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VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
LIBRARY
OF
THE
UNIVERSITY OF CUIFDRMIt
II6R1RY OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF CUIFOR
THE
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFOR
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ALTERNATING-CURRENT MACHINES
BEING THE SECOND VOLUME OF
DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY;

ITS
CONSTRUCTION, DESIGN,
AND OPERATION
BY
SAMUEL SHELDON,
A.M., PH.D.
\(
PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE OF BROOKLYN, MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE
OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN
ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,
AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN ELECTROTHERAPEUTIC ASSOCIATION
HOBART MASON,
B.S.,
E.E.
ASSISTANT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

OF BROOKLYN, AND ASSOCIATE OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE
OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS
SIXTH EDITION
NEW YORK:
D.
VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

23
MURRAY AND
27
WARREN
STS.
LONDON:
CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON
7
STATIONERS'
HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL
10
OF THE
DIVERSITY
VOV
sj-
'77
COPYRIGHT,
D.
1902,
BY
TYPOGRAPHY BY
PRESSWORK BY THE
C. J. PETERS
F.
&
SON.
H. GILSON COMPANY
BOSTON, MASS., U.
S.
A.
PREFACE.
THIS book,
Machines,
technical
like its
companion volume on Direct Current
is
primarily intended as a text-book for use in
It is hoped and beeducational institutions.
lieved that
it
will also
be of use to those
engineers who
electrical, civil,
are not perfectly
mechanical, and hydraulic

familiar with the subject of Alternating Currents, but whose
work leads them into this field. It is furthermore intended
by those who are earnestly studying the subject

by themselves, and who have previously acquired some
for use
proficiency in mathematics.
There are several methods of treatment of alternatingcurrent problems.
Any point is susceptible of demonstration
by each of the methods.
The
use of
all
methods
in
connection with every point leads to complexity, and is

undesirable in a book of this character.
In each case that
method has been chosen which was deemed clearest and

most concise. No use has been made of the method of
complex imaginary numbers.
thorough understanding of what takes place in an
It
alternating-current circuit is not to be easily acquired.
is
believed, however, that one
who has mastered
the
first
four chapters of this book will be able to solve any practical problem concerning the relations which exist between
power, electro-motive forces, currents, and their phases in
172114
PREFACE.
iv
series or
alternating-current circuits containing

resistance, capacity, and inductance.
The next four chapters are devoted to the construction,
multiple
principle of operation,
alternating-current
and behavior of the various types of

Only American machines
machines.
have been considered.
amount
of alternating-current apparatus is used

connection with plants for the long-distance transmission
of power.
This subject is treated in the ninth chapter.
large
in
The
last
tests
on alternating-current
No
chapter gives directions for making a variety of

circuits
and apparatus.
necessary for the introduction of cuts and

material supplied by the various manufacturing companies.
The information and ability of their engineers, and the taste
and
apology
skill of
their artists, are unsurpassed,
tion supplied
For
is
by them
is
and the informa-
not available from other sources.
their courteous favors thanks is
hereby given.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
CHAPTER
I.
II.
PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS
SELF-INDUCTION
-.
...
15
III.
CAPACITY
IV.
PROBLEMS ON ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
ALTERNATORS
THE TRANSFORMER
MOTORS
...
...
...
29
44
57
...............
92
...
141
..;....".
..
CONVERTERS
169
POWER TRANSMISSION
182
TESTS
198
ALTERNATING-CURRENT MACHINES.
CHAPTER
I.
PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

An alterof an Alternating Current.
of
is a current which changes
current
nating
electricity
its
direction of flow at regularly recurring intervals.
Definition
i.
Between these
intervals the value of
the current
may
In usual practice, the value varies with

vary
any way.
some regularity from zero to a maximum, and decreases
in
with the same regularity to zero, then to an equal maximum in the other direction, and finally to zero again. In
practice, too, the intervals of current flow are very short,
ranging from
^ to ^|
second.
2. Frequency.
When, as stated above, a current has
passed from zero to a maximum in one direction, to zero,
to a maximum in the other direction, and finally to zero
That is to
say, it has returned to the condition in which it was first
considered, both as to value and as to direction, and is
again,
it
is
said to
have completed one
cycle.
prepared to repeat the process described, making a second

It should be noted that it takes two alternations
cycle.
to
make one
denote cycles.
cycle.
The
tilde
~~
(
is
frequently used to
The term frequency
is
in a unit time,
completed
the word alternations
is
applied to the number of cycles

i.e., in one second.
Occasionally
used, in which case, unless other-
wise specified, the number of alternations per minute is

Thus the same current is spoken of as having a
meant.
The use
frequency of 25, or as having 3000 alternations.
is
condemned
alternations
of the word
by good practice.
In algebraic notation the letter
usually stands for the
frequency.
The frequency
of
commercial
depends upon the work expected

low frequency
is
desirable,
alternating
of
For power a
it.
particularly
current
for
converters.
The
great Niagara power plant uses a frequency of 25.

Lamps, however, are operated satisfactorily only on freof
quencies
50 or more.
Early machines had higher
125 and 133 (16,000 alternations) being

but these are almost entirely abandoned because
frequencies,
usual,
of their increased losses
and their unadaptability
to the
operation of motors and similar apparatus.

In the Report of the Committee on Standardization of
the
American
following
ing
Institute
" In
Electrical
alternating-current
approximate frequencies are
sirable
Engineers
circuits,
is
the
the follow-
recommended
as
de-
25 or 30
it
of
60
40
120
"These frequencies are already in extensive use, and

is deemed advisable to adhere to them
as closely as
possible."
The frequency
of the
of an alternating current
E.M.F. producing
it.
To
is
always that
find the frequency of the
pressure or the current produced by any alternating-cur-

rent generator,
if
be the number of revolutions per

poles, then
minute, and / be the number of pairs of
/->;
in an alternating
current, the
instantaneous values of current be taken as ordinates, and
3.
Wave-shape
be
time
the
If,
abscissae,
curve, as in Fig.
i,
may be
The
length of
developed.
the abscissa for one complete
cycle
seconds.
is
Fig. i.
Imagine a small cylinder,
Fig. 2, carried on one end of a wire, and rotated uniformly
about the other end in a vertical plane.
Imagine a hori-
zontal
beam
of parallel rays of light to be parallel to the

and to cast a shadow of the cylinder on
plane of rotation,
Fig.
a plane screen perpendicular to the rays.

will
move up and down, passing from the
to the
bottom
in a half revolution,
The shadow
top of
its
travel
and from the bottom
back to the top in another half revolution with a perfect

Now imagine the screen to be moved
harmonic motion.
its own plane with a uniform motion, and
in
horizontally
the positions of the shadow suitably recorded on
as
it,
on sensitized paper or on
a
photographic
film,
slotted screen protecting

all
but the desired portion
from exposure. Then the

trace of the shadow will
be as in
abscissae
Fig.
of
The
3.
this
curve
may be taken as time, as in the preceding curve, the abscissa of one complete cycle being the time in seconds of
one revolution.
Or, with equal relevancy, the abscissae

may be expressed in degrees. Consider the cylinder to be
in a zero position when the radius to which it is attached
is horizontal.
Then the abscissa of any point is the angle
which must be turned through in order that the cylinder
may cast its shadow at that point. In this case the abscissa
of a complete cycle will
be 360, or
2?r.
Consideration of
the manner in which the curve has been formed shows

that the ordinate of any point is proportional to the sine
of the abscissa of that point, expressed in degrees.
Hence
this
If
is
called a sinusoid or sine curve.
the
maximum
ordinate of this curve be taken as
Em
and time be considered to commence at the beginning of

any cycle, then the ordinate E' at any time t seconds later
will
be
which
E = Em
r
is
sin 2
TT//,
equivalent to neglecting
all
those intervals of
time corresponding to whole cycles, and considering only

the
time elapsed
end of the
the
since
last
completed
cycle.
As
numerical
example
45^ and
an
In
alternating-current
maximum
voltage of 100, what

will be the pressure at 2! seconds after the beginning of
a cycle ?
circuit
of
E'
100 sin
E'
sin iqi.2
100
(2
TT
c TT
45
sin 1.2
2.125)
c TT
i
>
^2
whence
E'
70.7 volts.
Since the ordinates of the curve
may
represent either
current or pressure, the expression

/'
is
= jm
sin 27T/?
equally true.
The
usoidal.
ideal
pressure
Commercial
curve from an alternator

alternators, however,
rate true sinusoidal pressures.
be treated with
relative
practice approximate
so
is
sin-
do not gene-
But the sine curve can
simplicity,
to
closely
and the curves of

the sine form, that
mathematical deductions based on sine curves can with
Two of these
propriety be applied to those of practice.
in
actual curves are shown
Fig. 4.
The shape of the pressure curve. is affected by irregular
distribution of the magnetic flux.
Also uneven angular
the wave-shape,
generator
making it, relative to the true curve, lower in the slow
spots and higher in the fast ones.
Again, the magnetic
velocity
of
the
will
distort
reluctance of the armature

positions, particularly
large slots.
if
may vary in different angular

the inductors are laid in a few
This would cause a periodic variation in the
reluctance of the whole magnetic circuit and a correspondAll these influing pulsation of the total magnetic flux.
ences operate at open circuit as well as under load.
E M.F.
CURVE
3 PHASE
40 POLE
20OO K.W.
26
FULLY LOADED
E.M.F.
CURVE
SINGLE PHASE
8
POLE
500 WATTS
125
NOT LOADED
Fig.
4.
There are two other causes which act to distort the

For any separately
wave-shape only when under load.
excited generator, a change in the resistance or apparent
resistance of the external circuit will cause a change in the
terminal voltage of the machine.

As is explained later,
the apparent resistance (impedance) of a circuit to alternating currents depends upon the permeability of the iron
adjacent to the circuit.

Permeability changes with magnetization.
Now, because an alternating current is flowing, the
magnetization changes with the changing values

This, by varying the permeability, sets up a
of current.
pulsation in the impedance and affects the terminal voltage of the machine, periodically distorting the wave of
pressure from the true sine.
There are cases of synchronously pulsating resistances.

The most common is that of the alternating arc. With
the same arc the apparent resistance of the arc varies inSo when operated by alternating
versely as the current.
currents, the resistance of a circuit of arc lamps varies synchronously, and distorts the pressure waveshape in a
manner analogous
to the above.
Summing up, the wave-shape of pressure may be distorted At open circuit as well as tinder load ; by lack of
:
uniformity of magnetic distribution, by pulsating of mag-
by variation in angular velocity of armature

and under load only ; by pulsation of impedance, by pulsation of resistance.
And the effects of any or all may be
netic field,
superimposed.
4.
Effective Values of E.M.F. and of Current
ampere
of alternating current
is
One
a current of such instan-
taneous values as to have the same heating effect in a conductor as one ampere of direct current.
This somewhat
definition
arose
from
the
fact that alterarbitrary
probably
nating currents were
first
commercially employed
in light-
ing circuits, where their utility was measured by the heat
they produced in the filaments
and further from the
fact
that the only means then at hand of measuring alternating

currents were the hot-wire instruments and the electro-
dynamometer, either of which gives the same indication

ampere of direct current or for what is now called
an ampere of alternating current.
for an
The
heat produced in a conductor carrying a current is

In an alternatproportional to the square of the current.
ing current, whose instantaneous current values vary, the

instantaneous rate of heating is not proportional to the
instantaneous value, nor yet to the square of the average
of the current values, but to the
square of the instantaneous curAnd so the average
rent value.
\'
heating effect is proportional to

the mean of the squares of the
instantaneous currents.
The average
Fig. 5.
soidal
7W
wave
of alternating current,
current of a sinu-
whose maximum value
equal to the area of one lobe of the curve, Fig.

divided by its base line ?r.
Thus
is
is
jr
7,,
5,
sin OttO
'
But the heating value
of such a current varies, as
f 7W sn
si
2
7 =
2
Jo
sn
4
The square
root of this quantity
value of the current,
= =
V2
is
called the effective
This has the same heating

effect as a direct current
referred
always
to
Alternating-current
/,
and the
effective values are
unless
expressly stated otherwise.

ammeters are designed to read in
effective amperes.
Since current
resistance
or
average
Em
manner analogous
The maximum
if
the
upon
of
that
if
average 7
pressure,
circuit
= -^
the
remain-
then does
V2
- Im then does also
Or these may be demonstrated
7T
to
obvious
Likewise
"1-
V2
E =
is
it
dependent
apparent resistance
ing constant,
also
is
in a
to the above.
value of pressure
is
in designing alternator armatures,
dielectric strength of insulation.
frequently referred
and
in
calculating
There have arisen
vari-
ous ways of indicating that effective values are meant,

2
for instance, the expressions, sq. root of mean
sq., V^
,
Vmean
In England the initials R.M.S. are fresquare.

for
used
root
mean square.
quently
Effective E.M.F.
~,
Ihe ratio
^ n/r ^ is called the form-factor,
since
its
Average E.M.F.
depends upon
value
the shape of the pressure wave.

For the curve Fig. 6, the formfactor
is
unity.
As
a curve be-
comes more peaked, its formKg. e.

factor increases, due to the superior
weight of the squares
of the longer ordinates.
In the sinusoid the values found above

give
Form-factor
i.n.
10
Probably no alternators give sine waves, but they approach it so nearly that the value i.n can be used in calculation without sensible error.
The curves of the pressure and the current

can
in a circuit
be plotted together, with their respective
In some
ordinates and common abscissae, as in Fig. 7.
5.
Phase
the
cases
maximum
IN
PHASE
zero
values
and
the
of
the
current curve will

at
do
occur
the same abscissae as

those
values
of
the
pressure curve, as in Fig.

Fig
7*
7.
current
is
said to be in
In
such
phase with the pressure.
cases the current will reach a
maximum
case
the
In other
or a zero value at
a time later than the corresponding values of the pressure,

and since the abscissae are indifferently time or degrees,
In such a case,
represented in Fig. 8.
be out of phase with, and to lag beIn
hind the pressure.
the condition
is
the current
said to
Still
is
the
cases
Other
LAGGING CURRENT
.--N^x
curves are placed as in

Fig. 9, and the current
and pressure are again

out
of phase,
current
is
the
but
said to lead
the pressure.
The
Flg
8>
distance between the zero ordinate of
one sine curve and the corresponding zero ordinate of

another, may be measured in degrees, and is called the
angular displacement or phase difference. This angle of
lag or of lead
is
usually represented by <.
When
one

curve has
its
II
maximum
zero ordinate coincident with the
ordinate of the other, as in Fig. 10, there is a displacement

of a quarter cycle (<
90), and the curves are said to be
This
at right angles.
term owes
its origin to
LEADING CURRENT
the fact that the radii
whose projections
will
trace these curves, as

in
3,
are
at
right
angles to each
Fig
other.
9-
the zero ordinates of the two curves coincide, but the

positive maximum of one coincides with the negative maxiIf
mum
RIGHT ANGLES
Fig.
of
the
n,
as
other,
then
<
and the curves are
in
i8o>
in
op-
posite phase.
An
2*1
to
alternator
give
wave
single
arranged
pressure
to a two- wire circuit
is
said to be a single phaser,
and the current
Some machines
in the
circuit a single-phase current^
are arranged to give pressure to two dis-
each of
tinct circuits
OPPOSITE PHASE
which, considered alone,

is a
single-phase circuit
but the time of maxi-
mum
pressure in one is
the time of zero pressure
in
the
other,
so
Fig.
that simultaneous pres-
sure
curves
Fig. 12.
from
Such
is
the
two
circuits
xi.
take
the
form
of
said to be a two-phase or quarter-phase
12
three-phase
system, and the generator is a two-phaser.
each.
wires
of
two
circuits
has
three
system theoretically
The maximum
positive pressure
from that of either
on any
circuit is displaced
of the other circuits
algebraic
rents in
(if
by
As
20.
sum
of
the
the
cur-
these circuits
all
at
is
balanced)
stant
every
in-
to
the
may be
dis-
zero,
equal
three return wireS) one on
each
circuit,
with,
pensed
TWO PHASE
Fig.
shown
are
three
w res
j
leaving but
three sim-
The
12.
ultaneous curves of E.M.F.
The term polyphase
applies to any
two or more phases. An //-phase system has n
and n pressures with successive phase differences
in Fig. 13.
system of
circuits
of -
degrees.
n
6.
Power
in Alternating-Current Circuits.
With
a direct-
current circuit, the power in the circuit is equal to the

product of the pressure in volts by the current strength in
amperes. In an alternatingcurrent
circuit,
the instan-
taneous power is the product

of the instantaneous values
of
current
pressure.
If
and
strength
the current
and
pressure are out of

phase there will be some
instants when the pressure will have a positive value and
At such times
the current a negative value or vice versa.
a
will
be
instantaneous
the
negative quantity, i.e.,
power

is
power
13
being returned to the generator by the disappear-
ing magnetic field which had been previously produced by

the current.
This condition is shown in Fig. 14, where
the power curve has for its ordinates the product of the
These
corresponding ordinates of pressure and current.
a
constant
so
reduced
as
to
are
make
by multiplying by
them
convenient
of
The
size.
therefore,
circuit,
power from the

generator and gives power
receives
back again
in alternating
pulsations
having
twice
the frequency of the generator.
the
It
clear that
is
Flg>
relative
I4>
magnitudes
of the negative and positive lobes of the power curve will
even though the original
vary for different values of
</>,
curves maintain the same size and shape.

So it follows
that the power in an alternating-current circuit is not
E and
merely a function of
but is a function of E,
as follows
as in direct-current circuits,
/,
and
and the
is
deduced
denote instantaneous values.
If the
/,
</>,
relation
Let the accent
(')
current lag by the angle
<f>,
E'
where, for convenience,
then from
= Em
3,
sin a,
a = 2 ft,
= Im sin (a
IT
and
I'
Remembering
E=
<).
that
j?
and
-^,
/=
V2
V2
P =
f
'
4) the instantaneous power,
= 2EI sin
a sin (a
14
But
sin (a
P' =
so
Remembering
over
<)
El (sin
that
sin a cos
a cos
sin a cos a sin
<f>
</>).
a constant, the average power
is
<
cos a sin <,
<
80,
P = 2 El cos
7T
r*
<f>
.
2
sin' cu/a
--2^ /sin
Jo
2^/cos<f>ri
-a
7T
TT
/'
<
Sill
7T
Should the current lead the pressure by

leading equation would be
f
atf a
-- Sin 2 a> --2 ^7 sin A fi- Sin a>
|_2
jP
a COS
t/0
= 2 El sin
a sin (a
JO
<, then
the
<),
which gives the same expression,
P = El cos
<,
is the general expression for power in an alternatingcurrent circuit.
which
power in the circuit, the apparent

power, or volt -amperes, must be multiplied by cos <, this
If the
quantity is called \h.z power factor of the circuit.
=
and
in
the
and
current
are
o,
power
pressure
phase,
Since, to get the true
<
factor
is
unity.
SELF-INDUCTION.
CHAPTER
II.
SELF-INDUCTION.
The
7. Self -Inductance.
briefly treated of in
is
15, vol.
subject
i.,
of
of this
was
inductance
work
but, since
it
an essential part of alternating-current phenomena, it

be discussed more fully in this chapter.
When lines
will
of force are cut
that conductor
by a conductor an E.M.F.
(
encircled
13, vol.
i.).
lines of force.
is generated in
conductor carrying cur-
When
the current
rent
is
first
started in such a conductor, these lines of force
by
is
must
In establishing itself, each line is considered as having cut the conductor, or, what is equivalent,
been cut by the conductor.
This notion of lines of force
be established.
is
a convenient fiction, designed to
ing of the subject
more
easy.
To
render an understand-
account for the E.M.F.
encircling lines must be considered

as cutting the conductor which carries the current that
establishes them, during their establishment.
It may be
of self-induction, the
considered that they start from the axis of the conductor

the moment of starting the current in the circuit that
at
they grow in diameter while the current is increasing that

they shrink in diameter when the current is decreasing;
;
and that
all
their diameters reduce to zero
upon stopping
At any given current strength the conductor

is surrounded
by many circular lines, the circles having
various diameters.
Upon decreasing the strength those of
the current.
16
smaller diameter cut the conductor and disappear into a

point on the axis of the conductor previous to the cutting
by those of larger diameter. The number of lines accompanying a large current is greater than the number accompanying a smaller current.
The E.M.F.
By
meant that
this is
always a counter E.M.F.

direction is such as to tend to
of self-induction
its
is
When the
prevent the change of current which causes it.
current is started the self -induced pressure tends to oppose
the flow of the current and prevents its reaching its full
When the circuit is interrupted the
value immediately.
E.M.F. of self-induction tends to keep the current flowing

same direction that it had originally.
in the
The
Unit of Self -Inductance
8.
self-inductance,
or
the coefficient of self-induction of a circuit is generally represented by L or /, and is that constant by which the time
rate of change of the current in a circuit
E.M.F. induced
plied in order to give the

Its absolute value is
lines of force linked
must be
multi-
in that circuit.
numerically equal to the
number
of
with the
current in the circuit, as
is
circuit, per absolute unit of

shown below. By linkages, or
number of lines linked with a circuit, is meant the sum

of the number of lines surrounding each portion of the
For instance, a coil of wire consisting of ten
and threaded completely through by twelve lines
circuit.
turns,
of force,
The
is
said to
have
absolute unit of
20 linkages.
self-inductance
ordinary purposes, and a practical
This
is
The
io times as large as the
c.
is
too
small for
unit, the henry, is used.

G. s. or absolute unit.
congress of 1900 adopted as the

unit of magnetic flux the maxwell, and of flux density the
Paris
electrical
SELF-INDUCTION.
gauss.
maxwell
is
one
17
line of force.
is
gauss
one
per square centimeter. If a core of an electrohas a transverse cross-section of 30 sq. cm., and is
line of force
magnet
uniformly permeated with 60,000 lines of force, such a

core may be said to have a flux of 60,000 maxwells and a
2000 gausses.
In
13, vol. i., it has been shown that the pressure generated in a coil of wire when it is cut by lines of force is
flux density of
where n
is
measured
the
number
in c. G.
s.
and where e is
and / in seconds.
of turns in a coil,
units,
in maxwells,
<
In a simple case of self-induction the maxwells set up are

be
due solely to the current in the conductor. Now let
a constant, dependent upon the permeability of the magnetic circuit, such that it represents the number of maxwells set up per unit current in the electric circuit
indicating instantaneous values
& = Ki
The E.M.F.
By the
whose
From
of self-induction
may
definition
value
c. G. s.
the
Kdi.
and
last
is
of
then be written
the coefficient
represented by
two equations,
then,
d&
by prime accents,
it is
of
self-induction,
/,
seen that /
= Kn. Kn is
evidently the
number
The negative
E.M.F,
sign indicates that the pressure
of linkages per absolute unit current.

is
counter
18
In practical units,
EF
'
dT
= -L
r
~dt-
having an inductance of one henry will have a

one volt induced in it by a uniform change of
current of one ampere per second.
circuit
pressure of
Practical Values of Inductances.
9.
dent an
practice, a
To
idea of the values of self -inductance
number
examples are here
of
pair of copper line wires, say a
give the stumet with in
cited.
telephone pole
line,
have from two to four milhenrys (.002 to .004 henrys)

per mile, according to the distance between them, the
will
larger value being for the greater distance.
The secondary
of
an induction
a resistance of about
The secondary
coil
giving a 2" spark has
6000 ohms and 50 henrys.
of a
much
larger coil has 30,000
ohms
and about 2000 henrys.
A telephone call bell with

A coil found very useful
about 75 ohms has

in illustrative
1.5 henrys.
and quantitive
experiments in the alternating-current laboratory is of the

following dimensions. It is wound on a pasteboard cylinder
with wooden ends, making a spool 8.5 inches long and 2
inches internal diameter.
This is wound to a depth of 1.5
inch with No. 16 B. and S. double cotton-covered copper
bundle of
wire, there being about 3000 turns in all.
iron wires, 16 inches long,

spool.
The
fits
loosely in the hole of the
resistance of the coil
is
10 ohms, and
its
in-
is 0.2
With the iron
henry.
core in place and a current of about 0.2 ampere, the inductance is about 1.75 henrys.
This coil is referred to again
ductance without the core
in
ii.
SELF-INDUCTION.
The inductance
rator
is
where
one pole, n the number

current of the machine.
the total flux from
<$ is
and If the
field
L may
evident that the value of
is
frame of a gene-
field
numerically
of turns per spool,

It
on the
of a spool
19
vary through a wide
range with different machines.
Things Which Influence the Magnitude of L.
10.
If all
the conditions remain constant, save those under consideration,
then the self-inductance of a
coil will
vary
directly as
the square of the number of turns directly as the linear

dimension if the coil changes its size without changing its
shape and inversely as the reluctance of the magnetic
;
circuit.
Any
of the above relations
is
The numerical
ing equations.
tance is
/=
apparent from the followvalue of the self-induc-
n
t
As shown
in
Chapter
<E>
2, vol.
-- = i.,
M.M.F.
4 Trni
reluctance
fA
where
c is the
circuit,
its
meters, and
Then,
/u,
if <H
mean length in centimeters

mean cross-sectional area
is
permeability.
stand for the reluctance,

n
which
is
4 trm
independent of
i,
of the
in
magnetic
square centi-
20
If,
as
is
generally the case, there
is
iron in the magnetic
circuit, it is practically impossible to keep /x constant if any

of the conditions are altered
and it is to be particularly
noted, that with iron in the magnetic circuit, L is by no
;
means independent
ii.
Growth
of
/.
of Current in
an Inductive
Circuit.
If
constant E.M.F. be applied to the terminals of a circuit

having both resistance and inductance, the current does
not instantly assume its full ultimate value, but logarithmically increases to that value.
At the
flowing.
instant of closing the circuit there
Let time be reckoned from

seconds
this
is
no current
instant.
At
the impressed
any subsequent
E.M.F. may be considered as the sum of two parts, El
and Er
The first, E is that part which is opposed to,
and just neutralizes, the E.M.F. of self-induction, so that
instant,
later,
lt
but
The second
part,
r)
is
that which
is
necessary to send
current through the resistance of the circuit, according to

Ohm's Law, so that
E = RL
r
If the
impressed E.M.F.
then
and
(E
dt
- RI) dt =
== ///=
E - RI
-=
Ldl,
Rdl
R E- RI
=
SELF-INDUCTION.
21
Integrating from the initial conditions

conditions t
t, /=/',
-
^ Pog
(E
= o, 7=o
to
any
- RI') - \og]
Rt
and
where
e is
the base of the natural system of logarithms.

rise of current in such a
This equation shows that the

circuit is
along a logarithmic curve, as stated, and that when
/ is of sufficient
magnitude to
render the term
'*
L
negli-
gible the current will follow
Ohm's Law, a
condition that
agrees with observed facts.

1
/ Fig.
5 shows the curve of
growth of current
in the coil
referred to in
The curve
9.
calculated by the
noted.
is
The
ratio
is
.01
,02 .03
04
05
.08
07
SECONDS
Fig.
above formula
for
15-
the
conditions
called the time constant of the circuit,
for the greater this ratio
is,
the longer
it
takes the current
to obtain its full ultimate value.
12.
Decay
of Current in
an Inductive Circuit.
If a cur-
rent be flowing in a circuit containing inductance and resistance,
and the supply of
E.M.P\
be discontinued,
without, however, interrupting the continuity of the circuit,

the current will not cease instantly, but the E.M.F. of
22
self-induction will
keep
it
flowing for a time, with values
decreasing according to a logarithmic law.
An expression
for the value of this current at
any time,
seconds after
cutting off the source of impressed

Let
E.M.F., may be obtained as in the preceding section.
time be reckoned from the instant of interruption of the
t
The
impressed E.M.F.
represented by
and
is
current at this instant
may be
due solely to the E.M.F.
of self-
induction.
Therefore, from
Ohm's Law,
Integrating from the
the conditions,
/,
initial
conditions
o,
-,
to
/',
L rf
..
'f<
DECAYING CURRENT
E.M.F.-
/'
and
which
is
7'=f-e-z',
yt
seen to be the term that had to be subtracted in
This shows clearly

the formula for growth of current.
that while self-induction prevents the instantaneous attainment of the normal value of current, there is eventually no
loss of energy, since
what
is
subtracted from the growing
giver back to the decaying current.

1 6 is the curve of
decay of current in the
Fig.
current
is
same
cir-
SELF-INDUCTION.
cuit as
one
was considered
figure are
seen
in
Fig.
23
The
15.
ordinates of the
be complementary to those
to
of
the other.
If a curMagnetic Energy of a Started Current.
is flowing under the pressure of
the
volts,
power
expenditure is El watts, and the work performed in the
13.
rent
interval of time dt
is
dW =
But
in a coil of
of linkages
;/
turns, the
Eldt.
E.M.F. induced by a change
is
Substituting,
dW^--d.
io
8
If
the -circuit have a constant permeability,
ldi=
\<
dW=-LIdL
so
Integrating through the
o to
full
range, from o to
Wand
from
/,
f*I
f*W
I
dW = - L
7o
Jo
Idl,
W=Which
is
an expression for the work done upon the mag-
When
netic field in starting the current.
stopped the work is done by the

returned to the circuit.
field,
This formula assumes the value of
the current
and the energy
is
is
to be constant dur-
If there be iron in
ing the rise and fall of the current.
the magnetic circuit the relation nd$ = Idi becomes nd&
24
I'
I'dij
ues of
/'
being also a variable but an average of the valthroughout the range may be called /, and the
;
formula for energy stored in the field holds true.

Since iron has always a hysteretic loss, some of the
energy is consumed, and the work given back at the dis-
appearance of the field is less than that used to establish

the field by the amount consumed in hysteresis.
Current Produced by a Harmonic E.M.F. in a CirGiven a circuit
Having Resistance and Inductance.
14.
cuit
of resistance
L upon
and inductance
E.M.F.
a harmonic
/ in
E of
which
is
impressed.
frequency /, to find the current
that circuit.
Represent by w the quantity 2w/V
At any
instant of time,
the current be
To
/,
the instantaneous value of
let
/'.
maintain this current requires an E.M.F. whose value
Represent this by E' r

in a harmonic current,
at this instant is I' R.
From
3,
Evidently
270, and
The
=fm sin
-#/=
hence,
or
has
its
its
to/,
m
'
fm
maximum
effective value
w/t
value l?fm
is
at
(0^
= 90
RI.
/,
is
*--*
But as before,
and
= Erm
counter E.M.F. of self-induction at the same instant
of time,
so
|;
/'=/,
=
J{ =
dl'
sin
<o/,
<o/m cos at
^LIm
dt,
cos
o>
SELF-INDUCTION.
'
Evidently
iot
has a
or
maximum
80, and
its
at
<oZ7.
the impressed E.M.F. must be of such

But these
r
s and also supply
It is clear that
a value as to neutralize
pressures
added, since the
&LIm = Esm
value of
effective value
E =-
two
2$
cannot
be
simply
value of
maximum
one occurs at the zero value of the

that
other;
are
they
is,
at
right
angles to each other, as defined in
Reference
5.
make
to
combining these
clear that
it
17
Fig.
Fig
will
E.M.F.
pressure that the impressed
at
I7 '
right angles will
V^ + E*
give as a resultant the pressure
'
and it is this
must equal and
;
So
oppose.
E=
V(Z7?)
(<uZ/)
from which
j?
This
is
a formula which
Law when
currents.
must be used
in place of
Ohm's
treating inductive circuits carrying harmonic

evident that, if the inductance or the fre-
It is
quency be negligibly small
(direct current
has
f=
o),
the
formula reduces to Ohm's

ues of w and
that called for
The
Law; but for any sensible valthe current in the circuit will be less than
by Ohm's Law.
V^ + Z
2
expression
o>
is
called the impedance of
the circuit, and also the apparent resistance.

is of course called resistance, while the term
2 irfL,
The
is
called the reactance.
The term
which
is
o>Z,
Both are measured
effective value of the counter
E.M.F.
in
ohms.
of self-indue-
26
tion can
be determined as follows, without employing the

that it must be combined at right angles with
calculus
RI is
not directly evident.

Disregarding the direction of
flow, an alternating current i reaches a maximum value im
2f
The maximum number
times per second.
of lines of
force linked with the circuit on each of these occasions

lim
The
lim
from when the current
interval of time,
with no linkages, to
linkages,
when the
- second.
is
and
is
is
The average
4/
lines, then, is
current
is
is
zero
maximum
with
rate of cutting
equal to the average
E.M.F.
of
4?
self-induction during the interval.
It
during succeeding equal intervals
has the same value
i.e.,
4?
The
effective value
es
and
is (
4) therefore,
2 Trfli
uli,
in practical units,
E.
=-
2 7T/Z7.
Since the squares of the quantities R, L, and

into the expression for. the
if
impedance,
moderately small when compared with L
will be negligibly small when compared with L? or
frequency, because
it is
a part of
cu,
o>
enter
one, say R, is
or to, its square
may be
<o
The
a considerable
factor in determining the impedance of a circuit.
Having recourse once again

graph described
in
3,
the
pressed E.M.F. and current

already been
shown that
to the
harmonic shadow-
phase relation between immay be made plain. It has
and
are at right angles
to
SELF-INDUCTION.
27
of the im-'
Since the pressure
r is the part
pressed E.M.F. which sends the current, the current must
Therefore there is always a phase
be in phase with it.
each other.
of
maximum
its
change
This relation
s.
is
from a consideration of the fact that when /
also evident
reaches
between / and
displacement of 90
value
hence the
flux,
it
has, for the instant,
which
no rate
phase with the cur-
is in
rent, is not changing, and consequently the E.M.F. of selfinduction must be, for the instant, zero. That is, / is maxi-
mum when E
is
zero,
which means a displacement of 90.
In Fig. 1 8 the triangle of E.M.F.'s of Fig. 17 is altered

to the corresponding parallelogram of E.M.F. 's, and the
maximum
values substituted for the effective.
If
now
the
parallelogram revolve about the

center
o,
the
traces of the har-
36CT
monic shadows of
the extremities of
Em Erm
,
and
Esm
18.
Fig.
develop as
shown.
It is evident that the curve
will
curve of current
<f>.
It is clear
and so also the

E' by the angle
depends upon the
lags behind the curve
that the magnitude of
relative values of
'
and
<f>
in the circuit, the exact relation
being derived from the triangle of forces.
<oZ/
<uZ
7T/Z
Furthermore
that
is,
the cosine of the angle of lag
is
equal to the ratio
28
of the volts actually engaged in sending current to the

volts impressed in the circuit, and this ratio is again equal
to the power-factor as stated in
Choke
15.
6.
The term choke
Coils.
any device designed to

of self-induction to cut
utilize
coil
is
applied to
counter electromotive force
down the
flow of current in an
Disregarding losses by hysterdoes not absorb any power, except that

due to the current passing through its resistance.
alternating-current circuit.
esis,
a choke
which
It
is
coil
can therefore be more economically used than a rheostat
which would perform the same functions.

