of steam through a nozzle :
When steam flows through a nozzle, it is normally expected that the discharge of steam
through the nozzle would be slightly less than the theoretical value. But, during experiments on
the flow of wet steam, it has been observed that the discharge is slightly greater than that
calculated by the formula. This phenomenon is explained as follows:
The converging part of the nozzle is so short and the steam velocity so high that the molecules of
steam have insufficient time to collect and form droplets so that normal condensation does not
take place. Such rapid expansion is said to be metastable and produces a super-saturated state. In
this state of super saturation the steam is under cooled to a temperature less than that
corresponding to its pressure; consequently the density of steam increases and hence the weight
of discharge.
Wilson line: Prof. Wilson through experiments showed that dry saturated steam, when suddenly
expanded in the absence of dust, does not condense until its density is about 8 times that of the
saturated vapour of the same pressure. This effect is discussed below:
49
In the figure above, the point 1 represents initial state of the steam. The steam expands
isentropically without any condensation to point 2, which is on the superheat constant pressure
curve AB produced.
At point 2, the limit of super saturation is reached and steam reverts to its normal condition at 3
at the same enthalpy value as 2, and at the same pressure. The steam continues expanding is
entropic ally to lower pressure to point 4 instead of 41 which would have been reached if thermal
equilibrium had been maintained. Consequently, enthalpy drop is reduced and the condition of
the final steam is improved.
The limiting condition of under cooling at which condensation commences and is assumed to
restore conditions of normal thermal equilibrium is called the Wilson line.
The problems on super saturated flow cannot be solved by Mollier chart unless Wilson line is
drawn on it.
(16)Dry steam at 10 bar at 100m/s enters the nozzle & leaves it with velocity of 300m/s at 5 bar.
For 16 kg/s of steam mass flow rate, determine heat drop in a nozzle & the final state of steam
leaving nozzle assuming heat losses to surroundings as 10 kJ/s.
Given:
Inlet pressure, P1 = 10 bar
Inlet velocity, V1 = 100m/s
Exit pressure, P2 = 5 bar
Exit velocity, V2 = 300m/s Mass flow rate of steam, m0 = 16kg/s
Rate of heat lost to the surroundings, dQ / dt = - 10 kJ/s
Therefore total heat lost to the surroundings,
Q = - dQ/dt = - 10 = -0.625 kJ/kg
mo
16
(1)
50
h1 h2 = V22 V12 - Q
2
h1 h2 = 3002 1002 - ( - 0.625 x 103) =
40.625 kJ/kg
2
Therefore heat drop in the nozzle, h1 h2 = 40.625 kJ/kg
From the steam tables:
Inlet 1
Inlet 2
P(bar)
10
5
Ts(0C)
179.88
151.85
hf(kJ/kg)
762.6
640.1
hfg(kJ/kg)
2013.6
2107.4
hg(kJ/kg)
2776.2
2747.5
51
Given:
Inlet pressure, P1 = 12 bar
Inlet temperature, T1 = 3000C
Exit pressure, P3 = 6 bar
Exit velocity, V21 = 500m/s
Velocity at inlet is negligible. Throat area, A2 =?
Mass flow rate of steam, m0 = 5kg/s
Exit area, A3 =?
Co efficient of velocity at exit, Cv =?
From the steam tables:
At P1 = 12 bar; Ts1 = 187.960C = 460.96
hf1=798.4kJ/kg
hfg1=1984.2kJ/kg
hg1=2782.7kJ/kg
Vg1=0.16321 m3/kg
At P3 = 6 bar
Ts3 = 158.840C
hf3=670.4kj/kg
52
hfg3=2085kJ/kg
hg3=2755.5kJ/kg
Vg3=0.31546kJ/kg
Since T1>Ts1, the steam is superheated at entry.
Assume Cps = 2.25 kJ/kg
Then,
h1=hg1 + Cps ( T1 Ts1)
= 2782.7+2.25(573-460.96)
h1= 3034.79 kJ/kg
The optimum pressure ratio;
rpc = P2/P1 = (2/n+1)n/n-1
The index of expansion for superheat steam, n=1.3
Therefore, P2=P1(2/n-1)n/n-1 = 12(2/1.3+1) 1.3/1.3-1
P2 = 6.55 bar (pressure at throat)
At P2 = 6.5 bar
Ts2 = 161.90C
Vg2=0.29407 m3/kg
hf2=683.75 kJ/kg
hfg2=2074.95 kJ/kg
hg2 = 2758.75 kJ/kg
Assume the steam to be dry saturated at the throat after expansion.
x2 = 1 & h2 = hg2 = 2758.75kJ/kg
Applying steady flow energy equation b/w the inlet & the throat;
m10 [ h1 + V12 / 2 + gz1 ] + Q = m20 [ h2 + V22/2 + gz2 ] + W
Assume the mass flow rate to be constant throughout, m10 = m20
53
V2
m0 = A2 V2
V2
A2 = m0 x vg2
;v2 = vg2
V2
= 5 x 0.29407
= 1.9788x10-3 m2
743.02
Therefore the throat area A2 = 1978.88 mm2
Assume the steam to be dry saturated even at the exit.
x3 = 1 & h3 = hg3 = 2755.5 kJ/kg
Applying the modified SFEE b/w the throat & the exit
h2 = V22/2 = h3 + V32/2
54
55
(1)
(2)
56
Given:
Inlet pressure, P1 = 22 bar
Inlet temperature, T1 = 2600C= 533K
Exit pressure, P3 = 4 bar
Steam flow is frictionless up to the throat.
