CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction In todays rapidly changing IT marketplace, Microsoft Certifications are
designed to play an important role in assisting the IT professional to utilize advancing
technologies, fine tuning troubleshooting skills and improving job satisfaction. This
certification from Microsoft confirms your demonstrated experience and knowledge in using
Microsoft products and solutions.

The MCITP (Microsoft Certified IT Professional) certification is the big certification from
Microsoft designed to validate a professionals proven job role capabilities. With the MCITP
certification, an individual can be distinguished as an IT professional with the comprehensive
set of Microsoft technologies / skills necessary to perform a particular job role. The MCITP
certification can highlight your field of expertise since there are several concentrations within
this one certification.
1.2 Necessity
Often, departmental shared computers on campus have only one or two user accounts: there is
always one for everyday users, and there may be a second for an administrator. The everyday
users share the same password and logon, and this can cause problems. For example, any user
who changes a setting (anything from the desktop wallpaper, to browser settings, to saved
internet passwords) changes that setting for everyone else who logs into that computer after
they do. It is also difficult to ensure that users with different campus roles have differing levels
of access to programs, files, and settings.
If you maintain shared computers, using the a campus-wide service called as Active Directory
(also called the as AD) can save you a great deal of time by aiding in keeping software up to
1

date, keeping each users files and settings separate from other users files and settings, and
allowing users to log on using Identity key credentials that they already know. It can also help
you to allow one group of people (for instance, faculty and staff) to access certain programs
and files while keeping those programs and files hidden from another group (for instance,
students), depending on what fits your departments needs. All ITS labs use something similar
to the Active Directory to ensure that users can log on using the same Identity key and
password no matter where they go on campus
1.3 Objectives
The Microsoft Certified IT Professional: Server Administrator (MCITP: Server Administrator)
credential is the leading certification for Windows Server 2008, providing widely recognized,
objective validation of your ability to perform critical, current IT job roles by using Microsoft
technologies to their best advantage. It validates our ability to handle day-to-day management
of the server operating system, file structure, and directory services; handle software
distribution and updates; monitor servers; provide tier-2 troubleshooting
support; support engineering and change-management projects; build and configure servers;
implement auditing policy; perform scheduled vulnerability-assessment scans; and monitor
logs for firewalls and intrusion-detection systems.
It focuses on a specific job role, allowing for in-depth validation of your skill set Allows you to
earn more than one MCITP certification, demonstrating your abilities across multiple roles
Builds on a combination of Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist (MCTS) prerequisites,
helping you develop your technical resume with each step in your MCITP career path
1.4 Theme
Theme of our training and project is Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition. Windows Server
2008 (sometimes abbreviated as "Win2K8") is one of Microsoft Windows' server line of
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operating systems. Some of the Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition features are active
directory, workgroup and domain, user account, active directory groups, profiles, software
installation via directory trusting, window server backup, certificate services etc. My industrial
training is will be on these features.
1.5 Introduction to Company
Dream Weavers (DW) is a group of hard core professionals having expertise in Recruitments,
Training, Business Systems, Real Estate and Travel Services. At present Dream Weavers is
working with more than 100 National and Multi-National Companies including Top Banks,
Insurance Companies, Telecom Companies, IT Sector, Retail Sector, BPOs as well as Pharma
companies. With aggressive marketing and efficient operations the group has forayed in the top
ten positions in most of the above services in North India. With 9 years of experience in client
servicing, the Dream Weavers group has now strategically positioned itself across various
industries in 16 states across North and West India.
Moreover presently Dream Weavers is into sales training, induction programs, soft skills and
behavioral training, selling skills and functional training. . The strong emphasis on human
resource development is what motivates its 300 member workforce to achieve highest standards
of quality and productivity.
In the recent past the company has extended its arms in the field of Project/Industrial Trainings
in the name of DreamTechLabs including various professional courses for BTech, MCA, MSc.
CS, MSc. IT.. DREAMWEAVERS is one of the nations largest CORPORATE and
Consultancy providers backed by a team of professionals who have successfully trained and
placed students. DREAMTECHLABS offers a wide spectrum of technical courses and
application courses designed to suit every skill level, as well as the ability to consult directly
with organizations to tailor made learning plans for any number of employees. Their products
3

and services have a wide appeal and are applicable those in varied positions including network
administrators, systems analysts, systems architects, test engineers, software developers, help
desk staff, IT managers, senior executives, administrative assistants and business professionals.
DREAMTECHLABS Service package includes product quality testing, training, consultation,
facilitation and hand holding for the quality initiatives.
DREAMTECHLABS has its corporate office in Jalandhar(Punjab) with its branches in
Amritsar and Chandigarh and it provides services to over 20,000 professionals annually.
DREAMTECHLABS offers a full spectrum of vendor authorized technical, business skills,
project management and application courses designed to suit every skill level, as well as ability
to consult directly with organizations to tailor made learning plans for any number of
employees. Dream Tech Labs also has tie ups with a number of IT companies which includes
the names of A grade IT Companies for Placements of students
Dream Weavers (DW) is a group of hard core professionals having expertise in Recruitments,
Education, Training, Business Systems, Real Estate and Travel Services having its corporate
office in Gurgaon and registered office in Jalandhar. At present Dream Weavers is working with
more than 100 National and Multi-National Companies including Top Banks, Insurance
Companies, Telecom Companies, IT Sector, Retail Sector, BPOs as well as Pharma companies.
With aggressive marketing and efficient operations the group has forayed in the top ten
positions in most of the above services in North India. With 9 years of experience in client
servicing, the Dream Weavers group has now strategically positioned itself across various
industries in 16 states across North and West India. Moreover presently Dream Weavers is into
sales training, induction programmes, soft skills and behavioral training, selling skills and
functional training. . The strong emphasis on human resource development is what motivates
its 300 member workforce to achieve highest standards of quality and productivity.
4

In the recent past the company has extended its arms in the field of Project/Industrial Trainings
in the name of Dream Tech Labs including various professional courses for Btech, MCA, MSc.
CS, MSc. IT..
1.6 Features of Dream Tech Labs
In all we aim at building better professionals for tomorrow and for this purpose, we provide
training through skilled trainers.
1.) Candidates get learn both the soft skills as well as the interview skills under the same roof
which is extremely beneficial in shaping their career.
2.) Innovation in Technology Training and Consulting.
3.) Curriculums mapped with Industry Requirement.
4.) State-of-the art IT laboratories and communication set-up.
5.) Strategic Association with Global Technology leaders.
6.) Placement assistance with Resourcing through Consultancy Services.
7.) Resume Sending, Exclusive Interviews.
8.) Course Certification, Confirmation Letters.
Dream Tech Labs is highly modernized lab of North India with all modern amenities and the
infrastructure to increase Technical Skills of students and give the Industrial approach for their
better future prospects.
WEBSITES:
www.dreamtechlabs.com
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Address
SCF(12-13)Twin Tour A-Block Market, Ranjit Avenue , Amritsar.
Phone no +91-183-5017174
E-mail

info@dreamtechlabs.com

CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK
A network is a set of devices(often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
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generated by other nodes on the network. The basic purpose of establishing a network is to
share resources and making communication possible among devices

Figure 2.1 The basic network

2.1Network Criteria
A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security. Performance: Performance can be measured in many
ways, including transmit time and response time. Transmit time is the amount of time required
for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between
an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number of factors,
including the number of users, the type of transmission medium, the capabilities of the
connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two
networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay.
However, these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network,
we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion the
network.
Reliability

In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,

the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the networks robustness and catastrophe.

Security
Network Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
2.2 TYPES OF NETWORK
2.2.1 LAN (Local Area Network)
A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a
common communications line or wireless link. Typically, connected devices share the resources
of a single processor or server within a small geographic area (for example, within an office
building). Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in common by
multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for
example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users (for example, in an FDDI
network).

Figure 2.2 Local area network

2.2.2 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network in which two or more computers or
communicating devices or networks which are geographically separated but in same
metropolitan city and are connected to each other are said to be connected on MAN.
Metropolitan limits are determined by local municipal corporations; the larger the city, the
bigger the MAN, the smaller a metro city, smaller the MAN. A Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic
scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a
metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.

Figure 2.3 (Metropolitan Area Network)

2.2.3 WAN (Wide Area Network)

A wide area network (WAN) is a network that covers a broad area (i.e., any
telecommunications network that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries)
using private or public network transports. Business and government entities utilize WANs to
relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical
locations. In essence, this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out
its daily function regardless of location. The Internet can be considered a WAN as well, and is
used by businesses, governments, organizations, and individuals for almost any purpose
imaginable.

Figure 2.4 (Wide Area Network)

2.3 TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

2.3.1 Point-to-Point
A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purpose, it is simplest to
imagine any link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices
must be connected in some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types
of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
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Figure 2.5 Point-to- point connection

A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible. When you are changing television
channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between
remote control and the televisions control system.
2.3.2 Multipoint
A multipoint connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a single link. In a
multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporarily. If
several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must
take turns, it is a timeshared connection.

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Figure 2.6 Multipoint connection

2.4 NETWORK TOPOLOGY

Physical Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. Two or
more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The topology of a network
is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking devices to one
another.
2.4.1. Point-to-point Topology
The simplest topology is a permanent link between two endpoints. Switched point-to-point
topologies are the basic model of conventional telephony. The value of a permanent point-topoint network is the value of guaranteed, or nearly so, communications between the two
endpoints. The value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is proportional to the number
of potential pairs of subscribers, and has been expressed as Metcalfe's Law.
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2.4.2 Bus Topology

Figure 2.7 bus topology

A Bus topology is multipoint connection. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps.
2.4.2.1Advantages of Bus Topology
It is Cheap, easy to handle and implement.
Require less cable
It is best suited for small networks.
2.4.2.2Disadvantages of Bus Topology
The cable length is limited. This limits the number of stations that can be connected.
This network topology can perform well only for a limited number of nodes
2.4.3 Star Topology

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Figure 2.8 star topology

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to a
central node with a point-to-point link in a 'hub' and 'spoke' fashion, the central node being the
'hub' and the nodes that are attached to the central node being the 'spokes' (e.g., a collection of
point-to-point links from the peripheral nodes that converge at a central node) all data that is
transmitted between nodes in the network is transmitted to this central node, which is usually
some type of device that then retransmits the data to some or all of the other nodes in the
network, although the central node may also be a simple common connection oint (such as a
'punch-down' block) without any active device to repeat the signals.
2.4.3.1Advantages of star topology

High speed

Easy to install, configure, maintain, easy to expand.

We can increase the devices without any loss

No collision

2.4.3.2 Disadvantages of star topology

If hub fails then whole network fails

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More cables are required.