These coils are often used on alternating-current
cuits
in
current
cir-
such places as resistances are used on directcircuits.
For instance,
in the
starting devices
connection with alternating-current motors,

employed
of inductance is made to cut down the
counter
E.M.F.
the
in
pressure applied at the motor terminals.
The
starter for
direct-current motors employs resistance.
Since a lightning discharge
is
oscillatory in
character
and of enormous frequency, a coil which would offer a

negligible impedance to an ordinary alternating current
will offer
a high impedance to a lightning discharge.
This
fact is recognized in the construction of lightning arresters.
choke
coil of
but few turns
will offer so great
an impe-
dance to a lightning discharge that the high-tension, highfrequency current will find an easier path to the ground
through an
air
gap suitably provided than through the
machinery, and the latter is thus protected.

Choke coils are also used in connection with alternatingcurrent incandescent lamps, to vary the current passing
through them, and in consequence to vary the
brilliancy.
CAPACITY.
CHAPTER
29
III.
CAPACITY.
16.
Condensers.
Any two
conductors separated by a
In practice the word is
dielectric constitute a condenser.
generally applied to a collection of thin sheets of metal

separated by thin sheets of dielectric, every alternate
metal plate being connected to one terminal of the instruThe

ment, the intervening plates to the other terminal.
Ley den jar is also a common form of condenser.

The office of a condenser is to store electrical energy by
utilizing the principle of electrostatic induction.
If a con-
tinuous E.M.F. be applied to the terminals of a condenser,

a current will flow, large at first and gradually diminishtill
ing,
the plates of the condenser have been charged to
difference of potential that equals and

the
Then there
opposes
electrodynamic pressure applied.
is a balance of E.M.F.'s, and no current will flow if there
an
electrostatic
be no leakage.
frequent misconception as to the capacity of a condenser is that it is equal to the quantity of electricity it
will hold.
The quantity of electricity a given condenser
will
hold
is
directly proportional
to the tension of the
charge, and a consideration of this fact leads to the following definition

The capacity of a condenser is numerically equal to the
:
quantity of electricity with which
it
must be charged
in
30
order to raise the potential difference between
its
terminals
from zero to unity.

quantity and
the
If
units, the
potential be
be in
capacity, cy will
measured
in
c. G. s.
c. G. s.
units.
If practical
units be employed, the capacity, c, is expressed in farads.
The farad is the practical unit of capacity.
condenser
whose potential is raised one volt by a charge of one cou-
lomb has one farad capacity. The farad is io~ 9 times the
absolute unit, and even then is too large to conveniently
The
express the magnitudes encountered in practice.
most general
microfarad (y-oo"-0"oo"o f aracO is
term
use.
In electrostatics, both air and glass are used as dieleccondensers but the mechanical difficulties of con-
trics in
struction necessitate a low capacity per unit volume, and

therefore render these substances impracticable in electroit is
expensive and
used
as
the dielectric
manipulation,
generally
in standard condensers and in those which are intended to
dynamic engineering.
difficult of
Mica, although
is
withstand high
voltages.
made from
sheets of
Many commercial
condensers
alternating with slightly

of
sheets
paraffined paper.
Though not so good as
larger
are
mica,
paraffin
treated.
It
is
will
tinfoil,
make a good
if
properly
the moisture be expelled
If it is
employed in a condenser.
essential that
from the paraffin when

not, the water particles are
repelled
dielectric
all
alternately
by the changes of potential
attracted
and
on the contiguous
by a purely mechanical action, a hole is worn

completely through the dielectric, and the whole condenser
plates,
till,
rendered useless by short-circuit.
Ordinary paper almost
invariably contains small particles of metal, which become

detached from the calendar rolls used in manufacture.
OF THE
DIVERSITY 1
OF
<
These occasion
CAPACITY.
31
even when the paper
short-circuits
is
doubled.
condenser.
lytic
an
into
in
form of condenser
distinctly different
electrolyte, as, for
zinc
sulphate.
the electro-
is
two electrodes dipping

instance, two carbon electrodes
consists
It
of
of
charge
electricity will
deposit
upon one electrode and set up an E.M.F. of polarization.

Such condensers should not be subjected to voltin
excess of their E.M.F. of polarization.
Electroages
zinc
condensers have
lytic
same volume as other
about the
condensers of the same volt-ampere capacity.

The maximum voltage that may be applied to a con-
denser
limited
is
by the
dielectric strength of the material
be exceeded, the dielectric will

employed.
be ruptured, which renders the condenser useless. The
If
this limit
ohmic resistance
There
of
condenser dielectrics
is
not
infinite.
always a leakage from one charged plate to the

other through the insulation and over its surface.
Poor
is
insulation
may
occasion a considerable
when
as heat in the apparatus

dielectric hysteresis
sis
in iron.
may consume
which
is
dielectric
loss,
in use.
which appears
There
is
also a
analogous to
magnetic hysterewith a high hysteretic constant
considerable power
when
in use,
which
will
also appear as heat.
The capacity of a condenser

the following formula
may be
calculated
by using
C=
.000225
An
'
where
A=
capacity in microfarads,
area of dielectric between two conducting plates
in
square inches,
= number of sheets of dielectric,

= thickness of dielectric in mils,
k = specific inductive capacity of
from the following
dielectric as obtained
table.
TABLE.
17.
Glass
Ebonite
2.2 to 3
Gutta-percha
2.5
Paraffin
to 7
to 2.3
Shellac
2.75
Mica
Beeswax
Kerosene
6.6
1.8
2
to 2.5
Connection of Condensers in Parallel and in Series.
-Condensers
may be connected
in parallel as in Fig. 19.
the capacities of the individual

condensers be respectively Clf C9 C8
If
etc.,
the capacity
of the combina-
tion will be
The
parallel
arrangement of sev-
Flg< I9 *
eral condensers is equivalent to inAn

creasing the number of plates in one condenser.
increase in the number of plates results in an increase in
the quantity of electricity necessary to raise the potential
difference between the terminals

volt
If
that
is,
an increase
in
of
the condenser one
the capacity results.
the condensers be connected in series, as in Fig. 20,
the capacity of the combination
C=
will
be
CAPACITY.
For,
if
33
a quantity of positive electricity, Q, flow into the
it will induce and keep bound an equal negthe right side of C^ and will repel an
on
ative quantity
This last quantity will constitute
equal positive quantity.
left side of
C^
the charge for the

side
left
of
The
is
operation
in the
repeated
case of each of
the condensers.
charge
in
Fi
It
must consist
sum
of the
lt
Ep E#
But
etc.
Then
Q.
the impressed
E,
of
on the
E.M.F.
,= U
C2
also,
therefore
the quantity
that
The impressed E.M.F.
of the potential differences
C-1
and
is
20 -
Let these differences be respectively
separate condensers.
thus clear
is
each condenser
>
etc.,
^,
C-
+
^3
'2
or
As an
example, consider three condensers of respective

Since the factor to
capacities of i, 2, and 5 microfarads.
reduce to farads will appear on both sides of the equations,

it
may here be omitted. With the three in multiple (Fig.
19), the capacity of the combination will be
C=
+2+
mf
34
With the three
in series (Fig. 20),
C=
With the two smaller
.588 mf.
in parallel
and
series with the
in
larger (Fig. 21),
-=
C=+2
1.875 mf.
+
5
Fig. 21.
smaller in series and in parallel with the
With the two

larger (Fig. 22),
+5=
C=
If
5-666 mf.
with any condensers
Q= C
Cn
then, with H in multiple,
C = nClt
and with n
in series,
C=
It is interesting to
in parallel
and
C,.
note that the formulas for capacities
in series respectively are just the reverse of
those for resistances in parallel and

18.
Growth
of
in series respectively.
Current in a Condensive Circuit.
opposition to a flow of current which
is
The
caused by a con-
CAPACITY.
35
quite different from that which is caused by a

To be sure, there is some resistance in the
resistance.
denser
leads
is
and condenser
as to be negligible.
plates, but
The
this
is
generally so small
practically infinite resistance of
the condenser dielectric does not obstruct the current as
an ordinary resistance is generally considered to do.

dielectric is the seat of a polarization E.M.F. which
The
de-
is
veloped by the condenser charge and which grows with it.

It is a counter E.M.F. ; and when it reaches a value equal
to that of the impressed voltage, the charging current
is
forced to cease.
To
find the current at
any instant of time,
/",
in
a circuit
and a capacity C, the

(Fig. 23) containing a resistance
must
constant impressed pressure
be considered as consisting of two

variable parts,
one
r)
being active
sending current through the rethe other part,

c
sistance, and
in
being required to balance the poThen at

tential of the condenser.
all
times
Let time be reckoned from the instant the pressure

applied
when, therefore,
o and /
is
Consider the
Then if it flow
current at any instant of time to be /'.
for dt seconds it will cause dQ coulombs to traverse the
circuit,
and
r/_ <*Q or
at
from which
<r=//v,
36
By
definition,
therefore,
E'
And by Ohm's Law,

so at this instant of time
whence
EC =
which upon differentiating, becomes
Integrating
C* ,f
Jo
CONDENSER
CHARGING CURRENT
= _ RC
T^
/
J/o
Solving for
/',
100 V.
R-10
C
2 MF.
which
is
the
expression
the
corre-
sought.
Like
sponding
expression
inductive
circuit,
it
for
is
an
loga-
rithmic.
Fig. 24 is a curve showing the growth of current

condenser for the conditions indicated.
in
CAPACITY.
37
Condensers in Alternating-Current Circuits

HyImagine a circuit consisting of a pipe
through which water is made to flow, first one way, then
19.
draulic Analogy.
the other,
of
the
by a piston
The
it.
pump
pipe circuit
pump-like in one section
oscillated
corresponds to an electric
to a generator of alternating
circuit,
E.M.F., and the

Further
flow of water to a flow of alternating current.
imagine one section of the pipe to be enlarged, and in it

This section corplaced a transverse elastic diaphragm.
Its capacity with a unit pressure
responds to a condenser.
on
one
side depends upon the area of the diaof water
phragm,
its
thinness,
which
and the
elastic co-efficients of
the ma-
made.
In a condenser the capacity

the
area
of
the
dielectric under strain, its
depends upon
thinness, and the specific inductive capacity of the dielecterial of
tric
is
As the water surges to and fro in the

some work must be done upon the diaphragm, since.
employed.
pipe,
it
it
is
This
not perfectly elastic.
loss in a
loss
corresponds to the
condenser by dielectric hysteresis.
The
fact that
the diaphragm is not absolutely impervious to water corresponds to the fact that a dielectric is not an absolute
electric insulator.
As
the diaphragm
great a hydrostatic pressure,, so

tured by too great
20.
may
may be
tween pressure and current
in a
by too
the dielectric be rup-
To understand
Phase Relations.
burst
the relation be-
condensive
circuit, con-
above analogy.
Imagine the diaphragm in its
medial position, with equal volumes of water on either side
sider the
of
it,
and the piston
in
the middle of
its
travel.
This
middle point corresponds to zero pressure.

When the piston is completely depressed, there is a maximum negative
38
pressure,
when completely
maximum
elevated, a
positive
pressure and flow upward be considered in the

If the piston oscillate in its path with a
positive direction.
it
is
clear that the water will flow upward
regular motion,
pressure,
if
from the extreme lowest
extreme highest position of

be flow in the positive direc-
to the
the piston. That is, there will

from the maximum negative to the
maximum
tion
values
of pressure.
The
of
direction
flow
is
positive
seen
remain unchanged while the piston passes through

middle position or the point of zero pressure.
Returning to
electric
be impressed upon any
phenomena,
to
its
a harmonic E.M.F.
if
circuit, a harmonic current will
flow in
it.
So
in a
cir-
cuit
containing a condenser and subject to a
sinusoidal
E.M.F.,
the
current flow will be sinusoidal.

Flg
'
25
'
in
This flow
will
be
the positive direction
from the negative maximum to the positive maximum of

pressure, and in a negative direction from the positive
maximum
to the negative
maximum,
This necessitates that the zero values

the
maximum
values of pressure
as described above.
of current occur at
and since the curves are
both sinusoids, their relation may be plotted as in Fig. 25.

It is immediately seen that these curves are at right
angles, as described in
pressure by
5,
and that the current leads the
90.
Reference again to the hydraulic analogy will show that

the condenser is completely charged at the instant of
maximum
positive pressure, discharged at the instant of

zero pressure, charged in the opposite direction at the in-
CAPACITY.
maximum
slant of
and
pressure,
39
negative
finally
dis-
charged at the instant of

the next zero pressure.
Thus the charge

the
and
is
zero at
maximum current
at a maximum at
current, that
is,
flow,
zero
Fig. 26.
when the
current turns and starts to flow out.
marked
in Fig.
Current
21.
pressure
E of
the latter
i
next
4/
site
The
26.
and Voltage Relations.

If a sinusoidal
a condenser,
be
impressed
upon
frequency/"
charged
in -
seconds, discharged in the
seconds, and charged and discharged in the oppo-
direction
maximum
full
is
These points are
in. the
voltage
charge
equal
Em =
Ê
The
succeeding intervals.
(
4),
hence the quantity
at
is
quantity flowing through the circuit per second
is
This number therefore represents the average current, or

'
From
4,
Iav
the effective current
whence
and
1=
E=
V2
2
I
'
27T/C
The last is an expression for the volts necessary to send
The expression
the capacity current through a circuit.
called the capacity reactance of the circuit.
îs
analogous to 2
It is
the inductance reactance of an induc-
-nfL,
tive circuit.
the circuit
If
city C,
as
made up
two
of
R and a capamust be considered
contain both a resistance
the voltage
the resistance and
impressed upon
parts,
r,
it
which sends current through
therefore in phase with the current,

which balances the counter pressure of the condenser and is therefore 90 behind the current in phase.
and
is
cy
By Ohm's Law
T?
,
~D
Kl,
and from above
/
27T/C
The impressed
two E.M.F.'s
E must overcome the resultant

and since they are at right angles
of these
E r ~RI
or
p
Fig. 37.
The
Fig.
relation of
27,
pressure
angle
the E.M.F.'s
is
where the current, which
r,
is
shown graphically
in
phase with the

seen to lead the impressed pressure by the
is
in
<.
Resistance, Inductance, and Capacity in an AlterThe general case of an alternating-Current Circuit.

22.
CAPACITY.
nat ing-cur rent
circuit
one
is
that
contains
resistance,
To derive the expression for

inductance, and capacity.
current flow in such a circuit, it is but necessary to comand this is most readily
bine the results already found
done graphically. In
14 it was shown that the counter
;
27T/L
27T/L
Fig, 28.
E.M.F. due to the inductance reactance of a circuit is

In 21 it was shown
2-nfL, and leads the current by 90.
that the
E.M.F.
of capacity reactance of a circuit
is
-^=.
2 7T/C
These two E.M.F.'s

and
exactly opposite phases, or 180 apart,
and lags behind the current by 90.

are, then, in
Fig. 29.
the resultant reactance
These
relations are
is
merely their numerical difference.

in Fig. 28, where the reactance
shown
greater than that of condensance, and in

Fig. 29, where the latter exceeds the former, the resistance
being the same in either case.
Clearly the impedance
of inductance
is
resulting from the three factors
R, L, and
C is
represented
42
ill
direction
and
in
magnitude by the hypothenuse as shown,
and the impressed pressure
is proportional to this
quantity.
general expression for the flow of an alternating
current through any kind of circuit is therefore
The
the quantity within the brackets indicating an angle of lag

of current if positive, and an angle of lead if negative.
23.
Resonance.
If in
a circuit containing inductance
and capacity as well as resistance, the two former are

proportioned so that
the expression
reduces to
the capacity being of a proper magnitude to balance inducAt one instant energy is being stored in the field
tance.
same rate as it is being given to the circuit by the

condenser, and at another instant energy is being released
from the field at the same rate as it is being stored in' the
at the
condenser.
When
this
condition
attained, or the circuit

If the capacity
is
prevails, resonance
said to
is
said to
be
be in tune.
and inductance be
in parallel,
enormous
CAPACITY.
currents
may
flow between the two.
two are balanced, and the one
is
43
This
at
is
because the
any time ready to
and a surging
receive the energy given up by the other
once started between them receives periodical increments
;
of
energy from the
line.
This
known mechanical phenomena
is
analogous to the well-
that a
number
of gentle,
but well-timed, mechanical impulses can set a very heavy

suspended body into violent motion. The frequency of
these impulses
must correspond exactly
to the
natural
period of oscillation of the body.

If
the capacity and inductance be in series, the differ-
ence of potential between the terminals of either may be

far greater than the E.M.F. impressed upon the circuit.
In the
first
case
damage
is
likely to result
from the
overloading of the conductors between the inductance and

the capacity, even to burning them out, while in the second
case the pressure may rise to such a point as to puncture
the insulation of all the apparatus in the circuit, even that
of the generator itself.
44
CHAPTER
IV.
PROBLEMS ON ALTERNATING-CURRENT
CIRCUITS.
Definitions of Terms.
24.
In considering the flow of
alternating currents through series circuits and through

parallel circuits, continual use must be made of various
some
which have been defined during the

For convenience
development of the previous chapters.
expressions,
the names of
all
of
the expressions connected with the general
equation
E
v
-M
**fc)
be given and defined.
will
7T/Z
is
the current flowing in the
circuit.
It
is
expressed
amperes, and lags behind or leads the pressure, by an

angle whose value is
in
= tan
is
which
is
is
the harmonic pressure, of maximum value %/2 E,

It
applied to the circuit, and has a frequency/.
expressed in volts.
is the resistance of the
and
expressed in
It is numerically equal to the product of the imohms.
pedance by the cosine of <.
circuit,
is
PROBLEMS.
45
the inductance of the circuit, and
is
is
expressed in
henrys.
C is
the localized capacity of the circuit, and
is
expressed
in farads.
2 TrfL
is
expressed
the inductive reactance of the circuit, and
in
is
ohms.
27T/C
is
the capacity reactance, or capacitance, of the circuit, and
is
expressed in ohms.
is
the reactance of the circuit, and
is
expressed in ohms.
numerically equal to the product of the

the sine of <.
It is
impedance by
is
the impedance or apparent resistance of the circuit, and
is
expressed in ohms.
the reciprocal of the impedance,

circuit.
It is
is
the admittance of the
expressed in terms of a unit that has never
CONDUCTANCE
Fig. 30.
been
as
named, but which has sometimes been called

There are two components of the admittance,
officially
the mho.
shown
in Fig. 30.
46
The conductance
E must
to E.
and
of a circuit
that quantity by which
is
be multiplied to give the component of / parallel

It is measured in the same units as the admittance,
numerically equal to
is
cos
<
'
impedance
and also to
The
susceptance of a circuit is that quantity by which

be multiplied to give the component of / perpendicular to E.
It is measured in the same units as the
E must
admittance, and
is
numerically equal to
sin
</>
'
impedance
and also to
It
should be noticed that while admittance
rocal
of
impedance, conductance
resistance, nor
is
is
the recip-
not the reciprocal of
susceptance the reciprocal of reactance.

This becomes evident, upon considering numerical values
is
connection with the impedance right-angled triangle,

for the sides.
e.g., 3, 4, and 5
in
25.
E.M.F.'s in Series.
be put
in series
Alternating
differ in
E.M.F.'s
that
in frequency,
magnitude,
may
Forms
phase relation, and in form or shape of wave.
other than that of the sinusoid need not be discussed.
may
in
PROBLEMS.
47
E.M.F.'s of different frequencies in series

irregular wave-form whose maximum values
The
intervals.
duration of
common
these intervals
give an
recur at
will
will
is
the least
the
of
multiple
durations of the component
half cycles.
If
two harmonic E.M.F.'s
the same frequency and

phase be in series, the re-
of
sulting
E.M.F.
sum
the
E.M.F.'s.
shown
in
of
is
merely
the
separate
This condition is
Fig. 31, in
which
Fig. 31.
the two E.M.F.'s are plotted
together, and the resulting E.M.F. plotted by making its
instantaneous values equal to the sum of the correspond-
ing instantaneous values of the component E.M.F.'s.

of the resultant E.M.F. is evidently
The
maximum
and since
E^
V2
V2
lm
-,
and
V^
as
was
stated.
two E.M.F.'?, of the same frequency, but exactly

opposite in phase, be placed in series, it may be similarly
shown that the resultant E.M.F. is the numerical differIf
ence of the component E.M.F.'s.
This case
may
occur in
the operation of motors.
The most
of
general case that occurs is that of a number

of the same frequency, but of
alternating E.M.F.'s
48
different
and
magnitudes
phase
The
displacements.
changes
magnitude and phase and the
the resulting curve of E.M.F. are shown
in
-oh ise
elation of
in Fij. j2,
where
had once again to the harmonic shadowgraph.

E and
are treated, whose phase
radii
is
The
vectors
E}m and E^m are
displacement
r
recourse
is
"
But two components,
<
from o with the proper angle <, between them,

and the shadows traced by their extremities are shown in
laid
off
The instantaneous value of the resultsum of the corresponding in-
the dotted curves.

ant E.M.F.
is
the algebraic
Fig. 3*.
stantaneous values of the component E.M.F.'s, and the

resultant curve of E.M.F. is traced in the figure by the
But
solid line.
this solid curve
is
also the trace of the ex-
m which is the vector sum (the resulttremity of the line

ant of the force polygon) of the component pressures,
im
,
evident from the fact that any instantaneous value of the resultant pressure curve is the sum of
and EW-
This
is
the corresponding instantaneous values of the component

curves, or ( 3)
'=
E lm
sin
o>/
+ EZm
sin (o>/
<fo).
Again from the force polygon
Em sin
(w/
$)
= Elm
sin
<o/
+E
m sin
(W +
&).
PROBLEMS.
Hence
at
any instant
E'=
sin
wherefore the extremity of the line

resultant pressure,
49
<
being
Em traces the
curve of
angular displacement from
its
component E.M.F. is to be added in series,

with the resultant of the first two in
combined
be
may
an exactly similar manner.
.
If a third
it
So it may be stated as a general proposition, that if any

number of harmonic E.M.F. 's, of the same frequency, but
magnitudes and
be
displacements,
of various
phase
connected
in
series,
the
~-*r
resulting harmonic E.M.F.

will be given in magnitude
"
e-.
and phase by the vector sum of the component E.M.F.' s.

and
The analytic expressions for
may be derived by
inspection of the diagram,
<f>
and are
E=
and
]Y
E
E
sn
cos
sin
<
4-
cos
Fig. 34-
As
33, to
waves
a numerical example, suppose three alternators, Fig.

be connected in series.
Suppose these to give sine
of pressure of values
E = 70,
l
E^ =
6>
anc^
-^3
=4
volts respectively.
the datum phase,

<
= 4O,
and
let
Considering the phase of

the phase displacements be
^ = 75, respectively.
It is
be
to
l
<^ i
= o,
required to find
and <. Completing the parallelograms or completing

the force polygon as shown in Fig. 34, it is found that
E=
26.
148.7 volts and
32.1.
Consider a circuit having
Polygon of Impedances.
number
may
<
or
capacity.
of pieces of apparatus in series, each of
may
not
possess
which
inductance,
resistance,
There can be but one current
and
in that circuit
when a pressure is applied, and that current must have

The pressure at
the same phase throughout the circuit.
the terminals of the various pieces of apparatus, necessary
to maintain through them this current, may, of course, be
of different magnitude
and
in
same or
the
different phases, being
upon
dependent
C.
the
R, L, and
Therefore to de-
values
of
termine
necessary
the
to
pressure
send a
certain alternating cur-
rent
such
through
series circuit,
it
is
but
necessary to add vec35torially the pressures

needed to send such a current through the separate parts
of the circuit.
This
is
readily
done graphically.
shows the pressures (according to

22) necessary to send the current / through several pieces of apFig. 35
PROBLEMS.
paratus,
and the combination
of
51
these pressures into a
necessary to send
polygon giving the resultant pressure
the current / through the several pieces in series.
In
these diagrams, impedance is represented by the letter Z.
C^ and C3 are localized, not distributed capacities.
For practical purposes, the quantity 7, which is common
may be omitted and merely

"
be
added
vectorially in a
polygon of
may
an
impedances," giving
equivalent impedance, which, when
multiplied by /, gives E.
to each side of the triangle,
the impedances
shows that the
Inspection of the figure

pression for the required
The
analytical ex-
is
pressure at the terminals of any single part of the
circuit is
evident that
It is
EI
and
it is
differences, as
27.
EI
+ ....>
E,
found by experiment that the sum of the potential
measured by a voltmeter,
parts of the circuit,
Shown
is
Numerical Example Applying
in Fig. 35.
in
the various
greater than the impressed pressure.

to the Arrangement
Suppose the pieces of apparatus to
have the following constants
=
=
40 ohms,
RI =
ioo ohms.
85 ohms,
= .25
= .3
henry,
Ci
= .000018 farad
C=
s
With a frequency
of
(18 mf.)
henry,
60 cycles
.000025 farad,
whence
(0
= 377
it
is
required to find the pressure necessary to be applied to the

circuit to send 10 amperes through it.
Fig. 36.
The completion
of
the
successive
parallelograms
in
equivalent to completing the
impedance polyFig. 36,

gon, and the parts are so marked as to require no explanaThe solution shows that the equivalent impedance,
tion.
^=229.5 ohms, that the equivalent resistance (= actual
is
actance
is
R = 22$
ohms, that the equivalent recondensive and equals 46.2 ohms, and that </ =
resistance in series),
PROBLEMS.
Hence the pressure required
of lead.
11.55
amperes through the
E=
To
obtain the
E = 10
53
10
circuit is
10
same
to send
229.5
22 9S v
lts.
results analytically
~ 94- 2
[85H-4o-fioo]
-f-
[(147.3
E = 2295
II 3-
4- io6.2]
2
,
volts.
The
voltages at the terminals of the various pieces of apparatus are

:
=
=
E =
E =
10
TO
V85
2
V4o
10
Vo 2
4-
10
2
-f-
+ 13.
+ io6.2
Vioo
4- o
94- 2 )
iooi volts,
=1200
=1062
~~
(147.3
i
1000
4- E + E
z
is greater than ." = 2195

numerical sum of the pressures
which
volts,
showing that the
greater than the imwhile the vectorial sum of the separate

pressed pressure
pressures is equal to the impressed pressure.
is
Polygon of Admittances. -- If a group of several

impedances, Z^ Z. etc., be connected in parallel to a
28.
common
E.M.F.
source of harmonic
equivalent impedance
is
most
sidering their admittances
Y Y
lt
of
volts,
their
easily determined by con2,
etc.
The
currents in
these circuits wouid be
The
total current, supplied
vector
sum
of these currents,
to their phase relations.
I=EY
by the source, would be the

due consideration being given
Calling this current /, the equation

can be written, where Fis the equivalent admit-
54
tance of the group.
To determine
geometrical addition
F, a
of F1? F2 etc., must be made, the angular relations being

the same as the phase relations of / 1^ etc., respectively.
The value of the equivalent admittance may therefore be
,
represented by the closing side of a polygon, whose other

sides are represented in magnitude by the several admittances
by the
Y F
and whose directions are determined

phase angles of the currents I /. etc., flowing
2,
lf
etc.,
lt
The equivalent imthrough the admittances respectively.

pedance then is equal to the reciprocal of F. The sum
of the instantaneous values of the currents in the branch
circuits
is
equal to the corresponding instantaneous values
Fig. 37-
in the
supply main.
at various times, the
As, however, the
sum
maximums
occur
of the effective currents in the
generally greater than the main supply current.

Fig. 37 is a polygon of admittances, showing the
and its phase angle
method of obtaining the admittance
branches
is
referred to a
datum
line,
of parallel admittances,
and
<f>
3,
which
F,,
is
equivalent to a
and
number
with angles fa-fa,
respectively.
By taking its reciprocal, the equivalent admittance

can be transformed into the equivalent impedance.
The
convenient dimensional scale should be employed.
reactance
into
its
resolved
be
equivalent
impedance may
PROBLEMS.
The equiits equivalent resistance.
valent resistance is not the resistance of
and
the
arrangement as measured
parallel
by direct-current methods.
As
a numerical example, consider the
same apparatus
as
was used
in the pre-
Fig. 38.
27, to be arranged in parallel, as in Fig.
ceding example,
All the other conditions and values are as stated
38.
before.
It
quired
current
to find
the
that
will'
flow
is
re-
through
the
when
ten
mains
volts are impressed
on the
circuit.
The
diagram, Fig. 39,
is
self-explanatory.
solution shows
The
Fig
admittance
39 -
that the equivalent
and that
^=.0224
<
16.1.
From
this
the equivalent impedance
Z=
44.6 ohms,
.0224
the equivalent reactance
= Zs'm
[<oZ
d>
12.4 ohms,
0)CJ
and the equivalent resistance
R = Z cos
The
current
under
volts
is
that
will
I = EY=
10
flow
x. 02 24
42.9 ohms.
pressure of 10
4>
.224 amperes.
56
a circuit have some impedances in series and some

parallel, or in any series
parallel combination, the
If
in
equivalent impedance can always be found by finding the

equivalent impedances of the several groups, and then
combining these equivalent impedances to get the

equivalent impedance sought.
total
ALTERNATORS.
CHAPTER
57
V.
ALTERNATORS.
29.
Single-phase Alternators
As
is
the
with
case
machines, alternators have a field and an

The direct-current machine's commutator is
direct-current
armature.
replaced, in the single-phaser,
by a
pair of slip-rings
an$
being rectified, is lead out as

alternating current by brushes playing on the rings, as
described in
Revolving field and inductor
29, vol. i.
the
current,
instead
of
alternators differ from this arrangement, as will be
shown
hereafter.
It is
should
necessary that
all
be multipolar to
but the very smallest alternators

fit
them
to commercial require-
For alternators must have in general a frequency

between 25 and 125 cycles per second; the armature
must be large enough to dissipate the heat generated at
ments.
temperature rising high enough to

the
insulation
and finally, the peripheral speed of
injure
the armature cannot safely be made to greatly exceed a
mile a minute.
With these restrictions in mind, and
full
load without its
knowing that a point on the armature must pass under

two poles for each cycle, it becomes evident that alternators of anything but the smallest capacity must be multipolar.
In practice
it
is
quite as
common
to have the field of
an alternator revolve inside the armature as to have the
58
armature revolve.
In a few instances, notably at Niagara,

The chief advan-
the fields revolve outside the armature.
tage of the revolving field is that it avoids the collection

of high-tension currents through brushes, since the armature may be permanently connected up, and only lowtension direct current need be fed through the rings to
the field.
Other advantages are increased room for arma-
ture insulation, and, in polyphasers, the necessity for only

two instead of three or more slip-rings.
30.
Polyphase Alternators
satisfactory
for lights,
but
Single-phase currents are

As
not, as yet, for power.
polyphase currents are equally well adapted to both purposes, and since they are generally more economical of
transmission than the single-phase, they are much more
If a motor be operated on a
generally employed.
singlephase circuit, the supply of power to it is pulsating.
These pulsations occur with great rapidity, there being in

case of unit power factor two for each cycle.
A
motor
must
be
for
the
same capacity
larger
single-phase
the
than a polyphase motor.

for any number of circuits or phases may be
on
a
single-armature core, and these may each be
placed
separately connected to an outside circuit through sliprings, or they may be connected together in the armature
Windings
according to some scheme whereby one slip-ring will be

common to two phases. These windings can be placed so
that the E.M.F.'s generated therein
It
phase relations with each other.
them
so that the
E.M.Fls
will
is
have any desired
customary to place
of a two-phase or four-phase
system are 90 apart, of a three-phase system are 120

apart, of a six- phase system are 60 apart.
ALTERNATORS.
$9
In the following diagrams the curled lines are supposed

to represent armature windings, which revolve in a bipolar
In some cases they
field.
'are
supposed to be wound on
cores so as to form pole armatures and in the other cases

The dots at the terminals repreto form ring armatures.
sent points of transition between slip-rings and brushes,
It is desirable to
which are in connection with line wires.
consider the relations between the E.M.F.'s generated in

the armature coils and the pressure between the line-wires,
as well as
between the currents
in the
armature
The assumption
the currents in the line-wires.
coils
and
made
is
that the different phases are equally loaded, both as to
current and as to
its
be balanced.
is
It
E.M.F.
in
current
/ amperes.
31.
The system
phase.
further assumed that
each armature
coil is
attached
respectively
is
pressure
to
then said to
the
and the
effective
effective
In the case of two coils and
Two-phase Systems
four wires, the
E volts,
is
each
volts
between the wires
coil.
There is no connection between the

two coils and their wires.
In case three wires be employed, as
shown in Fig. 40, the pressure between

m and n or between / and n is E
volts, and ^2E volts between / and m.
in / and m and V2/ in n.
32.
41^,
i.e.,
If
flows
When
con-
star connected, the pressure
between /and
or n and / is 2E volts
and / or m it is *^2E volts. The current
/ amperes.
I amperes
Four-phase or Quarter-phase Systems.
nected, as in Fig.
is
Fig> 4
between
in
connected as in Fig 41^,
;/
or/
each line-wire
i.e.,
ring
con-.
6o
is E volts between / and /z, n and m,

and /, or / and /, and V2.fi" volts between / and m, or
n and /. The current in each line-wire is V2/ amperes.
nected, the pressure
Star
Ring
Fig. 41.
33.
Three-phase Systems
The
pressure and current
relations in three-phase apparatus are often puzzling to the
student.
Consider three similar
coils, x, y,
and
2,
on a
The
ring armature, each covering 120, as in Fig. 42^.
E.M.F.'s generated in these coils, when they are rotated
in a bipolar field, will have the same maximum values, but
they
will differ in
of the coils,
x and
phase from each other by 120. If two

y, be connected as in b, then the pres-
sure between the free terminals would be the result of
adding the two E.M.F.'s
at
120
with each other.
instead of this connection, the one
known
shown
in c
If,
be made,
connection, the pressure between the free terminals would be the result of
as the star connection or
ALTERNATORS.
6l
subtracting the E.M.F. of coil y from that of x at 120.