Nozzle efficiency, =85% = 0.85
Throat area, A2 = 32.2 cm2 = 32.2 x 10 -4 m2
At P1 = 22 bar; Ts1 = 217.20C= 490.2K; hg1 = 2799.1 kJ/kg
At P3 = 4 bar; vg3 = 0.462 m3/kg
hg3 = 2737.6 kJ/kg
Since the saturation temperature Ts1 < T1 the steam is superheated at inlet.
Assume Cps = 2.25 kJ/kg K
h1 = hg1 + Cps (T1 - Ts1 )
= 2799.1 + 2.25 ( 533 490.2 )
= 2895.4 kJ/kg
We have, the optimum pressure ratio; rpc = P2 /P1 = ( 2/ n+1) n/n-1
For super heated steam; n = 1.3
= 22 ( 2/1.3 + 1) 1.3/1.3 -1
57
58
(20) The inlet conditions of steam to a convergent divergent nozzle is 2.2 MN/m2 & 2600C. The
exit pressure is 0.4 MN/m2. Assuming a nozzle efficiency of 85% b/w throat & exit, determine:
(i) The flow rate of steam for a throat area of 33cm2 and (ii) exit area
Given:
Inlet pressure, P1 = 2.2 MN/m2 = 22 bar
59
60
61
REACTION TURBINE
(1)The steam flows first through guide
mechanism & then through the moving blades.
(2)The steam glides over the moving vanes
with pressure and kinetic energy.
(3)The steam must be admitted over the whole
circumference.
(4)The steam pressure is reduced during its
flow through the moving blades.
(5)The relative velocity of steam while gliding
over the moving blades increases (assuming no
friction).
(6)The blades are not symmetrical.
(7)The number of stage required are more of
the same power developed.
(8)The turbine rotates with low speed. Hence
compounding is not required.
(9)The turbine is of larger size & requires more
space for installation.
(10)Used for medium & large capacity power
plants.
(2)Explain the pressure compounded and velocity compounded impulse steam turbine showing
pressure and velocity variations along the axis of the turbine.
Pressure compounded impulse turbines:
In pressure compounding of impulse turbined, rings of fixed nozzles are incorporated between
the rings of moving blades. The steam at boiler pressure enters the first set of nozzle and expands
partially. The kinetic energy of steam thus obtained is absorbed by the moving blades(stage1).
The steam then expands partially in the second set of nozzles where its pressure again falls and
the velocity increases. The kinetic energy so obtained is absorbed by the second ring of moving
blades(stage2). This is repeated in stage 3 and steam finally leaves the turbine at low velocity
and pressure. The number of stages (or pressure reductions) depends on the number of rows of
nozzles through which the steam must pass. This method of compounding is used in Rateau and
62
Zoelly turbine. This is the most efficient turbine since the speed ratio remains constant, but is
expensive during to a large number of stages.
63
64
As shown in the figure, the centrifugal governor is driven from the main shaft of turbine. The
control value controls the direction of flow of oil(which is pumped by gear pump) either in the
pipe AA or BB. The servomotor or relay value has a piston(whose motion towards left or right
depends upon the pressure of the oil flowing through the pipes AA & BB), & is connected to a
spear which moves inside the nozzle.
When the turbine is running at its normal speed, the positions of piston in the relay, cylinder,
control value, flyballs of centrifugal governor will be in their normal positions as shown in the
figure. he oil pumped by the gear pump into the control value will come back into the oil sump
as both pipes AA & BB are closed by the two wings of control value.
When the load on the turbine increases its speed decreases. As a result, the speed of the governor
decreases, and hence the flyballs rotate with lesser radius & lower the sleeve. The lever which is
connected to the sleeve moves up about the pivot, and lifts the control value rod. This upward
movement opens the mouth of pipe AA(still keeping mouth of pipe BB closed). The oil under
pressure will rush from the control value to the right side of the piston in the servomotor through
the pipe AA, and will push the piston and hence the spear which will open more area of the
nozzle. This will increase the rate of steam flows into the turbinr. As a result, the speed of the
turbine will increase upto the normal value.
When the load on the turbine decreases its speed increases. The speed of the governor also
increases causing the walls to rotate with larger radius, thus lifting the sleeve. This causes the
lever to move down about the pivot, and hence pushing down the control value rod. This
downward movement opens the mouth of pipe AA. The oil under pressure rushes into left side of
the piston in the servo motor from the control value, pushing the piston towards right. Thus, the
spear moves into the nozzle causing decrease in area of flow. This decrease of the rate of steam
flow into the turbine & as a result the speed of the turbine will decrease down to the normal
value.