2.4.4 Ring Topology

Figure 2.9 Ring topology

The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to two
other nodes in the network and with the first and last nodes being connected to each other,
forming a ring all data that is transmitted between nodes in the network travels from one node
to the next node in a circular manner and the data generally flows in a single direction only.
2.4.4.1Advantage of Ring Topology

Very orderly network where every device has access to the token and the opportunity to

transmit.
Easier to Mange than a Bus Network
Good Communication over long distances
Handles high volume of traffic

2.4.4.2Disadvantages of Ring Topology

The failure of a single node of the network can cause the entire network to fail.
The movement or changes made to network nodes affects the performance of the entire

network.
Dual-ring
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The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to two
other nodes in the network, with two connections to each of these nodes, and with the first and
last nodes being connected to each other with two connections, forming a double ring the data
flows in opposite directions around the two rings, although, generally, only one of the rings
carries data during normal operation, and the two rings are independent unless there is a failure
or break in one of the rings, at which time the two rings are joined (by the stations on either
side of the fault) to enable the flow of data to continue using a segment of the second ring to
bypass the fault in the primary ring.
2.4.5 Mesh Topology

Figure 2.10 Mesh topology

The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the number of
subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and including all
the endpoints, is approximated by Reed's Law.
2.4.5.1 Fully connected

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The type of network topology in which each of the nodes of the network is connected to each of
the other nodes in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible for data to be
simultaneously transmitted from any single node to all of the other nodes.
2.4.5.2Partially connected
The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network are connected to more
than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link this makes it possible to take
advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully connected mesh
topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between every node in
the network.
2.4.6 Tree Topology

Figure2.11Tree topology

The type of network topology in which a central 'root' node (the top level of the hierarchy) is
connected to one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second
level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second level nodes and the top level
central 'root' node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected to the top level
central 'root' node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level
17

central 'root' node being the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy the
hierarchy of the tree is symmetrical, each node in the network having a specific fixed number,
f, of nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, the number, f, being referred
to as the 'branching factor' of the hierarchical tree.
2.4.6.1 Advantages of a Tree Topology
Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
All the computers have access to the larger and their immediate networks.
2.4.6.2 Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

2.5 NETWOKING DEVICES

Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic devices
together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax machines. Devices used to
setup a Local Area Network (LAN) are the most common type of network devices used by the
public. A LAN requires a hub, router, cabling or radio technology, network cards, and if online
access is desired, a high-speed modem.
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2.5.1 HUB:Hub is a central device installed in a network. If it stops working the network will stop running.
The working of networking hub is very simple. It has many points. The data is sent to every
point and it is forwarded to the point where the hub finds the address of the destined computer.
Hubs offer an inexpensive option for transporting data between devices, but hubs don't offer
any form of intelligence. Hubs can be active or passive.

An active hub strengthens and regenerates the incoming signals before sending the data
on to its destination.

Passive hubs do nothing with the signal.

Figure 2.12 Hub

2.5.2 SWITCH:The

working

of

networking Hub is not

much different from a Switch. The advancement in Switches is that they have switching table
in them which makes a network more secure and faster. The difference is between the
technology and technique through which data is sent. A Switch has the ability to store the MAC
address of computers so the data will only be sent to the required point instead of sending it to
every point.

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Figure 2.13 Switch

2.6.3 ROUTER:A Router is responsible for connecting two physical and logically different networks. Routers
are connected in a series in a WAN or a LAN and they are called Hop in the series. The
working of Router is very simple a Router in a LAN or a WAN finds the IP address of the next
hop (next router) and the data is sent toward and so on. D-Link, TP-Link, Link-Sys, Cisco and
Aztec are some well known Router manufacturing companies. Routers are of two Basic types
DSL routers and Wi-Fi routers. Nearly every ISP, banks, organizations, universities, End-users
use Routers to connect to internet or interconnect in to their virtual private networks over the
internet.

Figure 2.14 Wired router

Figure 2.15Wireless router

2.5.4 MODEM:20

A modem is a device that makes it possible for computers to communicate over telephone lines.
The word modem comes from Modulate and Demodulate. Because standard telephone lines use
analog signals, and computers digital signals, a sending modem must modulate its digital
signals into analog signals. The computers modem on the receiving end must then demodulate
the analog signals into digital signals.

Figure 2.16 Modem

2.5.5 BRIDGE: a device that connects multiple network segments along the data link layer. It
works on OSI layer 2

Figure2.17 Bridge

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2.5.6 REPEATER: a device which amplifies or regenerates digital signals received while
sending them from one part of a network into another. It works on OSI layer 1.

Figure 2.18 Repeat

2.6 SOME HYBRID NETWORK DEVICES:

2.6.1 MULTILAYER SWITCH: A switch which, in addition to switching on OSI layer 2,
provides functionality at higher protocol layers.

Figure 2.19 Multilayer switch

2.6.2 PROTOCOL CONVERTER: a hardware device that converts between two different
types of transmission, such as asynchronous and synchronous transmissions.
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Figure 2.20 Protocol converter

2.6.3 BRIDGE ROUTER (BROUTER): a device that combines router and bridge
functionality and therefore works on OSI layers 2 and 3.

Figure 2.21 Bridge router

2.6.4 PROXY SERVER: computer network service which allows clients to make indirect
network connections to other network services.

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Figure 2.22Proxy serve

2.6.5 FIREWALL: a piece of hardware or software put on the network to prevent some
communications forbidden by the network policy.

Figure 2.23 Firewall

2.6.6 NETWORK ADDRESS TRANSLATOR (NAT): network service provided as hardware

or software that converts internal to external network addresses and vice versa.
Other hardware for establishing networks or dial-up connections:
Multiplexer: a device that combines several electrical signals into a single signal.
Network interface controller: a piece of computer hardware allowing the attached computer
to communicate by network.

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Fig 2.24 Network address translator

2.6.7 WIRLESS NETWORK INTERFACE CONTROLLER: a piece of computer hardware

allowing the attached computer to communicate by LAN.

Fig 2.25 Wireless network interface controller

2.6.8 LAN TESTER: A LAN tester is an electronic device used to verify the electrical connections in
a cable or other wired assembly. Generally a cable tester consists of:
A source of electric current,
A volt meter,
A switching matrix used to connect the current source and the volt meter to all of the contact points
in a cable.

A cable tester is used to verify that all of the intended connections exist and that there are no
unintended connections in the cable being tested. When an intended connection is missing it is
said to be "open". When an unintended connection exists it is said to be a "short" (as in short
circuit). If a connection "goes to the wrong place" it is said to be "miswired " (the connection
25

has two faults: it is open to the correct contact and shorted to an incorrect contact).Generally,
the testing is done in two phases. The first phase, called the opens test makes sure each of the
intended connections is good. The second phase, called the shorts test makes sure there are no
unintended connections.
There are two common ways to test a connection:
1. A continuity test. Current is passed down the connection. If there is current the connection is
assumed to be good. This type of test can be done with a series combination of a battery (to provide
the current) and a light bulb (that lights when there is a current).
2. A resistance test. A known current is passed down the connection and the voltage that develops is
measured. From the voltage and current the resistance of the connection can be calculated and
compared to the expected value.

There are two common ways to test for a short:

1. A low voltage test. A low power, low voltage source is connected between two conductors

that should not be connected and the amount of current is measured. If there is no current
the conductors are assumed to be well isolated.
2. A high voltage test. Again a voltage source is connected but this time the voltage is of

several hundred volts. The increased voltage will make the test more likely to find
connections that are nearly shorted since the higher voltage will cause the insulation of
nearly shorted wires to break down.

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Figure 2.26 Lan tester

2.6.9 CRIMPING TOOL:

A crimping tool is a tool designed to crimp or connect a connector to the end of a cable. For example,
network cables and phone cables are created using a crimping tool to connect the RJ-45 and RJ-11
connectors to the end of the cable. In the picture to the right, is an example of what a crimping tool
looks like. This example shows a tool capable of crimping both RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors.

It is actually a multi-function tool that can be used for making crafts and jewelry or for fishing
to crimp the wires in a fishermans rod for example. Whats good about the crimping tool is that
it has a lot of practical usage and its also an uncomplicated tool to use There are actually
various crimping tools in the market and each is designed for a specific task so when youre out
to buy a crimping tool, first determine for what task you want to use it for: is it for jewelry
making or making fish lures perhaps? Once you know, then the next step is to pick out the right
crimping tool size as each crimping job requires different sizes.
Its also important to choose the right type of sleeve for your crimping tool. Crimp sleeves also come in
different types. The three common crimp sleeve types are: round section, oval section and the double
barrel. The round section is made out of brass and is used for making knots while the oval section
sleeve, which is the more widely used type of sleeve is also available in brass as well as copper alloys
and aluminum.

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Figure 2.27 Crimping tool

2.6.10 PUNCHING TOOL:

A punch is a hard metal rod with a shaped tip at one end and a blunt butt end at the other,
which is usually struck by a hammer. Most woodworkers prefer to use a ball-peen hammer for
using punches. Punches are used to drive objects, such as nails, or to form an impression of the
tip on a work piece. Decorative punches may also be used to create a pattern or even form an image.

Figure 2.28 Punching tool

The world of connectors has a much smaller world of acronyms all its own. They consist of
such acronyms as RJ, SMA, ST, TNC, BNC, V.32, DIN, DB, N and more. One aspect that
might complicate the world of connectors is that many of these connectors are also known by
more than one name.
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Most of us know that a connector is best known for providing the physical link between two
components. Some example of the use of a connector might be a connector linking a cable and
a network interface card or NIC card, a connector linking a transceiver and a cable or even a
connector linking two cable segments.
When using an electrical cable, a connection is established when the conducting wires are

Joined by way of connectors in order to make and maintain continuous contact, allowing the
signal to simply move along the cable across the contact.
When using fibre-optic cable, it takes much more work to manage and maintain good
connections due to the degree of fit between the two fibre cores. The fit determines the quality
of the connection between the fibre cores. To complicate matters, the diameters involved in this
fit are smaller than a human hair.
Connections differ in various ways, which help in determining where that type of connector can
be used. These features include:

Shape
Size
Gender
Connection mechanism
Function

In some cases, it is necessary to use a special adapter in order to use different types of
connector combinations. An example of this is when using an N-series connector and a BNC
adapter in order to connect thick to thin coaxial cable.
Another difference between connectors is their sturdiness, the ease of attaching and detaching
the connector, and the amount of signal loss that may occur at the connection point.
29

When determining the type of connector that is used, it is important to take into consideration
the components being used, and, as far as networks, the type of cable and architecture being
used. An Ethernet network that is using a coaxial cable would use different connectors between
the cable and the NIC, as opposed to an IBM Token Ring network that is using a shielded
twisted-pair cable.
When about a half a dozen types of connectors available for electrical cable, there are also
about a dozen more types of connectors available for use when using a fiber-optic cable.
2.7.11 RJ 45 CONNECTOR
RJ45 is a standard type of connector for network cables. RJ45 connectors are most commonly
seen with Ethernet cables and networks.
RJ45 connectors feature eight pins to which the wire strands of a cable interface electrically.
Standard RJ-45 pin outs define the arrangement of the individual wires needed when attaching
connectors to a cable.
Several other kinds of connectors closely resemble RJ45 and can be easily confused for each
other. The RJ-11 connectors used with telephone cables, for example, are only slightly smaller
(narrower) than RJ-45 connectors. Short for Registered Jack-45, an eight-wire connector used
commonly to connect computers onto a local-area networks (LAN), especially Ethernets. RJ-45
connectors look similar to the ubiquitous RJ-11 connectors used for connecting telephone
equipment, but they are somewhat wider.

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Figure 2.29 RJ 45 Connector

2.7.12 RJ 11 CONNECTOR
RJ-11 is the standard connector utilized on 2-pair (4-wire) telephone wiring. RJ stands for
Registered Jack- a physical connector interface most often used for telephone wire terminals.
Though the RJ-11 connector has a total of 6 connector positions, typically either only 2 or 4 are
actually utilized. RJ-11 connector wiring comes in two standard varieties- untwisted (flat-satin
cable) and Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP).
RJ11 is the most familiar of the registered jacks, due to the fact that virtually all single line
(POTS) telephone jacks in most homes and offices in North America and numerous other
countries use this connector type.
Other similar Registered Jacks include RJ14 (for a 2-line telephone jack), RJ25 (for a 3-line
jack), and RJ61 (for a 4-line telephone jack), all of which utilize 6-position modular
connectors.
An RJ11 jack typically utilizes 2 out of the 6 positions, so they can be wired with a 6P2C
modular jack (6-position, 2-conductor). However, these types of jacks are very rare. Most
31

often, an RJ11 jack is a 6P4C jack (6-position, 4-conductor), with two of the four wires running
to the junction box unused. The extra wires can be pressed into service for a variety of
applications including preventing a pulse-dial telephone from ringing the extension phone bells
(an anti-tinkle circuit), as a ground for selective ringers, powering an L.E.D. ring-indicator
operating off of the ringer signal, etc.