Subtraction is necessary because the connections of coil y
to the circuit have been reversed.
To
subtract one quantity from another it is
but necessary to change its sign and
Therefore the pressure between
add.
the free terminals
from adding the

300 (= 120 +
43.
It
is
that which results
is
E.M.F .'s
1
80)
The
volts.
ÎÊ
of
x and y
shown
as
at
in Fig.
star connection
is
generally
represented as in Fig. 44, where the pressure between any
two line-wires is V^fi" volts, and the current in each
is / amperes.
the three coils be connected as
line-wire
If
in
Fig. 45, the result is termed a delta (A)

or mesh-connection.
The pressure between any two of the line-wires is
Each
volts.
Fig. 44.
made
line-wire
current from two
at the junction
coils,
supplied with
connection being
is
between the beginning
of
one
coil
and the ending of the other. The

value of the current in each wire
is
VJ/ amperes.
This results from
subtracting the current in one coil

from that in the other at 120,
which, as before,
is
adding the currents
The power which

by a three-phase
the same as
at
is
300.
delivered
machine
Fig. 45is
not
by changing the method of connection. In one

case each phase is supplied with / amperes at V3 E volts,
altered
in the other case
with \/3 / amperes at
E volts.
62
At any
is
system
instant the current in one wire of a three-phase

equal and opposite to the algebraic sum of the
currents
two
the other
in
This
wires.
is
shown in Fig.
where the curve
clearly
46,
found
Fig. 46.
Electromotive Force Generated.
p = number
in
ordi-
similar, exactly
In
was shown that the pressure generated
where
is
at
adding
each instant the
nates of two of the three-phase currents

equal, and opposite to the third current.
34.
by
13, vol.
i.,
it
an armature
is
of pairs of poles;
= maxwells of flux per pole,

V = revolutions per minute,
6 = number of inductors.
<
and
= kÊ^ where k^ is the

In an alternating current
form-factor, i.e., the ratio of the effective to the average
E.M.F.
Hence
in
E.M.F.,
an
alternator yielding a sine
wave
8
2.22p$>S~- IOOO
Inasmuch as/
the frequency,/,
j- represents
JS
An
2.22
&SflO~
alternator armature winding
8
.
may be
either concen-
considering but a single phase,

there is but one slot per pole, and all the inductors that are
intended to be under one pole are laid in one slot, then
trated or distributed.
If,
ALTERNATORS.
the winding
are
all
now
is
said to be concentrated,
above formula for
in series the
the inductors be not
tributed in
;/
more or
all laid in
generated in the
and
is
one
if
the inductors
applicable.
If
but be
dis-
slot,
less closely adjacent slots, the
generated in the inductors of any one
slot will
E.M.F.
be - of that
and the pressures in the differslightly in phase from each other, since
first case,
ent slots will differ
they
63
come under the center of a given pole at different

The phase difference between the E.M.F. gener-
times.
ated in two conductors which are placed in two successive

armature slots, depends upon the ratio of the peripheral
distance between the centers of the slots to the peripheral
distance between
360.
two successive north poles considered as
This phase difference angle

width
:
slot
+ width tooth
"*O
circumference armature
no. pairs poles
the inductors of four adjacent slots be in series, and

the angle of phase difference between the pressures
generated in the successive ones be <, then letting
lt E^
If
if
s,
and
represent the respective pressures, which are
Fig- 47-
supposed to be harmonic, the total pressure, E, generated

in them is
equal to the closing side of the polygon as
If
<
+ E., -j- z -\- f
Obviously
the winding had been concentrated, with all the indue-
shown
in
Fig. 47.
64
tors in
one
slot,
the total pressure generated would have
been equal to the algebraic sum.
The
ratio of the vector
sum
to the algebraic
sum
of
the pressures generated per pole and per phase is called the
distribution constant.
Not only may the number of slots
under the pole vary, but they may be spaced so as to

occupy the whole surface of the armature between successive
poles
(the peripheral distance between two

the. pole distance), or they may be crowded
together so as to
pole centers
is
termed
UK)
Slot.
occupy
one-
only
half,
one-fourth, or
any
other fraction
.97
Both
of this space.
.96
the
number
and
.94
the
of slots
fractional
part of the pole dis-
tance
2 Slots.
,91
action of Pole Dista ..

SlotsJ
Occupiejd by
.90
occupy
which
they
affect
3 Slots.
value of the
4 Slots.
Many
bution constant.
the
distri-
Slots.
.3
set of curves,
Fig.
Fig. 48.
48, has been drawn,
showing the values of this constant for various conditions.

Curves are drawn for one slot (concentrated winding), 2,
a group, and many slots (i.e., smooth core
with wires in close contact on the surface). The ordinates
3,
slots in
are the distribution constants, and the abscissae the fractional part of the pole distance occupied
The
distribution
by the slots.
must
be
introduced
constant, k^
the formula for the E.M.F. giving

DO
into
ALTERNATORS.
or, for sine
waves,
2.22
Some simple diagrams of

35. Armature Windings.
the windings of multipolar alternators are given in Fig. 49
The first is a single-phase concentrated winding,
et seq.
with the winding which is necessary to make it two-phase
If the two windings be electrically conin dotted lines.
nected where they cross at point
4- POLE.
SINGLE PHASE.
the machine becomes
CONCENTRATED.
OF DOTTED WINDING MAKES
TWO PHASE
IT
CONCENTRATED.
Fig. 49.
Fig. 50.
a star-connected four-phaser.
50
Fig.
is
a three-phase,
connected, concentrated winding.

Fig. 5 i is the same
but y connected.
The common junction of the windings
would have to be provided with a
three-phase,
slots.
In
inductors
A connected winding
if
slip-ring
desired to operate a three-phase, four-wire

the fourth wire connected to the machine.
it
were
system with
Fig.
distributed
5 2
is
over two
these diagrams the radial lines represent the

other lines the connecting wires.
The induc-
all
;
tors of different phases are
drawn
differently for clearness.
66
Where but one inductor

be a number wound into
shown,
in practice there
and placed
in the
would
one
slot.
the inductors of one phase are shown in

concentrated windings, all inductors of one
For simplicity
series.
is
a coil
In
all
4- POLE.
3- PHASE.
Y.
CONCENTRATED.
Fig. 51.
phase carrying current in the same direction could be

connected in multiple if desired but with distributed wind;
ings, the coils cannot all be placed in multiple, because the

small phase differences between them would set up local
currents and .give rise to undue heating.

To determine the interior connections for a three-phase
A winding, place the inductors of a coil of one phase under
the centers of the poles, then a
maximum
pressure in a
Since the algebraic
given direction is generated, therein.

sum of the pressures around the A must be zero, the other
two phases must be connected so that
their pressures
To
determine
the
the
first.
oppose
y connection, place
the inductors of one phase under the centers of the poles.
of this phase will now be at a maximum, say,
the
common center. The other two phases
from
away
The E.M.F.
ALTERNATORS.
6/
must be so connected as to have E.M.F.'s toward the com-
mon
center at this instant.
Armature Reaction
The armature
reaction of an
and magnetizaThese depend upon the armation or demagnetization.
ture ampere-turns and upon the lag or lead of the armature
36.
alternator consists of
its
is
parts, distortion
The maximum
current.
sure
two
generated in a
opposite
pres-
coil
inductors
when
are
re-
spectively under the centers of
north and south poles. This conFig< 53 *
dition is represented in Fig. 53.
the armature current be in phase with the pressure, /,

in the coils coincides with
m and poles on the armature
If
are formed as shown.
It is
seen that the M.M.F.'s both
of the field and of the armature conspire to concentrate

the flux in the trailing pole tips.
So with / in phase with
the armature M.M.F. chiefly effects a distortion of the
lines, entailing
a greater flux density, hence a lower per-
This
meability, and also a greater length of air-gap path.
decreases
the
and
affects
the
flux,
slightly
regulation of
the alternator.
If, now, the current be lagging, the armature will have
reached a position in advance, at the instant of maximum
current.
Therefore, like poles of
the field and of the
will be more
directly opposite to each other.
and
distorting influence will be present in a degree
there will be considerable demagnetization of the field, due
armature
The
to the opposing
turns.
If
maximum
M.M.F.'s
of the
armature and
field
ampere-
the current be leading, then, at the instant of

current, a south, armature pole will be more
68
nearly opposite to a north field pole, and their M.M.F.'s

will be cumulative.
The field will be strengthened if the
magnetizing reaction exceeds in effect the skewing reaction.
Alternators have a
much
better regulation on non-
inductive loads than on inductive loads.
37.
The impedance
Armature Inductance
nator armature
combined
is
at right
made up
of
angles with
its
its
ohmic
of
an
alter-
resistance,
reactance,
2 -nfL.
R,
In
practice the inductance, Z,

likely to be so great that
becomes negligible, and the impedance equals the reacThe armature reactance may or may not be an
tance.
is
appreciable part of the impedance offered by the completed

If it is appreciable, then the current in the circuit
circuit.
even with a non-inductive load. In any case there

be loss of voltage due to armature impedance which
(when R is negligible) is equal to 2 -ofLI. This is at right
will lag
will
angles to the current, and must be properly combined with

/ times the equivalent impedance of the external circuit to determine the pressure actually generated in the
In special cases the armature reactance is the

predominant feature of the circuit for instance, alternators
machine.
for series arc lighting are
that the
impedance
of
made with
the
external
so great a reactance
circuit
limits of operation is negligible in comparison.
within the
The
altera-
tion in the value of this impedance does not, then, appreand the
ciably alter the total impedance of the circuit,
alternator
erator.
therefore
Many
operates
as a constant-current gen-
commercial alternators have
sufficient
arma-
ture reactance to prevent their injuring themselves on

It is necessary
dead short circuit for a limited time.
that armatures should have
some considerable inductance
ALTERNATORS.
when
alternators
are
to
be
69
operated
satisfactorily
in
parallel.
When an alternator is opSynchronous Reactance

would be generated
which
the
on
a
load,
pressure,
erating
38.
same speed and excitation, is made

the following parts, and might be found by adding
on open
up
of
circuit at the
them together
in their
proper phase relations
(a)
terminal voltage, E,
(b)
ohmic drop
in armature,
IR,
in
phase with the cur-
rent,
(c)
armature inductance drop, 90
(d)
deficit of actually
with the current,
generated volts
due to increase of
magnetic reluctance accompanying distortion,

or increment of actually generated volts due
(e) deficit
or the mag-
to the demagnetization of a lagging current
netization of a leading current.
mentioned, can be grouped

together, and be dealt with collectively by the use of a
All the parts, except the
first
quantity called the synchronous impedance.
connected
in series
It is
that im-
with the outside
cirpedance, which,
cuit and an impressed voltage of the same value as the
open-circuit voltage at the given speed and excitation, would
permit a current of the same value to flow as does flow.
if
This quantity for any load can be determined experimenThe synchronous impedance has two factally with ease.
tors,
namely, the armature resistance and a quantity termed
the synchronous reactance.

right angles, give the
The
two,
when combined
at
synchronous impedance.
Since the synchronous impedance takes account of all

the diverse causes of voltage drop above enumerated, it is
clear that
it
has not a physical existence, but
is
merely a
70
fiction.
It is of great
use in determining the performance

the same for all excitations of
of a machine.
Its value is
the
is
field,
These two
mining
its
but
somewhat
for
different
facts afford a very convenient
Run
value.
the alternator at
Short-circuit the armature through
the field until the ammeter
Then open the load

The quotient of the
various
means
its
loads.
of deter-
proper speed.
Excite
an ammeter.
the desired load.
indicates
and read the terminal voltage.

by the amperes is the synchron-
circuit
volts
ous impedance.
It may happen that the resistance of the
is
armature
negligibly small, in which case the synchron-
ous reactance equals the synchronous impedance.

39. Saturation Coefficient
of an alternator
may
no-load saturation curve
be obtained by measuring the termi-
nal voltage corresponding to various strengths of field current,
when
the machine
is
its proper speed and

without load.
Laying off
running at
E.M.F.'s,
as ordinates
and exciting currents, If)

as
abscissae,
found as
The
curve
is
in Fig. 54.
ratio
dE
is
called
E
the no-load saturation
Excitation
FUE. 54.
Another curve,
co-
efficient of the machine.

called the load -saturation curve can be
obtained by using a variable non-inductive resistance for

The terminal volts
maintaining the constant full load.
corresponding to various
field
excitations are read
on a
ALTERNATORS.
71
This curve will approximately parallel the noIt will have a zero voltage value
load saturation curve.
voltmeter.
for that excitation which causes sufficient voltage to send

the full-load current through the synchronous impedance
full-load saturation coefficient curve
of the armature.
might be drawn from the full-load saturation curve.

will nearly coincide with the other coefficient curve.
These saturation curves have forms

zation curves for iron.
The
It
similar to magneti-
knee, however,
is
less
abrupt
general in an iron curve, because of the unvarying
permeability of air, and because the different magnetic
than
is
parts of the generator do not reach saturation at the
same
normally excited to above the

knee of the saturation curve, it will require a considerable
time.
If
the alternator
is
increase of field current to maintain the terminal voltage

the load is thrown on, while if normally excited
when
below the knee, a
The
is
regulation
is,
above the knee
slight
increase of excitation will suffice.
however, better when the magnetization

that is, with unaltered field strength,
;
the voltage rise upon throwing off the load

the excitation were below the knee.
is
less
than
if
As in direct-current machines,
40. Leakage Coefficient
the leakage coefficient of an alternator may be defined as
the number of maxwells set up by the field divided by the
number
of maxwells passing through the armature.

It is
Its value depends upon the
always greater than unity.
design of the machine, upon the permeability of the various
making up the magnetic circuit, upon the load on

the machine, and upon the degree of saturation in the
In modern commercial machines of size its values
fields.
lie between i.i and 1.5.
parts
72
The
41. Efficiency
of the
following
abstracted from the
is
Committee on Standardization
Report
can Institute of Electrical Engineers.
tions are given
They
will,
which bear upon the
of the
Ameri-
Only those por-
efficiency of alternators.
however, apply equally well to
synchronous
motors.
The
power
"
efficiency" of an apparatus is the ratio of

output to its gross power input.
Electric
power should be measured
net
its
at the terminals
of
the apparatus.
In determining
the
of
alternating-current
apparatus, the electric power should be measured when
the current is in phase with the E.M.F. unless otherwise
efficiency
specified, except when a definite phase difference is inherent in the apparatus, as in induction motors, etc.
Where a machine has auxiliary apparatus, such as an
exciter, the power lost in the auxiliary apparatus should

not be charged to the machine, but to the plant consisting
of the machine and auxiliary apparatus taken together.
The plant efficiency in such cases should be distinguished
from the machine
The
efficiency
efficiency.
may be determined by measuring all the

and adding their sum to the output to
losses individually,
derive the input, or subtracting their sum from the input

All losses should be measured at,
to derive the output.
or reduced
to,
the
temperature
assumed
in
continuous
operation, or in operation under conditions specified.
In synchronous machines the output or input should be

measured with the current in phase with the terminal
E.M.F. except when otherwise expressly specified.
Owing
to the uncertainty necessarily involved
approximation of load
losses,
it
is
preferable,
in
the
whenever
ALTERNATORS.
73
determine the efficiency of synchronous ma-
possible, to
chines by input and output tests.
The
a.
losses in
synchronous machines are
and windage.
friction
Bearing
Molecular
magnetic friction and eddy currents in

These losses should
other
metallic parts.
and
iron, copper,
be determined at open circuit of the machine at the rated
speed and at the rated voltage, + IR in a synchronous
IR in a synchronous motor, where / = curgenerator,
/;.
rent in armature,
able to
R=
armature resistance.
compute these
losses
It is
undesir-
from observations made
at
other speeds or voltages.
These losses may be determined by either driving the

machine by a motor, or by running it as a synchronous
motor, and adjusting its fields so as to get minimum cur-
The
and measuring the input by wattmeter.
rent input,
the preferable method, and in polyphase machines the latter method is liable to give erroneous results
former
in
is
consequence of unequal distribution of currents
different circuits caused
by
inequalities of the
in the
impedance
of connecting leads, etc.

c.
which may be expressed

resistance of one armature circuit
Armature-resistance
by/ I^R ; where

or branch,
branch, and p
R =
loss,
the current
the
in
number
such armature
of
circuit
or
circuits
or
cannot well
be
armature
branches.
d.
Load
losses.
While these
determined individually, they
losses
may be
therefore, their joint influence should
observation.
on short
and,
be determined by
This can be done by operating the machine
circuit
mining what
considerable,
and
may be
at full-load current, that
is,
by deter-
called the "short-circuit core loss."
74
With the low
intensity and great lag of current

existing in this case, the load losses are usually greatly
field
exaggerated.
One-third of
the short-circuit core loss may, as an

and
in the absence of more accurate inforapproximation,
mation, be assumed as the load loss.
These
e.
Collector-ring friction and contact resistance.
are generally negligible, except in machines of extremely
low voltage.
Field
f.
the
I^R
In separately
excitation.
excited
of the field coils proper should be used.
machines,
In self-
exciting machines, however, the loss in the field rheostat

should be included.
Regulation
42.
for
circuits
feeding light
service.
satisfactory
Constant
must be
The
Alternators
Potential.
closely regulated to give
pressure
can
be maintained
constant in a circuit by a series boosting transformer, but

generally considered better to regulate the dynamo by
suitable alteration of the field strength.
it is
The
simplest
method
of regulating the potential
have a hand-operated rheostat

alternator,
mon
when
the latter
is
in the field circuit
to be excited
source of direct current, or in the
exciter,
latter
if
the
method
alternator
is
provided
is
of the
from a com-
field circuit of
with
to
the
The
one.
generally employed in large machines,

since the exciter field current is small, while the alternator
field
current
is
may be
of considerable magnitude,
and would
R loss if passed through a rheostat.

second method of regulation employs a composite
2
give a large I
winding, analogous to the compound windings of directcurrent generators.

This consists of a set of coils one
;
ALTERNATORS.
on each
pole.
These are connected
75
in series,
and carry
a portion of the armature current which has been
rectified.
The rectifier consists of a commutator, having as many

segments as there are field poles. The alternate segments
The groups
are connected together, forming two groups.
are connected respectively with the two ends of a resistance
forming part of the armature

/<S fl-60-900
Form
circuit.
Brushes,
/q
^S 0-90-900
Torn-, f\
>^S CH20-300
Form
rt
Commutator-Collector
manner of
Tne observer
f&
placing spools
supposed to be looking at face
winding snoul.
toward the
aseôn
ol
spool f langes.tr
being so placed
'
i-i-wsucceeding spool.
Fig. 55-
bearing upon the commutator, connect with the terminals

of the composite
winding.
the composite winding
The magnetomotive
force of
used for regulation only, the

main excitation being supplied by an ordinary separately
excited field winding.
The rectified current in the comis
coils is a pulsating unidirectional

current, that
increases the magnetizing force in the fields as the current in the armature increases.
The rate of increase is
posite
76
determined by the resistance of a shunt placed across the

brushes.
amount
By
increasing the resistance of this shunt, the
With such
an arrangement an alternator can be over-compounded to
of
compounding can be increased.
compensate for any percentage of potential drop in the

The method here outlined is used by
distributing lines.
the
General
stationary
Electric
Company
The
field alternators.
in
their
single-phase
connections are shown
in Fig. 55,
third
method
of regulation
is
employed by the West-
inghouse Company on their revolving armature alternators, one of which, a 75 K.W., 60^, single-phase machine,
shown in Fig. 56.

and the compensating
is
composite winding
coils are excited
is
employed,
by current from
a series transformer placed on the spokes of the armature

The primary of this transformer consists of but
spider.
a few turns, and the whole armature current
is
conducted
before reaching the collector rings.

The secthis
transformer
is
connected
to a
ondary
suitably
commutator
on
the
end
of
the
extreme
shaft.
simple
Upon this rest the brushes which are attached to the ends
through
it
of
of the compensating coil.
This commutator
to only moderate currents and low voltages.
is
subjected
current
The
secondary of the transformer, and hence that in

the compensating coil, is proportional to the main armature
current.
The machine is wound for the maximum desirin the
able over-compounding, and any less compensation can be

secured by slightly shifting the commutator brushes.
For there are only
as
many segments
insulation just when
brushes span the

in the transformer
is
as poles
and
if
the
the wave of current
passing through zero,

secondary
then the pulsating direct current in the compounding coil
ALTERNATORS.
77
equal to the effective value of the alternating current

but if the brushes are at some other position,' the current
is
will flow in the field coil in one direction for a portion of

the half cycle, and in the other direction for the remaining
Fig. 56.
portion.
differential
effective value of the
was
action, therefore, ensues,
compensating current
is
less
and the
than
it
before.
In order to produce a constant potential on circuits

having a variable inductance as well as a variable resist-
78
ance, the General Electric Co. has designed its compensated

revolving field generators, which are constructed for twoThe machine, Fig. 57, is of the
or three-phase circuits.
Fig. 57-
revolving field type, the field being wound with but one
On the same shaft as the field, and
simple set of coils.
close beside
in
Fig.
the armature of the exciter, as shown

The outer casting contains the alternator
it,
58.
is
armature windings, and close beside them the field of the

This latter has as many poles as has the field of
exciter.
Alternator and exciter, therefore, operate
The armature of the exciter is
in a synchronous relation.
the alternator.
fitted
with a regular commutator, which delivers direct

to the exciter field and, through two slip-
current both
ALTERNATORS.
On
rings, to the alternator field.
outside of the bearings,
is
79
the end of
the shaft,
a set of slip-rings, four for a
quart er-phaser, three for a three-phaser, through which

the exciter armature receives alternating current from one
or several series transformers inserted in the mains which
lead
from the
alternator.
This alternating current
is
passed through the exciter armature in such a manner as

to cause an armature reaction, as described in
36, that
increases the magnetic flux.
This raises the exciter voland
hence
increases
the
main field current. The
tage
Fig. 58.
reactive
magnetization produced in the exciter field is

proportional to the magnitude and phase of the alternating
current in the exciter armature.
The reactive demagnetization of the alternator field
magnitude and phase

armature.
And
these
of current strength
the
is
proportional to the
current in the alternator
currents have
the fixed relations
and phase, which are determined by the
series transformers.
as to
of
Hence the
exciter voltage varies so
the terminal voltage.

compensate
any drop
Neither the commutator nor any of the slip-rings carry
The amount of over-cornpressures of over 75 volts.
for
"in
8o
determined by the ratio
pounding
is
formers.
The normal
voltage of
in the series trans-
the alternator
may be
regulated by a small rheostat in the field circuit of the

exciter.
43.
Inductor Alternators
armature and
alternators.
field coils
Generators
in
which both
are stationary are called inductor
59 shows the principle of operation of
Fig.
/ARMATURE
Fig.
COILS
59-
machines.
moving member, carrying no wire,
has pairs of soft iron projections, which are called inducThese projections are magnetized by the current
tors.
these
The
flowing in the annular field coil as shown in figure.
has
internal
frame
projections corresponding
surrounding
to the inductors in
number and
size.
These
latter projec-
tions constitute the cores of armature coils.
When
the
faces of the inductors are directly opposite to the faces of

the armature poles, the magnetic reluctance is a minimum,
and the
through the armature
accordingly a maximum. For the opposite reason, when the inductors are
in an intermediate position the flux linked with the armaflux
ture coils
is
a minimum.
linked flux changes from a

does not change in sign.
Absence
of
coil
As the inductors revolve, the

maximum to a minimum, but it
moving wire and the consequent
liability to
ALTERNATORS.
81
and
chafing of insulation, absence of collecting devices
facilities
for
increased
and
brush
attendant
their
friction,
Fig. 60.
insulation are claimed as advantages for this type of

chine.
By
ma-
suitably disposing of the coils, inductor alter-
__^^
nators
for
y
may be wound
or
single-
poly-
phase currents.
The Stanley
tric
Elec-
Manufacturing
manufac-
Company
ture two- phase inductor
alternators.
view of one of their
machines
Fig. 61.
Fig.
60,
given in
with the
is
frame separated for inspection of the windings.

In this
the
field
is
coil
the
between
picture
hanging loosely
pairs
82
of-
inductors.
essentially
The
that
theoretical operation of this machine is

All iron parts, both
described above.
stationary and revolving, that are subjected to pulsations

The
of magnetic flux, are made up of laminated iron.
Fig. 6aa.
Fig. 63b.
84
large field coil
when the
is
wound on
field circuit
a copper spool.
of a large generator
is
Ordinarily
broken, the
Fig. 64.
E.M.F.
of self-induction
to pierce the insulation.
may
rise to so
With
high a value as
this construction the cop-
per spool acts as a short circuit around the decaying
flux,
ALTERNATORS.
85
and prevents high E.M.F!$> of self-induction.
Figs. 61
construction of a Stanley
machine of a larger size than the one previously shown.
Inductor alternators are also manufactured by Westing-
and 62
show the
details
of
house and Warren companies. The construction of the

machine made by the latter company is shown in Fig. 63^,
There is but a single field coil, which fits into the recess in
the back of the frame as shown.
The armature
coils sur-
round the pole projections, and the flux through them is

altered by the change of reluctance caused by the roinductor which
tating
carries
no
wire.
The
exciter
is
upon a platform which (Fig. 63 ) forms part of

the main frame and is driven by a belt from a pulley on
carried
the armature shaft.

44.
In this type of alRevolving Field Alternators

armature windings are placed on the inside
ternator, the
of the surrounding frame,
and the
field poles project radi-
Fig. 65.
from the rotating member. As was stated before, this

type of construction is to be recommended in the case of
ally
large
machines which are required to give either high
86
voltages
or
large
velocity, there
is
With the same
currents.
more space
SCALE
K INtJH
for the
armature
peripheral
coils
the
;
EQUJ.U6 ONE FOOT^
Fig. 66.
coils can be better ventilated, air being forced through

ducts by the rotating field
stationary coils can be more
and the only curperfectly insulated than moving ones
;
ALTERNATORS.
rents to be collected
by brushes and
collector rings are
those necessary to excite the

General Electric 750 K. w. revolving
Fig. 64 shows a
The two collector rings for the field curfield generator.
fields.
Field Current
.4
.5
.6
.8
Output-Proportion of
.9
full
1.0
1.1
L2
U3
load
Fig. 67.
rent are shown, and in Fig. 65 the edgewise method of

winding the field colls is shown. The collector rings are
of cast iron
and the brushes are
of carbon.
the details of construction of a
5,000
K.
Fig.
66 shows
w. three-phase
88
OF
ALTERNATORS.
6,6oo-volt machine of
this
type
as constructed
Co. of
Street
Railway
Metropolitan
machine has 40 poles, runs at 75
New
R. p. M.
for the
York.
This
at a peripheral
Fig. 69.
This gives a frequency

velocity of 3,900 feet per minute.
of 25.
The air gap varies from five-sixteenths at the
The shortpole center to eleven-sixteenths at the tips.

circuit current at full-load excitation is less than 800 amperes per leg.
300 amperes.
is
shown
The
The
rated full-load current

efficiency
is
slightly over
and no-load saturation curve
in Fig. 67.
The Bullock Electric Mfg. Co. also make generators of

The method of placing armature coils is shown
this type.
in Fig. 68.
insulated,
field
rim.
These
and held
coils,
as shown, are wire
in slots
wound, taped,
by maple-wood wedges.
The
poles are fastened directly to a spider having a heavy

The pole pieces are of T-shaped steel punchings,
90
Fig. -70.
held
together by rivets and malleable iron end pieces.

These are fastened to the rim of the spider by bolts in the
case of slow-speed machines, or are dovetailed to fit slots

in the rim in the case of high-speed machines.
This latter
ALTERNATORS.
91
of fastening is shown in Fig. 69, which represents

the field and shaft of a small-sized .high-speed machine.
The Westinghouse rotating field consists of a steel rim
method
mounted upon a
Into dovetailed slots in
cast-iron spider.
the rim are fitted laminated plates with staggered joints.

The laminations are
These plates are bolted together.
supplied at intervals with ventilating ducts.
kept in place
The
coils are
of non-magnetic material.
by retaining wedges
portion of a field is shown in Fig. 70.
92
CHAPTER
VI.
THE TRANSFORMER.
45.
The
Definitions.
alternating-current
transformer
two
consists of one magnetic circuit interlinked with
which one, the primary, receives
tric circuits, of
elec-
electrical
energy, and the other, the secondary, delivers electrical

If the electric circuits surround the magnetic
energy.
circuit, as in Fig. 71,
the transformer
is
verse
Fig.
If
is
true,
72,
the
former
is
The
utility
of
former
signed,
its
re-
as
in
trans-
practical
the
lies in
when
the
of the shell
type.
that,
be of the
said to
core type.
trans-
the fact
suitably de-
primary can
take electric energy at
one potential, and
its
secondary deliver the

Fig. 71.
same energy
at
some
0ther potential the ratio of the current in the primary to

that in the secondary being approximately inversely as the
;
ratio of the pressure
on the primary to that on the secon-
dary.
The
ratio of transformation of a transformer
is
repre-
THE TRANSFORMER.
sented by
r,
and
is
the ratio of the
number
93
of turns in the
the number of turns in the primary coil.

secondary
This would also be the ratio of the secondary voltage to
coils to
Fig.
72.
the primary voltage, if there were no losses in the transformer.

transformer in which this ratio is greater than
"
"
transformer, since it delivers

step-up
electrical energy at a higher pressure than 'that at which
it
is received.
When the ratio is less than unity it is
unity
is
called
a.
"
called a "
transformer.
Step-up transformers
step-down
find their chief use in generating plants, where because of
the practical limitations of alternators, the alternating current generated
is
not of as high a potential as is demanded

Step-down transformers find
for economical transmission.
their greatest use at or near the points of
consumption of
energy, where the pressure is reduced to a degree suitable

for the service it must perform.
The conventional representation of a transformer
little
or no effort
formation by the
is
given in Fig. 73.
In general,
made to indicate the ratio of transrelative number of angles or loops shown,

is
94
though the low-tension side is sometimes distinguished

from the high-tension side by this means.
When
using the same or part of the same electric cirboth primary and secondary, the device is called
an auto-transformer. These are sometimes used in the
cuit for
1
Fig. 74-
Fig. 73-
devices
starting
connected
in
induction
for
series in
arranged to vary the
motors,
and
an alternating-current
E.M.F.
in
sometimes
circuit,
that circuit.
Fig.
and
is
74
the conventional representation of an auto-transformer.
Flux
46. Core
(a)
Open-circuited secondary.
When
the secondary coil of a transformer is open-circuited it is

perfectly idle, having no influence on the rest of the ap-
and the primary becomes then merely a choke
paratus,
coil.
transformer
is
so designed that
its
reactance
is
This
very high, and its resistance comparatively low.
makes a large impedance, which is almost wholly reactive
hence the current that

secondary
current
is
open-circuited
behind
90
cally
is
will flow in the
the
is
primary when
the
very small, and lags practiThis

which sends rt.
E.M.F.
the exciting current, or sometimes less
called
properly the magnetizing current or leakage current.

flux is set up in the iron of a transformer, which is sinusoidal
and
is
in
phase with the exciting current.
induces a practically sinusoidal
E.M.F.
in
the
This
flux
primary
phase because the induced E.M.F.
is greatest when the time rate of flux
change is greatest,
and the flux changes fastest as it is passing through the
coil,
90
behind
it
in
THE TRANSFORMER.
This induced E.M.F.
zero value.
95
90 behind the
is
flux,
90 behind the impressed pressure therefore the induced E.M.F. is 180 behind the impressed
which
turn
in
is
The
a counter E.M.F.
counter pressure is
less than the impressed pressure only by the small amount
necessary to cause the small exciting current to flow.
Neglecting the primary resistance,
p and the reluctance,
E.M.F. or
is
(R,
would be equal to the

commercial transformers this
of the core, the counter pressure
impressed pressure
and in
within a small percentage.

Considering that
the flux varies sinusoidally, and that its maximum value
is
true
to
then the flux at any time, /, is OT cos w/, and the

counter E.M.F., which is equal and opposed to the impressed primary pressure
may be written ( 13, vol. i.)
is 3>m
<
t>
n
E*=7J
v
and since
4>
</(<
TO
cos w/)
W~-'
and w are constant
Ep
o~~
o>4> w
sin w/,
from which
lO 8 ^,,,,
and
1C
This equation is used in designing transformers and

choke coils. The values of <&m for 60 cycle transformers
of different
use, are
capacities, as
shown
determined by experiment and

It is usual in such
in the curve, Fig. 75.
designs to also assume a maximum flux density, (B m

While the value assumed differs much with different man.
ufacturers,
it
is
safe to say that for
25
cycles
(Bw
varies
between 9 and 14 kilogausses for 60 cycles between 6

and 9 kilogausses; and for 125 cycles between 5 and 7
;
96
kilogausses. The necessary cross-section, A, of iron, necessary to give the desired counter E.M.F., as well as the
number
of turns of wire in the primary, is then
the above, as
found from
=& m A.
3> m
With secondary closed through an outside impedance.

The flux, which is linked with the primary, is also linked
(b)
with the secondary.
Its variations
the secon-
in
produce
Lighting Transformers
Z
2
10
12
Capacity
14
16
18
20
22
24
28
Kilowatts
in
Fig. 75-
dary an E.M.F. T times as great as the counter E.M.F. in

the primary, since there are r times as many turns in the
secondary
coil as in
the primary, or
E =rE
s
If this
secondary be closed through an external impedance,

In the secon7, will flow through this circuit.
a current
dary
coil
the ampere turns, njs will be opposed to the

of the primary, and will thus tend to demag,
ampere turns
netize the core.

of the
This tendency
is
opposed by a read-
conditions in the primary circuit.

justment
Any
demagnetization tends to lessen the counter E.M.F. in the
primary coil, which immediately allows more current to
THE TRANSFORMER.
97
flow in the primary, and thus restores the magnetization to

a value but slightly less than the value on open-circuited
secondary.
stant
Thus the core
flux remains practically con-
whether the secondary be loaded or
not, the
ampere
turns of the secondary being opposed by a but slightly

So
greater number of ampere turns in the primary.
nj =
t
and
np lp
very nearly,
=^f = Lf
p
fig
The counter E.M.F. in the primary of a transformer

accommodates itself to variations of load on the secondary
in a manner similar to the variation of the counter E.M.F.
of a shunt wound motor under varying mechanical loads.
If the
secondary load be inductive or condensive, then I8
by the same angle that Ip lags or

In
leads Ept still neglecting Rp R 6\, and hysteresis.
such case Ip is 1 80 from, or opposite to, 7 and Ep is oppoFor a more exact statement than the above,
site to E
will
lag or lead
s,
S,
see
54.
47. Equivalent Resistance and Reactance of a TransIf a current of definite magnitude and lag be
former.
taken from the secondary of a transformer, a current of
the same lag and r times that magnitude will flow in the
primary, neglecting resistance, reluctance, and hysteresis.
An impedance which, placed across the primary mains,
would allow an exactly similar current to flow as this

primary current, is called an equivalent impedance, and its
components are called equivalent resistance and equivalent

reactance.
If
the whole secondary circuit of a transformer with its

and a reactance sy and if the
s
load have a resistance
98
primary pressure be p and the secondary total pressure

then the current that will flow in the secondary circuit is
f,
E.
and
it
lags behind
yr
t
by an angle
VJ?. + X? =
2
Therefore
whose tangent
<,
is
If
the equivalent impedance have a resistance
reactance
X then the ratios K--
the angle of current lag
and
'---
and a
equal, since
the same
is
must be
in
both primary and
And
since the current in the equivalent imsecondary.

pedance has the same magnitude as that in the primary
and
But
Ip =
and
E = ~E
T/.,
r __
t,
E.
___
therefore,
But
Solving
which are the values

actance respectively.
Jt
-g
of the equivalent resistance
and
re-
THE TRANSFORMER.
48.
The transformer
Transformer Losses.
discussed would have
being consumed
99
100%
efficiency,
in the apparatus.
as thus far
no power whatever
The
efficiencies
of
loaded commercial transformers are very high, being gen-
The losses
frequently above 98%.
in the apparatus are due to (a) the resistance of the electric circuits, (b)- reluctance of the magnetic circuit, (c]
erally
above
95% and
!
These losses may be

hysteresis, and (d) eddy currents.
and
divided into core losses
copper losses, according as to
whether they occur
in the iron or the wire
of the trans-
former.
49.
Eddy current loss, if the core

were made of solid iron, strong eddy cur-
Core Losses.
of a transformer
(a)
rents would be induced in
it.
These currents would not
only cause excessive heating of the core, but would tend

to demagnetize it, and would require excessive currents to
flow in the primary winding in order to set up sufficient
counter E.M.F.
To
a great extent these troubles are prevented by making the core of laminated iron, the laminae being transverse to the direction of flow of the eddy currents but
Each lamina is more

longitudinal with the magnetic flux.
or less thoroughly insulated from its neighbors by the
The
natural oxide on the surface or by Japan lacquer.
eddy current loss is practically independent of the load.
The E.M.F. producing these eddy currents is in phase
with the counter E.M.F. of the primary coil, both being
Its value
e is
expressed by
produced by the same flux.
jp
the fraction^, where
is
the power loss in watts due
*i
to
eddy currents, and ^
current.
The
value of
is
the exciting or no-load primary

calculated from the following
is
100
empirical formula, in which perfect insulation between the

laminae is assumed
:
where
k
a constant depending upon the reluctivity and

resistivity of the iron.
= volume of iron in cm.