65
66
1) Velocity compounding
2) Pressure compounding
3) Pressure- velocity compounding: This method is the combination of velocity and pressure
compounding. The total drop in steam pressure is divided into stages and the velocity obtained in
each stage is also compounded. The rings of nozzle are fixed at the beginning of each stage and
pressure remains constant during each stage.
67
applied to the first stage of a turbine. It is suitable for simple impulse turbine and larger units
which have an impulse stage followed by an impulse-reaction turbine.
3) By-pass governing: It is desirable to have full admission of steam in the high pressure stages
for the steam turbines to work at the design load. However, at the maximum load (which is
greater than the design load), the additional steam required cannot be passed through the first
stage since additional nozzles are not available. By-pass regulation allows for this in a turbine
which is throttle governed, by means of a second by-pass value in the first stage nozzle. This
value opens when the throttle value is opened by a definite amount. Steam is by-passed through
the second value to a lower stage in the turbine. When by-pass value operates, it is under the
control of the turbine governor. The secondary and tertiary supplies of steam in the lower stages
of steam in the work output in these stages out with a loss in efficiency.
(8)Draw a neat sketch of regenerative cycle and with the help of T-S diagram analyse the cycle.
Regenerative Cycle:
In an ideal regenerative cycle, the dry saturated steam from the boiler enters the turbine at a
higher temperature and then expands isentropically to a lower temperature. Now the condensate
from the condenser is pumped back and circulated around the turbine casing in the direction
68
opposite to the steam flow in the turbine. The condensate steam is thus heated before entering
into the boiler. Such a system of heating is known as Regenerative Heating.
However, due to loss of heat, the expansion in the steam turbine is no more isentropic. From the
T-S diagram, it may observed that the steam expansion in the turbine follows the path BC, which
is exactly parallel to EA, which shows the regenerative process.
Further, the heat transferred to the liquid is equal to the heat transferred from the steam. Heat
transfer to liquid is represented by area EAGF, and that from the steam by area BPQC. The heat
is supplied to the working fluid at a constant temperature in the process AB. This is represented
by area ABPG.
The heat is rejected from the working fluid at constant temperature shown by curves CE. This is
represented by the area CQFE which is equal to the area RPGO.
(9)Draw a neat sketch of re-heat cycle with the help of a T-S diagram analyse the cycle.
Reheat cycle:
69
The T-S diagram shown above represents an ideal reheating process. The steam at state
point1(pressure P1 and temperature T1) enters the turbine to a certain pressure P2 and
temperature T2. From this state point 2 the whole of steam is drawn out of the turbine and is
reheated in a reheater to a temperature T3. This reheated steam is then readmitted to the turbine
where it is expanded isentropically to condenser pressure P3.
(10)Derive the expression for maximum blade efficiency in a single stage impulse turbine.
Expression for maximum blade efficiency in a single stage impulse turbine:
Let:
U
V1
V2
VW1
Tangential component of V1
Vf1
Axial component of V1
Vr1
VW2
Tangential component of V2
Vf2
Axial component of V2
Vr2
70
Cos
Cos
= Z, a constant
Cos
Vw = Vr1 Cos [ 1 + K . Z ]
But Vr1 Cos = MP = P - M = V1 Cos U
Vw = ( V1 Cos - U ) (1 + K.Z )
We know that, Blade efficiency, b = 2 U VW
V12
b = 2 U ( V1 Cos - U ) (1 + K.Z )
V12
= 2 U V1 (Cos U ) (1 + K.Z )
V1
V12
= 2 (U/V1) ( Cos - U/V1 )( 1 + K.Z )
Take U/V1 = , speed ratio
b = 2 P ( Cos )( 1 + K.Z )
For a particular impulse turbine, , K & Z are assumed to be constants.
Differentiating (1) w.r.t P, we get;
(1)
71
This is the condition for the maximum value of b. Substituting this value of in (1), we get,
b = 2 Cos (Cos - Cos ) ( 1 + K.Z )
2
2
= Cos . Cos ( 1 + K.Z )
2
( b )max = Cos2 ( 1 + K.Z )
2
Assuming the blades to be symmetric i.e, = , and that there is no friction in the fluid passage;
We get Z = 1 and K = 1
( b )max =
( b )max =
Cos2 ( 1 + 1 )
2
Cos2
The above expression gives the maximum blade efficiency in a single stage impulse turbine.
(11)Write short notes on the following:
a)Improvement of steam turbine efficiency.
b)Binary vapour cycle
c)Velocity diagram for impulse and reaction turbines.
d)Degree of reaction.
a) Improvement of steam turbine efficiency:
(i)Regenerative cycle: In this cycle, the dry steam from boiler enters the turbine at a higher
temperature, and then expands isentropically to a lower temperature. Now, the condensate from
the condenser is pumped back and circulated around the turbine casing in the direction opposite
72
to the steam flow in the turbine. The condensate steam is thus heated before entering into the
boiler. Such a system of heating is known as Regenerative Heating.