Figure 2.30 RJ 11 Connector.

2.7.13 BNC Connector

The BNC connector (Bayonet NeillConcelman) is miniatures quick connect/disconnect RF
connector used for coaxial cable. It features two bayonet lugs on the female connector; mating
is achieved with only a quarter turn of the coupling nut. BNCs are ideally suited for cable
termination for miniature-to-subminiature coaxial cable (e.g., RG-58, 59, to RG-179, RG-316).
They are used with radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test
instruments, video signals, and was once a popular connector for 10BASE2 computer
32

networks. BNC connectors are made to match the characteristic impedance of cable at either 50
ohms or 75 ohms. It is usually applied for frequencies below 4 GHz and voltages below 500
Volts.[2]Similar connectors using the bayonet connection principle exist, and a threaded
connector is also available. United States military standard MIL-PRF-39012 entitled
Connectors, Coaxial, Radio Frequency, General Specification for (formerly MIL-C-39012)
covers the general requirements and tests for radio frequency connectors used with flexible
cables and certain other types of coaxial transmission lines in military, aerospace, and
spaceflight applications..

Figure 2.31 BNC connector

2.8 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between
transmitter and receiver. In guided media, electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid
medium, such as copper twisted pair, copper coaxial cable, and optical fiber. For unguided
media, wireless transmission occurs through the atmosphere, outer space, or water. The
characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of
the medium and the characteristics of the signal. In the case of guided media, the medium itself
33

is more important in determining the limitations of transmission. For unguided media, the
bandwidth of the signal produced by the transmitting antenna is more important than the
medium in determining transmission characteristics. One key property of signals transmitted by
antenna is directionality. In general, signals at lower frequencies are omnidirectional; that is,
the signal propagates in all directions from the antenna. At higher frequencies, it is possible to
focus the signal into a directional beam. In considering the design of data transmission systems,
key concerns are data rate and distance: the greater the data rate and distance the better. A
number of design factors relating to the transmission medium and the signal determine the data
rate and distance:

Bandwidth: All other factors remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth
of a signal, the higher the data rate that can be achieved.

Transmission impairments: Impairments, such as attenuation, limit the distance.

For guided media, twisted pair generally suffers more impairment than coaxial cable,
which in turn suffers more than optical fiber.

Interference: Interference from competing signals in overlapping frequency bands

can distort or wipe out a signal. Interference is of particular concern for unguided
media but is also a problem with guided media. For guided media, interference can be
caused by emanations from nearby cables. For example, twisted pairs are often bundled
together and conduits often carry multiple cables. Interference can also be experienced
from unguided transmissions. Proper shielding of a guided medium can minimize this
problem.

Number of receivers: A guided medium can be used to construct a point-topoint

link or a shared link with multiple attachments. In the latter case, each attachment

34

introduces some attenuation and distortion on the line, limiting distance and/or data
rate

2.8 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 2.32

Classification of transmission media

2.8 GUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

2.8.1Twisted Pair Cable
The most popular network cabling is twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive
and support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mbps. Twisted
35

pair cabling is made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are
done to reduce vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable depends on
the type. The copper core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire
gauge standard. There are two types of twisted pairs cabling

Figure 2.33 Twisted pair cable

1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
2.8.1.1 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition.
UTP cable normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily available
due to its many use. There are five levels of data cabling.
Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mbps implementation.
36

Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mbps and are mostly used in 10 mbps.
Category 4
These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5
This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4
pair cable use RJ-45 connector.

2.8.1.1.1 Characteristics of UTP

1. low cost
2. easy to install
3. High speed capacity
4. High attenuation
5. Effective to EMI
6. 100 meter limit
2.8.1.1.2 Advantages of UTP
1. Easy installation
2. Capable of high speed for LAN
3. Low cost
2.8.1.1.3 Disadvantages of UTP
1. Short distance due to attenuation

2.8.1.2 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

STP is heavier and more difficult to manufacture, but it can greatly improve the signaling rate
in a given transmission scheme Twisting provides cancellation of magnetically induced fields
and currents on a pair of conductors. Magnetic fields arise around other heavy current-carrying
37

conductors and around large electric motors. Various grades of copper cables are available, with
Grade 5 being the best and most expensive. Grade 5 copper, appropriate for use in 100-Mbps
applications, has more twists per inch than lower grades. More twists per inch means more
linear feet of copper wire used to make up a cable run, and more copper means more money.
Shielding provides a means to reflect or absorb electric fields that are present around cables.
Shielding comes in a variety of forms from copper braiding or copper meshes to aluminized.
Mylar tape wrapped around each conductor and again around the twisted pair. BM has defined
category for STP cable.
Type 1
STP features two pairs of 22-AWG
Type 2
This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6
This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 7
This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 9
This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire

2.8.1.2.1 Characteristics of STP

1. Medium cost
2. Easy to install
38

3.
4.
5.
6.

Higher capacity than UTP

Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
Medium immunity from EMI
100 meter limit

2.8.1.2.2 Advantages of STP

1. Shielded
2. Faster than UTP and coaxial

2.8.1.2.3 Disadvantages of STP

1. More expensive than UTP and coaxial
2. More difficult installation
3. High attenuation rate
2.8.1.2.4 Applications
By far the most common transmission medium for both analog and digital signals is twisted
pair. It is the most commonly used medium in the telephone network and is the workhorse for
communications within buildings. In the telephone system, individual residential telephone sets
are connected to the local telephone exchange, or end office, by twisted-pair wire. These are
referred to as subscriber loops. Within an office building, each telephone is also connected to a
twisted pair, which goes to the in-house private branch exchange (PBX) system or to a Centrex
facility at the end office. These twisted-pair installations were designed to support voice traffic
using analog signaling. However, by means of a modem, these facilities can handle digital data
traffic at modest data rates. Twisted pair is also the most common medium used for digital
signaling. For connections to a digital data switch or digital PBX within a building, a data rate
of
64 kbps is common. Twisted pair is also commonly used within a building for local area
networks supporting personal computers. Data rates for such products are typically in the
neighborhood of 10 Mbps.

2.8.2Coaxial Cable
39

2.8.2.1 Physical Description

Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but is constructed differently to
permit it to operate over a wider range of frequencies. It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical
conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. The inner conductor is held in place by
either regularly spaced insulating rings or a solid dielectric material. The outer conductor is
covered with a jacket or shield. A single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm.
Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than
twisted pair.

Figure 2.34 Coaxial cable

2.8.2.2 Application
Coaxial cable is widely used as a means of distributing TV signals to individual homescable
TV. From its modest beginnings as Community Antenna Television (CATV), designed to
provide service to remote areas, cable TV reaches almost as many homes and offices as the
telephone. A cable TV system can carry dozens or even hundreds of TV channels at ranges up

40

to a few tens of kilometers. Coaxial cable has traditionally been an important part of the longdistance telephone network. Today, it faces increasing competition from optical fiber, terrestrial
microwave, and satellite. Using frequency division multiplexing a coaxial cable can carry over
10,000 voice channels simultaneously

2.8.3 OPTICAL FIBER

Physical Description
An optical fiber is a thin , flexible medium capable of guiding an optical ray. Various glasses
and plastics can be used to make optical fibers. The lowest losses have been obtained using
fibers of ultrapure fused silica. Ultrapure fiber is difficult to manufacture; higher-loss
multicomponent glass fibers are more economical and still provide good performance. Plastic
fiber is even less costly and can be used for short-haul links, for which moderately high losses
are acceptable. An optical fiber cable has a cylindrical shape and consists of three concentric
sections: the core, the cladding, and the jacket .The core is the innermost section and consists
of one or more very thin strands, or fibers, made of glass or plastic; the core has a diameter in
the range of 8 to Each fiber is surrounded by its own cladding, a glass or plastic coating that
has optical properties different
from those of the core. The interface between the core and cladding acts as a reflector to
confine light that would otherwise escape the core. The outermost layer, surrounding one or a

41

bundle of cladded fibers, is the jacket. The jacket is composed of plastic and other material
layered to protect against moisture, abrasion, crushing, and other environmental dangers.

Figure2.35 optical fiber

2.8.3.1 PROPAGATION MODES OF OPTICAL FIBER

Figure 2.36 propagation mode sin optical fiber

42

Figure 2.37 multimode, step, and guided, single mode optical fiber

2.8.3.2 TRANMISSION CHARACTERSTICS OF OPTICAL FIBER

Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by means of total internal reflection.
Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has a higher index of
refraction than the surrounding medium. Light from a source enters the cylindrical glass or
plastic core. Rays at shallow angles are reflected and propagated along the fiber material. This
form of propagation is called step-index multimode, referring to the variety of angles that will
reflect. With multimode transmission, multiple propagation paths exist, each with a different
path length and hence time to traverse the fiber. This causes signal elements (light pulses) to
spread out in time, which limits the rate at which data can be accurately received. This type of
fiber is best suited for transmission over very short distances .When the fiber core radius is
reduced, fewer angles will reflect.
By reducing the radius of the core to the order of a wavelength, only a single angle or mode can
pass: the axial ray.
43

This single-mode propagation provides superior performance for the following reason.
Because there is a single transmission path with single-mode transmission, the distortion found
in multimode cannot occur. Single-mode is typically used for long-distance applications,
including telephone and cable television. Finally, by varying the index of refraction of the core,
a third type of transmission, known as graded-index multimode, is possible. This type is
intermediate between the other two in characteristics. The higher refractive index at the center
makes the light rays moving down the axis advance more slowly than those near the cladding.
Rather than zigzagging off the cladding, light in the core curves helically because of the graded
index, reducing its travel distance. he shortened path and higher speed allows light at the
periphery to arrive at a receiver at about the same time as the straight rays in the core axis.
Graded-index fibers are often used in local area network.
2.8.3.3 Applications of optical fiber
Optical fiber already enjoys considerable use in long-distance telecommunications, and its use
in military applications is growing. The continuing improvements in performance and decline
in prices, together with the inherent advantages of optical fiber, have made it increasingly
attractive for local area networking.
The following characteristics distinguish optical fiber from twisted pair or coaxial cable:

Greater capacity: The potential bandwidth, and hence data rate, of optical fiber is immense;
data rates of hundreds of Gbps over tens of kilometers have been demonstrated. Compare this to
the practical maximum of hundreds of Mbps over about 1 km for coaxial cable and just a few
Mbps over 1 km or up to 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps over a few tens of meters for twisted pair.

Smaller size and lighter weight : Optical fibers are considerably thinner than coaxial
cable or bundled twisted-pair cableat least an order of magnitude thinner for
comparable information transmission capacity. For cramped conduits in buildings and

44

underground along public rights-of-way, the advantage of small size is considerable.

The corresponding reduction in weight reduces structural support requirements.

Lower attenuation: Attenuation is significantly lower for optical fiber than for coaxial
cable or twisted pair (Figure 4.3c) and is constant over a wide range.

Electromagnetic isolation: Optical fiber systems are not affected by external

electromagnetic fields. Thus the system is not vulnerable to interference, impulse noise,
or crosstalk. By the same token, fibers do not radiate energy, so there is little
interference with other equipment and there is a high degree of security from
eavesdropping. In addition, fiber is inherently difficult to tap.

2.9.4 UNGUIDED TRANSMISSION MEDIA

Figure 2.38 types of wireless transmission

2.9.4.1 WIRELESS TRANSMISSION MEDIA

45

Wireless transmission media are the ways of transmitting data without using any cables. These
media are not bounded by physical geography. Transmission media then looking at analysis of
using them unguided transmission media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not
guided or bound to a channel to follow. Following are unguided media used for data
communication.
1. Radio Transmission
2. Microwave
3. Satellite Communication

2.9.4.2 RADIO TRANSMISSION

In radio transmission a radiating antenna is used to convert a time-varying electric current into
an electromagnetic wave or field, which freely propagates through a non-conducting medium
such as air or space. In a broadcast radio channel, a directional antenna radiates a transmitted
signal over a wide service area. In a point-to-point radio channel, a directional transmitting
antenna is used to focus the wave into a narrow beam, which is directed toward a single
receiver site. In either case the transmitted electromagnetic wave is picked up by a remote
receiving antenna and reconverted to an electric current.