=
/
thickness of one lamina
f = frequency,
3
in cm.,
and
(&,= maximum
flux density
(<I> TO
2
per cm. ).
In practice k has a value of about 1.6 x io~~ n

Hysteresis
(b)
loss.
amount
certain
of power,
h,
due to the presence of hysteresis, is required to carry the

iron through its cyclic changes.
The value of Ph can be
calculated from the formula expressing Steinmetz's Law,
where
= volume of iron in cm.

f = frequency,
m = the maximum flux density,
= the hysteretic constant (.002
3
($>
and
The
rj
portion
expended
of
in the
to .003).
impressed E.M.F. which must be

primary circuit to balance the hysteretic
the
loss is
j?
phase with 7r
Closely associated with
This
is
in
is
another portion of the
impressed E.M.F. which is consumed in producing the

This is
cyclical and sinusoidal variations of magnetic flux.
not easily considered distinct from

Consider, however,
h
the primary current.
There is but one primary current.
.
THE TRANSFORMER.
At any
instant of time a portion of
magnetic
effect
is
it
is
IOI
balanced and
its
by the demagnetizing curanother portion is balanced by the
neutralized
rent in the secondary

demagnetizing action of the eddy currents ; and the remnant is useful in producing the cyclical variations of the
;
the flux be sinusoidal this portion of

This is due to the
the current cannot be sinusoidal.
magnetic
change
If
flux.
in permeability
with saturation of the iron core.
the rising current curve the reverse of the fallThis is due to the fact that, owing to
curve.
current
ing
hysteresis, the permeability on rising flux is smaller than
Neither
is
This last
on falling under a given magnetomotive force.
is therefore not sinusoidal.
current
of
the
portion
primary
As
but a small percentage of the total current, it is,

however, for convenience generally considered as sinusoiit
is
To
send this distorted portion of the primary current

a
portion of the impressed E.M.F., and this is
requires
made up of two components,
h in phase with the pridal.
mary current and discussed above, and mag at right angles

with the primary current. This
be considered as
mag may
to overcome
that
current
sufficient
of
the
sending
portion
the magnetic reluctance of the core. Being at right angles

with Ip it represents no loss of power.
During half of the
and during the
same
direction
time Ip and
have
the
mag
The core thereother half they are in opposite directions.

fore alternately receives energy from the circuit and gives
it
back to the
circuit.
To determine
the value of
mag
consider that
it
must be
magnitude as will send through the primary coil,

of resistance
that portion, Imag of the main current
p
of such a
which produces the
flux,
F
^
J? f
-^^^
102
Representing the reluctance

magnetomotive force necessary
21 and 25, vol. i.,
3C, from
of the core
by
(R,
and the
produce the flux
to
3> m
by
3C
fmay =
whence
7T II
T ?
and
Ima;i
is
#*,=
4 V2
7T/^,
'"
called the magnetizing current of a transformer.
The primary counter E.M.F., E,
is
less
than the primary
by the slight pressure necessary to send this

current through the primary resistance, thus,
line voltage
The
value of
(R is
calculated
24, vol.
where
tion
/ is the length of magnetic circuit,

and p the reluctivity of the iron
/A
i.)
from
its
cross-sec-
permeability/
In modern commercial transformers the core loss at

60 ~ may be about 70% hysteresis and 30% eddy current
At 1 25^ it may be about 55% hysteresis and 45%
loss.
eddy current
shown
loss.
that the
first
This might be expected, since it was

power of /enters into the formula for
hysteresis loss, while the second
formula for eddy current
loss.
power of/ enters
into the
THE TRANSFORMER.
The
core loss
is
103
dependent upon the wave-form of
also
the impressed E.M.F., a peaked

lower core loss than a flat wave.
wave giving a somewhat

It
is
not
uncommon
to
waves so peaked that transformers

tested by current from them show from 5% to 10% less
core loss than they would if tested by a true sine wave.
find alternators giving
On
flat
the other hand generators sometimes give waves so

that the core loss will be greater than that obtained by
the use of the sine wave.
The magnitude
depends also upon the

Both the hysteresis and eddy cur-
of the core loss
temperature of the iron.

rent losses decrease slightly as the temperature of the iron
In commercial transformers, a rise in temperaincreases.
ture of
40
C. will decrease the core loss
from
5%
to
10%.
An
accurate statement of the core loss thus requires that

the conditions of temperature and wave-shape be specified.
The
core loss
is
practically constant at all loads,
and
is
the same whether measured from the high-tension or the

low-tension side, the exciting current in either case being
the same percentage of the corresponding full-load current.
The exciting current varies in magnitude with the design
In general it will not exceed 5 % of

the full-load current, and in standard lighting transformers
it
may be as low as i%. In transformers designed with
of the transformer.
joints in the
magnetic circuit the exciting current is largely

influenced by the character of the joints, increasing if the
In the measurement of core
joint is poorly constructed.
loss, if
current
the product of the impressed volts by the exciting

is
less than twice the measured watts (i.e., if
< 60)
reason to suspect poorly

constructed magnetic joints or higher densities in the iron
than good practice allows.
cos
<
>.5 or
<j>
there
is
104
The copper losses in a transformer

Copper Losses.
are almost solely due to the regular current flowing
50.
through the
coils.
Eddy
currents in
the conductor are
either negligible or considered together with the

rents in the core.
eddy cur-
When the transformer has its secondary open-circuited

the copper loss is merely that due to the exciting current
2
in the primary coil, I mag
This is very small, much
p
smaller than the core loss, for both Imag and
are small
p
quantities.
When
copper loss in watts
At
the transformer
may
is
regularly loaded the
be expressed
load this loss will considerably exceed the core

loss is constant at all loads, the
full
While the core
loss.
copper loss varies as the square of the load.

Since the efficiency of induction appa51. Efficiency.
ratus depends upon the wave-shape of E.M.F., it should be
referred to a sine wave of E.M.F., except where expressly
The efficiency should be measured
specified otherwise.
with non-inductive load, and at rated frequency, except
where expressly
The
specified otherwise.
efficiency of a transformer
is
expressed by the ratio
of the net power output to the gross power input or

the ratio of the power output to the power output plus
the losses.
where
is
The
efficiency,
c,
may
by
all
then be written,
the difference of potential at the secondary
terminals.
If
the transformer be
artificially cooled, as
many
of the
THE TRANSFORMER.
larger ones are, then to this denominator
10$*
must be added
the power required by the cooling device, as power consumed by the blower in air-blast transformers, and power
consumed
by the motor-driven pumps in oil or water

Where the same cooling apparatus
cooled transformers.
supplies a number of transformers or
future additions, allowance should be
Inasmuch as the
is
installed to supply
made
therefor.
losses in a transformer are affected
by
the temperature, the efficiency can be accurately specified

only by reference to some definite temperature, such as
25
C.
The
all-day efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of

energy output to the energy input during the twenty-four
The usual conditions of practice will be met if the
hours.
calculation
is
based on the assumption of
five
hours
full-
load and nineteen hours no-load in transformers used for
With a given limit to the first

ordinary lighting service.
cost, the losses should be so adjusted as to give a maximum
all-day efficiency.
For instance, a transformer supplying
a private residence with light will be loaded but a few
hours each night.

It should have relatively much copper
and little iron. This will make the core losses, which continue through the twenty-four hours, small, and the copper
losses, which last but a few hours, comparatively large.
Too much copper

regulation.
however, results in bad

In the case of a transformer working all the
in a transformer,
time under load, there should be a greater proportion of

iron, thus requiring less copper and giving less copper loss.
This
a
desirable in that a loaded transformer has usually

much greater copper loss than core loss, and a halving
is
of the former is profitably

of doubling the latter.
purchased even at the expense
IOG
The definition of the regulation of a

52.
Regulation
transformer as authorized by the American Institute of
" In transformers the
Electrical Engineers is as follows
:
regulation is the ratio of the rise of secondary terminal

voltage from full-load to no-load (at constant impressed
primary terminal voltage) to the secondary full-load voltFurther conditions are that the frequency be kept
age."
constant, that the wave of impressed E.M.F. be
and that the load be non-inductive.
in
sinusoidal,
Not the whole primary impressed pressure is operative

producing secondary pressure, for Ip Rp volts are lost in
overcoming the resistance of the primary
coil.
Besides
with the primary that does not

This induces a counter pressure in
this there is a flux linked
link the secondary.

the primary which neutralizes a part of the impressed
Such flux, linking one coil but not the other, is
pressure.
Furthermore, not
called leakage flux.
the secondary
induced
in
There
a drop of
is
volts
all
utilizable at
is
of the
E.M.F.
the terminals.
due to the resistance
of the
secondary coil, and another drop due to a leakage flux

which links the secondary but not the primary. All these
drops increase with load, and therefore, neglecting core
loss effects, at
no load
E =rE
s
p)
but on load,
E <?EV
9
and
the percentage of the full-load secondary pressure represented by this fall is the regulation.
The leakage flux affects the action of a transformer just

the same as would an inductance connected in series with
the same transformer, the latter having no leakage
The leakage flux increases with the current and
;
current
/ it be
flux.
if,
$, then the value of the inductance, L,
n&
L=
a
io 8 /
for a
is
THE TRANSFORMER.
where
;/
the
is
number
of turns in the coil.
calculating L, the equivalent inductance,
next
107
is
A method
of
given in the
article.
The resistance of the secondary causes a drop f

The same effect on the regulation would be caused if
secondary resistance were zero and another
the
resistance
r>
whose value
is
R^=
j-
were inserted
The imaginary primary
cuit.
in the primary cir-
drop, resulting from
this
insertion, has to be but - as great as the actual secondary
drop to be as great a percentage of the impressed E,

and there is r times as much current to cause it, hence
R = -,.
The power
I*R# and
this equals the
I~R,, since
Ip
= T/,,
in this
lost
power
and R^
imaginary resistance
is
really lost in the secondary
'
.
In order to calculate the regulation, consider this equivalent of secondary drop to be accounted for in. the primary.
Then for a given impressed E.M.F. on the pr.i
terminal voltage on- the secondary will -be

at no load
=T
t
j^
at
primary load /
JtJ
where
V=
t
and
<KS)
cos
uLip sin
<
<j,
secondary pressure generated,

difference of potential at secondary terminals,
-\z as calculated in the next section,
Lp
<f>
angle of lag of
Ip
behind
f.
Then from the definition of regulation, when /

above is made equal to the full-load current,
Regulation
= rE^- V
in
the
io8
53.
Calculation of
The arrangement
of
Equivalent Leakage Inductance

one of the most usual kinds of core
type transformers called
the " type H," is shown
in Fig.
wire
fine
are
is
The coarse
76.
wound inside the
wire,
and as these
more generally used
as step-down transformers
the latter will
be called
the primary.
Fig. 77
of the transformer, giving

the paths of leakage flux
and the system of nota-
Fig- 76.
tion employed.
c. G. s.
first.
units.
The
shows one leg
discussion
is
carried on entirely in
Consider the secondary (coarse wire)
coil
THE TRANSFORMER.
Since the
109
roughly 1000 times

introduced by consider-
permeability of iron
is
air, no appreciable error is

ing the whole reluctance of the circuit of the leakage flux
If it be assumed
to be in the air portion of that circuit.
that the lines of force follow a circular path from the end
that of
of the coil to the iron, the length of the air portion of the
any element is C + ir.v. The use of

in an
integral expression, simple
but
too unwieldy to be introduced on
theory,
circuit for
magnetic
this
value will result
enough
in
Since the portion of the air path outside

these pages.
the coil (the curved portion) is a small part of the whole
path, no serious error will be 'introduced by assuming
that the leakage flux from any element follows a path
whose length
is
the average length
4-
The
TT
cross-
section area of the air part of the magnetic circuit for any
is
Therefore the reluctance
4- 8;r) dx.
(2
A +28
element
of
any element
is
/n
_~
2
+B+
(A
The elementary leakage

_ M.M.F.
TT
'"^n
8 irn s is
of
linkaes
is
(A
then
+B+
4 x) dx
'
of the secondary turns, the
is
(A+B + 4 #) xdx
+ -x\x
2
J
;/,,/>
.A
number
d$,
flux,
Since this flux links with
4 x) dx
xn
TT
(A+B + ^x) xrdx

(c+-x\x*
2
I
n* i,
110
definition
By
is
the coefficient
8)
number
numerically equal to the
self-induction,
linkages
8 TTH?(A
limits of the variable
rr-_j_^
"'\
-\(A
vVysi.
+B+
4 x) x*dx
are o and X, therefore
8V
?.=
+ E) JQf**<t* +
This applies to one leg of the transformer.

legs,
/,
Therefore
current.
The
of
of linkages per unit
upon
4 f**
JQ
For the two
reverting to practical units,
io
all
the terms of which are either absolute
numbers or
linear dimensions in centimeters.

It cannot be objected that this analysis does not take
account of the leakage flux that does not travel the whole
It is a true statement for any
length of the coil, C.
length,
and therefore might be applied to the elementary

when integrated would give the result
length dC, which

stated above.
The
value of
Lr
is
determined in the same way, and the
THE TRANSFORMER.
Ill
There can be no
expression therefore is quite similar.
iron in the path of the leakage flux from the outside coil,
so the reluctance will be twice as great. The value that is
represented by
for the outer.
Likewise
for the inner coil
is
becomes
replaced by
A + 2X + 2g
2X + 2g, g
-\-
being the space occupied by insulation between the
coils.
Then
2
8
F
_
+
L*-**>V* M+. ^+2-) + (^ 2^-h2)+ 3
,
3(C
If
idle,
the secondary circuit

equivalent to so much
is
air,
+ 7rF)
open the secondary coil is

and all the flux set up by
the primary is leakage flux.

As the secondary resistance can
be
by an
replaced
r>
equivalent primary resistance,
R^
*
,
for purposes
calculation, so also the secondary inductance
can be
placed by an equivalent inductance in the primary,
These
values,
Lp
the end of the
and
3,
L =
3
of
re'.
are to be used in the formula at
section for determining the regulation
last
of a transformer.
54.
ment
Exact Solution of a Transformer

of
regulation,
small errors
efficiency,
etc.,
In the treatcertain
heretofore,
have been allowed, due to neglecting the

eddy currents, and hysteresis losses.
effects of the core,
The
following graphic solution, adapted from Steinmetz,

takes account of all these effects, and is general in all
respects.
It
must
first
be understood that there are three fluxes
to be considered
(i)
The
useful flux that links both coils.
It is,
not in any definite phase with either lp or 7S
the
E.M.F.
it
however, always at right angles to
induces,
It is
112
the direct in the secondary, and the counter in the

primary.
This links the
(2) The leakage flux of the primary coil.
primary only, and being independent of fs
is
always in
phase with Ip
(3) The leakage flux of the secondary coil.
This is similarly in phase with /,.
.
E = E.M.F.
Let
V=
s
induced in secondary,
difference
of
potential
at
secondary
ter-
minals,
Ep = impressed primary pressure,

E = operative part of Ep E =
I
Ip
<
and
and
I=
a
(f> s
primary and secondary currents respectively,
and
lag of primary
respectively behind
The problem
angle of lag of
is
of secondary currents
Ep
and
M.M.F. behind
useful flux.
Given the necessary data of the trans-
former, to determine its behavior with
specified load
any
on the secondary.
As
in
Fig. 78,
draw the
line
3>,
representing the direcIn this analy-
tion of the flux, vertically for convenience.
the no-load exciting current is separated into two comOne is used in neutralizing the demagnetizing
ponents.
sis,
effect of the
eddy currents.
The
other,
fh
is
the magne-
tizing current and is also made up of two components, one

in phase with the primary pressure
and the other at
p
The relative magnitudes of these

right angles with it.
two components are dependent upon the shape of the
Once determined they may
hysteresis curve of the iron.
be represented as Ih cos (3 and Ih sin /? where (3 is termed
When multiplied by p the

the angle of hysteretic lag.
the second
first represents the power lost in hysteresis
;
the power passing backward
and forward between the
THE TRANSFORMER.
magnetic
lost in
field
and the
eddy currents,
If to the former the power

be added and the two be comFig. 79 an angle y results, which
circuit.
e,
bined with the latter as in
Fig.
78.
Determine
represents the lag of the magnetomotive force.
the angle y in this manner.
Draw the line M.M.F. (Fig.
78) y ahead of
<E>
indicating in direction and magnitude the

ampere turns which must exist to set up
the flux
<E>.
Its
value
is
determined dur-
Draw from
ing the transformer design.
the center the line
m 90 ahead of the
flux, representing the operative primary
pressure.
We
1~E pi 7l cos/3
Fig.
90
79-
behind
Its
length
is
and as
opposes the counter primary pressure,

set
ahead of the
flux.
Draw
it
it is
the line
E#
3>, representing the

pressure induced in the
Its length is proportional to the no-load sec-
secondary.
ondary terminal pressure.
114
The
angle
its
till
turns,
<f> s ,
the lag due to the whole secondary
Draw I
known.
is
cuit,
length
/.
is
Ip np
line
to
the
covered
secondary ampere
M.M.F. determine the other component
Rp
a drop of Ip
is
A counter voltage
90 behind Ip
the primary leakage flux.
come
it
The
volts in the primary.
pressed pressure that compensates for this
fp
is
dis-
magnitude and phase.
in
There
it
represents one component of the

From this component line and the
Divide this by np and the primary current
cir-
and extend
S)
line
magnetizing force.
resultant
behind
<f> s
proportional
This
at
Its
value
will
is
is in
be
set
&L P Ip
im-
phase with
up due to
To
over-
an impressed pressure must be supplied opposite,

In a side figure
phase or 90 ahead of the current.
in
this
Rp
phase of Ip and <L P IP 90

ahead of this phase. This gives the direction and magnitude of the drop dp in the primary.
Properly add dp to the
vectorially
add Ip
operative pressure
Ep
the angle of lag

exceeds <..
The
There
the resultant.
is
pressure
is
a drop of
in the
and the necessary impressed pressure

The angle between Ip and Ep is
of the primary current.
is
<j>
90 behind 7
secondary leakage
flux.
of
/,) will
slightly
generated in the secondary coil.

volts in this coil in phase with /,.
9
A counter voltage
this <oZ a
It
Its value is
volts generated at
be consumed.
will
be
set
>L S
180 from
this
up due to the
To overcome
(i.e.,
90 ahead
In a side figure vectorially add
phase of It and ^L l at 90 ahead of this

This gives the drop dt in the secondary coil. This
drop must be subtracted from the pressure generated to
/.
in the
phase.
To subtract a vector,
give the secondary terminal volts.
in
and
addition.
revolve it 180
proceed as
Properly sub-
THE TRANSFORMER.
d from
tract
ference
and the
resultant,
terminals
the
at
of
t,
is
the potential
the secondary
dif-
the
of
coil
transformer.
By constructing this diagram for full load 7 and then

I = o, the regulation of a transformer can be found by
S
for
the ratio of the difference between the values of

case to the full load
The
efficiency at
in
each
any load can be
determined from the diagram for that load, by
EJ cos
<fc
to*
78 is not the true diagram of a commercial transformer. For clearness a ratio of I to I has been portrayed
Fig.
and the losses greatly exaggerated. In practice it will be

found impossible to complete the solution graphically
because of the extreme flatness of the triangles. The
better
way
is
to
draw an exaggerated but
clear diagram,
and obtain the true values of the sides by the algebra of

complex imaginary quantities, or if the student is unfamethod, by the more laborious methods of
and
trigonometry
geometry.
miliar with this
55.
Methods
of Connecting Transformers
numerous methods
-- There
are
of connecting transformers to distribut-
The simplest case is

ing circuits.
that of a single transformer in a
single-phase circuit.
Fig.
such an arrangement.
the succeeding figures
80 shows
and
have the
This
pressure and current values of the

different parts
suming
in
marked on them,
each case a
step-down transformer.
K.W.,
As
as-
to 10
in Fig. 81,
Fig>
two or more
trans-
n6
may have their primaries in parallel on the same

and
have their secondaries independent.
If the two
circuit,
secondaries of this case are connected properly in series
formers
a secondary system of double the potential will result, or

by adding a third wire to the point of juncture, as shown
by the dotted line of Fig. 82, a three-wire system of distribution can be secured.
The secondaries must be connected cumulatively that is, their instantaneous E.M.F.'s
must be in the same direction. If connected differentially,
;
there would be no pressure between the two outside see-
to A.
Fig. 81.
Fig. 82.
ondary wires, the instantaneous pressures of the two
coils
being equal and opposed throughout the cycle. Again,

with the same condition of primaries, the secondaries can
be connected in multiple as in Fig. 83. Here the connections must be such that at any instant the E.M.FJs of the
The
secondaries are toward the same distributing wire.
connection of more than two secondaries in series
is
not
common, but where a complex network of secondary distributing mains is fed at various points from a high-tension
system, secondaries are necessarily put in multiple.
In many types of modern transformers it is usual to
THE TRANSFORMER.
117
wind the secondaries (low-tension) in two separate and

similar coils, all four ends being brought outside of the
This allows of connections to two-wire systems of
two pressures, or for a three-wire system accord-
case.
either of
ing to Figs. 82 and 83, to be

made with the one transformer,
more economical than
this being
using two transformers
the
size,
both in
in cost of
also
the
wound
of
half
cost
and
In
operation.
transformers
are
first
many
coils
primary
two
in
parts.
In these, however, the four ter-
minals are not always brought

outside, but in some cases are
led to a porcelain block
and a pair of brass
on which are four screw-connectors

the coils to be arranged
according to the pressure of the
links, allowing
in series or in multiple
line to
Fig. 83.
From this block

which they are to be connected.
two wires run through suitably
bushed holes outside the case.
two-phase four-wire system

can be considered as two inde-
pendent
single-phase
transformation
plished by
Fi s- 8 4-
to
supply a
systems,
accom-
putting similar single-
phase transformers
one on each phase.

circuit
being
in the circuit,
desired to tap a two-phase

two-phase three-wire circuit, the
If
it
is
employed.
By the reverse
connections two-phase three- wire can be transformed to
An interesting transformer conneo
two-phase four-wire.
arrangement
of
Fig.
84
is
nS
tion
is
that devised
by Scott, which permits of
transfor-
mation from two-phase four-wire to three-phase three-wire.

Fig. 85 shows the connections of the two transformers.
If
one of the transformers has a
tap at
the middle point of
must have a
ratio of
its
10 to
ratio of
secondary
10 to .867 fio to
minal of the secondary of the latter
is
coil,
-1
with a
the other
One
ter-
connected to the
100
Fig. 85.
Fig. 86.
middle of the former, the remaining three free terminals

In
being connected respectively to the three-phase wires.
mn
repFig. 86, considering the secondary coils only, let

resent the pressure generated in the first transformer.
The
pressure in the second transformer is at right angles

of the manner of
(
5) to that in the first, and because
of
the
center
mn. Therefore
from
connection, proceeds
the line op represents in position, direction, and magnitude
From the geothe pressure generated in the second.
metric conditions mnp is an equilaterial triangle, and the
pressures represented by the three sides are equal and at
60 with the others. This is suitable for supplying a
In power transmission plants it is
three-phase system.
not
uncommon
to find the generators
wound
two-phase,
and the step-up transformers arranged to feed a threephase
line.
THE TRANSFORMER.
In America
is
it
common
to use
of a three-phase circuit.
each phase
ers may be connected either
the primary and
A on
or A.
one transformer for
The
three transform-
They may be Y on
the secondary, or vice versa.
Fig.
shows both primary and

connected
A.
secondary
87.
The
mary
a
pressure on each pri-
1000
is
I-K.W.
volts,
transformer
assumed, i.e.,
there will
I
phase,
ampere
in
and
as
was
K.W.
per
be
one
each, calling for
(^3) amperes in each

This arrangement
primary main ( 33).
where continuity of service is requisite,
T
-7
transformers
may be
cut
out
Fig. 87.
most desirable
for one of the
is
and the system
still
be
operative, the remaining transformers each taking up the
120
former be cut out, one wire of the system becomes idle,

and only a reduced pressure can be maintained on the remaining phase. The advantage of the star connection lies
in the fact that each transformer need be wound for only
In high-tension trans57.7 per cent of the line voltage.
mission this admits of building the transformers much
smaller than would be necessary if they were A connected.
89 shows the connections for primaries

and Pig. 90 those for primaries
aries in, Y
Fig.
ondaries in A.
arrangements,
By
it
is
taking advantage
to
in
second-
Y and
these last
of
sec-
two
possible to raise or lower the voltage
Fig. 89.
with
in A,
Fig. 90.
With three
transformers.
to
transform-
ers, arranged as in Fig. 89, 100 volts can be transformed

to 173 volts; while if connected as in Fig. 90, 100 volts
can be transformed into 58 volts.

Fig. 91 shows a transformer and another one connected
as an autotransformer doing the
required ratio of transformation
same work.
is
to
2,
Since the
the autotrans-
former does the work of the regular transformer with onehalf the first
drop
cost,
one-half the losses, and one-half the
method
of transformation
is
The
only objection to this

that the primary and second-
in potential (regulation).
THE TRANSFORMER.
121
With the circuits grounded

danger that the insulation of the
be subjected to the voltage of the
ary circuits are not separate.

at certain points, there is
low-tension circuit
may
One coil of an autotransformer must

high-tension circuit.
wound
for
lower
be
the
voltage, and the other coil for the
100 Kw
Transformer
^JOne
2000
v.
2:
Ratio
One 50 Kw.
Transformer
to 2
Losses not considered
loco
v.
o."
Ratio
to
Losses not considered
Fig. 91.
between the two voltages of transformation.

capacity of an autotransformer is found by multiplying the high-tension current by the difference between the
two operative voltages. Autotransformers are often called
difference
The
compensators.
Compensators
advantageously used
are
Three 16.5 Kw.

Transformers
Ratio
Loss.es not considered
to
Losses not considere
Fig. 92.
where
it
is
desired
to
raise
the
potential
by a small
amount, as in boosting pressure for very long feeders.

Fig. 92 shows three I to 2 transformers connected in A on
a three-phase system, and three
nected in Y to do the same work.
From
to
compensators con-
a two-phase circuit, a single-phase E.M.F. of any
122
desired magnitude and any desired phase-angle may be

secured by means of suitable transformers, as shown in
and Fof a two-phase
Fig- 93Suppose the two phases
system be of 100 volts pressure, and it is desired to obtain

a single-phase E.M.F. of 1000 volts and leading the phase
by 30.
As
in
Fig. 94,
draw a
line representing
the
DIRECTION OF PHASE X.
Fig. 93.
Fig. 94.
At right angles thereto, draw a line

the
direction
From their interof phase Y.
representing
section draw a line 1000 units long, making an angle of
direction of phase X.
with X.
30
It
represents in direction and in length the
Resolve
phase and the pressure of the required E.M.F.
this line into components along
and Y, and it becomes
evident that the secondary of the transformer connected
must supply the secondary circuit with 866 volts

and that the secondary of the other must supply 500 volts.
Therefore the transformer connected to
must step-up
to
and that connected to Fmust step-up

10 amperes be the full load on the secondary
to 8.66
to
5.
If
circuit,
the
transformer must have a capacity of 8.66 K.W., and the

second a capacity of 5 K.W. The load on
and Y is not
first
balanced.
56.
Lighting Transformers.
Because of their extensive
use on lighting distributing systems, the various manufacturers have to a great extent standardized their lines of
Power transformers are not as yet
lighting transformers.
THE TRANSFORMER.
123
well standardized, probably because they are generally used

such large units as to warrant a special design for
in
each case.
"
Electric Mfg. Co.'s "type
transformer
It is of the shell type of conillustrated in Fig. 95.
The Wagner
is
makers using this type claiming for it superiority

In the shell type the iron
regulation and oool running.
struction,
of
Fig. 95is
cooler than the rest of the transformer, in the core type

hotter.
As the "ageing " of the iron, or the increase
it is
of hysteretic coefficient with time,
is believed to be aggravated by heat, this is claimed as a point of superiority of

the shell type.
However, the prime object in keeping a
transformer cool
less iron
is
not to save the iron, but to protect the
and as the core type has less iron and generally

loss, the advantages do not seem to be remarkably
insulation
I2 4
In the
in favor of either.
Wagner "type
M " transformers
the usual practice of having two sets of primaries and secondaries is followed.
Fig.
coils
96 shows the three

composing one
set.
low-tension
coil is situated
two
between
high-tensioned
coils, this
arrangement
to
conducive
being
good regulation. Th
ideal method would be
to have the coils
still
more
and
subdivided
interspersed, but practical
reasons
this.
Fig.
prohibit
97 shows
Fig. 96.
the arrangement of the

The space between the coils and the
coils in the shell.
iron is left to facilitate the circulation of the oil in which
they are submerged.
The
laminae
shell
are
each in
for
the
___X^
"*v__
\7
stamped
two parts and
assembled with joints

staggered. As can be
seen
from
cut, all
the
first
the terminals
two primary
and the two seconof
the
dary
coils are
Fig. 97.
The smaller sizes

brought outside the case.
transformers, those under 1.5 K.W., have
of this line of
THE TRANSFORMER.
sufficient area to allow their
manufacturers are enabled to
125
running without
fill
oil,
so the
the retaining case with
an insulating compound which hardens on cooling.

The General Electric Co.'s " H " transformers are of
the core type.
In Fig. 76 was shown a sectional view givof the arrangement of parts in this type.
a
idea
ing
good
is
also
one
of this line of transformers.
In it is
Fig. 71
shown the
tablet
tions of the
board of porcelain on which the conneccoils may be changed from
two high-tension
series to parallel or vice versa,
that only two high-tension

wires are brought through the
case.
Fig. 98 shows the ar-
so
rangement of the various parts

in
the assembled apparatus.
The makers
claim for this type
that the coils run cooler because

of their being
more thoroughly
oil
than those
type.
Another
surrounded with
of
the
shell
brought forward is that

copper is a better conductor of
point
the heat from the inner portions of the

more readily dissipated than in the shell type.
heat than iron
apparatus
is
Fig. 98.
The
core has the advantage of being made up of simple

rectangular punchings, and the disadvantage of having four
instead of two joints in the magnetic circuit.

particular
"
transformer is the ease and
advantage of the "type
certainty with which the primary windings can be separated from the secondary windings.
properly formed
seamless cylinder of fiber can be slipped over the inner

winding and the outer one wound over it. This is much
126
more secure than tape

wound on the coils.
or other material that has to be
Fig. 99.
The Westinghouse " O. D." transformers are of the

shell type.
The construction of the separate parts is
shown in Fig. 99. The coils are wound narrow and to the
depth, and high-tension and
low-tension coils alternate side
full
by
instead
side
of
from the
Fig. 100
center out.
shows a
2 K.W. O. D. transformer with-
out the case.

is
tablet
board
used for the terminals of
the high-tension coils, but the

low-tension wires are all run
out
of
the
shows one
case.
Fig.
of the coils.
O. D. transformers are
101
Type
built
from J to 25 K.W. for lighting

and to 50 K.W. for power.
Those
of
10 K.W. or less are
Fig. loo.
THE TRANSFORMER.
127
Fig. 101.
in cast-iron cases,
those above 10 K.W. in corrugated iron
cases with cast tops and bottoms.
The
corrugations quite
Fig. 102.
materially increase the radiating surface,

are submerged in oil.
An
example
of the Stanley Electric
The windings
Manufacturing Co.'s
123
standard line of "type A. O." transformers is given in

These are also of the shell type, with divided
Fig. 1 02.
primaries and secondaries, four of the eight which belong
to a single transformer being shown in Fig. 103.
Fig. 103.
57.
Cooling of Transformers
The use
of oil to assist
produced during the operaalmost universal in sizes of less
in the dissipation of the heat
tions of transformers
is
than about 100 K.W., especially if designed for outdoor

use.
Some small transformers are designed to be selfventilating, taking air in at the bottom,
which goes out
at
They are not well protop as a result of being heated.

to have the natural
liable
tected from the weather, and are
draft cut off by the building of insects' nests.
Larger
transformers that are air cooled and that supply their own
some extent in central stations and other

places where they can be properly protected and attended
A forced draft is, however, the more common. Where
to.
such transformers are employed, there are usually a number
draft are used to
THE TRANSFORMER.
of
them
which
and they are
air is forced
I2 9
up over a large chamber into

a
blower, as indicated in Fig. 104.
by
all set
Fig. 104.
Dampers regulate the flow

They can be adjusted so
of air through the transformers.
that each transformer gets
its
proper share.
Fig. 105 shows a General Electric Company's air-blast
transformer in process of construction.
The iron core is
built up with spaces between the laminae at intervals
and
;
which are wound very thin, are assembled in

small intermixed groups with air spaces maintained by
The assembled strucpieces of insulation between them.
the
coils,
bound together
due to
the periodic tendency to repulsion between the primary and
the secondary. These transformers are made in sizes from
100 K.W. to 1000 K.W. and for pressures up to 35,000 volts.
Another method of cooling a large oil transformer is to
circulate the oil by means of a pump, passing it through a
radiator where it can dissipate its heat.
Again cold water
ture
is
subjected to heavy pressure, and
is
to prevent the possibility of vibration in the coils
forced through coils of pipe in the transformer case, and

There is the slight dantakes up the heat from the oil.
in
method
this
that
the
pipes may leak and the water
ger
is
it
may
injure
the
insulation.
Water-cooled transformers
have been built up to 2000 K.W. capacity.
130
In those cases where the transformer requires some

outside power for the operation of a blower or a pump,
the power thus used must be charged against the trans-
Fig. 105.
former when calculating its

power will be considerably
efficiency.
less
than
In general this
% of the trans-
former capacity.
58.
Constant-Current
series arc-light circuits
current mains,
former
is
Transformers.
a device
coil is fixed
operating
called a constant-current
frequently employed.
principle of operation
For
from constant potential alternating-
is
trans-
sketch showing the
given in Fig. 106.
primary
relative to the core, while a secondary coil is
THE TRANSFORMER.
move from a
allowed
room
primary
to a considerable distance
to
close
contact
from
it.
with
the
This secon-
nearly but not entirely

If no current
counter-balanced.
coil is
dary
is
taken
off
rests
coil
the secondary that

upon the primary.
When, however,
a current flows
two coils there is a repulbetween them. The counter-
in the
sion
poise
is
so adjusted that there
is
an equilibrium when the current
Flg> lo6 '
is at the proper value.