REGENERATIVE CYCLE
(ii)Reheat cycle: In a reheat cycle , the steam enters the turbine in a super heated state. The steam
then expands isentropically through the first stage of turbine after which it becomes wet. The wet
steam is reheated at a constant pressure upto the same temperature at entry until it becomes super
heated. The steam again expands isentropically which flowing through the next stage of the
turbine.
73
(b)Binary vapour cycle: Fig (a) shows a binary vapour plant which uses vapours of mercury and
water for its operative. Fig (b) shows the T-S diagram for the binary vapour cycle. The line AB
represents the evaporation of liquid mercury. The mercury vapour at B has a much higher
temperature than the steam at same pressure. The mercury vapours are now expanded
isentropically in a mercury turbine as represented by the line BC. The condensation of mercury is
shown by the line CD.
74
During condensation, the latent heat is utilized for evaporating a corresponding amount of steam.
The line DA represents the heating of mercury. Thus mercury has completed a cycle ABCDA.
The steam cycle is represented by 1-2-3-4-5-1. The line 1-2 represents the evaporation of water
by the condensing mercury. The line 2-3 represents the superheating of steam by the flue gases.
The steam is now expanded isentropically through the steam turbine as shown by the line 3-4.
The condensation of the exhaust steam is represented by the line 4-5. The heating of feed water
is represented by 5-1. This completes the steam cycle.
Velocity diagram for impulse and reaction turbines:
75
Let:
U
V1
V2
VW1
Tangential component of V1
Vf1
Axial component of V1
Vr1
VW2
Tangential component of V2
Vf2
Axial component of V2
Vr2
76
For a reaction turbine blade, Vr2 > Vr1. Also, for a Bresons reaction turbine, = & =
Vr1 = V2 & Vr2 = V1
(d)Degree of reaction: The degree of reaction of a reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of
heat drop over moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
Thus the degree of reaction is given by; Rd = Heat drop in moving blades
Heat drop in the stage
Rd = hm
hf + hm
(12)A single row steam turbine develops 115 kW at a blade speed of 180 m/s. The steam flow
rate is 2 kg/s. The steam leaves the nozzle at 400 m/s. The velocity co-efficient of blade is 0.9.
Steam leaves the blade axially. Determine the nozzle angle & the blade angle, assuming no
shock.
Given:
77
=? =?
Taking a scale of 1cm = 50m/s, we draw a combined velocity diagram as shown below:
78
(13)The simple impulse steam turbine has a mean blade speed of 200m/s. The nozzle are inclined
at 200 to the plane of rotation of the blades. The steam velocity from the nozzle is 600m/s. The
turbine uses 3500 kg/hr of steam. The absolute velocity at the exit is along the axis of the turbine.
Determine (i)the inlet and exit angles of the blade.(ii)The power output of the turbine. (iii)The
axial thrust(per kg of steam per second).
Given:
Power developed, P=115 kW
Mean blade speed, U=180 m/s
Steam flow rate, m=2kg/s
Inlet velocity of steam, V1=400m/s
Blade velocity co-efficient,K=0.9
Steam leaves the blade axially.
V2 = Vf2 & = 900 & VW2 = 0
=?
=? =?
Taking a scale of 1cm = 50m/s, we draw a combined velocity diagram as shown below:
79
The absolute velocity at the exit is along the axis of the turbine.
V2 = V2f, = 900 , VW2 = 0
From the diagram, Vr1 = 4.2 x 100 = 420 m/s
= 300 =
Vf1 = 2.1 x 100 = 210m/s
80
= = 330
81
Vr1 = 5.3x100=530m/s
Vf1 = 2.9x100=290m/s
The blade velocity co efficient, K = Vr2/Vr1 =0.8
Vr2 = 0.8 Vr1
= 0.8 x 530
= 424 m/s
Vf2 V2 = 2.3 x 100 = 230 m/s
Vw2 = 0.1 x 100 = 10 m/s
(i)Blade angles; = = 330
(ii)Relative velocity of steam entering the moving blades; Vr1 = 530m/s
(iii)Tangential force on the blades;
Ft = m0 [ Vw1 + Vw2 ] = 1.667 [ 800+100]
Ft = 1500-3 N
(iv)Power developed; P = m0 [ Vw1 + Vw2 ] U
kW
1000
= 1.667 [ 800 + 10 ] 350
1000
P = 472.59 kW
(v)Diagram efficiency;
d = m0 [ Vw1 + Vw2 ] U
m0 V12
= 2 x 1.667 [ 800 + 10 ] 350
1.667 x 8502
d = 0.7847 0r 78.47 %
(vi) Axial thrust; Fa = m0 ( Vf1 Vf2 )
82
= 1.667 [290-230]
Fa = 100.02 N
(15) In a simple impulse turbine the nozzles are inclined at 200 to the direction of motion of
moving blade. The steam leaves the nozzle at 375m/s. The blade speed is 165m/s. Find the inlet
and outlet angles of the blades. The relative velocity of steam as it flows over the blades is
reduced by friction by 15%. Calculate the power developed for a flow rate of 10 kg/s.