46

Figure 2.39 Radio transmission

Radio Wave
Radio wave propagation is not constrained by any physical conductor or waveguide. This
makes radio ideal for mobile communications, satellite and deep-space communications,
broadcast communications, and other applications in which the laying of physical connections
may be impossible or very costly. On the other hand, unlike guided channels such as wire or
optical fiber , the medium through which radio waves propagate is highly variable, being
subject to diurnal, annual, and solar changes in the ionosphere, variations in the density of
water droplets in the troposphere, varying moisture gradients, and diverse sources of reflection
and diffraction.
2.8.4.3 MICROWAVE
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending on
the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earths curvature is only 50 km to the
horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump across the
country. Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to
carry large quantities of data due to their large bandwidth.
2.8.4.3.1 Advantages of microwave
1. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.
2. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
3.

Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies only a small area.

47

4.

High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antennae.

2.8.4.3.2 Disadvantages of microwave

1. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.
2.

Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.

3.

Diffracted (split) around solid objects.

4. Reflected by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.

2.9.4.4 SATELLITE

Satellites are transponders (units that receive on one frequency and retransmit on another) that
are set in geostationary orbits directly over the equator. These geostationary orbits are 36,000
km from the Earths surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal
force of Earths rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the
rotational force placed on the satellite that wants to fling it out into space.
The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data.
Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations because they are located on the Earth. The
footprint is the shadow that the satellite can transmit to, the shadow being the area that can
receive the satellites transmitted signal.

48

Figure 2.40 satellite transmission

Chapter 3
PHYSICAL MODELS USED IN NETWORKING
3.1CLIENT SERVER MODEL
The clientserver model is an approach to computer network programming developed at
Xerox PARC during the 1970s. It is now prevalent in computer networks. Email, the World
Wide Web, and network printing all apply the clientserver model.

49

The model assigns one of two roles to the computers in a network: Client or server. A server is
a computer system that selectively shares its resources; a client is a computer or computer
program that initiates contact with a server in order to make use of a resource. Data, CPUs,
printers, and data storage devices are some examples of resources.
This sharing of computer resources is called time-sharing, because it allows multiple people to
use a computer (in this case, the server) at the same time. Because a computer does a limited
amount of work at any moment, a time-sharing system must quickly prioritize its tasks to
accommodate the clients.
Clients and servers exchange messages in a request-response messaging pattern: The client
sends a request, and the server returns a response. To communicate, the computers must have a
common language, and they must follow rules so that both the client and the server know what
to expect. The language and rules of communication are defined in a communications protocol.
All client-server protocols operate in the application layer.
Whether a computer is a client, a server, or both, it can serve multiple functions. For example, a
single computer can run web server and file server software at the same time to serve different
data to clients making different kinds of requests. Client software can also communicate with
server software on the same computer.[1] Communication between servers, such as to
synchronize data, is sometimes called inter-server or inter-server communication.

50

Figure3.1 Server-client model

3.1.1Advantages of Client Server Networks

1. Centralization: Unlike P2P, where there is no central administration, here in this
architecture there is a centralized control. Servers help in administering the whole set-up.
Access rights and resource allocation is done by Servers.
2. Proper Management : All the files are stored at the same place. In this way, management
of files becomes easy. Also it becomes easier to find files.
3. Back-up and Recovery possible: As all the data is stored on server its easy to make a
back-up of it. Also, in case of some break-down if data is lost, it can be recovered easily
and efficiently. While in peer computing we have to take back-up at every workstation.
4. Up gradation and Scalability in Client-server set-up: Changes can be made easily by
just upgrading the server. Also new resources and systems can be added by making
necessary changes in server.
5. Accessibility: From various platforms in the network, server can be accessed remotely. As
new information is uploaded in database, each workstation need not have its own storage
capacities increased (as may be the case in peer-to-peer systems). All the changes are made
only in central computer on which server database exists.
51

6. Security: Rules defining security and access rights can be defined at the time of set-up of
7.

server.
Servers can play different roles for different clients.

3.1.2Disadvantages of Client Server Network

1. Congestion in Network: Too many requests from the clients may lead to congestion, which
rarely takes place in P2P network. Overload can lead to breaking-down of servers. In peerto-peer, the total bandwidth of the network increases as the number of peers increase.
2. Client-Server architecture is not as robust as a P2P and if the server fails, the whole network
goes down. Also, if you are downloading a file from server and it gets abandoned due to
some error, download stops altogether. However, if there would have been peers, they
would have provided the broken parts of file.
3. Cost: It is very expensive to install and manage this type of computing.
4. You need professional IT people to maintain the servers and other technical details of
network.

3.2 PEER TO PEER MODEL

A peer-to-peer (abbreviated to P2P) computer network is one in which each computer in the
network can act as a client or server for the other computers in the network, allowing shared
access to various resources such as files, peripherals, and sensors without the need for a central
server. P2P networks can be set up within the home, a business, or over the Internet. Each
network type requires all computers in the network to use the same or a compatible program to
connect to each other and access files and other resources found on the other computer. P2P
networks can be used for sharing content such as audio, video, data, or anything in digital
format.
P2P is a distributed application architecture that partitions tasks or workloads among peers.
Peers are equally privileged participants in the application. Each computer in the network is
referred to as a node. The owner of each computer on a P2P network would set aside a portion
52

of its resourcessuch as processing power, disk storage, or network bandwidthto be made

directly available to other network participants, without the need for central coordination by
servers or stable hosts.[1] Peers are both suppliers and consumers of resources, in contrast to the
traditional clientserver model where only the server supply (send), and clients consume
(receive) data. Emerging collaborative P2P systems are going beyond the era of peers doing
similar things while sharing resources, and are looking for diverse peers that can bring in
unique resources and capabilities to a virtual community thereby empowering it to engage in
greater tasks beyond those that can be accomplished by individual peers, yet that are beneficial
to all the peers.
The first P2P distributed system platform was Pipes Platform by Peer Logic. One of Peer
Logics first licensees was Texas Instruments in 1993. While P2P systems were used in many
application domains, the first very successful P2P application was the file sharing system
Napster, originally released in 1999. The concept has inspired new structures and philosophies
in many areas of human interaction. P2P networking is not restricted to technology; it also
covers social processes with a P2P dynamic. In such context, social peer-to-peer processes are
currently emerging throughout society.

53

Figure 3.2 peer to peer model

3.2.1Advantages of Peer-to-peer networking

1. It is easy to install and so is the configuration of computers on this network,
2. All the resources and contents are shared by all the peers, unlike server-client architecture
where Server shares all the contents and resources.
3. P2P is more reliable as central dependency is eliminated. Failure of one peer doesnt affect
the functioning of other peers. In case of Client Server network, if server goes down whole
network gets affected.
4. There is no need for full-time System Administrator. Every user is the administrator of his
machine. User can control their shared resources
5. The over-all cost of building and maintaining this type of network is comparatively very
less.
3.2.2Disadvantages (drawbacks) of Peer to peer architecture

54

1.

In this network, the whole system is decentralized thus it is difficult to administer. That is one

person cannot determine the whole accessibility setting of whole network.

2. Security in this system is very less viruses, spywares, Trojans; etc. malwares can easily transmit
over this P-2-P architecture.
3. Data recovery or backup is very difficult. Each computer should have its own back-up system

4. Lot of movies, music and other copyrighted files are transferred using this type of file
transfer. P2P is the technology used in torrents.
Table 3.1 Difference between Peer to Peer and Client Server Network
Peer-to-Peer Networks

Client/Server Networks

Easy to set up

More difficult to set up

Less expensive to install

More expensive to install

A variety of operating systems can be

Can be implemented on a wide range of supported on the client computers, but the
server needs to run an operating system that

operating systems

supports networking

Less time consuming to maintain the software

More time consuming to maintain the

software being used (as computers must being used (as most of the maintenance is
managed from the server)

be managed individually)

Very low levels of security supported or High levels of security are supported, all of
none

at

all.

These

can

be

very which are controlled from the server. Such

cumbersome to set up, depending on the measures prevent the deletion of essential
operating system being used

Ideal for networks with less than 10 No limit to the number of computers that can
computers

system files or the changing of settings

be supported by the network

Does not require a server

Requires a server running a server operating

55

system
Demands that the network administrator has a

Demands a moderate level of skill to

administer the network

high level of IT skills with a good working

knowledge of a server operating system

3.3 COMPUTER NETWORK ARCHITECTURTE

The term networking model, or networking architecture, refers to an organized set of
documents. Individually, these documents describe one small function required for a network.
These documents may define a protocol, which is a set of logical rules that devices must follow
to communicate. Other documents may define some physical requirements for networking, for
example, it may define the voltage and current levels used on a particular cable. Collectively,
the documents referenced in a networking model define all the details of how to create a
complete working network. To create a working network, the devices in that network need to
follow the details referenced by a particular networking model. When multiple computers and
other networking devices implement these protocols, physical specifications, and rules, and the
devices are then connected correctly, the computers can successfully communicate.
3.4 OSI MODEL
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the internal functions of a communication system by partitioning it into abstraction
layers. The model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection project at the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), maintained by the identification ISO/IEC 7498-1.
The model groups communication functions into seven logical layers. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it. For example, a layer that provides error-free
communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it, while it
56

calls the next lower layer to send and receive packets that make up the contents of that path.
Two instances at one layer are connected by a horizontal connection on that layer.

Figure 3.3 OSI model

Table 3.2 Layers of OSI model

57

OSI Model

Data unit

Layer

Function

7. Application Network process to application

Data representation, encryption and decryption,

6.presentation convert machine dependent data to machine
Data
independent data

Host
layers

Interhost

communication,

managing

sessions

5.Session
between applications

Reliable delivery of packets between points on a

Segments

4.Transport
network.

Addressing, routing and (not necessarily reliable)

Packet/datagram 3. Network
delivery of datagrams between points on a network.
Media Bot/Freame

2.Data link

A reliable direct point-to-point data connection.

layers
A (not necessarily reliable) direct point-to-point
Bit

1. physical
data connection.

3.4.1. DESCRIPITION OF OSI LAYERS

58

According to recommendation X.200, there are seven layers, labeled 1 to 7, with layer 1 at the
bottom.
Layer 1: Physical layer

The physical layer has the following major functions:

It defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data connection. It defines the
relationship between a device and a physical transmission medium (e.g., a copper or
fiber optical cable). This includes the layout of pins, voltages, line impedance, cable
specifications, signal timing, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA
used in storage area networks) and more.

It defines the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two directly
connected nodes over a communications medium. It may define the protocol for flow
control.

It defines a protocol for the provision of a (not necessarily reliable) connection between
two directly connected nodes, and the Modulation or conversion between the
representation of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding signals
transmitted over the physical communications channel. This channel can involve
physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or a wireless radio link.

The physical layer of Parallel SCSI operates in this layer, as do the physical layers of
Ethernet and other local-area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn, and
IEEE 802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.

Layer 2: Data link layer

The data link layer provides a reliable link between two directly connected nodes, by
detecting and possibly correcting errors that may occur in the physical layer.

59

Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is an example of a data link layer in the TCP/IP protocol
stack.

The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over
existing wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data
link layer which provides both error correction and flow control by means of a selective
repeat Sliding Window Protocol.