If the current rises above this
value the coil moves farther away, and there is an increased
amount
of leakage flux.
This lowers the E.M.F. induced
Fig. 107.
132
in
the secondary, and the current
Thus the transformer

current from
impressed on
its
falls to its
automatically
normal value.
delivers a constant
secondary when a constant
potential
is
its
primary.
Fig. 107 shows the mechanism of such an apparatus as
made by the General Electric Company. The cut is selfexplanatory.
Care
is
taken to have the leads to the mov-
Fig. 108.
ing
coil
very
flexible.
more are made with two
Transformers for
sets of coils,
50 lamps or
one primary coil
The moving
.being at the bottom, the other at the top.
coils are balanced one against the other, avoiding the
necessity of a very heavy counterweight.
Fig. 108 shows
a 5o-light constant-current transformer without
Fig. 109 shows a complete 25-lamp apparatus.
its
case.
The tank
THE TRANSFORMER.
filled
is
with
oil,
the same as an
133
ordinary
transformer.
Great care must be taken to keep these transformers level,

and to assist in this the larger sizes have spirit-levels built
Fig.
into the case.

cially
circuit
the
109.
pair of these transformers can be spe-
wound and connected

from a three-phase
supply a series arc-light

keeping a balanced load on
to
line,
latter.
59.
Design of a Transformer
The method of
designing a transformer depends upon the specifications as to construction and operation, and upon various values which
the designer
is
forced or sees
is
one method
fit
to assume.
The
following
These usually give
capacity in
watts, the frequency, the primary voltage, the secondary
Specifications.
the
134
and the conditions
of operation, place of installaor

not, etc.
day
The
assumption of the following quantiAssumptions.
ties is usually preliminary to any calculation,
the shape
voltage,
tion,
whether loaded
all
of transformer, -the current density in the primary, the

current density in the secondary, the turns in the primary
The
coil, and the maximum flux density in the iron.
method of design is one of cut and try.

number of
values of flux density and various numbers of primary turns
are assumed.
Efficiency curves are calculated for the
various
arrangements.
selected
or
if
The most
none are
efficient
satisfactory,
is
ultimately
the course of the
design will have brought out the proper direction to take

in
making new assumptions.
The
following design refers to a core-type, step-down,
The aslighting transformer of about 5 K. w. capacity.

are:
1000
circular
mils
per ampere in the
sumptions
primary, 1500 circular mils per ampere in the secondary
(because this is inside, and has less opportunity of dissi-
Fig. no.
and 1000 turns primary

and
and
2000,
4000 gausses maximum
3000,
successively,
flux density.
The transformer will have the shape shown
pating
its
heat),
500,
700,
Because of the general use of the English

units of measure by most practical mechanics, the dimenin Fig.
1 1
o.
THE TRANSFORMER.
indicated
sions
are
expressed in
all
135
inches.
= m may be conveniently assumed as m =

= n is likewise generally made n = i.
ratio
-
I.
The
1.5,
ratio
and the
a
To obtain the area, A, of the core in square
centi-
meters.
Let
E = impressed
primary E.M.F.,
= assumed maximum flux density,

Tp = assumed number of turns in primary,
/ = frequency.
(Bm
and
The
instantaneous value of the counter E.M.F. of
induction will be
13, vol.
i.,
self-
3)
sin
>
d
e
em
=- 2ir/T Qm
because the
Tp $m
u>
cos
maximum
a>/,
value of the cosine
is
unity.
e=~=V^TT/T^.
V2
At no
load this
is
equal and opposite to the primary im-
pressed pressure, so remembering that
10
.-.
II.
A=
To obtain c and d
in inches,
136
-45
2-54
and
= -->
11
2.54
To obtain the depth of
III.
coil
winding
t
t
inches.
Let dp
diameter of primary wire, including insulation,
diameter of secondary wire, including insula-
in inches,
t
tion, in inches,
as found from a wire table
end for
then, allowing \ inch at each
insulation,
T.,
approximately, since but half
the primary
is
wound on
each limb and
where
is
the ratio of transformation,
-.
The
IV.
value of a
found
in
To obtain a and b
in.
is
the next paragraph.

inches.
Evidently the trans-
former could 'not be assembled unless

b
Assume
>
2 (tf
tt
-|-
insulation
(t,
and clearance).
+ + |J
/.
THE TRANSFORMER.
Now
and
/,'
so
137
mb,
i'
5
But
tp
also,
a
2
so substituting
and transposing,
('-BKH-.4-OT
it
All the terms of the right-hand member are known, so

may be reduced to a simple number, and set equal to K.
Then
and
m
To obtain the volume v of iron in cubic centimeters.
About 90% of a volume occupied by laminated iron is
V.
metal.
VI.
+b+
2 c)
To obtain the watts
(a
ing to Steinmetz's
Hysteresis loss
Law, using
.003
X dX
2.54
0.9.
lost in hysteresis.
r;
v&m 1M
.003,
ergs per cycle.
Accord-
138
To obtain
VII.
ohms.
are
the resistance of the secondary
Although surrounding a rectangular
usually
approximately circular in
in
core, the coils
for
section,
con-
venience in winding and in insulating.

If the section of
the core varies considerably from the square, allowance
can be made in estimating the length of a mean turn.
Considering the coil as truly cylindrical, and allowing -|

inch insulation between it and the core, the length of a
mean turn
/
The
rTp
l,
..
s+H)
V2
secondary wire (both limbs) is then

resistance can be found directly in a wire
total length of
and
its
table giving the hot resistances of wires
or,
assumed that the transformer
will operate at
perature that one mil foot has
1 1
II
rTp 2
ohms.
be
resistance, then
circular mils
To obtain the
resistance of the
primary
Similarly to the above, the length of a
,= ,,(' +'+,.+
8
\^2
Rp
in
mean turn
3+
l6
3
allowing T g- inch insulation between the two
total length of primary wire is Tp l.
The
may
TT
R
VIII.
ohms
it
such a tem-
coils,
and the
resistance can be found in a table, or calculated
from
ii
Rp
1.41
12
circular mils
THE TRANSFORMER.
139
To obtain tJie foucault current loss

IX.
Steinmetz has given the empirical formula
Pf =io-*v(XfS>m
where
Pf in watts.
)* t
the thickness in mils of one lamina.
is
-former iron
may
Trans-
be assumed to be from 10 to 20 mils in
thickness.
X.
To obtain the
efficiency at
any
for a lighting transformer.
term J5JS whenever

,
power factor (cos

tion
Ip = rl
is
<j>).
it
load,
/,,
+ (r!$Rf
If the load
in
per
cent.
IC
be inductive the
must be multiplied by the

error involved in the assump-
occurs,
The
negligible.
After calculating the values in each of the preceding

steps for the three values of Tp and the three values of
suggested, the efficiency curve of each transformer
should then be drawn, taking points at L,i, i,
f and full
T
load.
After having selected the most suitable, determine
(&m
the following values.
XI.
To determine the all-day
The average
lighting transformer
equivalent to full load for

hours, per day.
The
efficiency in
is
per
cent.
found to be loaded
hours, and no load for
all-day efficiency
19
is
watt hours output

watt hours input per day.
.. +
with non-inductive load,
+ 24
I being the
s,
full-load
secondary
current.
XII. To determine the regulation in per cent.

In
53
was shown the method of calculating the magnetic leakage
140
Call the flux linking only the

twice that which links the coil of
of this type of transformer.

coils <, (this is
primary
Call that which links only
one limb of the transformer).
There is practically no voltage
the secondary coils $.
At full load there is a drop

drop at no load, so -Et = rEp
in the primary and in the secondary, due (a) to IR drop,
.
caused by leakage flux.

Knowing
by the formula of paragraph L, this sec-
to self-induction
(fr)
this leakage flux,

tion, calculate
the voltage drop in primary and in secondary
coils, thus,
and
sd
The
lo
\J
regulation, expressed in per cent,
~
=E
'
Regulation
where fp =Tftt and
is
+ '** +
is
~
.00,
&,
the full-load current.
stated refers to a non-inductive load.
Regulation as
MOTORS.
CHAPTER
141
VII.
MOTORS.
60.
Hi,
Rotating Field.
Suppose an iron frame, as in Fig.

and that
to be provided with inwardly projecting poles,
these be divided into three groups, arranged as in the diagram, poles of the same group
being marked by the same

If the poles of each
letter.
group be alternately wound

in opposite directions, and be
connected to a single source
E.M.F., then the resulting current
of
would magnetize the interior faces alIf the imternately north and south.
pressed E.M.F. were alternating, then
Fi s- x
the polarity of each pole would change
with each half cycle.
If the three groups of windings
be connected respectively with the three terminals of a
-
three-phase supply circuit, any three successive poles will

assume successively a maximum polarity of the same
required to pass from one pole to its

one-third
of the duration of a half cycle.
neighbor being
The maximum intensity of either polarity is therefore
sigh, the interval
passed from one pole to the next, and the result is a rotatIf the frequency of the supply E.M.F. be/, and
ing field.
if
there be
pairs of poles per phase, then the field will
142
make one complete
revolution in - seconds.
It will there-
/ V
make - =
revolutions per second.

^- complete
fore
rotating field can be obtained from any polyphase supplycircuit
by making use
of appropriate windings.
The Induction Motor
61.
If a suitably
mounted hollow
conducting cylinder be placed inside a rotating field, it will

have currents induced in it, due to the relative motion be-
tween
it
cylinder.
react,
rent
and the
The
field
whose
and produce a rotation
is
flux cuts the surface of the
currents in combination with the flux will

of the cylinder.
not restrained as to the direction of
the force exerted between
it
and the
its
As
the cur-
path,
field will
all
of
not be in
a tangential direction so as to be useful in producing rotaThis difficulty can be overcome by slotting the
tion.
cylinder in a direction parallel with the axis of revolution.
Nor will the torque exerted be as great as it would be if
the cylinder were mounted upon a laminated iron core.

Such a core would furnish a path of low reluctance for the
The flux for a given
flux between poles of opposite sign.
magnetomotive force would thereby be greater, and the

torque would be increased.
Induction motors operate according to these principles.
The stationary part of an induction motor is called the stator,
and the moving part
is
called the rotor.
practice to produce the rotating field

upon the windings of the stator.
motors whose rotating
fields are
It
is
common
by impressing E.M.F.
There are, however,
produced by the currents
in the rotor windings.
Fig.
1 1
2 shows the stator core and frame of a Westing1 1

3 shows the same with
house induction motor, and Fig.
MOTORS.
143
the windings in place.

Each projection of the core does
not necessarily mean a pole for it is customary to employ
a distributed winding, there being several slots per pole
;
Fig. 112.
Fig. 113.
14 shows the
The
inductors are
per phase.
Fig.
copper bars embedded in slots in the laminated steel core.
1
They
are
all
rotor.
connected, in parallel, to copper collars or

rings,
one at
each end of the rotor.
They
short-circuiting
offer but a
very small resistance, and the currents induced

in
them are forced to flow
in
direction parallel with the

The reaction against the
axis.
field
Fig. 114.
efficient
in
this type is
62.
flux
proper
producing rotation.
called a squirrel cage.
is
therefore
direction to be
rotor or armature of
Principle of Operation of the Induction Motor.
the speed of rotation of the field be
in
most
V R-
P.
M,
If
and that of
144
the rotor be
then the relative speed between a

given inductor on the rotor and the rotating field will be
V
R. P. M.
The ratio of this speed to that of the field,
R. P. M.,
V V =
f
viz.,
is
s,
termed the
slip,
and
is
generally ex-
If the
pressed as a per cent of the synchronous speed.
flux from a single north pole of the stator be
maxwells,
<
then the effect ive E.M.F. induced

t
is
2.22 /3> s
is
a single rotor inductor
io~ 8
60
where/
pairs of revolving poles.
E.M.F.
in
represents, the
The frequency
number
of
of this induced
from that of the E.M.F. impressed upon
different
times the latter frequency.

The frequency would be zero if the rotor revolved in synchronism
with the field, and would be that of the field current if the
the stator.
It is s
As the slip of modern machines is

rotor were stationary.
but a few per cent (2% to 15%), the frequency of the
under operative conditions,
current which will flow in a given inductor of a squirrel-cage rotor is difficult to determine. All
E.M.F.
is
in the rotor inductors,
quite low.
The
the inductors have E.M.F.' s in them, which at any instant

are of different values, and in some of them the current
flow in opposition to the E.M.F. It can be seen, howAs the imever, that the rotor impedance is very small.
may
dependent upon the frequency, it will be larger

when the rotor is at rest than when revolving. It will re-
pedance
is
duce to the simple resistance when the rotor is revolving in

synchronism. Suppose a rotor to be running light without
load.
It will
field, *so
revolve but slightly slower than the revolving
that just
such a current
power
is
in
enough E.M.F.
is
generated to produce
the rotor inductors that the electrical
equal to the losses due to friction, windage, and
MOTORS.
145
the core and copper losses of the rotor.
If
now
a me-
chanical load be applied to the pulley of the rotor, the

The E.M.F. and
speed will drop, i.e., the slip will increase.
current in the rotor will increase also, and the rotor will
receive additional electrical power, equivalent to the increase
The
induction motor
operates in this respect

like a shunt motor on a constant potential direct-current
in
load.
'circuit.
If
the strength of the rotating
field,
which cuts
SYNCHRONISM
Fig. 115.
the rotor inductors, were maintained constant,
the
the rotor E.M.F., and the rotor current would vary

as the mechanical torque exerted.
If
slip,
directly
the rotor resistance
were increased, the same torque would require an increase

of slip to produce the increased E.M.F. necessary to send
the same current, but the strict proportionality would be
The rotating magnetism, which cuts the rotor
maintained.
inductors, does not, however, remain constant under vary-
146
ing loads.
As
the
stator flux passes
slip increases, more and more of the

between the stator and rotor windings,
This increase of magnetic leakage

without linking them.
due to the cross magnetizing action of the increased
is
rotor currents.
The
decrease of linked
field flux
not only
lessens the torque for the same rotor current, but also
makes a greater slip necessary to produce the same cur-
The
which
between torque and slip

shown in Fig. 115, where
the full lines represent torque, and the dotted lines current.
An inspection of the curves shows that the maximum
torque which a motor can give is the same for different
The speed of the rotor, however, when
rotor resistances.
the motor is exerting this maximum torque, is different for
rent.
relation
exists
for various rotor resistances
different resistances.
is
This fact
is
made use
of in starting
induction motors so that the starting current may not be

excessive.
Fig. 116 shows a General Electric Form L
Fig. 116.
rotor.
type.
The
The winding is polar, and not of

The impedance can therefore be
the squirrel-cage
easily calculated.
terminals of the windings are connected to a resistance

When the rotor reaches a
carried on the rotor spider.
MOTORS.
147
proper speed the resistance may be cut out by pushing a

knob on the end of the shaft, as shown in diagram. This
arrangement permits of a small starting current under
Squirrel-cage motors require
current to start under load.
Fig.
and a large torque.
load
several times full-load
Fig. 117.
shows a General Electric Co. form
117
winding
is
the same as in the
Form
The
rotor.
L, except that
its ter-
minals are brought out to three slip-rings.

starting
resistance can be placed away from the motor and be con-
nected with the rotor windings by means of brushes rubbing

upon the slip-rings.
63.
The Transformer Method
of Treatment.
in theoretical discussions to consider
tomary
motor as a transformer.
It is
cus-
the induction
Evidently when the rotor is

is nothing but a transformer, with
machine
the
stationary
a magnetic circuit so constructed as to have considerable
magnetic leakage.
still
When
acts as a transformer
the rotor
;
is
moving, the machine
but the ratio of transformation
and the frequency of the E.M.F. in the rotor, are but s

times what they were with a stationary rotor, the mechanical load taking
the place of the electric load on the secon-
148
clary of the transformer.
Bearing these facts
in
mind, the
motor may be treated exactly like the transformer. Consider one phase of a polyphase motor.
The pressure imthe
is
stator
than
the
pressed upon
greater
pressure which
is operative in inducing E.M.F. in the rotor.
The difference is due to the resistance, the hysteresis, the eddy
and the magnetic leakage of the stator. The

overcome each should be subtracted from the
currents,
pressure to
in the
impressed pressure
operative
pressure.
proper phase relation to get the

equivalent inductance of the
The
magnetic leakage can be calculated for different currents,

The voltage induced
as was the case in the transformer.

in the rotor
where
is
sr times the operative pressure of the stator
T is the ratio of transformation.

in
is
The
current which
magnitude and phase upon the
produces
dependent
impedance of the rotor windings.
it
From
the power repre-
sented by this current at the rotor pressure must be

subtracted the power lost in resistance, eddy currents, hysWhat remains
teresis, friction, and windage of the rotor.
It
given out by the motor as useful mechanical power.
should not be forgotten that the frequency of the rotor
currents is but s times that of the impressed voltage.
is
tion in
upon
The ratio
Ratio of Transformation
64.
its
an induction motor
operation.
is
without appreciable effect

of the same capacity it is
For motors
the practice of the General Electric
same squirrel-cage
phases.
The
of transforma-
Company
to use the
rotor for different voltages and different
stator windings alone are altered.
Forms L
rotors are not changed for change of voltage, but

and
must of course be altered for change of phase, as they are
A certain 4-pole, 3 -phase, 6ocycle, nopolar wound.
MOTORS.
General Electric induction motor has
volt, i -horse-power,
36
containing 20 conductors of
rotor contains 37 slots, each one con-
slots in the stator,
size
No.
The
13.
each
slot
The
taining one No. 2 wire.
amount equal
to the distance
The
secutive slots.
circuit disks,
65.
149
slots are staggered by an

between centers of two con-
rotor inductors are connected to short-
one on each end of the
rotor.
The
Behavior of Induction Motors
tween speed, torque, power
factor, efficiency,
relations be-
and current
in the case of a typical induction motor operating under

normal conditions is represented in Fig. 118.
If the. voltage
impressed upon an induction motor be
increased, there will result a proportional increase in the

flux linked with the rotor, and in consequence a propor-
10
20
30
40
50
70
80
90
100
11.0
120 H.P.
Fig. 118.
As the torque depends upon the product of the flux and the rotor ampere
tional increase in the rotor current.
follows that the torque varies as the square of the

The capacity of a motor is therefore
impressed voltage.
turns,
it
150
changed when
it is
operated on circuits of different volt-
ages.
the low-power factor of induction motors,

transformers intended to supply current for their operation
should have a higher rated capacity than that of the mo-
Owing
tors.
to
It is
customary to have the kilowatt capacity of the
transformer equal to the horse-power capacity of the motor.

The low power-factor is due to magnetic leakage, i.e.,
flux linked with the stator, but not with the rotor windings.
This leakage increases with increase of length of

It is hence desirable to have the gap as small as
air gap.
consistent with
mechanical
clearance.
Concentricity of
and stator is to be obtained by making the bearings

in the form of end plates fastened to the stator frame.
Some makers send wedge gap-gauges with their machines
so that a customer may test for eccentricity due to wear
rotor
of the bearings.
small air gap, besides lowering the
leakage and raising the power factor, increases the efficiency and capacity of the motor.
The torque exerted on a constant loaded rotor is continuous and constant in the case of a polyphase motor.
The Stanley Company raise the power factor of their
two-phase motors to nearly unity by using condensers to

neutralize the lag produced by leakage.
The
direction of rotation of a three-phase
motor can be
changed by transposing the supply connections to any two

In the case of a two-phase, fourterminals of the motor.
wire motor, the connections to either one of the phases,
may be transposed.
66.
Starting of
Squirrel-Cage Motors
To
avoid the
excessive rush of current which would result from connec-
MOTORS.
tion of a loaded squirrel-cage
motor to a supply
circuit,
use
made by both the Westinghouse Company and the

General Electric Company of starting compensators. These
is
are autotransformers
which are connected between the
supply mains, and which, through taps, furnish to the

motor circuits currents at a lower voltage than that of
After the rotor has attained the speed
the supply mains.
appropriate to the higher voltage, the motor connections are
transferred to the mains, and the compensator is thrown
nerator
152
the motor
is connected with the low-voltage taps.

Upon
over
the switch the transformers are cut out, and
throwing
the motor is connected directly with the mains.
Where
special step-down transformers are used for indi-
vidual motors, or where several motors are located close to
and operated from a bank of transformers, it is sometimes

practical to bring out taps from the secondary winding, and
use a double-throw motor switch, thereby making provision
for starting the
motor
at
low voltage, while avoiding the
necessity for a starting compensator.
The General
Electric
Company make
small
squirrel-
cage motors, with centrifugal friction clutch pulleys so

that although a load may be belted to the motor, it is not
;
applied to the rotor until the latter has reached a certain

speed. The starting current is therefore a no-load starting
current.
MOTORS.
Fig. 121.
In order to operate polyphase in67. Phase Splitters

duction motors upon single-phase circuits, use is made of
inductances in series with one motor circuit to produce a
1.54
Fig. 122.
lagging current, or of condensers to produce a leading curThe General

one in each of two legs.
rent, or of both
condenser compensator, for use

with small motors, as shown in Fig. 122, employs an
autotransformer and condenser connected,
Electric
Company,
in its
as in diagram Fig. 123.
The autotransformer
the voltage, which
condenser, to
is
500
is
volts.
the condenser
used to step-up
impressed upon the
The
necessary
thereby reduced.
The equivalent impedance of the autotransformer and condenser, as connected,
size of
is
such as to produce a leading current in

the one-phase sufficient to give a satisfactory starting torque, and it brings the power
is
factor practically
up
to unity at all loads.
68. Single-Phase Induction Motors.

tion
motor
will operate fairly well,
if,
two-phase induc-
after attaining full
MOTORS.
speed, one of the
ply circuit.
of the
155
two phases be disconnected from the supnot start from rest under the influence
It will
one-phase excitation.
The
load remaining constant,
the one phase will take twice its original current.

Simiwill operate well upon one-phase
larly, a three-phase motor
The current in this case will be 1.5 times
excitation.
what
it
previously was.
and a stator wound
motor consisting -of a
rotor-
single phase will, in a like manner,
In the Wagner
operate satisfactorily when once started.
induction
motor
the
rotor windings
single-phase
(Fig. 124),
connected to a commutator, with its brushes joined

The stator
together by a conductor of low resistance.
are
is
supplied
with
The rotor is
single-phase excitation.
the
reaction
the current
between
by
to speed
brought up
which is induced in the rotor windings and the stator
flux.
156
reaching speed, a centrifugal device, shown in the

figure, causes the commutator bars to be short-circuited,
and the brushes are simultaneously lifted from the commu-
Upon
H.P. SINGLE PHASE

INDUCTIONTMOTOR
FROM TESTS MADE AT

HARVARD UNIVERSITY,
MAY 1900
140 VOLTS
50
60
70
#FULL LOAD
Fig. 125.
Tests have been made upon this type of motor
tator.
at
various universities, including Harvard, University of IlliThe results are concordant,

nois, and Purdue University.
and are represented
in the curves Fig. 125.
The Monocyclic System.

This is a system advocated
the
General
Electric
by
Company for the use of plants
whose load is chiefly lights, but which contains some
69.
The monocyclic
generator is a modified singleIn

addition
to its regular winding, it
phase
has a so-called teazer winding, made of wire of suitable
motors.
alternator.
cross section to carry the motor load, and with enough

turns to produce a voltage one-fourth that of the regular
One end of
winding, and lagging 90 in phase behind it.
the teazer winding is connected to the middle of the
MOTORS.
lar
winding, and the other end
is
157
connected through a
slip-
ring to a third line wire.
three-terminal induction motor
being connected to the
is
used, the terminals
line wires either directly or
through
transformers.
70.
Frequency Changers
These are machines which
are used to transform alternating currents of one frequency

into those of another frequency.
They are commonly used
from a low frequency (say from 25 or 40) to

They depend for their operation upon the
variation with slip of the frequency of the rotor E.M.F.'s
to transform
a higher one.
of
an induction motor.
The common
practice for raising
the frequency is, to have a synchronous motor turn the

rotor of an induction motor in a direction opposite to the
direction of rotation of the latter's field.
The synchronous
motor and the stator windings of the induction motor are

connected to the low frequency supply mains.
Slip-rings
connected to the rotor windings of the induction motor
The size of the
supply current at the higher frequency.
synchronous
motor
necessary to
drive
the
frequency
the same percentage of the total output as the

rise of frequency is to the higher frequency.
changer
is
The speed
Speed Regulation of Induction Motors.
of an induction motor can be varied by altering the voltage
71.
impressed upon the stator, by altering the resistance of the

rotor circuit, or by commutating the stator windings so as
to alter the multipolarity.
The first two methods depend
for their operation upon the fact that, inasmuch as the
motor torque is proportional to the product of the stator

and the rotor current, for a given torque the product
flux
158
must be constant.
Lessening the voltage impressed upon

the stator lessens the flux, and also the rotor current, if the
same speed be maintained. The speed,

until enough E.M.F. is developed to send
to produce,
therefore, drops
sufficient current
combination with the reduced
in
flux,
the
equivalent torque.
Increasing the resistance of the rotor
circuit decreases the rotor current, and requires a drop in
speed to restore
its
Both
value.
of these
methods
result
the impressed voltage be reIn fact, the

duced, the capacity of the motor is reduced.
varies
as
the
of
the
square
impressed
capacity
voltage.
in inefficient operation.
If
Changes in the multipolarity of the stator requires complicated commutating devices.

72. Synchronous Motors.
Any excited single-phase
or polyphase alternator, if brought up to speed, and if connected with a source of alternating E.M.F. of the same
frequency and approximately the same pressure, will operate as a motor.

The speed of the rotor in revolutions
per second will be the quotient of the frequency by the
number of pairs of poles. This is called the synchronous
speed
and the
running
in
rotor,
when
synchronism.
has this speed, is said to be

This exact speed will be mainit
tained throughout wide ranges of load upon the motor

to several times full-load capacity.
To understand
suppose
to
it
be
the action of
the synchronous motor,

from a single
supplied with current
generator.
Let
E*
=
=
E.M.F.
E.M.F.
of the generator,
of the
motor
at the time of
tion with the generator,
Phase angle between
up
and
E^
connec-
MOTORS.
jR
o>Z
159
Resistance of generator armature, plus that

of the connecting wires and of the
motor armature, and
The
Reactance of the above.
resultant E.M.F.,
E which
operative in sending
is
current through the complete circuit,

and 2 with each
ing
l
is
found by combin-
other at a phase difference 0, as in Fig. 126.
Representing the
angle between E^ and
and
ft
and
respectively,
by
and
follows that
it
E=
cos a
This resulting E.M.F.

current whose value is
-f-
E% cos
sends
ft.
through the
circuit
/=
^
and
it
lags behind
The power
and the power
P.,
if
such that tan
which the motor gives to the

2
Now,
</>,
which the generator gives to the
P=
cosine
by an angle
Scos
(ft
<
circuit is
circuit is
<).
in either of the above expressions for power, the

has any other value than unity, then the power
will consist
of energy pulsations, there being four pulsaThe energy is alternately given to and
tions per cycle.
received from the circuit by the machine.

If the cosine
positive, the amount of energy in one pulsation, which
be
160
given to the circuit, will exceed the amount in one

the received pulsations.
The machine is then acting
If the cosine be negative the opposite
as a generator.
is
of
takes place, and the machine operates as a motor.

As a
and ft are but functions of E^ 2 and 6, and as these latter
are the quantities to be considered in operation,
able to eliminate the former.

analytical transformation
J\
If
it
By
it is
desir-
somewhat complicated
can be shown that
there were no losses due to resistance,
etc.,
would be
Neglecting any losses

numerically exactly equal to
z
in the machines, except that due to resistance, the algebraic
sum
of
and
is
equal
to
RI*.
In order to
determine the behavior of a synchronous motor when on

a given circuit, use is made of the above formula for power,
and each case must be considered by itself. The method
of procedure
is
shown
in the next article.
Suppose a single-phase synchronous

73. Special Case.
motor, excited so as to generate 2100 volts, to be connected to a generator giving 2200 volts, the total resistance of the circuit being 2 ohms and the reactance i ohm.
of current lag behind the resultant
Then the angle
<
E.M.F. has a value tan
<f>
0.5,
whence
</>
26
34'.
preliminary calculation, using the formulas of the previous article, shows that both machines act as generators
for values of
between o and 120, and between 240 and
360 approximately.
MOTORS.
Calculations of
and
161
for various values of
between
have been made, and are embodied in the

From an inspection of these
form of curves in Fig. 127.
1
20
and 240
Fig. 137.
and a consideration of the equations from which

the curves are derived, the following conclusions may be
curves,
drawn
The motor
(a)
tween
angles
(b)
175
and
will operate as
The
238.
such for values of
difference
be-
between these
may be termed the operative range.

The generator would operate as a motor for values
and 174, providing the motor were

mechanically driven so as to supply the current and power
i.e., what was previously the motor must now operate as
between 133
of
a generator.
The
operative range, can absorb

any amount of power between zero and a certain maximum. To vary the amount of received power, the motor
(c)
motor, within
its
has to but slightly shift the phase of its E.M.F. in respect

to the impressed E.M.F. and then to resume running in
,
162
The sudden shift of phase under change

synchronism.
is
the
fundamental
of load
means of power adjustment in
It corresponds to
the synchronous motor.
change of slip
in the induction motor, to
motor,
and to change
of
change of speed
magnetomotive
in the
force
shunt
in
the
transformer.
(d)
For
all
values of the received power, except the
maximum, there are two values of phase difference 0.

At one of these phase differences more current is required
for the same power than at the other.
The value of the
current in either case can be calculated as follows
Since
/\
The values
of
of transmission
of
+P =
z
/are plotted
e
=p
is
in the diagram.
The
also different for the
efficiency
two values
It is also represented by a curve.

the phase alteration, produced by an added mechanload on the motor, results in an increase of power
.
If
ical
received by the motor, the running is said to be stable. If

on the other hand, the increase of load produces a decrease
of absorbed power, the running is unstable.
any reason the phase difference 0, between

the E.M.F.'s of the motor and generator, be changed to a
(e)
If
for
value without the operative range for the motor, the motor
will cease to receive as much energy from the circuit as it
gives back, and it will, therefore, fall out of step.
Among
the causes which may produce this result are sudden
variations in the frequency of the generator, variations in
the angular velocity of the generator, or excessive me-
MOTORS.
163
In slowing down, all

chanical load applied to the motor.
values
of
will
be
possible
successively assumed and it
that
the
motor
armature may receive suffimay happen
;
some value
cient energy at
and restore
it
to check its fall in speed,
of
to synchronism, or
may come
it
to a stand-
still.
(/) Under varying loads the inertia of the motor

The shifting from one
armature plays an important part.
to another, which corresponds to a new mechanvalue of
ical load,
The new value is

does not take place instantly.
is an oscillation on both sides of
overreached, and there
mean
its
speed
is
This oscillation about the synchronous

If the armature required no
termed hunting.
value.
energy to accelerate or retard
it,
would not take
this
place.
The maximum negative value of P2

that is, the
maximum load that the motor can carry is evidently when
= 80. The formula
=
i or when 9
cos (
(g)
<f>
for the
power absorbed by the motor then reduces to

ZL2 cos
The
(h)
<j>
E, E
<f>
operative range of the motor can be determined

P,2 equal to zero.
By transformation the for-
by making
mula then becomes
cos (6
Two
values of
(0
<)
<) result,
E? cos y
'
<fr= 2
14' or
174
40' or 148
54'.
20'.
one on each side of
In the case under consideration cos
0-
<f>
<
(6
Since
c6
.851
80.
and
26 34',$= 238
64
74.
To determine what
The Motor E.M.F.
will give the
value of
maximum
by a motor, consider
value of power to be absorbed

as a variable in the equation given
in (g) above.
Differentiating
cos
and setting
=
2 COS
At
this voltage the
61
K.
w.
below
it,
its
is
and
this equal to zero
JE
t>
solving,
1210
volts.
<
maximum
possible intake of the motor
the voltage of the motor be above this or

maximum intake will be smaller.
If
Remembering
that the current lags behind the resultant
pressure of the generator and motor pressures by an angle
which
is solely dependent upon to,

and
L,
R, it will be easily seen, from
an inspection of Figs. 128, 129, and
cf>,
CURRENT LAGGING E,
Fig. 128.
30, that the current
may be made
to lag behind, lead, or be in phase
with
of
CURRENT LEADING E,
Fig. 129.
ing the motor's field excitation.

proper excitation can produce a unit
power
line.
CURRENT
IN
PHASE WITH E (
Fig. 130.
simply altering the value

This may be done by vary-
E^ by
motor,
factor
in
the
transmitting
The
over-excited synchronous
therefore, acts like a con-
denser in producing a leading cur-
rent, and can be made to neutralize the effect of inductThe current which is consumed by the motor for a
ance.
given load accordingly varies with the
excitation.
The
MOTORS.
relations
I6 5
between motor voltage and absorbed current
shown
various loads are
for
in Fig. 131.
Synchronous motors are sometimes used for the purpose

of regulating the
phase relations of transmission
lines.
MOTOR VOLTAGE
Fig. 131.
The
excitation
motor
is
is
varied to
run without load.
suit
the conditions, and the
Under such circumstances the
machines are termed synchronous compensators.

The capacity of a synchronous motor is limited by
heating.
If
it is
made
to adjust the phase of a line current,

full
motor load
its
to take a leading current in order
in addition
it
cannot carry
its
without heating.
The discussion
75. Polyphase Synchronous Motor.
which has just been given applies to the single-phase
The facts brought out are equally applicable to the
In the latter case each leg or phase is
polyphase motor.
to be considered as a single-phase circuit.
The total power
is that of each
the
number
of phases.
phase multiplied by
motor.
These motors do not

76. Starting Synchronous Motors.
have sufficient torque at starting to satisfactorily come up
66
speed under load.

They are, therefore, preferably
brought up to synchronous speed by some auxiliary source
of power.
In the case of polyphase systems an induction
motor is very satisfactory. Its capacity need be but TL that
to
of the large motor.

Fig. 132 shows a 750 K. w. quarterphase General Electric motor with a small induction motor
Fig. 132.
geared
to the shaft for this purpose.
This motor
may be
mechanically disconnected after synchronism is reached.