Given:
Simple impulse turbine- the blades are symmetrical hence = = ?
Nozzle angle, = 200
Inlet velocity of steam, V1 = 375m/s
Mean blade speed, U = 165m/s
Vr1 15/100 . Vr1 = Vr2
Vr2/ Vr1 = 0.85 K
Vr2 = 0.85 Vr1
Steam flow rate, m0 = 10 kg/s
Taking a scale of 1cm = 50 m/s, we draw a combined velocity diagram as shown below;
83
kW
1000
= 10 [ 355 + 7.5 ] 165
1000
P = 598.125 kW
(16)Steam enters an impulse turbine having nozzle angle of 200 at a velocity of 450 m/s. The exit
angle of moving blade is 200 and the relative velocity of steam may be assumed to remain same
over the moving blades. If the blade speed is 180m/s, determine :
(i)Blade angle at inlet
(ii)Power produced for a mass flow rate of 2 kg/s
Given:
Nozzle angle, = 200
Inlet velocity of steam, V1 = 450 m/s
Mean blade speed, U = 180m/s
Exit angle of moving blade, = 200
Vr1 = Vr2
Steam flow rate, m0 = 2 kg/s
Taking a scale of 1cm = 50m/s we obtain a combined velocity diagram as shown below:
84
kW
1000
= 2 [ 415 + 85 ] 180
1000
P = 180 kW
(17)A simple impulse turbine has one ring of moving at 150m/s. the absolute velocity of steam
from the stage is 85m/s, at an angle of 800 to the tangential direction. The blade velocity co
efficient is 0.82, and the flow of steam through the stage is 2.5 kg/s. If the blades are
equiangular, Determine:
(i)Blade angles.
(ii)Nozzle angle
(iii)Absolute velocity of steam issuing from the nozzle.
(iv)Axial thrust.
Given:
Mean blade speed, U = 150m/s
Exit velocity of steam, V2 = 85m/s
Angle made by the steam jet to the tangential direction at exit, = 800
Blade velocity coefficient, K =0.82
Steam flow rate, m0 = 2.5 kg/s
Blades are equiangular, =
Taking a scale of 1cm = 50 m/s, we construct a combined velocity diagram as shown below:
85
= 160
Vw1=7.1x50 = 355m/s
V1=7.3x50 = 365 m/s
Vw2=0.21x50 = 10.5 m/s
Vf1=2x50 = 100m/s
Vf2=1.6x50 = 80m/s
(i)Blade angles;
= = 260
(ii)Nozzle angle;
= 160
86
87
kW
1000
= 1[ 105.25 + 30 ]x 78.55
1000
P = 10.702 kW
Therefore, the efficiency, stage = [ Vw1 + Vw2 ] U
= 0.8
1000 x h
h = 10.702 / 0.8 = 13.3775 kJ/kg
Therefore, the isentropic heat drop, h = 13.3775 kJ/kg
(19)Ina 50% reaction turbine stage running at 50 revolutions per second the exit angles are 300
and inlet angles are 500. The mean rotor diameter is 1m. The steam flow rate is 10,000 kg/min
and the stage efficiency is 85%. Determine:
(i)Power output of the stage.
(ii)Specific enthalpy drop in the stage velocity of the steam when it flows over the moving
blades.
Given:
50% reaction turbine stage speed, N = 50 revolutions per second.
Exit angles, = 30 degrees =
88
kW
1000
= 166.57[ 312.5 + 145 ]x 157.1
1000
P = 11979.1 kW = 11.979 MW
(ii)Specific enthalpy drop in the stageh
stage = [ Vw1 + Vw2 ] U
= 0.85 x 1000 x h
89
Vr1
= [355 245] x 100
245
% Vr = 44.897
(20)At a stage of reaction turbine, rotor diameter is 1.4m & speed ratio is 0.7. If the blade outlet
angle is 200 & the rotor speed is 3000 rpm, find the blade inlet angle & diagram efficiency. Also
find the % increase in diagram efficiency & rotor speed if the turbine is designed to run at best
theoretical speed.
Given:
Rotor diameter, D = 1.4 m
Speed ratio, U / V1 = 0.7
Blade outlet angle, = 20 degrees =
Rotor speed, N = 3000 rpm
Inlet blade angle, = ?
Diagram efficiency, d =?