Layer 3: Network layer

The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences (called datagrams) from one node to another connected to the
same network. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected, on
which every node has an address and which permits nodes connected to it to transfer
messages to other nodes connected to it by merely providing the content of a message
and the address of the destination node and letting the network find the way to deliver
("route") the message to the destination node. In addition to message routing, the
network may (or may not) implement message delivery by splitting the message into
several fragments, delivering each fragment by a separate route and reassembling the
fragments, report delivery errors, etc.

Datagram delivery at the network layer is not guaranteed to be reliable.

A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the Management

Annex, ISO 7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols,
multicast group management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer
address assignment. It is the function of the payload that makes these belong to the
network layer, not the protocol that carries them.
Layer 4: Transport layer
60

The transport layer provides the reliable sending of data packets between nodes (with
addresses) located on a network, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper
layers.

An example of a transport layer protocol in the standard Internet protocol stack is TCP,
usually built on top of the IP protocol.

The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control,
segmentation/DE segmentation, and error control. Some protocols are state- and
connection -oriented.

This means that the transport layer can keep track of the segments and retransmit those
that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates
packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process
of dividing the long message into smaller messages.

OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0
(which is also known as TP0 and provides the least features) to class 4 (TP4, designed
for less reliable networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery,
and was designed for use on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4
is closest to TCP, although TCP contains functions, such as the graceful close, which
OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes
provide expedited data and preservation of record boundaries. Detailed characteristics
of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table.

Layer 5: Session layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It

establishes, manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote
61

application. It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and

establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination, and restart procedures. The OSI
model made this layer responsible for graceful close of sessions, which is a property of
the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session checkpointing and recovery ,

which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The session layer is commonly
implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote procedure calls.
Layer 6: Presentation layer

The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which

the application-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation
service provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation
service data units are encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the
TCP/IP stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by
translating between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms
data into the form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to
be sent across a network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

The original presentation structure used the Basic Encoding Rules of Abstract Syntax
Notation One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file
to an ASCII-coded file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to
XML.

Layer 7: Application layer

The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application.

62

This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating

component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model.

Application-layer functions typically include identifying communication partners,

determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication. When identifying
communication partners, the application layer determines the identity and availability of
communication partners for an application with data to transmit.

3.2 The TCP/IP Protocol Architecture

TCP/IP defines a large collection of protocols that allow computers to communicate. TCP/IP defines
the details of each of these protocols inside documents called Requests for Comments (RFC). By
implementing the required protocols defined in TCP/IP RFCs, a computer can be relatively confident
that it can communicate with other computers that also implement TCP/IP.

An easy comparison can be made between telephones and computers that use TCP/IP. You go
to the store and buy a phone from one of a dozen different vendors. When you get home and
plug in the phone to the same cable in which your old phone was connected, the new phone
works. The phone vendors know the standards for phones in their country and build their
phones to match those standards. Similarly, a computer that implements the standard
networking protocols defined by TCP/IP can communicate with other computers that also use
the TCP/IP standards. Like other networking architectures, TCP/IP classifies the

various

protocols into different categories or layers. Table outlines the main categories in the TCP/IP
architectural model.
Table 3.3 example of OSI layers

TCP/IP Architecture Layer

Example Protocols

Application

HTTP, POP3, SMTP

63

Transport

TCP, UDP

Internet

IP

Network Access

Ethernet, Frame Relay

3.4.2 The TCP/IP Application Layer

TCP/IP application layer protocols provide services to the application software running on a
computer. The application layer does not define the application itself, but rather it defines
services that applications needsuch as the capability to transfer a file in the case of HTTP. In
short, the application layer provides an interface between software running on a computer and
the network itself. Arguably, the most popular TCP/IP application today is the web browser.
Many major software vendors either have already changed or are changing their software to
support access from a web browser. And thankfully, using a web browser is easyyou start a
web browser on your computer and select a website by typing in the name of the website, and
the web page appears.
3.2.2The TCP/IP Transport Layer
The TCP/IP application layer includes a relatively large number of protocols, with HTTP being
only one of those. The TCP/IP transport layer consists of two main protocol options: the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The key
difference between TCP and UDP is that TCP provides a wide variety of services to
applications, whereas UDP does not. For example, routers discard packets for many reasons,
including bit errors, congestion, and instances in which no correct routes are known. As you
have read already, most data-link protocols notice errors (a process called error detection) but
then discard frames that have errors. TCP provides for retransmission (error recovery) and help
to avoid congestion (flow control), whereas UDP does not. As a result, many application
64

protocols choose to use TCP. However, do not let UDPs lack of services make you think that
UDP is worse than TCP. By providing few services, UDP needs fewer bytes in its header
compared to TCP, resulting in fewer bytes of overhead in the network. UDP software does not
slow down data transfer in cases where TCP may purposefully slow down. Also, some
applications, notably today voice over IP (VoIP) and video over IP, do not need error recovery,
so they use UDP. So, UDP also has an important place in TCP/IP networks today.

3.2.3The TCP/IP Internet Layer

The internet layer of the TCP/IP networking model, primarily defined by the Internet Protocol
(IP), works much like the postal service. IP defines addresses so that each host computer can
have a different IP address, just as the postal service defines addressing that allows unique
addresses for each house, apartment, and business. Similarly, IP defines the process of routing
so that devices called routers can choose where to send packets of data so that they are
delivered to the correct destination. Just as the postal service created the necessary
infrastructure to be able to deliver letterspost offices, sorting machines, trucks, planes, and
personnelthe internet layer defines the details of how a network infrastructure should be
created so that the network can deliver data to all computers in the network. IP defines logical
addresses, called IP addresses, which allow each TCP/IP-speaking device (called IP hosts) to
have an address with which to communicate. IP also defines routing, the process of how a
router should forward, or route, packets of data.

3.4.4The TCP/IP Network Access Layer

The network access layer defines the protocols and hardware required to deliver data across
some physical network. The term network access refers to the fact that this layer defines how to
physically connect a host computer to the physical media over which data can be transmitted.
65

For instance, Ethernet is one example protocol at the TCP/IP network access layer. Ethernet
defines the required cabling, addressing, and protocols used to create an Ethernet LAN.
Likewise, the connectors, cables, voltage levels, and protocols used to deliver data across WAN
links are defined in a variety of other protocols that also fall into the network access layer.

CHAPTER 4
TRAINING WORK
INTRODUCTION TO WINDWOWS SEVER 2008
4.1 Why Windows Server 2008 Foundation?

Windows Server 2008 Foundation is designed to meet your needs better than traditional
Microsoft server-based solutions:
4.1.1General purpose Server
Windows Foundation Server provides you with a dependable and affordable technology
foundation for running your business applications as well as sharing information and resources.
Being based on Windows Server 2008, you can run not only core infrastructure, terminal
services and identity management solutions for your business you can support you core LOB
66

applications built on the simplicity and technical capabilities that Windows Server 2008
provides.
4.1.2 Provides channel convenience
Buying Window Server Foundation could never be easier. Windows Server Foundation comes
pre-installed along with your server hardware saving you the efforts of separately procuring
and installing the operating system on the server hardware. And as Windows Server Foundation
is supported by an extensive network of trusted Microsoft partners, you can rest assured that
your investment is reliable.

4.1.3 Make your first server investment

Ensuring your initial server investment is key to the success of your IT, Windows Foundation
provides an ideal first server supporting your single-server network. Windows Server
Foundation can be also deployed in a variety of ways to meet your needs providing
flexibility. Best of all, Windows Server Foundation is full upgradable to higher versions for
when your business grows the Windows Server family grows with you. You can know that
your investment in Windows Foundation server will ensure you data and applications will be
reliable, secure and provide room for you to grow as needed.
4.1.4 Editions

Windows Server 2008 Standard (IA-32 and x86-64)

Windows Server 2008 Enterprise (IA-32 and x86-64)

Windows Server 2008 Datacenter (IA-32 and x86-64)

67

Windows HPC Server 2008 (Codenamed "Socrates") (replacing Windows Compute

Cluster Server 2003)

Windows Web Server 2008 (IA-32 and x86-64)

Windows Storage Server 2008 (Codenamed "Magni") (IA-32 and x86-64)

Windows Small Business Server 2008 (Codenamed "Cougar") (x86-64) for small
businesses

Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (Codenamed "Centro") (x86-64) for mediumsized businesses(Discontinued)

Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems

Windows Server 2008 Foundation (Codenamed "Lima") (x86-64) OEM only

Server Core is available in the Web, Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter editions. It is not
available in the Itanium edition. Server Core is simply an alternate installation option supported
by some of the editions, and not a separate edition by itself. Each architecture has a separate
installation DVD. The 32-bit version of Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition is available to
verified students for free through Microsoft's Dream Spark program.
4.1.5 System requirements:
System requirements for Windows Server 2008 are as follows:
Minimum for Windows Server 2008Recommended for Windows Server 2008 Minimum for
Windows Server 2008 R2 Recommended for Windows Server 2008 R2 Processor1 GHz (IA32) or 1.4 GHz (x86-64) or Intel Itanium 22 GHz or faster1.4 GHz (x86-64 processor) or Intel
Itanium 22 GHz

or

fasterMemory512 MB RAM (may

features)2 GB RAM or higher

68

limit

performance

and

some

Maximum (32-bit systems): 4 GB RAM (Standard) or 64 GB RAM (Enterprise,

Datacenter)

Maximum (64-bit systems): 8 GB (Foundation) or 32 GB RAM (Standard) or 2 TB

RAM (Enterprise, Datacenter and Itanium-Based Systems)

512 MB RAM Maximum: 8 GB (Foundation) or 32 GB (Standard) or 2 TB (Enterprise,

Datacenter, and Itanium-Based Systems)Video adapter and monitor Super VGA (800
600)Super VGA (800 600) or higher resolution Super VGA (800 600)Super VGA (800
600) or higher resolution Hard drive disk free space

Minimum (Non-Foundation 32-bit systems): 20 GB or greater

Minimum (Non-Foundation 64-bit systems): 32 GB or greater

Foundation: 10 GB or greater.

Computers with more than 16 GB of RAM require more disk space for paging,
hibernation, and dump files

40 GB or higher

32 GB or greater for editions other than Foundation

Foundation: 10 GB or more

Computers with more than 16 GB of RAM require more disk space for paging,
hibernation, and dump files

32 GB or greater for editions other than Foundation

Foundation: 10 GB or more
69

Computers with more than 16 GB of RAM require more disk space for paging,
hibernation, and dump files

4.1.6 BENEFITS:

Enterprise-class: - Improve performance and scale capacity more efficiently to run your
largest workloads while enabling robust recovery options to protect against outages.

Simple and cost-effective:- Deliver multi-tenant-aware storage and networking multitenancy capabilities for storage and networking on low-cost, industry-standard
hardware.

Application focused: - With enhanced support for open frameworks, you can build,
deploy, and scale applications and websites with more flexibility by unlocking
application portability between on-premises environments and public and service
provider clouds.

User-centric: - Deploy a virtual desktop infrastructure and lower storage costs

significantly using a broad range of storage options and VHD DE duplication.