Before connection of the synchronous motor. to the mains
necessary that the motor should not only be in synchronism, but should have its electromotive force at a
it is
difference of phase
pressure.
of
about
To determine both
180 with the impressed

these points a simple device,
iMOTORS.
known
as
is
It consists of
employed.
in
connected
series
with the seclamp
synchronizer)
incandescent
an
167
two transformers, whose primaries are connected respectively with the line and with the motor
The brightness with which the lamp glows
terminals.
ondaries of
is
a measure
E.M.F.'s.
of
It is
the phase difference between the two

customary to so connect the transformers
when the motor E.M.F.
that
is
at
180
with
the line
pressure, the lamp will have its greatest brilliancy.

the motor is coming up to speed, the lamp will
alternately bright and dark.
The
alternations will
As
be
grow
slower as synchronism is approached, and will finally be

so slow as to permit the closing of the main switch at the
proper instant.
Synchronous motors may be brought up to speed without any auxiliary source of power.
The field circuits are
open and the armature is connected either to the full
left
pressure of the supplv, or to this pressure reduced by

means of a starting compensator, such as was described
66.
in
The magnetizing
effect of the
armature ampere
turns sets up a flux in the poles sufficient to supply a small

When, after running a sufficient time as an
starting torque.
induction motor, synchronism is nearly attained, the fields
may be excited and the motor will come into step. The
is afterwards
applied to the motor through friction
clutches or other devices.
There is great danger of perthe
insulation
of the field coils when starting in
forating
load
this
in
manner.
This
is
because of the high voltage produced

In such cases each field
flux.
them by the varying
spool
is
customarily open-circuited on starting.
which are designed to accomplish

break-up switches.
this
Switches
purpose are called
168
77.
Parallel
Running
of Alternators
Any two
alter-
nators adjusted to have the same E.M.F., and the same
Mafrequency, may be synchronized and run in parallel.

chines of low armature reaction have large synchronizing
power, but
out of step
may
by
give rise to heavy cross currents, if thrown

The contrary is true of machines
accident.
Cross currents due to

having large armature reaction.
differences of wave-form are also reduced by large armature reaction.
The
electrical load is
distributed between
the two machines according to the power which is being

furnished by the prime movers.
This is accomplished, as
in the case of the synchronous motor, by a slight shift of
phase between the E.M.F.'s of the two machines. The

difficulties which have been experienced in the parallel
running of alternators have almost invariably been due to
bad regulation of the speed of the prime mover. Trouble

may arise from the electrical side, if the alternators are
Composite wound
designed with a large number of poles.
alternators should have their series compounding coils connected to equalizing bus bars, the same as compound wound
direct-current generators.
CONVERTERS.
CHAPTER
169
VIII.
CONVERTERS.
The converter is a machine havThe Converter.
ing one field, and one armature, the latter being supplied
with both a direct-current commutator and alternating78.
When brushes, which rub upon the

current slip-rings.
are
connected
with a source of alternating
slip-rings,
current of proper voltage, the armature will
chronously, acting the
same
rotate syn-
as the armature of a
synchronous motor.
While
so revolving, direct current
can be taken from brushes
rubbing upon the commutator.
The
intake of cur-
rent from the alternatingcurrent mains is sufficient

to supply the direct -current
and to overcome
the losses due to resistance,
circuit,
friction,
windage,
Fig. i33-
hystercurrents.
and eddy
The windings of a converter
armature are closed, and simply those of a direct-current
dynamo armature with properly located taps leading to the
esis,
slip-rings.
Each ring must be connected
to the armature
winding by as many taps as there are pairs of poles in

the field.
These taps are equidistant from each other.
There may be any number
converter having
The
;/
rings
of
is
rings
greater than
called an
taps to successive rings are
-th
one.
-ring converter.
of the distance be-
tween the centers of two successive north poles from each

other.
Fig. 133 shows the points of tapping for a 3-ring
multipolar converter.
converter may also be supplied with direct current
Fig. 134.
through its commutator, while alternating current is taken

Under these circumstances the
from the slip-rings.
machine
is
Converters are
termed an inverted converter.
in lighting and in power plants, sometimes
much used
receiving alternating current, and at other times direct

In large city distributing systems they are often
current.
used
in
connection with storage batteries to charge them
CONVERTERS.
71
from alternating-current mains during periods of light

load, and to give back the energy during the heavy load.
They are also used in transforming alternating into direct
currents for electrolytic purposes.

for this
is
purpose
converter
is
shown
in Fig.
three-phase machine
34.
sometimes called a rotary converter or
simply a rotary.
79.
lations
In order to determine the reE.M.F. Relations.

which exist between the pressures available at the
various brushes of a converter,
Let
Ed = the voltage
between successive direct-current
brushes.
E = the
effective voltage
of
= the
an
between successive rings
//-ring converter.
maximum E.M.F.
single armature
when
generated in a
This .will Sexist
in volts
inductor.
the conductor
is
under the center of a
pole.
the
number
electrical
of armature inductors in a unit

of
angle
electrical angle
the
The
periphery.
subtended by the centers of
two successive poles of the same polarity

is
considered as
The E.M.F. generated
in a
2?r
conductor
as varying as the cosine of the angle of

to a point directly under the center of
may be
its
considered
position relative
any north
pole, the
At an angle
angles being measured in electrical degrees.
in a single inductor G
/?, Fig. 135, the E.M.F. generated
is
a cos
(3
volts.
In an element d$ of the periphery of
armature there are bd$ inductors, each with this

E.M.F. If connected in series they will yield an E.M.F.
the
172
of
ab cos
if
an expression
ft
d$
The
volts.
for the
value of ab can be determined
E.M.F. between two successive

direct-current
brushes
be
determined by integration,
and be set equal to this
value
+l
In an
as follows
ab cos
fid(3
= 2 ab.
the
//-ring converter,
electrical angular distance
between the taps
Fig. 135-
2?r
successive rings
is
The maximum E.M.F.
two
for
will
be
between the two taps for the succesthe taps are at an equal angular distance
from the center of a pole, one on each side of it, as shown
generated in the
sive rings,
coils
when
in the figure.
This
maximum E.M.F.
3dB
ab cos ^
^
is
ab sin n
= Ed sin n
The
effective
voltage between the successive rings
is
therefore
By
substituting numerical values in this formula,
found that the
coefficient
it
is
by which the voltage between
CONVERTERS.
1/3
the direct-current brushes must be multiplied in order to

get the effective voltage between successive rings is for
2 rings
3 rings
...-'.
4 rings
6 rings
....
."
.'
0.707
0.612
......
0.354
0.500
In practice there is a slight variation from these co-effidue to the fact that the air-gap flux is not sinusoid-
cients
ally distributed.
Current Relations.
In the following discussion it is

assumed that a converter has its field excited so as to
80.
cause the alternating currents in the armature inductors to

lag 1 80 behind the alternating E.M.F. generated in them.
The armature
carry currents which vary cyclically

with the same frequency as that of the alternating-current
They
supply.
widely
in
coils
differ
wave-form from
sine curves.
This
is
be-
cause they consist of two

currents superposed upon
each
other.
Consider a
It carB, Fig. 136.

ries a direct current whose
coil
value
is
half that car-
by one direct-current
brush, and it reverses its
ried
direction every time that
Fig - I36
'
The coil, as well as

coil passes under a brush.
others between two taps for successive slip-rings, also
This current has its zero
carries an alternating current.
the
all
174
value
when
the point A, which is midway between the

successive taps, passes under the brush.
The coil being
\l/
electrical
degrees ahead of the point A, the alternating
current will pass through zero

of a cycle later than
2 7T
the direct current. The time relations of the two currents
are
shown
in Fig. 137.
To determine
the maximum value of the alternating

current consider that, after subtracting the machine losses,
Fig. 137.
the alternating-current power intake is equal to the directcurrent power output.

Neglecting these losses for the
n represents the pressure and / the effective
present, if
alternating current in the armature coils between the successive slip-rings, then for the parts of the armature wind-
ings covered by each pair of poles
Ed ld = nEJ
= n E-d sin - I
n
TT
V^
Therefore, the
maximum
value of the alternating current
is
7T
n sin -
The time
variation of current in the particular coil
obtained by taking the algebraic
sum
is
of the ordinates of
CONVERTERS.
This yields the curve shown
the two curves.
Ivach inductor has its
ing upon
its
175
own wave-shape
in Fig.
138.
of current, depend-
angular distance ^ from the point A.
\
Fig. 138.
The heating efHeating of the Armature Coils

in an armature coil due to a current of such peculiar
81.
fect
wave-shape as that shown
Fig. 138 can be determined
in
The graphic determinacurve

new
be
a
tion requires that
plotted, whose ordinates
shall be equal to the squares of the corresponding current
either graphically or analytically.
values.
The
The
area contained between this
new curve and
then determined by means of a planimeter.

lobe is proportional to the heating value
one
area of
the time axis
is
This value
of the current.
of the coils
may be determined
between two successive
taps.
An
for
each
average of
these values will give the average heating effect of the

currents in all the armature coils. The heating is different
in the different
coils.
It
is
points of tap to the slip-rings
midway between the taps.

The analytical determination
a
coil
which
is
electrical
maximum for coils at the

is a minimum for coils
and
is
made
as follows
For
degrees from a point midway
176
between successive
slip-ring taps,
at
the time
seconds
after passing a direct-current positive brush, the instanta-
neous value of the current
is
_I*\ 4 sin (2 icft
T,
-/
-{
1
I
"
J
7T
n sm .
The
\f)
effective value of the current in this coil
6 cos
is,
therefore,
^
_j
sm
where
The
7T
represents for simplicity the value of the radical.

heating, due to the current in this coil, is propor-
tional to
f2@2
-
armature
is
LH.
4
^
and the average heating over the whole
proportional to
Inasmuch as the heating
of this
simple direct-current generator

can, with the
is
put out
armature when run as a

proportional to
it
same heating, when operating

*
ter,
_ 7T
sm j .
^r
as
much
as a conver-
direct current.
CONVERTERS.
177
Capacity of a Converter.
By inserting numerical
values in the above equation it is found that a machine has
82.
upon the same temperature rise,

number of slip-rings, as shown in the folThe armature is supposed to have a closed-
different capacities, based
according to the
lowing table.
coil
winding
CONVERTER CAPACITIES.
KILOWATT CAPACITY
i oo
USED AS A
Direct-current generator
Single-phase converter
85
Three-phase converter
134
164
Four-phase converter
Six-phase converter
196
Twelve-phase converter
227
The
overload capacity of a converter is limited by commutator performance and not by heating. As there is but
small armature reaction, the limit
is
much
higher than
is
the case with a direct-current generator.

83.
Starting a Converter.
Converters
may be
started
and be brought up
by the same methods
which are employed in the case of synchronous motors.
It is preferable, however, that they be started from the
to synchronism
by the use of storage batteries or other

current.
They may be brought to a little
direct-current side
sources of direct
above synchronous speed by means of a starting resistance

as in the case of a direct-current shunt motor, and then,
after disconnecting and after opening the field circuit, the
connections with the
alternating-current
made.
it
84.
This
will
bring
mains
may be
into step.
Armature Reaction.
rents give rise to reactions
The
converter armature cur-
which consist
of direct-current
78
generator armature reactions superposed upon synchronous
motor armature reactions.

set the direct-current
rent in coils
It proves best in practice to

brushes so as to commutate the cur-
when they
are
midway between two
succes-
Fig. 139.
The direct-current armature reaction, then, cona cross-magnetization which tends to twist the field
flux in the direction of rotation.
When the alternating
sive poles.
sists in
currents are in phase with the impressed E.M.F. they also

exert a cross-magnetizing effect which tends to twist the
CONVERTERS.
field flux in
tralization
loads.
179
the opposite direction.

The result of this neua fairly constant distribution of flux at all
is
Within
limits
even an unbalanced polyphase con-
verter operates satisfactorily.

There is no change of field
excitation necessary with changes of load.
The
converter
is
synchronous motor.
same as the
speed oscillates above and
subject to hunting the
As
its
below synchronism, the phase of the armature current, in

reference to the impressed E.M.F., changes.
This results
in a distortion of the field flux, of varying magnitude.
This hunting is much reduced by placing heavy copper
circuits near the pole horns so as to be cut by the oscillatThe shifting of
ing flux from the two horns of the pole.
heavy currents in these circuits which oppose

the shifting.
Fig. 139 shows copper bridges placed between the poles of a converter for this purpose.
flux induces
When
running as an inverted converter from a direct-
current circuit, anything which tends to cause a lag of the

alternating current behind its E.M.F. is to be avoided.
The demagnetization of the field by the lagging current

causes the armature to race the same as in the case of an
unloaded shunt motor with weakened
fields.
Converters
have been raced to destruction because of the enormous

lagging currents due to a short circuit on the alternatingcurrent system.
The field current of a

Regulation of Converters
converter is generally taken from the direct-current
85.
brushes.
By varying
power factor of the

This may
be changed.
this current the
alternating-current system may

through a limited range,
vary,
between the
slip-rings.
As
the
the
voltage
impressed
direct-current
voltage
i8o
bears to the latter a constant ratio
it
may
also be varied.
This is, however, an uneconomical method of regulation.

Converters are usually fed through step-down transformers.
In such cases
Step-down
Regulator.
Transformer.
there
are
two com-
mon methods
lation,
Fig
rings.
shown
The
The
I4
first
which vary the
supplied
voltage
the converter's
is
of regu-
the method
of
Stillwell,
to
slip-
which
is
in the "diagram, Fig. 140.
regulator consists of a transformer with a sectional
Fig. 141.
CONVERTERS.
l8l
Its ratio of transformation can be altered by

secondary.
-arm over blocks connected with the
a
contact
moving
the diagram.
The primary
connected with the secondary terminals
various sections, as
of the regulator is
shown
in
The sections of the secondstep-down transformer.

are
connected
in series with the stepin
are
which
use,
ary,
and
the
converter
down secondary
windings.
of the
The second method
of regulation is that
the General Electric Co.
The
employed by
ratio of transformation of
a regulating transformer, which is connected in circuit in

the same manner as the Stillwell regulator, is altered by
shifting the axes
the primary and secondary coils in

Fig. 141 shows such a transformer,
of
respect to each other.
accomplished by means of a small,

mounted upon the regulator. The
motor
direct-current
primary windings are placed in slots on the interior of a
the shifting being
laminated iron frame, which has the appearance of the

The secondary windings are
stator of an induction motor.
to
the slots of the rotor core.
in
what
corresponds
placed
The winding
and if the secondary core be rotated

is polar
to the distance between two
an
corresponding
angle
by
successive poles, the action of the regulator will change
from that of booster to that of crusher.
;
182
CHAPTER
IX.
POWER TRANSMISSION.
The two
Superiority of Alternating Currents.
great sources of energy for use in manufacturing establishments and in land transportation systems are the coal
86.
mines and the water powers.

to
the
of
While
coal
can be trans-
the
energy, the
energy of the waterfall cannot be commercially transmitted
to a long distance without the use of electricity.
In
ported
point
utilization
of
many cases it is uncertain whether it is not cheaper to

transmit the energy of the coal in the form of electrical
energy than to transport the coal itself. There is generally greater convenience and greater flexibility in the
application
and
utilization
of
the
transmitted electrical
energy.
The
means
rents.
electrical
transmission
can be accomplished
by
currents or by means of alternating curFor transmission over anything but quite short
of direct
distances the alternating current is preferable to the direct

current.
Even for short distances, when these pass
districts, the alternating curtransmission
pure
purposes.
direct current has its points of superiority.
Its
through densely populated

rent
is
The
adopted for
use
is not attended
by inductive disturbances with the accompanying drop and sometimes low power factor it is
attended by no appreciable capacity effects
it
is
not
;
POWER TRANSMISSION.
183
subject to electric surgings, which sometimes cause insu-
and arcing. It permits

the use of direct-current motors with their Very satisfactory operation as to efficiency, small starting current,
lation perforations, short circuits,
overload capacity, and speed control.
Its use
mission lines of over a few miles' length

the cost of the line' which it necessitates.
is
on trans-
prohibited by
will be seen
As
long distance electrical power transmission, to be

economical or even commercially possible, must be effected by high voltages.
Direct-current sparkless comlater,
mutation
limited to 1000 volts.
is
This
limit
is
dependent
upon the economical and mechanical limits of armature

peripheral velocity, current density, gap-flux density, and
temperature elevation.
Furthermore service conditions
demand other voltages than those of the transmission line.

The direct-current transformer or dynamotor is expensive
and not very
The use
efficient.
of alternating currents
effects of inductance
and capacity
is
;
attended by the
evil
the operation of alter-
nating-current motors can be called only fairly satisfactory

but the employment of the very satisfactory, highly effi;
static transformer, makes

at
the
transmission
possible
high voltages with its accomline wires, and cheap pole
small
small
currents,
panying
cient,
and moderately priced
line construction.
The use
purposes
the synchronous converter for distribution

connection with alternating-current transmis-
of
in
sion, constitutes a
best
meet
all
very satisfactory system, and seems to
the engineering requirements.
It is customary to
87. Frequency.
above 60 high, and those below 60 low.
call
frequencies
The proper
fre-
84
quency for a transmission and distributing system is

dependent upon a number of variables as follows
a.
High-frequency transformers are smaller and cost
:
than those of lower frequency.

tion of the formula in article 59,
This
less
seen by inspecFor the same volt-
I.
is
age and flux density, the product of the iron cross-section

and the number of turns varies inversely as the frequency.
The cross-section of copper would be the same for the
same
capacity, irrespective of the frequency.
High-frequency generators may be constructed

For the same field
cheaper than those of low frequency.
b.
multipolarity a high frequency is associated with high armOn the other

ature speed, and, therefore, greater output.
hand, if an armature be run at the greatest peripheral velocity mechanically permissible, a high
a greater
and complexity
c.
frequency necessitates
a greater cost
field multipolarity, and, therefore,
of construction.
High frequencies permit
of
the
satisfactory
oper-
and incandescent lamps. Arcs do not

well
on
any frequencies below 40. The satisfacoperate
tory operation of incandescent lamps depends upon their
Low-voltage lamps have fat
voltage and candle-power.
ation of both arc
filaments of large heat capacity which do not drop in temThe

perature so rapidly as high-voltage thin filaments.
These lamps
is true of high candlepower filaments.
at
be
25
operated satisfactorily
cycles per second.
may
Standard no-volt, 16 candle-power lamps, however, fatigue
the eye at frequencies under 30 cycles.
same
The
inductive line drop, 2 irfL, varies directly as the

Its value will be considered later.
Being
frequency.
d.
greater for high frequencies,
duce poor
it
is
then more
regulation at points of distribution.
liable to pro-
POWER TRANSMISSION.
185
The capacity charging current also varies directly as

e.
the frequency.
f. The wattless currents due to inductance and capacity,
therefore, increase with the frequency, and thereby lower
the operative capacity of the generator, the transformers,
and the line. They also lower the efficiency of operation.
g.
High frequencies may
necessitate so high
a field
multipolarity that the angular speed variation of the prime

mover will prevent the satisfactory paralleling of the gen-
For the same reason, the running of synchronous

motors and of synchronous converters may be unsatisfacerators.
tory.
Induction motors are best suited for operation on lowfrequency circuits. At high frequencies the speed must
//.
be high or the motor must be large to avoid running on a

The speed could be lowered by increaslow-power factor.
ing*
the
number
i.e., by placing the poles nearer

the diameter remained the same, this
of poles
to each other.
If
would result
an increase of stator flux leakage, which
in
would reduce the power
factor.
the frequency, the amount of transmitted power, and the percentage of power lost in the line,
remain constant, the weight of line wire will vary in88. Voltage.
If
versely as the square of the voltage impressed upon the

This depends upon the fact that the cross-section of
line.
the wire
limit
of
voltage
is
not determined by the current density and the
temperature elevation, but by the permissible

If the impressed voltage on a line be
drop.
multiplied by n, the drop in the line
may be
increased n
times without altering the line loss.

For the line loss
the total power given to the line as the drop in volts
is
to
is
to
86
the impressed voltage.

-th the previous current
produce
;/
resistance
To
transmit the same power, but
is
necessary; and this current, to
times the drop, must, therefore, transverse a

2
times as great as previously.
?/
In transmitting power electrically over long distances,

the line cost constitutes a large part of the total invest'12.5
20
ment.
In such cases
ages as possible.
which may
desirable to
employ as high
volt-
is, however, a limit to the voltage

be employed. Mr. Charles F. Scott has given
some interesting
ous pole
it is
There
results of experiments carried out on vari-
He
found that the power lost through the

between wires increased with the impressed voltage, and
after a certain voltage was reached, increased very rapidly
lines.
air
that,
with a given impressed voltage, the loss decreased as
POWER TRANSMISSION.
the distance between the wires was increased
I8 7
that atmossuch
as
snow, rain, and humidity, had no
pheric conditions,
that peaked wave-shaped
appreciable effect on the loss
E.M.F.'s gave a greater loss than flat -topped ones; and
;
that the loss decreased as the diameter of the wires

increased.
The
relations
was
between the distance between
wires, the impresse'd voltage,
and the power
loss, is
shown
in Fig. 142.
The
Fig.
influence of the change of size of wire is shown in

143, where the distance between the wires was 48
inches in both cases.
The
influence of the size of the con-
ductor surfaces upon the voltage necessary to break down

a dielectric can be illustrated by the apparatus shown in
An applied voltage of sufficient magnitude will

Fig. 144.
produce a spark between pointed conductors, although the
i88
path
may be
longer than between those which are spherical

in parallel with them.
and are connected
At high voltages the leakage is accompanied by a hissing

sound, and the wires glow visibly at night.
The maximum pressure thus far employed in

60,000 volts. The Standard Electric Company
practice
is
of Califor-
Q==
Fig. 144.
nia uses this voltage on a line constructed of aluminium

cable J inch in diameter, and made up of 37 strands, the
different cables being
42" from each
other.
Very long distance electrical power transmission is most

economically accomplished by the employment of such high
As generators cannot be constructed to give
voltages.
much
higher than
3,000
volts,
and
utilization devices are
also limited as to the voltage which
may be impressed upon

are necessary.
and
transformers
them, step-up
step-down
To produce the same percentage loss of power in a
line when its length is varied, the impressed voltage must
The number of
The
volts per mile vary

choice of voltage is
determined by balancing the annual value of the energy
lost in the line against the interest and depreciation on the
vary as the length.

in practice
from 300 to 2000.
extra capital invested necessary to prevent the loss.

As the distance of transmission decreases there arrives
POWER TRANSMISSION.
189
when
step-up transformers can be dispensed with

and also some step-down transformers.
further decrease
a point
of distance permits of transmission
and distribution with-
out the use of any transformers.
Number
89.
of
Phases
comparison of the weights
of line wire of a given material, necessary to be used in

loss, over the same
be
based
maximum
must
upon equal
distance,
voltages
between the wires. For the losses by leakage, the thickness and cost of insulation, and perhaps the risk of danger
transmitting a given power, at a given
to
life,
are dependent upon the
parison upon
maximum
value.
com-
this basis gives, according to Steinmetz, the
following results
Relative weights of line wire to transmit equal power over the

same distance at the same loss, with unit powerfactor.
2
Wires.
3 Wires.
Single-phase
Continuous current
100.0
.
The continuous
because of
its
50.0
Three-phase
75.0
Quarter-phase
4 Wires.
45-7
100.0
Quarter-phase
current does not

voltage limitation.
come
The
into consideration
single-phase and
4-\vire quarter-phase system each requires one-third more

wire than the three-phase system.
By use
of the
Scott three-phase quarter-phase trans-
former the transmission system may be three-phase, while

the distribution and utilization system may be quarterphase.
90.
rials
Aluminium Line Wire

available for
There are but two mate-
the construction of long-transmission
lines.
The high permeability of iron prohibits its use.
The remaining materials are copper and aluminium. The
prices of both metals vary, and sometimes

use one metal, and again to use the other.
aluminium
Not
coast.
of
is
cheaper to
number
have been constructed on the
lines
all
it
of
them have proved
satisfactory.
of
Pacific
Some
them broke very frequently and without apparent undue

Experience has shown that the troubles were due
strain.
either to improper alloying or impurity of the material, or

to
improper stringing
large
should
of
the wires.
temperature coefficient of
be made for this.
The
Aluminium has
Allowance
expansion.
Standard
Electric
Co.
strings so as to subject their aluminium cables to a strain

of 4000 Ibs. per square inch at 20 C.
Perrine and Baum
give the following data concerning a line of commercial

aluminium in which they were interested
:
DATA CONCERNING ALUMINIUM.

Size of
Aluminium Wire
No.
Resistance of Aluminium Wire
copper.
No. 3 copper.
Tensile Strength of Aluminium Wire = No. 5 copper.
Weight of Aluminium Wire = No. 6 copper.
Diameter
Area
for the
"
"
same conductivity 1.270 times copper.

"
"
1.640 times copper.

Tensile Strength for the same conductivity 0.629 times
copper.
Weight
for the
Line Resistance
91.
very large lines

is
is
The
the same
resistance of anything but

for alternating currents as for
In the larger sizes, however, the resistThe reason

the alternating currents.
for
greater
currents.
direct
ance
same conductivity 0.501 times copper.
POWER TRANSMISSION.
for the increase
is
the fact that the current density
is
not
uniform throughout a cross-section of the conductor, but

is greater toward its outside.
The lack of uniformity of
density
is
due to counter electromotive forces
set up, in
24
20
(751-
LUZ
DC LJ
u.y'
Ou
20
30
40
60
50
70
80
90
100
MILLIONS
CIRCULAR MILS X FREQUENCY
Fig. 145-
the interior of the wire, by the varying flux around the

which accompanies the alternations of the
axis of the wire
This phenomena is termed skin effect.

Its
magnitude may be determined from the curve in Fig. 145.
current.
92.
Line Inductance.
The varying
flux,
which
up between the two-line wires of a single-phase
is
set
trans-
mission circuit by the current flowing in them, gives rise

to a self-induced counter E.M.F.
The inductance per
unit length of single wire is numerically equal to the flux
per unit current, which links a unit length of the line.
To determine this value consider a single-phase line, with
wires of
centers,
cms. radius, strung with
and carrying a current
i.
d cms. between
their
Let a cross-section of
\
-dFig. 146.
the line be represented in Fig. 146.

The flux d& lt which
passes through an element dr wide and of unit length, is
equal to the magnetomotive force divided
tance or
'^ =
by the
reluc-
r'
dr
Integrating for values of r between
1
and practically
There
is
some
flux
2 i
and
/log
log
which surrounds
the right-hand wire, and

This is of
inside the metal.
the axis of
which
lies
appreciable
greater
magnitude owing to the

density near the wire.
the wire by the circle in
flux
Represent
and suppose that the current
Fig. 147.
Fig. 147,
is
Then
uniformly distributed over the wire.
inside the circle of diameter
is
iC
motive force, which
it
produces,
is
it
the current
and the magneto-
POWER TRANSMISSION.
The
flux,
however, which
x?
but -Hgths of the wire.
it
The
produces, links
flux
circuit, is
x between o and
For copper or aluminium wires
itself
with
through the element dx,
which can be considered as linking the
Integrating for values of
193
/x
therefore
R,
Hence the
i.
total
flux linked with the line is
and the inductance,

unit current,
in absolute units,
being the flux per
is
This gives by reduction the inductance
in
henrys per wire
per mile as
L=
80.5
In case of a three-phase
mile of the whole circuit
L=
Line Capacity ---
740 log
line,
the inductance in henrys per
is
+
(139
93.
1,280 log
(|-
The two
wires of a single-phase
line, together with the air between them,

act as a condenser.
The wires correspond to the con-
transmission
denser plates, and the air to the dielectric.

When lines
when the wires are close together, the capacity
are long, or
194
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POWER TRANSMISSION.
CURRENT
SYSTEM.
IN
MAIN CONDUCTOR.
VALUES OF
195
T.
196
Line loss in per cent of power delivered
28 27 2625 2423 22 21 2019 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12
11
1 1
10
10 9
Line loss in per cent of power delivered

Fig. 148.
32
POWER TRANSMISSION.
carry
the
extra
current.
The
line,
the
197
step-up
trans-
formers, and the generator which supplies the electrical

The prime
energy, must all have increased capacity.
mover, which drives the generator, however, does not need

to have this extra capacity.
The actual current in all the
apparatus being
at
every point.
rid of this heat,

in
the apparatus.
than
would be
if the powerincreased
heat losses
accompanied by
The excess of capacity is needed to get
factor were unity,
larger
it
'is
without undue elevation of temperature

The equivalent impedance of the loads
and
their equivalent power-factor as affecting the line can

be determined as shown in the problems of Chapter IV.
In the curves of Fig. 148 are

95. Weight of Copper
shown the relations which exist between the transmission
loss of power in per cent, the impressed volts per mile, and
the weight of copper per K.W. delivered.
The loss is
expressed as a percentage of the power delivered. The
curves apply to a three-phase transmission at unit powerfactor.

Five per cent has been allowed for sag of lines between poles. To determine the values for aluminium wire,
correct
by the constants given
in
90.
198
CHAPTER
X.
TESTS.
96.
In the following pages are given direc-
Apparatus.
tions for a series of experiments designed to give the stu-
dent dexterity
in
handling apparatus, a firmer grasp of the
alternating currents, and a

methods
knowledge
employed in testing alternatingcurrent apparatus.
This course was laid out for use in
phenomena connected with

of the
a laboratory with but a moderate
and
all this
apparatus
will
amount
of
apparatus,
be here described to avoid the
necessity of introducing such descriptions in the directions

for the experiments.
The laboratory is supplied with power from an Edison

direct-current three-wire system with 117 volts on a side.
The
largest
ator,
which
machine
is
a 7.5 K.W. double-current generrun as an inverted converter from the Ediis
This is a four-pole machine whose speed can

be regulated from 1200 to 1800 R.P.M. This gives a
range on the alternating end of 40 ~ to 60 ^. There are
son current.
on the armature, so connected that singlephase current can be had from rings I and 4, quarter-phase
from 1-4 and 2-6, and three-phase from 1-3-5. The voltsix
slip-rings
age, of course, cannot be altered.
plied with current from a street
a machine, running
steam or gas engine.
it
laboratory not supservice could use such
as a double-current generator by a
This would be more desirable than
running a regular alternator
as frequently direct current,
TESTS.
as well as alternating,
199
called for in the experiments.
is
In
such case, both frequency and voltage could be regulated

Besides this, there is a 500- watt, 8-pole, 125^ alternator
by a direct-current motor. The wave-shape of

machine was given in Fig. 4. The machine on which
belt-driven
this
most of the tests are run

about
a double-current generator of
is a bipolar machine fitted
is
This
K.W. capacity.
with four slip-rings on one end and a commutator on the

The rings are arranged so that three-phase cur-
other.
rent
is
obtained from rings 1-2-3, and single-phase from

This machine serves a multitude of purposes.
rings 1-4.
It
can be run as a direct-current motor
motor, either single-phase or three-phase

either direct or inverted
as a synchronous
as a converter,
and when driven by a
alternator, single-phase or three-phase
belt, as
an
or as a direct-cur-
rent generator, either shunt wound or separately excited.

Its speed can be varied from 1500 to 2400, giving fre-
to 40 ~.
It may be run in parallel
quencies of 25
with the larger converter when that is slowed down to
~>.
The equipment of rotating apparatus is completed
two
induction
motors, one of one-horse power, the other
by
of a half-horse power capacity.
They are both wound for
40
three-phase
but the smaller
equipped with a condenser

67, and can be run when
is
compensator, as described in
desired on a single-phase circuit.
The transformer equipment

i
to
oil-cooled
consists
transformers,
of
three
half-K.w.
to
I-K.W.
air-
transformer, and an old ring-wound armature arwith

ranged
taps so that it can serve to transform from i
to i, 2, 3, or 4.
cooled
For inductive
known
as Coil
i,
circuits three coils are used.
was described
in
9.
It
The
first,
has about 3000
200
&
turns of No. 16 B.
S. wire, 10
ohms
resistance,
and 0.2
bundle of iron wires

henrys inductance without iron.
1 6"
long and \\" diameter can be inserted in either of the
three
Coil 2
coils.
is
whose external diameter
shape of a hollow cylinder,

and
3i", internal diameter 2\
in the
!>
is
',
about 6500 turns of No. 26

B. & S. wire, with an indiuctance of o.i henry and a resistance of 60 ohms.
Coil 3 is of the same external appearIt-
length 3^".
ance as Coil
&
2,
consists of
but
is
made
of about
7600 turns
of No. 25
an inductance of 0.141 henry and a

resistance of 60 ohms.
It will be noticed that Coil 2 and
B.
S. wire, giving
Coil 3 have the
same
resistance,
and that their inductances
Six paraffined paper condensers of about

two microfarads each, are used when condensive circuits
are as
V2.
to
are desired.
The instruments used

ammeters, with ranges of
tively.
All but the
first
are as
i,
3,
15,
follows
Four hot-wire
and 20 amperes respec-
work across shunts, the small
one,
however, taking the whole current through its hot wire.

These, of course, are used for either alternating or direct
currents.
Two
tively of 5
amperes and 50 amperes.
inclined coil
ammeters have ranges respec-
There are three voltmeters, an inclined coil instrument

reading to 65 volts a Cardew hot-wire instrument, reading to i 50 volts; and a Weston standard portable voltmeter
with two scales, one up to 100 volts, the other up to 200.
;
Any
of these
may be
used on either alternating- or direct-
current circuits.
For
all
wattmeter
the larger measurements a 2.5 K.W. indicating

For the finer measurements a Weston
used.
is
The lower
standard wattmeter, having two scales, is used.
scale, for use with pressures of 75 volts or less, reads up
TESTS.
to 75 watts
volts,
201
the upper scale, for use with pressures of 150

For this instrument a shunt
reads up to 150 watts.
has been constructed, having a coil similar to the current

coil of wattmeter, so as to have the same resistance and
the
same time constant as the
parallel with the current
coil,
This is placed in
latter.
a small resistance for ballast
The watthaving first been placed in series with each.

meter then reads up to 300 watts, and is as accurate on
inductive as on non-inductive loads.
Certain direct-current instruments are occasionally used,
principally a Weston standard portable i5O-volt directvoltmeter, and a similar five-ampere ammeter.
These instruments are used for convenience, and could be
current
dispensed with
means
machines
if
necessary.
measuring the rate of rotation of the various

essential, and a portable tachometer is by
of
is
far the best instrument for the purpose.

Of course, a
greater accuracy can be obtained by using a revolution
counter, and noting the number of revolutions in a con-
siderable length of time
but this method
is
too slow to
be satisfactory, and is useless if the speed be fluctuating.

To load a machine electrically, two lamp boards are
used.
These have each ten key sockets arranged in two
rows between three wires.
Thus, three wires of a threeconnected thereto, or the outside
wire system may be

wires may be connected together, and all the lamps be put
in multiple
and finally, by using the two outside wires
;
lamps turned on in one row can be put in

Thus a wide
series with all those on in the other row.
only, all the
range of resistances can be obtained by very small steps,

a few each of 8, 16, 32, 50, and 100 candle-power lamps
are in the sockets.
if
202
In the following descriptions of experiments, for the

sake of brevity, the apparatus needed will not be named
but such notation will be used in the figures, showing the
;
arrangement of apparatus, that the particular apparatus

will be indicated.
All measuring instruments will be
marked with a
letter indicating their kind,
indicating their capacity
meter,
manner
W2m
thus
is
and a number
a three-ampere amIn many cases, the
a 2.5 K.W. wattmeter.

of drawing will indicate the apparatus, thus
is
is
an alternating-current ammeter or voltmeter.
Jjf^
is
a direct-current
CT
is
a wattmeter, the binding posts of the current coil

being conspicuously large to avoid confusion.
is
a switch designed to shift one ammeter out of circuit and another in without interrupting the con-
is
a contact-maker, giving a short

desired point in a revolution.
is
a commutator designed to change the direction of

current flow in a circuit.
\-^
ammeter or
voltmeter.
tinuity of the circuit.