Mean blade speed V = DN = 3.142 x 1.4 x 3000
60
60
= 219.94 m/s
U = 0.7
V1 = U
V1
0.7
= 219.94
= 314.2 m/s
0.7
90
The condition for the turbine to run at its best theoretical speed:
The speed ratio, = Cos
= Cos 200 = 0.9396
= U1
V1
Also: U1 = DN
Nmax = 60 U1 = 60 x 295
D
60
The maximum rotor speed,
Nmax
3.142 x 1.4
4026.825 rpm
91
92
= 0.97
Vr1
V2 = 6.2 x 50 = 310 m/s
K2 = V11 / V2
V11 = K2 . V2 = 0.97 x 310 = 300.7 m/s
K3 = Vr21
m/s
Vr11
93
kW
1000
= 1 [ 560 + 230 ] x 157.1
1000
P1 = 124.109 kW
From 2nd row of moving blades;
P2 = m0 [ Vw11 + Vw21 ] U
kW
1000
= 1 [ 280 + 0 ] x 157.1
1000
P2 = 43.988 kW
94
With the helps of a simple sketch explain the working of a thermo electric refrigeration.
(Jan 2010) (Jul 2008)
Thermo electric refrigeration:
Figure (a) shows an action thermo electric refrigerator. Figure(b) shows the working principle of
such a generator.
When two dissimilar metals are joined together and their joints are kept at different
temperatures, an electromotive force is produced. However, when the direction of flow of
electrons is reversed in the thermoelectric circuit by externally applying a potential difference in
the reverse direction, a refrigeration effect can be credited. This is called peltier effect and
forms the basis for thermoelectric refrigeration. Here electrons act as the working fluid. Heat is
absorbed from the refrigerated space in the amount of QL and rejected to the warmer
environment (atmosphere) in the amount of QH. the difference between these two heats is the net
electrical work that needs to be supplied.
95
i-e.
We = QH - QL
96
97
1
2
With the helps of a neat sketch explain the working of a pulse tube refrigeration
(Dec 2008/Jan 2009)
Pulse tube refrigeration :
98
In pulse tube refrigeration, sudden expansion and release of gas are employed to get the
refrigeration effect. A simple circuit of pulse tube refrigeration is shows in Fig (a). It consists of
99
a high pressure gas source at the temperature close to the ambient value. The compressed gas is
supplied to the pulse tube through a suitable value mechanism. During the pressure building
process, the high pressure gas enters the pulse tube and acts as a fictitious piston. Thus, the gas
present inside the pulse tube gets compressed resulting in increase in the temperature verying
from minimum at the left end to the maximum at the right end (Fig.(a)). Thereafter the heat
transfer to the cooling medium reduces the temperature to Tn, the temperature of the cooling
medium. The supply of the high pressure gas stops after the inlet value is closed. Thereafter the
exhaust value opens and the exhaust phase begins resulting in continuous decrease in
temperature as shows by the dotted lines (Fig. (b)), giving a lowest temperature T1. It is evident
that the air leaving the cold end is at a temperature much lower than that of the ambient value.
Hence a regenerator is provided (Fig. (a)).
During the admission of compressed air the cold air from the pulse tube adsorbs heat and thus
the temperature of the compressed gas is lowered up to T11 (Fig.(c)). By this means the
temperature is further lowered of the order of -83oc, and was achieved by means of a single stage
pulse tube when the heat sink or cooling is accomplished at about 6oc.
Define C.O.P Explain working of vapour compression refrigeration system, with flow
diagram and T-S diagram.
(Jun/Jul 2008, Jan/Feb 2005)
The co- efficient of performance (C.O.P) is defined as the ratio of heat absorbed by the
refrigerant which passing through the evaporator to the work input required to compress the
refrigerant in the compressor.
In short, it is the ration of heat extracted to the work input to a refrigeration system.
Vapour Compression Refrigeration System
Fig (a)
100
Figure (a) shows the flow diagram of the vapour compression refrigeration cycle, and Figure (b)
shows the T-s diagram for such a cycle.
Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System:
Ammonia water absorption refrigeration system:
Fig (a)
101
The vapour at low temperature and pressure (state 2) enters the Compressor where it is
compressed isentropically and subsequently its temperature and pressure increase considerable
(state 3). This vapour after leaving the compressor enters the condens where it is condensed into
high pressure liquid (state 4) and is collected in a receiver tank. From the receiver tank, it passes
through the expansion value, when it is throttled has a low temperature (state 1). finally it passes
an to evoporator where it extracts heat from the fluid being refrigerated and vapourises to low
pressure vapour (state 2).
102
accompanied by the evejection of heat. The ammonia in water solution (strong solution) is
pumped to the higher pressure and is heated in the generator. Due to reduced solubility of
ammonia in water at the higher pressure and temperature, the vapour is evemoved from the
solution. The vapour than passes to the condenser and the weakened ammonia in water solution
is returned to the absorber. The ammonia vapour loses its temperature in the condenser and then
is collected in the receiver. From the receiver it is expanded through the expansion value to a
lower pressure. Thus this low, pressure, low temperature ammonia vapour again enters into the
eveaprator to repeat the cycle.