4.2 HOW TO INSTALL WINDOW SERVER 2008

Installing Windows Server 2008 is pretty straightforward and is very much like installing
Windows Vista, but I thought I'd list the necessary steps here for additional information. For
those of you who have never installed Vista before, the entire installation process is different
than it used to be in previous Microsoft operating systems, and notably much easier to perform.
Table 4.1System requirements for Windows Server 2008 are as follows:

70

Minimum

for Recommended for Minimum

Windows Server Windows

2008

for Recommend

Server Windows

2008

Server ed

2008 R2

for

Windows
Server 2008
R2

Processor

Memory

1 GHz (IA-32) or

1.4 GHz

1.4 GHz (x86-64) 2 GHz or faster

processor)

or Intel Itanium 2

Itanium 2

512 MB

RAM 2 GB

(may
performance

RAM

some features)

Intel

Maximum: 8
GB

Maximum (32bit

or

or 512 MB RAM

limit higher
and

(x86-64

systems):

4 GB

RAM

(Standard)
64 GB

or
RAM

(Foundation)
or

32

(Standard) or
2

(Enterprise,

and Itanium-

Datacenter)

Based
Maximum (64bit

systems):

8 GB
(Foundation) or
32 GB

RAM

(Standard)
2 TB

or
RAM

(Enterprise,
71

TB

Datacenter,

(Enterprise,

GB

Systems)

Datacenter and
Itanium-Based
Systems)

Hard

Minimum

40 GB or higher

32 GB or greater

drive disk

(Non-

for editions other

free space

Foundation 32-

than Foundation

bit

systems):

20

GB

or

Foundation:

10

GB or more

greater

Minimum

of RAM require

Foundation 64bit

systems):

32

GB

more disk space

for

or

paging,

hibernation,

greater

dump files

Foundation: 10
GB or greater.

with

more than 16 GB

(Non-

Computers

Computers
with more than
16 GB of RAM
72

and

require

more

disk space for

paging,
hibernation,
and dump files

4.2. PROCEDURE TO INSTALL WINDOW SERVER 2008

1. Insert the appropriate Windows Server 2008 installation media into your DVD drive. If
you don't have an installation DVD for Windows Server 2008, you can download one for
free from Microsoft's Windows 2008 Server Trial website

73

Figure4.1 displaying window loading file

2. Reboot the computer The install window wizard appears as shown in figure
3. Select the language for installation language and other regional options, make your
selection and press Next.

74

\
Figure 4.2 displaying the install window wizard

4. Next, press Install Now to begin the installation process.

Figure 4.3 displaying the install window page

75

5. Click the install now button to star the installation process of Window Server 2008.type the
product key for the activation page appears

Figure 4.4 displaying the type your product key for activation page

6.If you do not have the Product ID available right now, you can leave the box empty, and click
Next. You will need to provide the Product ID later, after the server installation is over. Press
No.

Figure 4.5 displaying the type your product key for activation page

76

6. Because you did not provide the correct ID, the installation process cannot determine what
kind of Windows Server 2008 license you own, and therefore you will be prompted to
select your correct version in the next screen, assuming you are telling the truth and will
provide the correct ID to prove your selection later on.

Figure4.6 selecting the edition of window server 2008 to install

8. If you did provide the right Product ID, select the Full version of the right Windows version
you're prompted, and click next.

77

Figure 4.7 selecting the operating system of window server 2008 to install

9. Read and accept the license terms by clicking to select the checkbox and pressing Next.

Figure 4.8 displaying the license terms

78

10. In the "Which type of installation do you want?" window, click the only available
option Custom (Advanced).

Figure 4.9 selecting the type of window server 2008 installation

11.In the "Where do you want to install Windows?", if you're installing the server on a
regular IDE hard disk, click to select the first disk, usually Disk 0, and click Next.

Figure4.10 Displaying Where you want to install window

79

12. The installation now begins, Copying the setup files from the DVD to the hard drive only
takes about one minute. However, extracting and uncompressing the files takes a good deal
longer. After 20 minutes, the operating system is installed. The exact time it takes to install
server core depends upon your hardware specifications. Faster disks will perform much
faster installs Windows Server 2008 takes up approximately 10 GB of hard drive space.

Figure 4.11 displaying the installing Window Server page

13. Be prompted with the new Windows Server 2008 type of login screen. Press
CTRL+ALT+DEL to log in.

Figure 4.12 displaying log on screen

80

14. Click on Other User.

Figure 4.13 displaying another user

15. The default Administrator is blank, so just type Administrator and press Enter.

Figure 4.14 displaying log in from created user

81

16. You will be prompted to change the user's password. You have no choice but to press
Ok.

Figure 4.15 setting the initial administrative password

17. In the password changing dialog box, leave the default password blank (read step #15),
and enter a new, complex, at-least-7-characters-long new password twice. A password like

82

"top-secret"

is

not

valid

(it's

not

complex),

but

one

like

"T0pSecreT!"

Figure4.16 displaying password change window

18. Someone thought it would be cool to nag you once more, so now you'll be prompted to
accept the fact that the password had been changed. Press Ok.

83

Figure 4.17 displaying password change window

19. Finally, the desktop appears and that's it, you're logged on and can begin working.
You will be greeted by an assistant for the initial server configuration, and after
performing some initial configuration tasks, you will be able to start working.

Figure 4.1 displaying password is changed

84

4.3 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTIVE DIRECTORY

Active Directory can be installed on servers running Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Standard Edition; Windows Server 2003, Enterprise Edition; and Windows Server 2003,
Datacenter Edition. Active Directory stores information about objects on the network and
makes this information easy for administrators and users to find and use. Active Directory uses
a structured data store as the basis for a logical, hierarchical organization of directory
information.
This data store, also known as the directory, contains information about Active Directory
objects. These objects typically include shared resources such as servers, volumes, printers, and
the network user and computer accounts. For more information about the Active Directory data
store, see Directory data store.
Security is integrated with Active Directory through logon authentication and access control to
objects in the directory. With a single network logon, administrators can manage directory data
and organization throughout their network, and authorized network users can access resources
anywhere on the network. Policy-based administration eases the management of even the most
complex network. For more information about Active Directory security, see Security
overview.
Active Directory also includes:

A set of rules, the schema, that defines the classes of objects and attributes contained in the
directory, the constraints and limits on instances of these objects, and the format of their names. For
more information about the schema, see Schema

85

A global catalog that contains information about every object in the directory. This allows users and
administrators to find directory information regardless of which domain in the directory actually

contains the data. For more information about the global catalog, see The role of the global catalog.
A query and index mechanism, so that objects and their properties can be published and found by
network users or applications. For more information about querying the directory, see Finding
directory information.

4.3.1 BENIFITS OF ACTIVE DIRECTORY

The introduction of Active Directory in the Windows 2000 operating system provides the
following benefits:
1. Integration with DNS. Active Directory uses the Domain Name System (DNS). DNS is an
Internet standard service that translates human-readable computer names (such as
mycomputer.microsoft.com) to computer-readable numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
(four numbers separated by periods). This lets processes running on computers in TCP/IP
networks identify and connect to one another.
2. Flexible querying. Users and administrators can use the Search command on the Start
menu, the My Network Places icon on the desktop, or the Active Directory Users and
Computers snap-in to quickly find an object on the network using object properties. For
example, you can find a user by first name, last name, e-mail name, office location, or other
properties of that person's user account. Finding information is optimized by use of the global
catalog.
3. Extensibility. Active Directory is extensible, which means that administrators can add new
classes of objects to the schema and can add new attributes to existing classes of objects. The
schema contains a definition of each object class, and each object class's attributes, that can be

86

stored in the directory. For example, you could add a Purchase Authority attribute to the User
object and then store each user's purchase authority limit as part of the user's account.
4. Policy-based administration. Group Policies are configuration settings applied to
computers or users as they are initialized. All Group Policy settings are contained in Group
Policy Objects (GPOs) applied to Active Directory sites, domains, or organizational units. GPO
settings determine access to directory objects and domain resources, what domain resources
(such as applications) are available to users, and how these domain resources are configured for
use.
5. Scalability. Active Directory includes one or more domains, each with one or more domain
controllers, enabling you to scale the directory to meet any network requirements. Multiple
domains can be combined into a domain tree and multiple domain trees can be combined into a
forest. In the simplest structure, a single-domain network is simultaneously a single tree and a
single forest.
6. Information Replication. Active Directory uses MultiMate replication, which lets you
update the directory at any domain controller. Deploying multiple domain controllers in one
domain provides fault tolerance and load balancing. If one domain controller within a domain
slows, stops, or fails, other domain controllers within the same domain can provide necessary
directory access, since they contain the same directory data.
7. Information security. Management of user authentication and access control, both fully
integrated with Active Directory, are key security features in the Windows 2000 operating
system. Active Directory centralizes authentication. Access control can be defined not only on
each object in the directory, but also on each property of each object. In addition, Active
Directory provides both the store and the scope of application for security policies. (For more
87

about Active Directory logon authentication and access control, see the "For More Information"
section at the end of this paper.)
8. Interoperability. Because Active Directory is based on standard directory access protocols,
such as Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP), it can interoperate with other directory
services employing these protocols. Several application programming interfaces (APIs) such
as Active Directory Service Interfaces (ADSI)give developers access to these protocols.
4.4 INRODUCTION TO THE DOMAIN NETWORK

A domain is a logical grouping of network computers that share a central directory

database.

Anyone in a domain can communicate with each other, however PCs not defined in the
domain cannot communicate with those in the domain.

It Stores information about how the network is structured and organized.

It Enables users to identify and locate resources on the network

Domain names are used to identify one or more IP addresses

A domain name is an identification string that defines a realm of administrative autonomy,

authority, or control on the Internet.

Domain names are formed by the rules and procedures of the Domain Name System
(DNS).

A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is a domain name with no omitted parts,
completely specifying its hierarchy in the DNS.

88

Every domain name has a suffix that indicates which top level domain (TLD) it belongs to.
There are only a limited number of such domains. For example:

.gov - Government agencies

.edu - Educational institutions
.org - Organizations (non-profit)
.mil Military
.com - commercial business

4.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE WORKGROUP

A workgroup is a collection of computers on a local area network (LAN) that share

common resources and responsibilities.

Workgroups provide easy sharing of files, printers and other network resources.

The administration of user account and resource security in a workgroup is

decentralized.

To gain access to resources on any computer in the workgroup, user must have an
account on computer.

Workgroups are designed for small LANs in homes, schools, and small businesses.

A Windows Workgroup, for example, functions best with 15 or fewer computers.

As the number of computers in a workgroup grows, workgroup LANs eventually

become too difficult to administer and should be replaced with alternative solutions like
domains or other client/server approaches.

89

4.6 PARTS OF ACTIVE DIRECTORY DOMAIN AND SERVICES

ACTIVE DIRECTORY DOMAIN

SERVICES (AD-DS)

PRIMARY DOMAIN
CONTROLLER (PDC)

ADDITIONAL DOMAIN
CONTROLLER (ADC)

CHILD DOMAIN
CONTROLLER (CDC)

Figure 4.19 Parts of Active Directory

4.7 ROLES OF ACTIVE DIRECTORY DOMAIN AND SERVICES

Active Directory uses a multiple-master model, and usually, domain controllers (DCs) are equal
with each other in reading and writing directory information. However, certain roles cannot be
distributed across all the DCs, meaning that changes can't take place on more than one domain
controller at a time. Some domain controllers, therefore, do assume a single-master operations
role known as operations masters in Active Directory.
The five categories of operations master roles are:

Schema master (one per forest): Maintains the master copy of the schema.
90

PDC emulator (one per domain): Emulates a primary domain controller for backward
compatibility with Windows NT.

Domain naming master (one per forest): Tracks object names throughout a forest to
ensure that they're unique. Also tracks cross-references to objects in other directories.

Infrastructure master (one per domain): Tracks object references among domains and a
list of deleted child objects.