,_,
.^.
'%S8% is
_OQQ2_
|)|-
at
any
lamp board as described above.
is
an inductive
is
a condenser,
is
a transformer, the numbers indicating the relative
is
and field coils of a direct-current

machine or the direct-current end of a converter.
the armature and field coils of an alternating-current machine or the alternating-current end of
number
-*-
contact
is
the
coil,
of turns.
armature
a converter.
between two armatures,
is
to represent a belt-drive
is
to represent a direct connection, or, in the case of
a converter, the two ends of the same armature.
TESTS.
203
Exp. i. Peculiarities of Alternating-Current Circuits.

This experiment consists of some merely qualitative
97.
observations calculated to illustrate to the student the
dif-
ference between alternating currents and the direct currents he has hitherto used.
First Part.
Arrange the apparatus as in Fig. 149, the
lamp being by way 'of protection, in the case of accidental
short circuit.
Let x be first,
100*0. P
.
the inductive
Coil
known
coil
same with
second, the
the iron core inserted in
as
60 v/
it,
v
third a condenser of about
'
10 M.F. capacity, and fourth

a
5o-candle power lamp.

to these circuits a
Fig. MQ-
Apply
uniform potential of about 60 volts.

Let the frequency
be successively 125 /-', 40^, and o ^, i.e., direct current.
With each change note the ammeter
reading.
observed that with an inductive circuit

.
It
will
the current
be
in-
creases as the frequency decreases, and that the maximum

With
current possible flows in the form of direct current.
a condensive circuit the current decreases as the frequency

With a nondecreases, and is zero with direct current.
reactive circuit, such as
ii7v."
D -c.
rn
'
R,
i^ LJ
16
Fig
volts
for this
coy
'vww
M-OI
rOi
-
I5
'
tne 50 c. p. lamp, the

L n
current flow is mdepen'
dent of the frequency.

Direct current at 60
experiment can be secured, of course, by

dynamo at suitable excitation, but more
running a small
easily
shown
from the
1 1
/-volt street service
in Fig. 150.
by the arrangement
The lamps can be
adjusted to give
2O4
60
and the rheostat can take up the difference.
volts,
This adjustment
will be, of course,
somewhat
different for
different loads.
The
Second Part.
following solution
is
one of the
many used for blue-prints, and has, besides, the property of

turning blue, at the anode only, when a current is passed
through
it,
if the anode be of iron.
weight) of
ammonium
ammonium
muriate,
nitrate,
NH
C1.
K Fe
cyanide of potassium,
NH NO
4
Mix 25
3
parts
Dissolve 1.3 parts of
(CN) 6
(by
and 12.5 parts of

ferri-
(red prussiate of potash)
1000 parts of water. Add the ammonium salts. The

chemicals should be pure and the water distilled.
Keep
in a dark place, and use within twenty-four hours.
in
Prepare an insulating handle, Fig. 151, with three pianowire projections long enough to be elastic, and whose
points
may touch
a plane surface in
16
c.
right
line
and
p.
75V.
3 Phase
>
40
&-
_J>
Fig. 151.
Let these wires be connected through 16

lamps respectively to the terminals of a three-phase
system, the pressure being 100 volts or less, and the frenear together.
c. p.
quency 40 or
less.
Lay an uncalendered paper
well
moistened, but not soaked, in the blue-print solution upon

a metal plate, and draw the marking-points quickly across
its surface.
Blue marks will be left when the current is
and these, by their interrupted nature, will show the change of direction in the
Also the relative displacement or
alternating current.
passing in one of
its
directions
TESTS.
205
"
"
of the rows of marks will show

stagger
the phase displacements of a three-phase
current, as in Fig. 152.
Third Part.
Excite a
i6-candle power
lamp with alternating current at its rated

voltage and a low frequency, say 40 ~.
Hold one end of, a bar magnet against the

bulb and in various positions.
The filament will vibrate synchronously with the
alternations,
due to the regularly recurring
and repulsion between the permagnetic field of the magnet and
attraction
manent
the alternating
this
the
of
fails
experiment
the
of
field
at
filament.
try varying
first,
360Sb
330-
frequency, the strength, and polarity

the magnet, and even try other lamps.
Often the filament can be made to so

brate
as
98.
touch
to
Exp.
2.
Shape
of
To perform
Alternator
is
and
the glass,
vi-
finally
itself.
rupture
use
If
made
of
E.M.F. Wave
this
balance,
as
of
experiment
shown
consists
stant potential source,
of
90-
in
hard graphite
Fig. 153.
rod, C, of high resistance, through which
current is passed from a direct-current conIt
120-
two 16
c.
p.
0-
Fig.
lamps being
152.
in series
guard against accident in case of accidental short circuit.

rolling contact bears upon this rod, and allows
to
of a nice adjustment of the pressure applied to the testing

circuit.
standard
This pressure can be accurately measured by the

In one branch of
direct-current voltmeter V.
206
The
placed the telephone receiver, T.
The test circuit, consisting of the
as follows
the test circuit

operation
is
is
armature of the alternator, a lamp or other non-inductive

resistance for protection, a contact-maker, and the E.M.F.
balance just described, is closed for an instant at some
point of the revolution which corresponds to

of the curve of instantaneous pressures.
some point
At such
instants
flow through the test circuit, causing the

telephone receiver to click sharply and this click comes
with a rapidity corresponding
current will
to the rate of
revolution of
the contact-maker, say 1800

The sliding conper minute.
tact
on the graphite rod
is
then operated until the continuous direct E.M.F.
is
just
equal and opposite to the instantaneous E.M.F. put forth
by the
will
alternator.
Then there
be no flow of current
whether the contact-maker be
opened or closed, and the
re-
The
voltage can be read dithus

obviating the use of any
rectly on the voltmeter,
This method, due to Mershon, is
reduction constants.
ceiver will cease to click.
very delicate, since a telephone receiver
is
sensitive to
very small currents.

To obtain an E.M.F. curve from an alternator, arrange
The contact-maker is conthe apparatus as in Fig. 154.
nected directly to the shaft of the generator, and is obliged
to revolve in unison therewith.
rated speed and voltage.
Run
the alternator at
its
Set the brush of contact-maker
TESTS.
207
beginning point, and balance the instantaneous E.M.F. by sliding the balance until no clicking is
heard in the receiver.
Note the setting of the contact-
at the desired
To Balance
WA/WVReo
Fig. 154-
maker and the reading

(i
of the voltmeter in the balance.
contact-maker ahead by five electrical degrees

electrical degrees, where/ is the
mechanical degree
Set
the
=/
number
of pairs of
poles),
and repeat as before.
Take
by steps of five degrees throughout one

Since the instancomplete cycle, i.e., under two poles.
taneous E.M.F. will be in one direction during half a
readings thus
cycle, but in the opposite direction during the other half,
and balancing E.M.F. is always in the same direction,

a commutator must be introduced in the test circuit, as
When the commutator is in one position, the
shown.
voltage readings should be marked -f
position, they should be marked
when
in the other
ordinates and degrees as

*
Indicate on the margin of the curve-sheet the
abscissae.
Plot a curve
with
volts
as
effective value of the curve as obtained
from the
alternat-
ing-current voltmeter.
By means of a planimeter measure the area of one lobe of the curve, and find its average
ordinate,
by dividing the area by the base
line,
i.e.,
the
208
This may be done in inch

length corresponding to 180.
units, if the planimeter be so calibrated,
without reducing.
Lay this average ordinate off on the
and square inch
Divide the effective value by the average

value to obtain the form-factor ( 4) of the pressure wave.
also.
margin
If
be about
value
this
i.ii, the
curve
is
practically a
sinusoid.
99.
Exp.
of Current
Shape
3.
Wave
of Alternator
the
Inductive Load.
apparatus
Arrange
The method of procedure is that
Fig. 155.
as
with
shown
of Exp.
in
2.
The
instantaneous drop of potential along a non-inductive resistance is proportional to, and in phase with, the
current
in
that
resistance.
Measure the
Coil
resistance
of
To Balance
WWV\AMAR 60
Fig. 155-
the 50
c.
lamp under
p.
resistance of
carbon
tJie
conditions of use, since the

widely with the
filament varies
and from this, and the values of instantatemperature

neous pressures observed, calculate the instantaneous cur;
rents according to
Ohm's Law.
Plot a curve with

abscissae.
amperes as ordinates, and degrees
TESTS.
209
Simultaneous Pressure, Current, and

ioo. Exp. 4.
Power Curves from Alternator with an Inductive Load.
Arrange apparatus as in Fig. 156. It will be seen that

either a point on the pressure curve (Exp. 2), or a point
on the current curve (Exp. 3), can be taken by suitably
Putting the commutator
placing the two-throw switch.main
in the
when
circuit instead
of the test
circuit is possible
does not affect the validity of the

observations, and eliminates a possible source of trouble
from bad contacts in the test circuit.
Readings are to be
the load
is
light,
Coil
D.p.,D.r.
Switch
Fig. 156.
five degrees through 400, a little over one

Take
readings for both pressure and current curves
cycle.
each time before moving the contact-maker. This is better
taken every
than taking a complete current curve, then going back and

taking a pressure curve, since there is more liability to
distortion due to change in conditions in the latter case.
The
voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter readings should

not vary during the test, and occasional observations should
be made to see that this condition

cannot
and
be,
readings at
their averages
used
is
complied with.
If
it
stated intervals should be taken,

in
the subsequent calculations,
210
Plot three curves
common
abscissae,
on one
and
volts,
The
ordinates.
sheet, having degrees as their
amperes, and watts as their

instantaneous watts at any
respective
abscissa equal the product of the instantaneous volts and
In general, a separate
amperes for that same abscissa.
scale of ordinates will
be required for each curve.
curve^will have the general relations shown
Note the number
The
in Fig. 14.
of degrees intercepted on the axis,
between the pressure curve and the current curve. This

is the angle of lag,
the cosine of which is the powerof
factor
the circuit if the pressure wave is sinusoidal.
<f>,
By
the
method given
pressure curve.
sinusoid,
is
i.e.,
i.i
in Exp. 2, find the form-factor of the

Divide this by the form-factor of a true
Then
cos
i, and call the quotient K.
<
the power-factor of the curve, whether sinusoidal or not.

By means of a planimeter, measure the area of the lobes
of the
power curve, being
careful to
go around the negaFind the mean
tive part in a counter-clockwise direction.
ordinate of this curve
and determine
by dividing the area by the base
value in watts by laying off on the

scale of ordinates for the power curve.
line,
its
out the following table, putting in the last column

the percentage variation of the individual values from the
Fill
average.
How DETERMINED.
TESTS.
The
211
variations should be within the limits of errors of
instruments and observations, say 2%.
Measurement
101. Exp. 5.
of Self -inductance.
There
are various methods of measuring the coefficient of selfThe first is

induction, two of which are given here.
.
and
applicable to any series circuit,
consists in the deter-
mination of the quantities in the general expression
'
\IJP
in
7T/zy
If
Arrange apparatus as shown
lamps being turned

Coil
2,
and Coil
lamps
ammeter
deflection
sistance
The ohmic
must
157, all the
in Fig.
successively Coil
i,
good
is
ob-
and note readings

ammeter and volt-
meter.
Insert at
Turn
3.
until
off.
tained,
of
henrys.
(a)
on
E, /, and R be measured respecamperes, and ohms, L will be expressed
and solution for L.

tively in volts,
in
ov7
At(
re-
II?
each
case be independently determined if not already known.

Take four sets of observations with each coil; with and
without iron core, at 40 /-*, and 60 /-*.

Solve for the inductance in each case from
27T/
Without iron
in the
magnetic
the circuit, independent of
circuit,
is
a constant of
/ and/; but when
iron
is
pres-
212
varies
ent,
it
The
variation
considerably
of inductance
Exp. 7.
Caution must be used
with / and slightly with

with load is the subject of
experiment, that the am-
in this
For instance, the careless removal

meter be not injured.
of an iron core with closed circuit may cause a destructive
increase of current.
(b]
The above method
of
measuring the inductance
is
not applicable to branched or parallel circuits with different

time constants, for the reason that the resistance of the
whole
circuit, as
measured by
direct current,
is
not the
28.
equivalent resistance of the circuit, as explained in
method using a voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter is
entirely general,
is
equally accurate, and does not require
Fig. 158.
the independent determination of the resistance.

Arrange
the apparatus the same as in the first part of this experi-
ment, with
Fig. 158.
the addition
The method
of
wattmeter, as shown in
is the same as be-
of procedure
save that the wattmeter reading is also noted in each

If /, E, and
be the instrument readings in amcase.
fore,
peres, volts,
henry s is
and watts respectively, then the inductance
E sin
.
in
TESTS.
213
This equation results from a consideration of the

lowing
fol-
COS
p
ET
7=
Z
'
Z sin
<
<j)
E.Sm
7
^
(see Fig. 30).
K^)
(D
102.
is
Exp.
Measurement
6.
no resistance and no inductance
case with a condenser
When
of Capacity
in a circuit
as
there
is
the
the general formula
reduces to
/=
hence
C=
o>CE,
I
27T/
Arrange the apparatus as in Fig. 1 59. Let x be the six

condensers taken, first two at a time, then three at a time,
then all together, always arranging
them
and
in parallel.
pressure
Note the current

each case, and
by the above formula.

capacity of any parallel com-
solve for
The
in
sum
bination of condensers
is
of the capacities of the
component
shown by
the
this experiment,
If
parts,
and should so be
and / be
in volts
and
amperes respectively, then
will
be
in
In the
farads.
report reduce these results to microfarads by multiplying
by io
(!
.
This method
not open to the objections to the similar

of measuring inductance, since here the resistance
method
is
is
Yet
practically zero.
ittmeter, co'uld
O)
But the wattmeter

in a condenser, so
which
is
the
be employed.
C
will
<
second method, using the

The formula would be
read zero, since
little
power
is lost
90, and
the same as deduced from the general formula.
103. Exp.
Under Load.
7.
Variation of Coefficient of Self -Induction
This experiment may be performed in two

by varying the magnitude of the measuring
current, (b) by using a constant measuring current, and
parts
(a)
varying the saturation of the magnetic circuit by a separate

current in a separate winding.
(a) Measure the coefficient of self-induction of the fine
wire coil of a
to 2 transformer
by
either of the
methods
Exp. 5. This current must be made to vary by suitable

steps, and this can most easily be done by applying differ-
of
wide assortment of pressures

ent pressures to the coil.
can be obtained by using different brushes of the converter
supplying the energy, and the different steps of the
Determine the value of L for each
i, 2, 3, 4 transformer.
TESTS.
of the conditions, and plot a curve having these values as
ordinates, and the corresponding currents used in measur-
ing as abscissae.
curve, such as Fig. 160, will result
.34
w-30
v
or
2
u
22
.5
1.'5
2.5
3.5
MAGNETIZING- CURRENT. AMPERES

Fig. 160.
with certain irons
The
at
as
if
sharp,.rise of the
the current be started low enough.

curve at first is due to the fact that
very low densities the permeability increases with density,

is shown in the curves on page 24, Vol. i.
'NAAA/W
Reo
Fig. 161.
The meas(b] Arrange the apparatus as in Fig. 161.

urements of L are made on the fine-wire side of the I 2
:
2l6
transformer, while the permeability is altered by direct

The measuring current
current in the low-pressure side.
should be kept constant

as
and as
has a tendency to rise
it
decreases, resistance will have to be inserted in the
Take readalternating-current circuit by adjusting R^.

from
zero
suitable
at
direct
current to
steps
amperes
ings
the
maximum
safe
temporary ampere capacity of the
coil
say 15 amperes for a \ K. w. 55-volt coil.

Calculate the value of L for each of the steps, and plot
a curve, using these values as ordinates and the direct-
in question,
current
magnetizing amperes
corresponding
thereto
as
abscissae.
104.
Exp.
8.
Measurement
Arrange the apparatus as
of
Mutual Induction. -
in Fig. 162, the requisite pres-
Iron core through both
Fig. 162.
sure being secured by stepping up in the

The experiment consists of three parts -
2 transformer.
coefficient of mutual induction

(a) Determine the
tween the two coils from the formula
Transpose Coil 2 and Coil 3, and determine

formula changing, of course, to
The
in
results
each case.
should be alike
if
be-
again, the
the same current flows
TESTS.
217
Finally calculate the theoretical value of

sumption of no magnetic leakage from
M on the
as-
M=
.,
L were
and
determined
in
Exp.
5.
If
the same meas-
uring currents be used throughout, this last value of

will be somewhat above the others, since there is some
leakage
flux.
With the arrangement
(b)
core with
through Coil
jecting clear
2
of Fig.
162 place the iron
end flush with the outside of Coil
its
3.
Move
Coil 3
2,
and pro-
by steps of
and measure
cm. each from o to 24 cm. from Coil 2,

Be careful that the iron
for each step.
the value of
core be not
moved
relatively to Coil 2.
Plot a curve with centimeters as abscissae
J/as
and values
of
ordinates.
Repeat the last, keeping the iron flush with Coil 3

(c)
In this case the current in
however, and moving Coil 2.
Coil 2 will vary, and the curve will be distorted by the
effects of load
and saturation as investigated in Exp. 7.

and that of (c) on the same sheet and
Plot curve of (b)
same
to the
Be
scale.
careful not to
remove the
iron core entirely from the
coil that is carrying the current, or the current will exceed

the capacity of the ammeter.
105.
Exp.
9.
Inductive Circuit.
Measurement of Power in a Single-phase

There are various ways of measuring
besides using a wattbut

none
are
as
meter,
satisfactory.
In the following it is desired to measure the power in
power
in alternating-current circuits
Coil
:-
(a)
By
the three-voltmeter method.
Arrange the appa-
218
TESTS.
219
be desired to compare the results of (a), (b), and (<:),

arrangements must be made so that the same difference of
If
it
potential
may be
applied to the terminals of Coil
in
each
case.
These methods are rather

two
impractical,
and open
to the
serious objections that a small error of observation

lead to a serious error in the result, and that the
may
maximum accuracy can only be obtained when about as
much power is consumed in the auxiliary devices as in the
circuit
under
test.
10.
Measurement of Power in Polyphase
In any two-phase cirby Indicating Wattmeters
cuit of four wires the load can be measured by two wattThe sum
meters, one connected regularly in each phase.
106.
Exp.
Circuits
of their readings is the
power
in
the circuit.
In a two-
phase four-wire system with a balanced load, one of the

wattmeters may be dispensed with, and the reading of the
other multiplied by two.
In any two-phase, three-wire system the power can be
measured by two wattmeters connected as in Fig. 166.
Load.
Fig. 166.
The sum
of the instrument readings is the whole power.

In a two-phase, three-wire system, where all the load is con-
22O
nected between the outside wires and the common wire,

and none between the outside wires themselves, and where
the load
is
balanced, then one wattmeter can be used to
measure the whole power by connecting its current coil in

common wire nd its pressure coil between the com-
the
mon
wire and one outside wire
then shifting this
first,
connection to the other outside wire, as indicated in Fig.

The sum of the instrument readings in the two
167.
positions
power.
is
the whole
wattmeter
made with two
pres-
sure coils could have
one
Fi s-* I6 7-
connected
each
way, and the instrument would automat-
ically add the readings, giving the whole power directly.

Or, again, a high non-reactive resistance could be placed
between the two outside wires and the pressure coil of
the wattmeter connected between the
common
wire and
the center point of this resistance.

This requires that the
wattmeter be recalibrated with half of this high resistance
in series with its pressure coil.
With
the
exception of the two-phase systems, the

balanced
any
polyphase system may be measured
one
wattmeter
whose
current coil is placed in one wire,
by
and whose pressure coil is connected between that wire
power
in
The instrument reading multiplied

point.
the
number
of
The
phases
gives the whole power.
by
neutral point may be on an extra wire, as in a three-phase,
four-wire system or may be artificially constructed by con-
and the neutral
necting the ends of equal non-reactive resistances together,

and connecting f;he free ends one to each of the phase wires.
TESTS.
With
221
of the two-phase systems, the

w-wire
system, irrespective of balpower
any ;/-phase,
i wattmeters.
ance, may be determined by the use of n
the exception
in
The
current coils are connected, one each, in
wires, and the pressure
coils
ni
of the
have one of their ends con-
nected to the respective phase wires, and their free ends

The algebraic sum of the
all connected to the nth wire.
Depending
readings is the power in the whole circuit.
upon the power factor of the circuit, some of the wattmeters
that
all
will
read negatively, hence care must be taken

made in the same sense then
connections are
those instruments which require that their connections be

changed, to make them deflect properly, are the ones to
whose readings a negative sign must be
Some
three-phase circuits are

Fig.
affixed.
specific connections for indicating
shown
in the
wattmeters
following
in
figures.
68 shows the connection of three wattmeters to meas-
Fig.
168.
All
ure the power in an unbalanced three-phase system.
the readings will be in the positive direction, and their
sum
If a fourth, or neutral wire be

the total power.
present, it should be used, instead of creating an artificial
is
shown.
The magnitude
neutral,
as
reactive
resistances, used to
secure
equal nonneutral point,
of the
this
222
TESTS.
223
terminals of one instrument have to be exchanged, then to

the readings of that instrument must be affixed the negative sign.
Fig. 171 shows the connections for one watt-
meter
in a
balanced three-phase
circuit,
independent of a
The free end of the pressure coil is conneutral point.

of the wires opposite that in which the
to
one
nected first
current coil
is
con-
nected, then to the
The
sum of
other.
braic
alge-
the
readings in the two

positions is the total
Both read-
power.
ings will
.5
but
Hence
Fi s- Cl-
be positive if the power-factor is greater than

one of them will be negative if it is less.
care must be used to avoid confusion of signs at

This method, requiring a two-throw
low power-factors.
two readings of the

instrument, and, if used on a load varying from high to
low power-factor, a commutator, to change the pressure
coil connections, has little advantage over the method of
switch to change
69, save that
Fig.
the
it
connection,
dispenses with the necessity for a
neutral point.
Six-phase circuits are used generally only between the

step-down transformers of three-phase transmission systems and the alternating-current ends of rotary converters
hence they are always balanced.
measured by the method
of Fig. 169,
employed, or the three alternate wires
They can then be

where a neutral
may
is
be considered
a three-phase system, the method of Fig. 171 employed,

and the three-phase power thus determined multiplied by
2 to give the total power.
If
the circuit should be unbal-
224
anced, five instruments would be necessary, as stated earlier

in this section.
The
student
is
expected to construct circuits according
to the various figures just given, and convince himself

that the wattmeters do give the true power.
If the load
be of lamps, the power in each may be measured by a voltmeter and ammeter used at their terminals then by con;
necting in star and in delta, balanced, and unbalanced, the

accuracy of the wattmeter indications can be checked.
In following Fig. 166 or Fig. 167, it should be remembered that a two-phase current cannot be secured from an
armature with a mesh winding, such as a rotary converter

must have and that any attempt to make a two-phase,
;
three-wire system put of a quarter-phase system will be

To get two-phase current from such a madisastrous.
chine, the quarter-phase current must be passed through
the primaries of two similar transformers, two opposite
wires going to one, the other two to the other.
The
transformer secondaries will then deliver true two-phase

current, and the circuits may be united in a three-wire
system.
107.
Exp.
ii.
Calculation and
sulting Impedance of a
Number
Measurement
of the
Arrange apparatus as shown in

impedance Z of the whole circuit from the readings
voltmeter and ammeter.
of the
Independently determine the ohmic resistance of the

cuit with the
same current
Re-
Impedances in Series.
Determine the
Fig. 172.
of
flowing.
The magnitude
the current affects the resistance of the lamp.
cir-
of
TESTS,
Solve for the reactance,
Z=
X=2
V^?2
Determine the angle of lag

tan
<
irfL,
+
<j>
225
from the equation,
?!?.
from
reactance
resistance
Determine the reactance, resistance, and impedance of

The first two
i, Coil 2, and the lamp, individually.
can be derived from the data of Exp. 5 without further
Coil
measurements.
Graphically determine the total reactance, resistance, impedance, and angle of lag by combining the individual parts
in a parallelogram of impedances as described in

26.
convenient scale for the actual plotting for a drawing-board
2 5"X3o" is 2 ohms=i cm.
Make a
The
ing.
report in the form of a table such as .the followvariation, with
careful
ments, should not exceed 2%.
work and good
instru-
226
100
c. p.
120V.
Fig. 172.
108.
Exp.
12.
Measurement
Calculation and
sulting Impedance of a
Number
of
Impedances
of the
Re-
in Parallel.
Use
the same impedances as in the last experiment, but

As before stated, the voltmeterarranged as in Fig. 173.
ammeter-resistance method of solving inductive circuits is

so the wattmeter must
inapplicable to branched circuits
;
be used as shown.
Determine the equivaimpedance from
(^=$\VWQ
lent
Coil
Determine
the
angle
of lag in the
main
circuit
1.
Coil 2.
60V.
by
100
cos
<
c. p.
Determine the equivalent resistance,

is
Fig.
173.
(which
not the actual resistance of the parallel arrangement),
from
R = Z cos
<j>.
Determine the equivalent reactance from
X Z sin
d>.
TESTS.
All the constants of Coil
227
and Coil 2 are known
but
the resistance of the lamp had better be redetermined for

the particular current used in it.
Combine the admittances
of these parts of the
Take
branched
polygon of admittances according to

the reciprocal of the resulting admittance,
circuit into a
28.
that
and resolve it into its comthe equivalent impedance,

ponent parts of equivalent reactance and equivalent resistis,
The
actual plotting may be

drawing-board to the scales 2 ohms
ance.
admittance
done on 2%" x 30"

I cm. and
I
unit of
1000 cm.
Make a report in the form of a table such as is used in

The variation should not exceed 3%.
the last experiment.
Exp. 13. Calculation and Measurement of Resulting Impedance of any Series-Parallel or Parallel-Series
Arrangement of a Number of Impedances.
Arrange the
109.
apparatus as in Fig. 174, or according to any other scheme

if it be desired to vary the experiment.
70V.
60
Fig. 174
Determine the values of the resulting or equivalent

Zy and <, as in Exp. 1 2.
228
Also determine the same quantities for the individual

parts of the circuit under the conditions of use if they be
not already known.
In the graphic
steps
determination
the
pursue
following
1.
Find the equivalent impedance of Coil

100 C.P. lamp, calling it M.
2.
Find the equivalent impedance of the 50

lamp, and J/, calling it JV.
c. P.
Find the equivalent impedance
and
3.
Coil
2,
calling
it
of
3,
and the
Coil
i,
P.
Find the equivalent impedance of

and N. This
will be the required impedance of the whole
circuji, and should be resolved into its com-
4.
parts of equivalent resistance and

Measure <, the angle
equivalent reactance.
ponent
between the impedance and the resistance.
Make
a report in the form cf a table as in the two preThe variation of the determinations
ceding experiments.
by the two method should not exceed 3$.
no. Exp.
14.
Efficiency
and Regulation
of
a Trans-
A
Arrange
apparatus
Fig.
175.
two-throw switch allows the same voltmeter to read either
former.
the
as
primary or secondary pressure.

used on the lower readings.
in
The ammeter A s may be

The transformer used is
the % K. w. i to 2, stepping up from about 58 volts to 1 16,

its rated range.
It is operated at its rated frequency,
60
Increase the load from o to

suitable steps.
volts,
At each
primary watts
i
K. w. (100% overload) by
take
step
readings of the primary
secondary volts and secondary am-
TESTS.
Since the load
peres.
is
229
non-inductive, the product of the
and amperes gives the secondary watts.

Determine the efficiency and the regulation, both
secondary volts
in
per cent, for each set of readings from

.
%
%
'
= watts
efficiency
secondary
J
:
watts primary
regulation
s
T volts prim.
-
100.
volts sec.
100.
full-load sec. volts
Fig. 175.
two curves on the same sheet, having as their

abscissae both watts and per cent of full-load
secondary, and as their respective ordinates per cent efficiency and 1 00%
per cent regulation.
Plot
common
in. Exp.
Transformer
15.
Determination of
The
core
losses
independent of the load, while

load are called the load losses.
of course, the
I2 R
all
Load
Losses
in
considered
are
usually
those that vary with the
Their chief component is,

but there may be
loss in the copper,
some eddy current and local hysteresis losses that vary

with the load, and a determination of them all is made as
follows
Arrange the apparatus as
in Fig.
176.
The
to 2
23
transformer
K. w.
0.5
is
used with
its
low-tension
side
There will be but a small pressure generand its current will demagnetize the core
short-circuited.
ated therein,
almost entirely hence

all the losses measured
;
may be
considered as
load, not
core
losses.
Care must, of course,

be taken to control the
amount
of current pass-
ing through the transformer.

Fig. 176.
Adjust the lamps so

that about
by
Au
shown
Reduce
So
amount, and read again.
100% overload current, 10 amperes,

Read the ammeter and the wattmeter.
is
the current by a suitable

continue down to zero amperes, substituting A^ for A
when the readings on the latter become unsatisfac.
tory.
Plot a curve with load in amperes as abscissae

loss in watts as ordinates.
Take
pressure
Note
care
coil
and load
the wire short-circuiting the lowof low resistance, and has good contacts.
that
is
pressure leads from the wattmeter

should go direct to the terminals of the transformer, as,
in general, the resistance of the wires leading to it is
also
that
the
not negligible in comparison with the resistance of the

coil itself.
If
the current exceeds the ampere capacity of the wattis advisable

to put in a single-pole switch to
it
meter,
short-circuit
reading
is
the current coil at
being taken.
all
times
save
when
TESTS.
231
Exp. 16. Determination of Core Losses of a

Transformer, and Construction of an Efficiency Curve. 112.
The
hysteresis chiefly, are constant at all

Hence, the energy supplied to a transformer when
core
loads.
its
losses,
is
secondary
open-circuited,
is
practically a
measure of
these losses.
Connect a wattmeter
in
the
primary
circuit
of
the
when its primary is supplied with

rated voltage and frequency, and its sec-
i K. w. transformer
pressure at
is
ondary
its
open-circuited.
The wattmeter reading is the core loss.

From a knowledge of the core loss and
the load losses
at various loads, construct an efficiency curve for various
loads from
in
to
100%
per cent at any load
overload (secondary), the efficiency
being
-
P\
X
where
and
at the load
are the load
in
and core losses respectively
Pr
This curve should be
found
ioo,
Exp.
similar
to
the efficiency curve
14.
Simultaneous Pressure
113. Ex. 17 and 18.
rent Curves from Primary and Secondary of
former.
ditions.
It
is
First,
and Cura Trans-
desired to get these curves for two conExp. 17, with a full non-inductive load,
and second, Exp.
18,
with an equal
(in
amperes) very
inductive load.
For the nonArrange apparatus as in Fig. 177.

inductive load, lamps are suitable, for the inductive load
the primaries of unloaded transformers are good and to
;
get a nice adjustment Coil
can be put into
circuit,
and
232
the current
'"n
it
adjusted by moving
its
iron core in or
out.
might be here remarked that if the transformer is

supplied with current from a rotary converter, the E.M.F.
balance described in Exp. 2 cannot use direct current from
It
the same source as that which runs the converter, even

though they be put on opposite sides of a three-wire
separate source of direct E.M.F. must in such

system.
case be supplied for the balance, either from a separate
direct-current generator or from a sufficient number of
To Load
and Balance
Fig. 177.
If, however, the alternating curanother
transformer before being
be
rent
passed through
applied to the one under test, this trouble does not arise
cells of storage battery.
but the introduction of the second transformer has a

turbing effect on the wave-shape.
It will be seen that the apparatus
is
dis-
merely an elabora-
tion of that in Exp. 4, a four-way double-pole switch being

used instead of the two-throw switch of the former experi-
ment.
This switch
in a block of
1 1
volts,
wood.
conveniently made of mercury cups

For the i K. w. transformer at 58 to
is
the reading on
15
should be about 4.4 amperes.
TESTS.
233
Suitable values for the non-ind active resistances are,
R =
These must be able to carry

ohms,
the currents without overheating, and must not be allowed
to change their resistance due to change of temperature.
2.2
4.4 ohms.
Proceed as directed in Exp. 4, taking readings every

Take
twelve electrical degrees throughout half a cycle.
the
contact-maker.
all four readings before moving
Plot the four curves of Exp.
of
Exp.
the
8 on another.
common
abscissae.
experiment must be plotted to one

current curves
phase
to
difference
on one paper, and those
each case degrees will be

Both pressure curves of either
In
another.
slightly
scale of ordinates, both
Careful
less
than
work
180
will
show a
between
the
primary and secondary pressures and currents, particularly

in
Exp.
8.
Calculation and Measurement of the

114. Exp. 19.
Mutual-inductance of Transformer Coils at No Load. -
Measure the self-inductance of the primary and

the secondary coils by the method of Ex. 5, first part,
(a)
of
the coil not under test being left open-circuited.

Do the same by the method of Exp. 5, second part.
(b)
The results in the two cases should be alike if attention is
In measuring the primary
paid to the following point.
inductance, apply the rated voltage so that it will send
In measuring the secondary, adjust
the charging current.
the impressed voltage so that just such a current will flow

as will give the same ampere-turns in the secondary as
there were in the primary when it was being measured.
If this precaution
be not taken, the results
will
be changed
by the effects of varying load, according to Exp. 7.

and L, as
Using the average of the values of
(c)
f
234
found
in (a)
position of
and
(b),
calculate the value of
M on the
sup-
no magnetic leakage, from
M = VZ.Z
Measure the mutual induction by the method of

ampere turns are the same
each case, and the same as were used in (a) and (b).
This last result may be slightly less than that arrived at
(d)
Exp. 8 a, taking care that the

in
in
because of magnetic leakage.

(c)
Care should be taken throughout that the frequency be
kept constant.
115.
Exp
20.
Practice
Three-Phase
in
Connections ---- Three similar
to
Transformer
transformers
may
be
The student may

conveniently used for this experiment.
have to exercise some ingenuity in determining the direc-
When each of the following

connections has been made, excite the primaries by a threephase current, and measure the pressure between each of
tion of winding in the coils.
the secondary wires, seeing that

same and the expected voltage.
all
three sides have the
Connect both primaries and secondaries in Y, as

Ep Then make the
in Fig. 88.
See that
four-wire
secondary a three-phase,
system, and see that the
(a)
shown
voltage between any outside wire and the middle wire
is
and secondaries in A, Fig. 87,

(b) Connect both primaries
Disconnect one transformer from
and see that E = Ep
the circuits, and observe that the three-phase pressure is
.
still
maintained
(c)
in
the secondary.
Connect the primaries
A, as in Fig. 90.
in
Observe that
Y, and the secondaries in
E =
t
yET
.
TESTS.
(d)
Connect the primaries
235
in A,
and the secondaries
Y, as in Fig. 89, with a four-wire secondary system.

serve that, with reference to the outside wires,
t
V3
E =
in
Ob-
p)
while considering any outside wire and the middle wire,
E.
= E,
116.
External
Exp. 21.
Run
nator
excitation, both
of an Alternormal speed and field
Characteristic
the alternator
at
being kept constant during the experiment.
lamps preferably Arrange a variable non-inductive load

so that readings can be taken from o load to 50% overload
at
suitable
intervals.
At each
step note the
armature
current and the terminal pressure.