A heat exchanger is located between the generator and the absorber. Here, the strong solution
pumped from the absorber to the generator is heated after receiving heat from the weak solution
returning to the absorber from the generator, and the latter gets cooled.
With the help of a simple sketch, explain the working of a steam jet refrigeration system.
(Dec 2007 / jan 2008)
Steam jet refrigeration system :
Figure shows a steam jet evefrigeration system. In this system, the steam from the boiler also
called motive steam expands through the nozzle of an ejector. This high velocity vapour imparts
the momentum to the vapour of the flash chamber and thereby the flash vapour moves along with
the notice steam through the ejector. This process is called entrainment. The vapour mixture is
then compressed in the ejector to the condenser pressure where circulating water couses its
condensation. The condensate is pumped back to the boiler while extra water is purged into
atmosphere.
103
The cool water of the flash chamber is pumped through the load which may be the space to be
cooled or refrigerated. The warmed up water due to the heat load is sprayed into the flash
chamber. Since the cooling is caused as a result of vapourization of water, the make up water is
supplied through a float value, keeping a constant water level in the flash chamber.
9. Describe the thermodynamic cycle commonly used for refrigeration define co efficienof
performance
(Jan / Feb 2005 )
The most commonly used thermodynamic cycle for refrigeration is the vapour compression
system. Refer Q 6.
10. Derive an expression for C.O.P for an air refrigeration system working an reversed brayton
cycle.
(Dec 2006)
Explain air refrigeration system working an Bell Coleman air cycle derive C.O.P equation in
terms of working temperature.
(Jan / Feb 2004)
Sketch and explain the working of air refrigeration system working on Bell Coleman cycle and
show the C.O.P is given by :
104
T1
C.O.P =
------------------
T2 - T1
Note : The reversed brayton cycle is save as the Bell Coleman cycle. Conventionally Bell Coleman cycle refers to a closed cycle with expansion and compression taking place in
reciprocating expander and compressor respectively, and heat rejection and heat absorption
taking place in condenser and evaporator respectively.
Expression for C.O.P for an air refrigeration system working on reversed Brayton cycle :
105
Considering m kg of air and that its specific heat is invariant with temperature and pressure, we
derive the following.
Heat absorbed in refrigerator,
QL = CP (T3 T2)
------------------------------------Heat rejected in cooler,
QH = M CP (TS T1)
The work output of the expander or turbine in supplied to the compressor
Thus, q2-3 = dh = h3 h2.
And, q4-1 =
dh = h1 h4
The net work
2
_ _ _ _ (1)
Since T2 = (P2/P1) = T3
T1
T4
We get T2 T3 = T1 T4
T1
T1
Or
T2 T3 = T2 = P2
T1 T4 = T1
P1
r-1/r
COP =
T1
T2-T1
106
This system comprises of a cooler (heat exchanger), cold chamber and reciprocating air
compressor and expander.
Air at state is compressor isentropically up to state 2. The constant pressure energy rejection
accurs during the process 2-3 until temperature T3 ( very close to the ambient value is reached).
Finally, the air at state 3 is allowed to expand down to pressure P1, state. The low temperature air
passes through the cold chamber where the constant pressure energy transfer waises air to state 1,
completing the cycle. The work output of the expander is supplied to the compressor.
11. A standard vapour compression refrigeration system produces 20 tonnes of refrigeration
using From 12as the refrigerant operating between the condenser temperature of 40o C and an
evaporator temperature of 25oC. determine:
(i)
Net refrigerating effect (kj/kg)
(ii)
Power supplied
(iii)
C.O.P
(iv)
Heat evejcted (in kw)
Given : standard vapour compression refrigeration system.
Capacity = 20 tonnes.
107
Refrigerant : From 12
Condenser temperature, T4 = 40oC = T3
Evaporator temperature, T2 = -25oC = T1
For from 12, From the thermodynamic data hand book (T.D.H.B), page -82,
H2 = 178 KJ/KG
H3 = 217 KJ/KG
H4 = 74 KJ/KG = h1
108
= 104
------ = COP = 2.667
217 - 178
4. Heat rejected,
=>
QH
QH = mo(h3 h7)
--------------60
= 40.38(217-74)
-----------------60
= 96.239 KJ/kg
12. In a vapour compression refrigerator using Ammonia as the refrigerant, the condenser and
evaporator temperature are 30oC and -15oC respectively. The liquid emerging from the
condenser is subcooled by 4oC. the isentropic efficiency of compressor is 76% and mass flow
rate of NH3 is 0.9 kg / min. assuming the refrigerant is duly and saturated vapour. Determine:
(i)
Capacity of refrigerator (IN TONS)
(ii)
Cofficient of performance (COP)
(iii) Power required to drive the compressor.
Given : vapour compression refrigerator refrigerant Ammonia.
Condenser temperature, T3 = 30oC
Evaporator temperature, T3 = -15oC
Subcooling of refrigerant by 4o C.