Relative identifier (RID) master (one per domain): Tracks the assignment of SIDs
(security identifiers)throughout the domain

4.8 INSTALLING A DOMAIN CONTROLLER

Domain controllers provide network users and computers with the Active Directory service,
which stores and replicates directory data and manages user interactions with the domain,
including user logon processes, authentication, and directory searches. Every domain must
contain at least one domain controller. You install a domain controller by installing Active
Directory on any member or stand-alone server (except those with restrictive license
agreements).
When you install the first domain controller in your organization, you are creating the first
domain (also called the root domain) and the first forest. You can add additional domain
controllers to an existing domain to provide fault tolerance, improve service availability, and
balance the load of existing domain controllers.
You can also install a domain controller to create a new child domain or new domain tree.
Create a new child domain when you want a new domain that shares a contiguous namespace
91

with one or more domains. This means that the name of the new domain contains the full name
of the parent domain. For example, sales.microsoft.com would be a child domain of
microsoft.com. Create a new domain tree only when you need a domain whose Domain Name
System (DNS) namespace is not related to the other domains in the forest. This means that the
name of the new domain trees root domain (and all of its children) does not contain the full
name of the parent domain. A forest can contain one or more domain trees.
Before installing a new domain controller, you will need to consider pre-Windows 2000
compatible security levels and identify the DNS name of the domain. For more information, see
Checklist: Creating an additional domain controller in an existing domain.
The most commonly performed tasks when installing a domain controller are creating a new
domain in a new forest, creating a new child domain in an existing domain tree, creating a new
domain tree in an existing forest, and adding a domain controller to an existing domain.
4.9 PRIMARY DOMAIN CONTROLLER (PDC)
A Primary Domain Controller (PDC) is a server computer in a Windows domain. A domain is
a group of computers (technically named a "forest"), where access to a variety of computer
resources is controlled by the PDC. Various account types exist in the domain, the most basic is
the "guest" or "anonymous login" account. The PDC has an administration account which has
overall total control of the domain resources.
PDC emulation
In later releases of Windows, domains have been supplemented by the use of Active Directory
services. In Active Directory domains, the concept of primary and secondary domain controller
relationships no longer applies. Primary domain controller emulators hold the accounts
92

databases and administrative tools. As a result a heavy workload can slow the system down.
The DNS service may be installed on a secondary emulator machine to relieve the workload on
the PDC emulator. The same rules apply; only one PDC may exist on a domain, but multiple
replication servers may still be used.

The PDC emulator master acts in place of the Primary Domain Controller if there are
Windows NT 4.0 domain controllers (BDCs) remaining within the domain, acting as a

source for them to replicate from.

The PDC emulator master receives preferential replication of password changes within the
domain. As password changes take time to replicate across all the domain controllers in an
Active Directory domain, the PDC emulator master receives notification of password
changes immediately, and if a logon attempt fails at another domain controller, that domain

controller will forward the logon request to the PDC emulator master before rejecting it.
The PDC emulator master also serves as the machine to which all domain controllers in the
domain will synchronize their clocks. It, in turn, should be configured to synchronize to an

external NTP time source.

4.10 REQUIREMENTS OF PDC
What hardware, software, or settings configurations are required for running this feature What
prerequisites are there for running the role? Does this role/feature require special hardware?
Table 4.2 Requirements of active directory

Requirement

Description

Configure appropriate TCP/IP and DNS server addresses.

TCP/IP

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The drives that store the database, log files, and SYSVOL
folder for Active Directory Domain Services (AD DS)
must be placed on a local fixed volume. SYSVOL must be
NTFS

placed on a volume that is formatted with the NTFS file

system. For security purposes, the Active Directory
database and log files should be placed on a volume that is
formatted with NTFS.

To install a new AD DS forest, you need to be local

Administrator on the server. To install an additional
Credentials
domain controller in an existing domain, you need to be a
member of the Domain Admins group.

4.11 INSTALLING PRIMARY DOMAIN CONTROLLER (PDC)

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Click StartRun. The run dialog box opens.

Type the DC promo command in the Run dialog box and click OK button.

Figure 4.20 Displaying dcpromo

1. The welcome to the Active Directory Domain Services Installation Wizard page of Active

Directory Domain Services Installation Wizard appears, as shown in Figure 4.21

2. Click the Next button.

Figure 4.21 Displaying the Active Directory Domain Services Installation Wizard

3. The Choose a Deployment Configuration page appears.

4. Select the Create a new domain in a new forest radio button and click the Next button.

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Figure 4.22 Displaying Choose a deployment configuration

5. The Name the Forest Root Domain page appears.

6. Type the domain name which the administrator wants to create.

Figure 4.23 Displaying forest root domain

7. The verification process of domain starts i.e. the server checks to confirm that the domain
name on the network is not in use.

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Figure 4.24 Displaying Name the forest root domain

8. After the verification process, the set Forest functional Level page appear.
9. Select the Window Server 2008 option from the Forest Functional level drop-down list. The
details relating to each of the functional levels are displayed in the details section of the page.
Selecting Window Server 2008 domain functional level indicates that all the domain within the
forest can operate at the Window Server 2008 domain functional level, thereby enabling all the
new features of the Window Server 2008.
10. Click the next button

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Figure 4.25 Displaying the set forest functional level

11. The additional Domain Controller Option page appears . Notice that the DNS server check
box is selected by default. The Wizard , during the AD DS Installation process , creates the
DNS infrastructure
12.Now , click the Next button . A static IP assignment message box appear.
13.Click the YES, the computer will use a dynamically assignment IP address(not
recommended)button. Active Directory Domain

Server Installation Wizaard message box

appears starting that you will have to create delegation for this server.
14.Click the Yes button.

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Figure 4.26 Displaying additional domain controller option

15. Click the YES button. The Location for the database, Log Files, and SYSVOL page
appears. Notice that default location s are specified for the database files, directory service log
files, and SYSVOL FILES
16.Click the Next button. The Directory Services Restore Mode Administrator Password Page
appears.

Figure 4.27 Displaying locations for database

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17. Type a password in both the Password and Confirm Password text boxes . This password is
used to restore AD in case it is lost or corrupted.
18. Now click the Next button after the password is confirmed.

Figure 4.28 Displaying administrator passwords

19. The Summary page appears displaying a summary of the selections the administrator made
so far. In case the administrator wants to make any corrections, click the back button.
20. Click the next button.

Figure 4.29 Displaying summary of domain and trust

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21. The configuration process of AD DS starts. After the AD DS installation is complete, you
are required to reboot the server, which can be done by selecting the Reboot on completion
checkbox.

Figure 4.30 Displaying summary of active directory

4.12 HOW WE CAN CREATE A NEW USER IN ( gndu.com)

The user accounts in AD are created to support authentication of a service that AD is using. In
an organization, maintenance of a user account is a major administrator task.

Open the Active Directory Users and Computers snap-in from the start menu.
1. Right click on the users then click on new user
2. New Object- User snap-in will open
3. Write the first name, Full name, Last name example preet.
4. Click on the next

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Figure 4.31 Displaying active directory user and compute

5. Fill the password, confirm the password, tick on User cannot change password and
Password never expires
6. Click on the Next Button

Figure 4.32 showing the password setup for created user

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7.User is successfully created example Preet.

Figure 4.33 Actve directory user and computer

4.13 HOW TO MAKE A COMPUTER MEMBER OF DOMAIN?

1. Go To client window 7
2. Right click on My Computer > Properties

Figure 4.34 Desktop showing icons

3. Go To Computer Name and Click change

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Figure 4.35 displaying computer name domain change

4. Click to Change and the dialogue box shows the members of select domain (domain name)
dream. Click ok
5. Permissions of Administrator. Enter the user name & Password for domain
6. Click ok. A dialogue box shows.
8. Click ok. Restart

Figure 4.36 displaying domain gndu.com

4.14 DOMAIN TRUSTING

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A trust is a relationship, which you establish between domains that makes it possible for users
in one domain to be authenticated by a domain controller in the other domain.
All Active Directory trusts between domains within a forest are transitive, two-way trusts.
Therefore, both domains in a trust relationship are trusted. As shown in the following
illustration, this means that if Domain A trusts Domain B and Domain B trusts Domain C, users
from Domain C can access resources in Domain A (when they are assigned the proper
permissions).
Windows domains provide access based security for all resources within that domain. By
default users in a domain can access resources within that domain as long as they have the
correct permissions to do so. In order to provide users with access to resources in another
domain, a trust relationship will need to be created. Trusts are used as the mechanism by which
resource sharing between domains is accomplished. A Trust logical relationship established
between domains to allow authentication and authorization to shared resources
Simply stated, a trust relationship is a configured link that enables a domain to access resources
in another domain, or a forest to access resources in another forest. A trust relationship provides
such access to users without the need to create additional user accounts in the other
Other forest and domain consequently. Administrator do not configure multiple user account
And users do not need to remember multiple username and password.
This part of article contain Following types of the trust relationship.

1. Transitive Trusts
2. Forest Trusts
3. External Trusts
4. Realm Trusts
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5. Shortcut Trusts
4.14.1 Transitive Trusts
Microsoft introduced the concept of transitive trusts in Windows 2000. This represented a
considerable improvement over the previous Windows NT trusts that required explicitly
defining each and every trust relationship, a requirement that could become unwieldy in a large
enterprise network. To understand the principle of transitive trusts. In a non transitive trust, as
was the case in Windows NT 4.0, if you configured Domain A to trust Domain B and Domain
B to trust Domain C, Domain A does not trust Domain C unless you configure a separate trust
relationship. Furthermore, the trust relationship worked in one direction; for a two-way trust
relationship, you had to create two separate trusts, one in each direction.
4.14.2Forest Trusts
A forest trust is used to share resources between forests. This type of trust relationship consists
of transitive trusts between every domain in each forest. The trust relationship is created
manually and can be either one-way or two-way. The following are several benefits of a forest
trust:

They provide simple management of resource sharing by reducing the number of external
trusts required in multi domain forests.

They enable a wider scope of user principal name (UPN) authentication across all domains
in the trusting forests.

They provide increased administrative flexibility by allowing administrators to collaborate

on task delegation across forest boundaries.

Each forest remains isolated in certain aspects, such as directory replication, schema
modification, and adding domains, all of which affect only the forest to which they apply.

They improve the trustworthiness of authorization data. You can use both the Kerberos and
NTLM authentication protocols when authenticating across forests.
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4.14.3 External Trusts and Realm Trusts

External trusts are one-way individual trust relationships that you can set up between two
domains in different forests. They are non-transitive, which means you use them explicitly to
define a one-to-one relationship between domains. You can use them to create trust
relationships with AD DS domains operating at the Windows 2000 domain functional level or
with Windows NT 4.0 domains. Furthermore, you can use an external trust if you need to create
a trust relationship that involves only specific domains within two different forests.
You can use a realm trust to share information between an AD DS domain and any nonWindows realm that supports Kerberos version 5 (V5), such as UNIX. A realm trust supports
UNIX identity management to enable users in UNIX realms to seamlessly access Active
Directory resources by means of password synchronization with Windows Server 2008s Server
for Network Information Service (NIS) feature. Password synchronization enables users with
accounts in UNIX realms in AD DS to synchronize password changes across both the AD DS
domain and the UNIX realm. Furthermore, an AD DS domain controller can act as a master
NIS server for the UNIX realm.
4.14.4 Shortcut Trusts
Unlike the previously discussed trusts, a shortcut trust relationship exists within a single forest.
It is an additional trust relationship between two child domains, which optimizes the
authentication process when a large number of users require access to resources in another
domain. It is especially useful if the normal authentication path must cross several domains.

4.14.5 Requirement
The following are required to create forest trusts successfully:

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You can create a forest trust between two Windows Server 2003 forests, between two
Windows Server 2008 forests, between two Windows Server 2008 R2 forests, between
a Windows Server 2003 forest and a Windows Server 2008 forest, between a Windows
Server 2003 forest and a Windows Server 2008 R2 forest, or between a Windows
Server 2008 forest and a Windows Server 2008 R2 forest. Forest trusts cannot be
extended implicitly to a third forest.

To create a forest trust, the minimum forest functional level for the forests that are involved
in the trust relationship is Windows Server 2003. For more information about functional

levels, see the

To create a forest trust successfully, you must set up your Domain Name System (DNS)
environment properly. If there is a root DNS server that you can make the root DNS server
for the DNS namespaces of both forests, make it the root DNS server by ensuring that the
root zone contains delegations for each of the DNS namespaces. Also, update the root hints

of all DNS servers with the new root DNS server.