Plot a curve with currents as abscissae, and pressures as
ordinates.
Field Compounding Curve of an Alteralternator at constant rated speed.

non-inductive load of lamps, ranging
a
variable
Arrange
from
suitable
o load to 50% overload at each
steps
by
117.
nator
Exp. 22.
Run
the
step adjust the field current, so that the rated terminal

Take simultaneous readings of fieldvoltage is maintained.
current and armature current.

Plot a curve with armature currents as ordinates,
field
and
currents as abscissae.
Note that the speed must be kept constant, that the

terminal pressure must be kept constant, and that readings should be taken only with ascending values of field
currents, as magnetic
somewhat
if
the
field
retentivity will
current
is
distort
the
curve
run too high, and then
brought down to the required point.

118.
nator.
Exp. 23.
Run
No-Load Saturation Curve
of
an Alter-
the alternator at constant rated speed, and
236
from zero up to
excite the fields
suitable intervals, readings of
full
excitation, taking, at
the field current, and the
no-load armature voltage.

Repeat, carrying the excitation
full excitation down to zero.
from
Plot the
two curves on one
sheet, using field currents as
and terminal pressures as
abscissae,
ordinates.
The two
curves will not exactly coincide, because of the magnetic

retentivity of the iron.
Care must be taken always to adjust the field current by

increasing from a lower value to a higher when taking the
ascending curve and by decreasing from a higher value to
a lower when taking the descending curve.
;
Full-Load Saturation Curve of an Al119. Exp. 24.

ternator
Arrange apparatus as in Fig. 178. The alter-
80 volt, single-phase machine.

The
load
of
a
non-inductive
and
a
lamps,
given
heavy current rheostat which has zero resistance on the
nator
is
machine
IK.
w.
is
Fig. I78.
last point.
Run
the alternator at
its
rated speed.
the resistance of the external circuit zero
i.e.,
Make
short-circuit
through the ammeter. Adjust the field rheostat to its

maximum resistance, and close the field switch. Increase
it
the excitation by manipulating the field rheostat until the

rated full-load current is flowing in the external circuit, as
TESTS.
onA
shown
Take readings
15
237
of the field amperes,
and the
Increase
terminal volts, the latter being zero at this step.
the resistance of the armature circuit by a suitable amount,
and readjust the excitation
the rated full-load current
till
is
armature, and take readings of field

again flowing
current and terminal voltage.
Repeat at suitable steps
in the
until full field excitation
Plot a curve on the
that of
Exp.
paper,
field
using
23,
obtained.
is
same
and
to the
same
scale as
and
currents as abscissae,
terminal volts as ordinates.
Take heed
that readings are always taken with ascendof

field
values
current, and when the ammeter in the
ing
armature circuit shows rated full-load current. The speed
must be kept constant.

120.
Exp. 25.
As
tor.
stated in
alternator varies
constant at
all
Synchronous Impedance of an Alterna38, the synchronous impedance of an
somewhat with the
excitations
in
hence
its
its
determination
the following manner
accomplished
Arrange the apparatus as shown
alternator at
load, but is practically
rated speed.
By
is
easily
in Fig.
79.
Run
the
means of the field rheo-
stat cut the excita-
down to a minimum. Short-circuit

the
armature
through an am-
tion
meter
as
and
shown.
excitation
switch
Adjust
so
Fig. 179.
that
the ammeter shows about
ammeter
reading.
Open
-|
full-load current,
and note the
the switch in the armature
cir-
238
cuit
and note the terminal
volts.
just excitation so that the load
is
Close the switch, readincreased by a suitable
amount, and repeat the readings.

Repeat until a limit is
reached, either because full field excitation has been obtained, or because the
Which
loaded.
machine
of these
is
being too severely over-
two conditions
arises first
depends
upon the synchronous impedance of the machine.
Calculate the synchronous impedance for each set of
readings from
Syn. Imp.
open
-,
circuit voltage
,
short circuit current
when
the readings are for the same excitation and speed.

Plot a curve with armature currents as abscissae, and the
values of the synchronous impedance as ordinates.

Particular attention should be paid that the speed be
kept constant, as
it
is
liable to rise
on throwing
off the
load.
121.
loss of
The core
Exp. 26. Core loss of an Alternator
is determined
armature
any
by measuring the dif-
ference in power required to run
With an
excitation.
it
alternator this
with and without

is
most
easily
field
done by
running the armature by a rated motor and observing the

power input thereto. It is desirable to have the quantity
sought as large as possible in comparison with the quantities observed
hence the rated motor used should be as
;
small as
The
is
practicable.
alternator must be driven at
its
rated speed, and the
pulleys so proportioned that the motor will run at its rated

speed also or else a special efficiency curve of the motor
;
must be obtained
to run.
for the speed at
which
it
will
be required
TESTS.
239
wattmeter placed in the motor circuit will indicate

the power input thereto or, if it be a direct-current motor,
a voltmeter and ammeter can be used.
;
Let
A = watts
is
and
input to motor
not excited.
m = efficiency
= watts
Let
of
motor
when
the alternator field
at this input.
input to motor
when
the alternator fields
are fully excited,
= efficiency
and
Then
of
motor
the core loss in watts
at this input.
is
P = Bn - Am.
c
It is
well to repeat the measurements a
and average the
Since the losses

the same at
all
number
of times
results.
in
shafting and belting are practically

do not affect the accuracy of
loads, these
the results.
122.
Exp. 27.
Induction Motor
Complete Test of a i-H.P. Three-Phaso
As
a test of the motor performance
solely, the voltage at the motor terminals should be kept

This may easily be accomconstant throughout the test.
If,
plished if the motor is run from a separate alternator.
however, it is run from an inverted converter, and particularly if the desired voltage has to be obtained by transformation, there will be a slight drop of voltage as the load
increases.
Since the power-factor in this test will run from very

low to about 80%, the method of measuring three-phase
power shown in Fig. 169 will be used, as it requires but
one instrument reading, and leads to no uncertainty as to
240
The apparatus used is simply an ammealgebraic signs.

a wattmeter connected into the motor
and
a
voltmeter,
ter,
180 shows the arrangement, the two wattone
meters not being used at once, but being alternative,
circuit.
Fig.
thus securing a
high readings, the other for low,

greater accuracy over a wide range.
for
stalled takes about 18
amperes; so
The motor when
this
is
its
momentary
Fig. 180.
starting current.
Care must be taken
in starting
up that
the measuring instruments are not injured by such a flow

of current.
The larger wattmeter has a capacity of
the smaller a capacity
2.5 K. w., and a 2 5 -ampere limit
;
for
300
watts,
and a 5-ampere
limit.
Either of these, as
well as the voltmeter, will stand the rated motor pressure,
10 volts.
The power output
of the
motor
is
absorbed
in a strap
TESTS.
brake, as
shown
revolutions the
about 30
Ibs.
181.
in Fig.
With a 4.5"
spring balances
and 4
241
should
pulley at 1800
have ranges of
Ibs. respectively.
The motor must be
supplied with current at
its
rated
voltage and frequency, and the frequency must be kept
constant throughout the experiment.
Observation%-^-1ak& readings at suitable

intervals,
say steps of 4 Ibs. each on the
from no load to the
larger scale,
of
the motor.
stalled, as
At each
meter,
it
Do
not
leave
the
stalling
motor
overloads the instruments.
step take readings of the watt-
ammeter, voltmeter, both spring

and the speed of the motor.
balances,
Repeat the experiment three times with

fifteen-minute intervals between the repetiThe scale readings, P, will be the
tions.
Flg
l8lt
same, at any one step, for all three trials, and the other
values can be averaged to partially eliminate errors of
observation.
Calculations.
-- Using the average values
readings at any one step,
fill
of the three
out the following table
242
(1)
Watts output
746,
33,000
where
d=
V=
(P P ) =
r
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
diameter of pulley in inches.

revolutions per minute.
difference in scale readings in pounds.
Watts input
X wattmeter
reading.
= voltmeter reading.
Amperes per phase = ammeter reading.
Volt-amperes input = V3 X volts at terminals
Volts at terminals
X amperes
per phase.
(6)
(7)
Power-factor
i-rc
Efficiency
--
\Vatts input
%=
^r
100.
Volt-amperes input
~/
--output= Watts
%
Watts
:
100.
input
(8)
Apparent
efficiency
~-- X
Watts output
Tr
100.
Volt-amperes input
(9)
Slip
#=
where
V = revolutions per minute,

/ = frequency,
/ = number of pairs of poles.
Plot eight curves on one paper.
Plotting of Curves.
All the curves will have watts output as abscissae.
The
points of
25%, 50%, 7$%, 100%, and 125%
of full load
should also be indicated.
The
ordinates for the
columns
first
2 to 8 respectively.
seven curves are taken from
TESTS.
The
243
ordinates for the last curve are found by subtract-
ing the per cent slip from 100%.

Curves should be marked with the
names appearing
at
the heads of the columns from which their ordinates were

The curves from columns 2 and 5 should be to
taken.
Those from columns
the same scale of ordinates.
6, 7, 8,
have the same scale of ordinates, which will
and 9 will all

be per cents, and should run from o to 100%.
There will thus be four scales of ordinates, and they
should be marked respectively, "Watts or Volt Amperes,"
On the margin
"Volts," "Amperes," and "Per Cent."
state the name and size of the machine, and the date of
test.
Complete Test of a 1 H.P., Three-Phase

123. Exp. 28.
Induction Motor, run on a Single-phase Circuit Through a
The function of the condenserCondenser-Compensator.
compensator was discussed

apparatus
is
shown
in Fig.
in
67.
182.
The arrangement
of
Another wattmeter and
Motor
182.
Fig.
another ammeter
may be used
to
alternate with
shown
those
to secure greater accuracy in the lower ranges

considered advisable.
if
The same
absorption dynamometer is used as in Exp.

27 and the directions there given for taking observations,
and for calculating and plotting results, should be followed
;
with the following exceptions
take readings at
2-lb. steps,
244
since the motor
is
half the size of the other
since this
is
single-phase, the wattmeter readings go direct in column

2, and the products of the volts by the amperes go direct
in
column
It
5.
may be found
that the capacity of
the condenser-
compensator has been so proportioned that in plotting

the results, curves 2 and 5, and also 7 and 8, will be nearly
coincident,
zontal
and that curve 6
is
practically a straight hori-
line.
Methods of Synchronizing.
124. Exp. 29.
Synchronous motors and also converters must be synchronized
before being connected to the mains from which they
There are a number of ways of
doing this, of which the best depends upon attendant cir-
receive their power.
cumstances,
The motor and
(a)
trically
connected while at
slowly,
the motor
not
rest,
generator
and the
may be
elec-
latter started
up
then starting up and
loaded
running synchronously,
(b) The field circuit of the motor
and
the
armature started up
left
without
be
open,
may
load
the
as an induction motor until near synchronism, and

field
switch then
closed.
In large
machines
this
The armaendangers the insulation of the field coils,

(c)
to
be
either
brought
speed mechanically,
by a
may
small direct connected induction motor or by a belt from
ture
some moving
be started and
end
like
(d] In converters the machine can

brought to speed from the direct-current
pulley,
a direct-current motor,
rent available.
if
there be direct cur-
This requires a starting-box and a
field
rheostat.
The two convenient methods

I
K.
w. three-phase converter are
for
(b}
synchronizing the
the former
and (d)
TESTS.
245
will be practiced in Exp. 30, the latter is the subject for

the present experiment.
At
Arrange the apparatus as shown in Fig. 183.
starting, the field coils of the converter
must be excited
from the source of direct current, but when running as

must be excited from its own
a converter the machine
brushes.
This necessitates the two switches, a and b.
These switches must not be both open at once, at least
while the machine is running from the direct-current end
>
and
if
they are not rightly connected the direct-current

Main Switch
3 Phase
67.6 V.
40
oj
246
Then manipulate
the
rheostat
field
until
machine
the
The synchronizing lamps

reaches synchronism.
be dark at once when the machine is in step.
will
all
When
the periods of darkness become quite long, say several

seconds, the main switch can be closed, the switch from
the direct-current source be opened, and the machine will
be running as a self-excited converter.
the lamps do not get dark at once, but two stay

lighted while the other is dark, the generator currents are
in such directions as to tend to reverse the direction of
If all
Two
rotation of the converter armature.
of the leads in
the alternating-current circuit should then be transposed.

It might here be noticed that if an inverted converter be
used as a source of alternating currents, and it be desired

to synchronize another converter with it as described
an Edison three-wire system be the common

source of direct-current supply to these machines, then
above, and
if
care must be taken that both converters are connected to
the
same
side
of
the
to opposite sides, then
there
system.
If
they be
when the machines
connected
are in step
a pressure of 117 volts across the main switch,

latter would naturally cause the blowing
is
and closing the

of
some
fuse.
Exp. 30. Variation of Lag or Lead of Current

Three-Phase i K.W. Synchronous Motor.
Arrange
125.
in a
the apparatus as in Fig.
184.
ampere ammeter can be put
Remember
that in starting
Either the 3 or the 15

according to the load.
in circuit,
up there
will
be an excessive
flow of current.
The
direct-current
removed
brushes
for this experiment,
on the machine may be

Synchronize the motor by
TESTS.
letting
Then
run as an induction motor
it
the
close
field
rheostat, so that about
machine
made.
switch,
normal
first adjusted
current will flow.
will fail to
go into step if
Premature closing of the
machine goes into step or not.

the armature circuit goes down
down and even
When
stops,
the motor
near synchronism.
having
field
cause of failure to synchronize.
slows
till
this
adjustment is not
switch is also a
field
It
If
the
The
is
it
if it
easy to
tell
if
the
does, the current in
does not, the machine
and the current goes
up.
synchronized, reduce the field

current as far as possible, without losing step.
In some
(a)
is
Phase
Pig. 184.
machines
it
may
be reduced to zero, the residual magnetfield to keep the armature syn-
ism affording enough

chronized.
From
this point
suitable steps to the
increase the field current by

allowable current, or until
maximum
the machine loses synchronism.

At each step note the
field current and the armature current.
Then from the
maximum
field
current,
decrease
to
the
minimum by
the same steps, taking readings again of the two ammeters.

Due to magnetic retentivity the two curves will not
coincide.
Plot the two curves on one paper, using field currents

as abscissae, and armature currents as ordinates.
248
That excitation
a
minimum,
is
at
which the no-load armature current is

the normal excitation of a syn-
called
chronous machine.
Repeat the foregoing, save that a strap-brake load is

This load should be adjusted to
applied to the motor.
(b)
about
75%
found
that
range of
of full
the
field
and
load,
motor
will
currents
left
not
constant.
submit
when loaded
to
as
It
so
will
be
wide a
when running
light.
Plot these curves on the
126.
Exp. 31.
is
sheet.
Commercial Efficiency
The same arrangement
of
a Synchron-
the same appahere used as in Exp. 27, save that it is applied to
ous Motor.
ratus
same
of
a three-phase synchronous motor, whose field coils must

be separately excited from a direct-current source, and
with a suitable rheostat in
series.
Synchronize the motor by the method of Exp. 30, being

careful that the excessive starting current does not pass
When the
through the coil of the low-reading wattmeter.
armature is in step, adjust the field rheostat to give normal
excitation
i.e., so that the armature current is a minimum.
;
This adjustment must not be changed during the experiThe frequency should be kept constant, and the
ment.
voltage also
its fall,
if
possible
if
not,
account should be taken of
and a voltage curve drawn on the same sheet as the
efficiency curve.
Load the motor by the strap-brake shown in Exp. 27,

increasing by suitable steps from zero till the motor falls
out of step.
At each
two spring balances.

each time stopping at
step read the wattmeter and the
Repeat the experiment three times,

the same points on the larger spring
TESTS.
249
balance, so that the other values can be averaged, reducing

errors of observation.
Plot a curve with watts output
abscissae,
and per cent
and per cent
of load as
efficiency as ordinates.
Exp. 32. Curves of Current and Power-Factor

a Synchronous Motor, with (a) Super-Excitation, and
127.
of
(b)
Sub-Excitation. --
The arrangement
of apparatus is that
of Exp. 27, applied to the synchronous motor.

For the first part of the experiment, the fields should
be
by a current about 50% greater than the normal

current, and for the second part by a current about
The frequency and the voltage should be kept
less.
excited
field
50%
constant.
For each part load the motor with the strap-brake, increasing from zero by suitable steps till the armature falls
At each
step take readings of the

ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter, as well as of the two
out of synchronism.
spring balances.
the results.
Repeat each part three times, averaging
Tabulate the results under columns headed " Watts Output,"
"Watts Input," "Volt-amperes
Input," and "Power-
factor."
Plot on
one paper the curves for the super-excited

condition, making watts output the common abscissae, and
armature currents and power-factors respectively the
ordinates.
Plot on another sheet similar curves for the sub-excited

condition.
128.
Exp. 33.
External Characteristic of a Converter,
A.C. to D.C. with Self -Excitation.

as in Fig. 183, Exp. 29.
When
Arrange apparatus
the converter
is
running
2i>0
from the alternating end, and free from the source of

supply, adjust the field rheostat to that
that
point
gives a minimum armature current at no load.
direct-current
If this
point
When
it will be
necessary
one of the alternating-
not already known,
is
i5-ampere ammeter
current mains to determine it.
to put the
in
the above conditions are
fulfilled,
load the direct-
current end of the converter with lamps, from o up to 50%

overload (say 15 amperes), by steps of about one ampere
each.
At each
step take readings of the armature current
and the terminal pressure, using the standard direct-current

instruments for the purpose.
Plot a curve with armature currents as abscissae, and
terminal pressure as ordinates.
129.
D.C.
Exp. 34.
Efficiency of a Converter from A.C. to

of apparatus is that of the last
The arrangement
experiment with the addition of a wattmeter suitably connected in the alternating-current mains to measure the
In fact, all the necessary data for Exp. 33
power input.
are incidentally secured in the course of this experiment.
Run and excite converter as in the last experiment.
The frequency and the voltage should be kept constant.

The direct-current end is to be loaded with lamps by suitThe watts input can
able steps from o to 50% overload.
be determined from the wattmeter reading, the watts output from the product of the voltmeter and the ammeter
reading.
Plot an efficiency curve.
NOTE.
The brush
friction of the direct-current
brushes
may be
so
great that the converter cannot be synchronized by the method of starting

as an induction motor, the slip being so great as to prevent its picking up
TESTS.
when
the field circuit
is
251
In such case either the direct-current
closed.
brushes must be temporarily removed, or the machine must be synchronized

by some of the other methods given in Exp. 29. If the converter hunts so
badly as to interfere with the instrument readings, it may be because the
direct-current brushes are not in proper adjustment, and the selection of a
better
commutating plane
130.
will
remedy the
trouble.
Exp. 35. Efficiency of an Inverted Converter.
is inconvenient to put a variable, non-inductive,

balanced load on a three-phase circuit, the single-phase
rings will be used in this experiment.
Since
it
The arrangement
of apparatus requires a direct-current
ammeter and voltmeter on the D.C. end, and a wattmeter

Or two wattmeters can be used if avail-
on the A.C. end.

able.
The
means
of a starting-box, the field rheostat
converter
the armature
is
is
started
running at
non-inductive load
is
adjusted until
This speed
the
manipulating
by
the
to
A.C.
end,
applied
rated speed.
its
must be kept constant during the

rheostat.
from the D.C. end by
is
test
o to 50% overload.
increasing by
Plot an efficiency curve and an external characteristic
suitable steps from
The latter will approximate a straight horizontal

being much better than that secured in Exp. 33, be-
curve.
line,
cause, in this case, the field current
drop of voltage
in
the armature.
is
unaffected by any
NDEX.
[The
Admittance of
Ageing of
figures refer to page numbers.]
Armature
circuit, 45.
iron, 123.
Air-blast transformers, 128.
Auto-transfonner, 94.
connections of, 121.
All-day efficiency, 139.
Alternating current, definition

Alternations, definition of,
of, I.
Brake, Prony, 241.

Bullock alternators, 89.
i.
Alternators, Bullock, 89.
core loss
of,
238.
Calculation of leakage flux, 108.
efficiency of, 72.
external characteristic of, 235.

field
compounding
of, 235.
General Electric Co.'s, 76, 78, 87.
resulting impedance, 50, 224.
Capacity, measurement
of circuit, 45.
formula
load losses of, 73.
revolving field, 85.

saturation curve of, full-load,
Aluminum
85.
204.
76, 91.
Choke
line wire, 189.
Angle of lag or lead,
cur-
reaction, 67.
with ^, Z, and C, 40.

Coefficient of leakage, 71.
of saturation, 70.
rent, 8.
Apparent resistance, 25, 45.

Armature, E.M.F. generated
coils, 28.
Circuits, time constant of, 21.
10.
Average values of pressure and
inductance, 68.
reactance, 40, 45.

unit of, 30.
of converter, 249.
of inverted converter, 251.
Chemical solution to detect current.
57.
Stanley, 81.
Westinghouse,
for, 31.
Centrifugal clutch pulley, 152.

Characteristic of alternator, 235.
236.
no-load, 235.
Warren,
213.
of transmission line, 193.
of, 168.
running
single-phase,
of,
of condenser, 29.
inductor, 80.
parallel
windings, 65.
in, 62.
of self-induction, 16.
Combined method, measuring power,

218.
INDEX.
254
Commercial
of
efficiency
Counter E.M.F. of self-induction,

Current and pressure relations
synchro-
nous motor, 248.
Compensated winding,
in a condenser, 39.
78.
transformer, determination
Compensators, 94.
connections
of, 121.
Composite winding,
of
alternator,
average value of, 8.

effective value of, 7.
flow,
235-
for, 31.
24.
Curve, saturation,
29.
in series, 33.
sine, 4.
form-factor
circuit, 46.
Connections of transformers, 115.

Constant current transformers, 130,
synchronous motor, 249.

E.M.F., actual, 6.
potential, regulation for, 57.
armature heating, 175.
distortion of,
9.
determination
reaction, 177.
field
in, -173.
efficiency of, 250.
E.M.F.
of, 9.
Curves from transformer, 231.

of current and power-factor in
Converter, 169.
current relations
full load, 236.
no load, 235.
in parallel, 32.
Conductance of
of, 4.
magnetic energy of, 23.

produced by harmonic E.M.F.,
electrolytic, 31.
Condensers,
for, 42.
lag or lead of, 10.
54.
capacity of, 29.
formula
formula
instantaneous value
Condenser, hydraulic analogy, 37.

compensator,
of,
231.
74, 76.
Compounding curve
26.
of, 205,
compounding of
208.
alterna-
tor, 235.
Cycle, definition
relations in, 171.
of,
i.
external characteristic of, 249.
Decay of current
inverted, 170.
efficiency of, 251.
external characteristic of 2 5 1
,
regulation
of transformers, 119.
of, 179.
Design of transformer, 133.
starting of, 177.
Cooling of transformers, 128.
Copper
loss in transformers, 104.
weight
Core
of,
in circuit, 21.
Definitions of terms, 44.

Delta or mesh connection, 61.
for lines, 197.
Dielectric hysteresis, 31.

Dielectrics for condensers, 30.
Distribution constant, 64.
flux in transformer, 92, 125.
loss of alternator, 74.
measurement
of, 238.
of transformer, 99.
measurement
of, 231.
type transformer, 92, 125.
current loss, 99.

Effective values of current and pres-
Eddy
sure, 7,
Efficiency, all day, 105.
of alternator, 72.
INDEX.
Full-load saturation curve, 70.
Efficiency
of converter, 250.
of inverted converter, 251.
:
determination
of synchronous motor, 248.

of transformer, 104, 05, 139.
measurement
General Electric
of, 236.
Co.'s
alternator,
76, 78, 87.
regulator, 181.
of, 228.
E.M.F., counter, of self-induction,
induction motor, 146.

transformer, 125, 132.
of current in condensive
26.
Growth
generated in armature, 62.

E.M.F., wave, shape of, 3, 6.
determination of, 205.
E.M.F?
255
circuit, 34.
in inductive circuit, 20.
in series, 46.
Energy of a started current, 23.

Equivalent A', X, and Z of transformer, 97.
leakage inductance, 108.
Harmonic E.M.F.,
current produced
by, 24.
Exact solution of transformer, in.
shadowgraph, 3.
Henry, definition of, 16.
Hydraulic analogy of condenser, 37.
Exciting current of transformer, 94,
Hysteresis, dielectric, 31.

loss in alternators, 73.
103.
External characteristic of alternator,
transformers, 100.
235.
Impedance, definition
converter, 249.
inverted converter, 251.
of circuit, 45,
of, 25.
224228.
synchronous, 69.
Farad, definition
Field
measurement
of, 30.
compounding curve of
alter-
Impedances
of, 237.
in parallel, 226.
in series, 224.
nator, 235.
rotating, 141.
Inductance, measurement
of, 211.
of, 216.
Flux density
in transformers, 95.
mutual, measurement
Form-factor,
9.
of circuit, 45.
of transmission lines, 191.
determination
Formula
of, 206.
for current in
any
circuit,
Four-phase currents, n.
systems, 59.
Frequency changers,
definition of,
for
sion, 183.
standard,
2.
157.
I.
determination
Frequencies,
self,
described, 15.
unit of self, 16.
42.
variation with load of, 214.
Inductances, practical values

Induction motors, 142..
behavior
of, 18,
of, 149.
of, 2.
General Electric Co.'s, 146.
power transmis-
single phase,
154.
slip of, 144.
speed regulation, 157.
INDEX.
256
Induction motors
Measurement
starting of, 150.

tests of, 239, 243.
of load losses in transformer,
Wagner,
of mutual induction, 216.
155.
Westinghouse, 143.
Inductive reactance, 25, 45.
Inductor alternators, 80.
Instantaneous values of current and

pressure,
229.
of transformer coils, 233.

of power, polyphase, 219.
of power, single phase, 217.
of regulation of transformer,
228.
4.
Inverted converter, 170.
of
resulting
impedance,
224,
226, 228.
Lag
of current,
Lead
of self-inductance, 211.
o.
Mershon balance, 206.

Mesh or delta connection,
of current, 10.
Leakage
coefficient, 71.
flux,
inductance, 108.
Lighting transformers, 122.

Line capacity, 193.
ers, 115.
of synchronizing, 244.
constants (Table), 194.
Microfarad, definition
inductance, 191.
loss, curves of, 196.
Monocyclic system,
resistance, 190.
wire,
aluminum,
Linkages defined,
Load
189.
in transformer, 99.
measurement
of, 229.
Logarithmic change of current, 20.

Losses in synchronous machines, 73.
in transformers, 99.
in transmission lines, 186.
Magnetic energy of current, 23.

Magnetizing current of transformer,
102.
of core loss in transformer, 231.

of core loss in alternator, 238.
efficiency
228.
Motor, induction, 142.

behavior of, 149.
General Electric Co.'s, 146.
239
of
transformer,
of
efficiency,
2 43-
single-phase, 154.
speed regulation, 157.

starting of, 150.
treatment by transformer method, 147.
induction,
Wagner,
155.
Westinghouse, 143.
starters, General Electric
Co.'s,
I5i-
Westinghouse,
Magnitude of self-inductance, 19.

Measurement of capacity, 213.
of, 30.
156.
measurement
16.
losses in alternator, 73.
of
61.
Methods of connecting transform-
06.
151.
synchronous, 158.
measurement
of
efficiency,
248.
Mutual induction, measurement

216.
in transformer coils, 233.
of,
INDEX.
Pressure and current
Natural draft transformers, 128.

No-load saturation curve, 70.
of, 235.
of phases for transmission,
average value
189-
curves, actual,
relations
in
transformer, determination of,
determination
Number
257
Oil-cooled transformers, 129.

Operation of induction motors, 143.
231.
of, 8.
6.
causes of distortion, 5.
determination of, 205, 208.
'
range of
motors, 161.
synchronous
Operative
for transmission, 185.
instantaneous value
of, 4.
Primary of transformer, 92.

Parallel circuits, 226.
Prony brake, 241.
Parallel running of alternators, 168.

Parallel-series circuits, 227.
Quarter-phase currents,
Parallelogram of E.M.F.' ^ 27, 48.

Peculiarities of A.C. circuits, 203.
4.
systems, 59.
10.
Phase,
relations in condensive circuits,

37splitters, 153.
Phases,
number
of, for
transmission,
measurement
of, 237.
Regulation for constant
of impedances, 50.
potential,
74-
of converters, 179.
Polyphase alternators, 58.
of transformers, 106, 139.
currents, 12.
power, measurement of, 219.

determination
curves,
Power
measurement
of,
Regulator, General
of, 228.
Electric
Co.'s,
181.
209.
factor, definition of, 14.
A.C.
of condensive circuit, 40.

of inductive circuit, 25.
synchronous, 69.
189.
Polygon of admittances, 53.

of E.M.F's, 49.
in
Ratio of transformation, 92.

in induction motor, 148.
Reactance of any circuit, 45.
Stillwell,
measurement
of,
80.
Relations of current and pressure in
circuits, 12.
condenser, 39.
in transformer, determination
217-224.
transmission, 182.
Power transmission, frequency
for,
of, 231.
of E.M.F.'s, in converters, 173^
183.
Practical values of inductances, 18.
Resistance, apparent, 25, 45.

of inductive circuits, 25, 44.
of line wire, 190.
Pressure and current
Resonance, 42.
voltage for, 185.
phases
for, 189.
condenser, 39.
relations
in
Revolving
field alternators, 85.
INDEX.
258
see
Rotary converter,
Rotating magnetic
Rotor, definition
Converter.
Stanley transformer, 127.

Star or Y connection, 60.
field, 141.
of, 142.
Started current, magnetic energy
Starting of induction motors, 150.

of synchronous motors, 155.
curves, 70.
of alternator, full-load, 236.
Stator defined, 142.
no-load, 235.
Step-up and step-down transform-
Scott transformer, 118.

Secondary of transformer, 92.
ers, 93.
E.M.F.
Self-inductance, counter
of,
26.
180
Stillwell regulator,
Strap brake, 241.
Susceptance of
described, 15.
measurement
unit of,
211.
of,
circuit, 46.
Synchronizer, 167.
Synchronizing, methods
6.
Series circuits, 224.
Synchronous motors,
Series-parallel circuits, 227.
hunting
Shadowgraph, harmonic, 3.
Shape of current wave, determina-
measurement
tion of, 208.
of
3.
of,
205, 209.
from
curves
of current and power-factor,

249.
measurement
n.
of,
237.
of, 217.
243-
Three-ammeter method for measur-
4.
Slip of induction motors, 144.

effect, 191.
Solution for detecting currents, 204.

motors, starting of,
Squirrel -cage
ing power, 218.

voltmeter method, 217.
Three-phase induction motor
2 39-
power measurements, 221.
150.
rotor defined, 143.
Stanley alternator, 81.
line constants, 194.
with condenser compensator,
test, 243.
power, measurement
Standard frequencies,
Table of
Temperature.effect on core loss, 103.

Test of induction motor, 239.
Sinusoid,
efficiency,
of, 9.
Single-phase alternators, 57.

current,
of
reactance, 69.
4.
form factor
63.
starting of, 165.

variation of lag or lead, 246.
trans-
former, 231.
Sine curve,
248.
Shell type transformer, 92, 123.
Simultaneous
of,
of, 244.
158.
operative range, 161.
E.M.F. wave,
determination
Skin
of,
2 3-
Saturation, coefficient, 70.
systems, 60.
2.
transformations, 119, 234.

Time constant of circuit, 2j,
test,
INDEX.
Transformation, ratio
Two-phase currents, n.
power measurements, 219.
of, 92.
Transformer, air blast, 129.

connections of, 115, 234.
systems, 59.
Type A. O.
constant current, 130.
cooling of, 128.
transformers, 127.
transformers,
M transformers,
definition, 92.
design
259
25.
123.
O.D. transformers, 126.
of, 133.
efficiency, 104, 115, 139,
measurement
exact solution
Variation in synchronous motor of

lag or lead, 246.
of, 228.
of,
in.
current
in
flux in, 94.
for lighting, F22.

General Electric Co.'s, 125, 132.
and power
factor,
249.
of inductance with load, 214.
Vibrating filament, 205.
losses, 99.
measurement of core losses,

load losses, 229.
mutual induction
231.
in,
method of treatment
234.
for induc-
Voltage, average value, 8.

curves of actual, 6.
generated in armature, 62.
tion motors, 147.
Wagner
natural draft, 128.

oil
regulation of, 106, 139.
measurement
of, 228.
polyphase
Westinghouse, 126.
Transmission of power, 182.
capacity of,
circuits,
3.
of, 5.
determination of, 205, 208.
water-cooled, 129.
93.
of, 191.
resistance of, 190.

table of constants for, 194.
losses in, 186.
curves
in
219.
causes of distortion
123.
inductance
alternator, 85.
Water-cooled transformers, 129.
Wave-shape,
Stanley, 127.
lines,
Warren
Wattmeters
Scott, ii 8.
simultaneous curves from, 311.
Wagner,
transformer, 123.
cooled, 129.
of, 196.
Triangle of E.M.F?s> 25, 40.
form factor
of, 9.
Weight of copper for lines, 197.

Westinghouse alternator, 76, 91.
transformer, 126.
Y-connection, 60.
of compensators, 121.
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VERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

DYNAMO ELECTRIC MACHINERY;

PROFESSOR OF PHYSICS AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC

ASSISTANT IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AT THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

HALL COURT, LUDGATE HILL

VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY

companion volume on Direct Current

are not perfectly

mechanical, and hydraulic

by those who are earnestly studying the subject

by each of the methods.

connection with every point leads to complexity, and is

method has been chosen which was deemed clearest and

believed, however, that one

who has mastered

power, electro-motive forces, currents, and their phases in

alternating-current circuits containing

and behavior of the various types of

have been considered.

of alternating-current apparatus is used

chapter gives directions for making a variety of

necessary for the introduction of cuts and

their artists, are unsurpassed,

and the informa-

not available from other sources.

their courteous favors thanks is

PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS

PROBLEMS ON ALTERNATING-CURRENT CIRCUITS.

PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

intervals the value of

In usual practice, the value varies with

have completed one

prepared to repeat the process described, making a second

The term frequency

the word alternations

applied to the number of cycles

wise specified, the number of alternations per minute is

depends upon the work expected

great Niagara power plant uses a frequency of 25.

Early machines had higher

125 and 133 (16,000 alternations) being

of their increased losses

and their unadaptability

operation of motors and similar apparatus.

approximate frequencies are

"These frequencies are already in extensive use, and

find the frequency of the

pressure or the current produced by any alternating-cur-

PROPERTIES OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS.

be the number of revolutions per

minute, and / be the number of pairs of

of parallel rays of light to be parallel to the

a plane screen perpendicular to the rays.

move up and down, passing from the

and from the bottom

back to the top in another half revolution with a perfect

slotted screen protecting

but the desired portion

from exposure. Then the

Or, with equal relevancy, the abscissae

of a complete cycle will