T14 = 30-4 = 26Oc
Isentropic efficiency of compressor ci= 0.76.
mass flow rate, Mo = 0.9 kg/min
From T.D.H.B, for NH3
109
(ii)
Coefficient of performance
COP = h2 h11
h13 h2
ci = h3 h2
h13 h2
= 1130
144.736
COP = 7.81
h31 h2 = ci (h3 h2)
= 0.76 (1540-1430
= 144.73 KJ /KG
13. A simple vapour compression plant produces 2 tons of refrigeration. The enthalpy values at
inlet to the compressor, at the exit of compressor, and at exit of condenser are 300.41, 384.38,
and 92.34 kj/kg respectively.
Estimate :
(i)
The refrigerant flow rate.
(ii)
C.O.P
(iii) The power required to drive the compressor
(iv)
The rate of heat rejection in condenser.
(Jan 2010)
Given : simple vapour compression plant.
Capacity = 2 tons.
H2 = 300.41kj/kg
H3 = 385.38 kj/kg
H4 = 92.34 kj/kg = h1
We have capacity
110
Qrej
= 2.0185(385.38-92.34)
-------------------------------60
= 9.8247 KJ/s
14. A simple vapour compression plant produces 5 tonnes of refrigeration. The enthalphy values
at inlet to compressor, at the exit of compressor and at the exit of condenser are 183.19,209.41
and 74.59 kj/kg
Respectively. Estimate:
(i)
The refrigerant flow rate
(ii)
C.O.P
(iii) The power required to drive the compressor
(iv)
The rate of heat rejection in condenser.
(Dec 2007/Jan2008)
111
Given:
Simple vapour compression plant capacity = 5tonnes =
4.5 tones.
---------------------(1 ton = 0.9 tonne)
H2 = 183.19 kj/kg
H3 = 209.41 kj/kg
H4 = 74.59 kj/kg = h1
We have capacity
mo
refrigerating effect
------------------------------------210
112
Ppm = Pc =
3.8
------------ = 4.47 kw
Mm
o.85
Power of the prime mover to drive the compressor Ppm = 4.47kw
(iv)
Rate of heat rejection in condenser:
Qrej = Mo (h3 h4)
8.7016(209.41-74.59
--------------- = -----------------------60
60
Qrej = 19.55KJ/s
15. A vapour compression refrigeration cycle works between a condenser pressure of to bar and
evaporator pressure of 1 bar. The refrigerant From 12 leaves the evaporator at -20oC and the
condenser at 30oC. Determine:
(i)
The COP of refrigeration
(ii)
Power required per ten of refrigeration
(iii) The bore and stroke of the compressor cylinder if it runs at 250 rpm
Assume volumetric efficiency of 90% the stroke is 1.2 times the bore.
Given : vapour compression refrigeration cycle.
Condenser pressure, p2 = 10 bar.
Evaporator pressure P1 = 1 bar
Refrigerant From 12
Evaporator temperature, T2 = -20oC
Condenser temperature, T3 = 30oC
Compressor speed, N = 250 rpm
Volumetric efficiency, nv = 90% = 0.9
Stroke, l = 1.2 Bore, D
From the thermodynamic hand book, page 82, we observe the following for the above data
given.
113
We get
(i)
182 65
----------220 - 182
16. A 2- ton refrigeration unit uses NH3 as refrigerant. The working pressure limits are 2 bar and
10 bar respectively. The refrigerant is dry and saturated before it enters the compressor. After
compression, the energy rejected by the refrigerant in the condenser is 1550 KJ/kg. the liquid
emerging from the condenser is sub cooled by 10oC find:
(i)
C.O.P
(ii)
Mass flow rate of refrigerant
(iii) Power required to drive the compressor if the mechanical efficiency is 0.8
(iv)
Isentropic efficiency of the compressor.
Given : capacity = 2ton
Refrigerant: NH3
114
1.14kw
115
(iv)
Mi =
h3 - h2
-----------h13 h2
1520 1420
= ------------1810 1420
mi
Wideal
------------Wactual
116
Enthalpy(h)
100.04
- 54.55
Liquid
Enthalpy(S)
0.347
-2.1338
Enthalpy(h)
1319.2
1304.99
Vapour
Enthalpy(S)
4.4852
5.0585
117
h3 h2
(1196.22 100.04)
X ------------------------------ = 7.1296
(1318.2 1196.2)
Actual refrigerating effect (RE)actual = 7.1296 (h3 h2)
7.1296(1319.2 1196.22)
= 876.798kj/kg
Capacity = (RE) actual X mo
20 X 1000
----------------(Cpw(20-0+hfice+Cpi(0+6))
24 X 60 X 60
=
0.8
= 876.798 m0
mo 876.798 = 20 X 1000
-------------------( 4.18 X 20+335+2.1 6)
24 X 60 X 60
o
m = 0.1138 kg/s
The power required to run the compresser:
Pc = mo (h3 h2)
0.1138(1319.2 1196.22)
Pc = 13.99kw kw.
118