If there is no shared root DNS server and the root DNS servers for each forest DNS
namespace are running Windows Server 2003, configure DNS conditional forwarders in

each DNS namespace to route queries for names in the other namespace.
If there is no shared root DNS server and the root DNS servers for each forest DNS
namespace are not running Windows Server 2008 or Windows Server 2003, configure DNS
secondary zones in each DNS namespace to route queries for names in the other
namespace. For more information about configuring DNS to work with Active Directory

Domain Services (AD DS)

4.15 HOW TRUSTING WORKS
The authentication process verifies the identity of the user, and the authorization process
determines what the user is permitted to do on a computer system or network. Once a user
requesting access to a resource computer in another domain has been authenticated by the
resource domain, the resource computer compares the users credentials to the permissions
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assigned within its security descriptor to help determine the users level of authorization to that
resource. A security descriptor contains access control lists (ACLs) that identify the users and
groups that are assigned or denied access permissions on a resource

Figure 4.37 working of trust in different domains

4.16 Difference among different types of trust

Table 4.3 Types of trust

External

No transitive

One-way

or

two-way

Use external trusts to provide access

to resources that are located on a
Windows NT 4.0

domain

or

domain that is located in a separate

forest that is not joined by a forest
trust.

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Realm

Transitive or

One-way

no transitive

two-way

or

Use realm trusts to form a trust

relationship between a non-Windows
Kerberos

realm

and

an Active

Directory domain.
Forest

Transitive

One-way

or

two-way

Use forest trusts to share resources

between forests. If a forest trust is a
two-way

trust,

authentication

requests that are made in either forest

can reach the other forest.
Shortcut

Transitive

One-way

or

two-way

Use shortcut trusts to improve user

logon times between two domains
within An Active Directory forest.
This is useful when two domains are
separated by two domain trees.

4.17 HOW TO CREATE TRUST AMONG DIFFERENT DOMAINS

Install server 1 (Microsoft Server 2008). Create a domain (www.gndu.com).
Create users in server 1 (preet)
Install client 1 (Windows 7, XP, Vista or any).
Make client 2 as a member of this domain (www.gndu.com)
Go to server 2 (Microsoft Server 2008). Create a new domain (www.satinder.com).
Create user in this server also (karan)
Install client 2 (Windows 7, XP, Vista or any).
Make the client 2 as a member of domain (www.satinder.com)
4.17.1 IP SETTING FOR SERVER 1,2
After the Domain and Users creation then next step IP settings. In IP settings we mainly check
the IP Address of SERVER 1 and SERVER 2. In SERVER 1 and SERVER 2 IP address

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Network Address must same only different Host Address. The Following example mainly
shows how to give the IP Address for a particular server.
Now check the IP of server 1 (gndu.com)
1. Server 1 IP is (192.168.4.1)
2. Client 1 IP is (192.168.4.9)
3. Default Gateway (192.168.4.1)
4. Preferred DNS is SERVER 2 IP (192.168.4.2).

Figure 4.38 displaying internet protocol version properties

Now check the IP of server 2 (satinder.com)

5. Server 2 IP is (192.168.4.2)
6. Client 2 IP is (192.168.4.10)
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7.
8.

Default Gateway (192.168.4.1)

Preferred DNS is SERVER 2 IP (192.168.4.1).

Figure 4.39 displaying local area connection properties

By Giving these IP Address we can easily create a Trusting between two different Domains. We
can give different Host Network by this IPs.
4.18 STEPS TO CONFIGURE THE SERVER 1 (www.gndu.com)
The following steps mainly shows how to configure the SERVER 1
1. Click on Start Menu > Administrative Tools > Active Directory Domain and Trust

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Figure 4.40 displaying administrative tools

2. Active Directory Domain and Trust wizard open .Right click the Domain name and Go to
properties.

Figure 4.41 displaying active directory domain and trust wizard

3 .Click the Trust and create a new Trust.

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Figure 4.42 displaying gndu.com properties

4. A New Trust Wizard open.

5. Click next. Type the Domain name when you want to create a Trust.

Figure 4.43 displaying new trust wizards

6. Click next. Anew dialogue shows Trust type Transitive or Non Transitive.

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Figure 4.44 displaying new trust wizard trust type

7. Now select the Direction of Trust Two way, One-way incoming, One-way outgoing.

Figure 4.45 displaying new trust wizard direction of the trust

8. Select two ways and click next.

9. A next box mainly shows how this domain sides of Trust only or both.

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Figure 4.46 displaying new wizard trust sides of trust

10. Enter the user name & Password when we want to create a Trust i.e. SERVER 2
(www.satinder.com). Click next

Figure 4.47 displaying new trust wizard trust password

11. Choose the Outgoing Trust Authentication Level. Click next

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Figure 4.48 displaying outgoing trust authentication level

12. Now at last Trust Selection Complete. Click next

13. Yes confirm the outgoing trust. click next

Figure 4.49 displaying confirm outgoing trust

14. Yes confirm the Incoming Trust.

15. Click next Finish

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Figure4. 50 displaying completing the new trust

16. Now Go To Properties of Trust.

Figure 4.51 displaying properties of domain with which trust is created

17. Clicks validate.

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Figure 4.52 displaying validating the trust relationship

18. Yes validate the Incoming Trust. Enter the User name and Password. Click ok.
19. Trust has been validating. Click ok
20. Click apply .ok

Figure 4.53 displaying trust is validated

4.19 STEPS TO CONFIGURE THE SERVER 2 (www.satinder.com)

1. Click on Start Menu > Administrative Tools > Active Directory Domain and Trust
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Figure 4.54 displaying administrative tools

2. Active Directory Domain and Trust wizard open .Right click the Domain name and Go to
properties.

Figure 4.55 displaying active directory domain and trust wizard

3. Click the Trust and create a new Trust

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Figure 4.56 displaying satinder.com properties

4. A New Trust Wizard open.

5. Click next. Type the Domain name when you want to create a Trust.

Figure 4.57 displaying new trust wizard

6. Click next. Anew dialogue shows Trust type Transitive or Non Transitive.

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Figure 4.58 displaying new trust wizard trust type

7. Now select the Direction of Trust Two way, One-way incoming, One-way outgoing

Figure 4.59 displaying new trust wizard direction of the trust

8. Select two ways and click next.

9. A next box mainly shows how this domain sides of Trust only or both.

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Figure 4.60displaying new wizard trust sides of trust

10. Enter the user name & Password when we want to create a Trust i.e. SERVER
1(wwwgndu.com). Click next

Figure 4.61 displaying new trust wizard trust password

11. Choose the Outgoing Trust Authentication Level. Click next

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Figure 4.62 displaying outgoing trust authentication level

12. Now at last Trust Selection Complete. Click next

13. Yes confirm the outgoing trust. click next

Figure 4.63 displaying confirm outgoing trust

14. Yes confirm the Incoming Trust.

15. Click next Finish

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Figure 4.64 displaying completing the new trust

16. Now Go To Properties of Trust

.
Figure 4.65 displaying properties of domain with which trust is created

17. Check Validate

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Figure 4.66 displaying validating the trust relationship

18. Yes validate the Incoming Trust. Enter the User name and Password. Click ok.
19. Trust has been validating. Click ok
20. Click apply .ok

Figure 4.67 displaying trust is validated

4.20 HOW TO CREATE USER OF SERVER 2(Satinder.com)

1. Click on Start Menu > Administrative Tools > Active Directory Domain and Trust

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Figure 4.68 displaying administrative tools

2. Right click on the users then click on new user

Figure 4.69 Displaying active directory user and computer

3. New Object- User snap-in will open

4. Write the first name, Full name, Last name example karan
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Figure 4.70 showing the password setup for created user

5. User is successfully created example karan

Figure 4.71 Actve directory user and computer

4.21 LOGIN OF THE USER OF TWO DIFFERENT DOMAINS

4.21.1 Log in from user karan of satinder.com on pc dtl23
1. Click at switch user

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Figure 4.72 displaying the desktop of dtl23

2. Login from switch user; enter the user name with other domain name i.e
karan@satinder.com

Figure 4.73 displaying login of user from satinder.com domain

3. Authenticate and login the user in a Client Computer with another domain

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Figure 4.74 displaying welcome wizard of user karan

4. Now user login in client computer

Figure 4.75 displaying user login wizard

4.22 Log in from user preet of domain gndu.com on pc dtl 23

1. Click at the switch user
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Figure 4.76Displaying desktop of pc dtl23

2. Log in from switch user, enter the user name with other domain name i.e. preet@gndu.com

Figure 4.77Displaying login of user from gndu.com

3. Authenticate and login the user in a client computer with other domain

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Figure 4.78Displaying welcome wizard of user preet

4. Now user log in the client computer

Figure 4.79 Displaying user log in wizard

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CHAPTER V
5.1 FUTURE SCOPE
By now the point is made. Client/server architectures are flexible and modular. They can be
changed, added to, and evolved in numbers of ways. All of the above described 3-tier
approaches could be mixed and matched in various combinatorial sequences to satisfy almost
any computing need. As the Internet becomes a significant factor in computing environments
client/server applications operating over the Internet will become an important new type of
distributed computing. (This is probably an understatement, since the use of Internet and
intranet based applications will very shortly dwarf all of the distributed computing initiatives of
the past)
The Internet will extend the reach and power of client/server computing. Through its promise
of widely accepted standards, it will ease and extend client/server computing both intra and

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inter-company. The movement in programming languages to the technology of distributed

objects is going to happen at light speed - because of the Internet.
Client/server still remains the only and best architecture for taking advantage of the Internet
and other new technologies that come along. We'll have to add "changes in client/server
computing" to death and taxes in our inevitable list. But, regardless of what comes,
client/server computing is likely to remain the underpinning for most computing developments
we'll see over the next decade.

5.2 FUTURE SERVER

First, there were massive mainframes. Then came desktop computers in towers, followed by
rack mount pizza box servers, and ultimately blade servers. Whats next for server design,
and how do data centre operators prepare for it? The equipment is emulating the cloud, said
Don Beaty, the founder of DLB Associates, which built many of Googles data centers. It has
no shape. Its constantly changing. The future shape of server technology was the focus of a
panel at the recent Data Centre Dynamics conference in New York. Beaty and other panellists
noted that the pace of change is accelerating in the sector. The drive towards more energy
efficient equipment has altered the data centre environment, Beaty said, with a focus on not
only using less cooling, but managing it more precisely. That means data centres are operating
at warmer temperatures, and using aisle containment and chassis design to optimize airflow to
components that generate heat. With this wider temperature range, all bets are off, said Beaty.
We need to think in terms of the possibility of an entirely different form factor.
Windows Server powers many of the worlds' largest datacenters, enables small businesses
around the world, and delivers value to organizations of all sizes in between. Windows Server
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2012 redefines the server category, delivering hundreds of new features and enhancements
spanning virtualization, networking, storage, user experience, cloud computing, automation,
and more. Simply put, Windows Server 2012 helps you transform your IT operations to reduce
costs and deliver a whole new level of business value.
Windows Server 2012, codenamed "Windows Server 8", is the sixth release of Window
Server family of operating systems developed concurrently with Window8. It was not until 17
April 2012 that the company announced that the final product name would be "Windows Server
2012".
Microsoft introduced Windows Server 2012 and its developer preview in the BUILD
2011 conference on 9 September 2011. However, unlike Windows 8, the developer preview of
Windows Server 2012 was only made available to MSDN subscribers. It included a graphical
user interface (GUI) based on Metro design language and a new Server Manager, a graphical
application used for server management. On 16 February 2012, Microsoft released an update
for developer preview build that extended its expiry date from 8 April 2012 to 15 January 2013.
[10]

Before Windows Server 2012 was finalized, two test builds were made public. A public beta
version of Windows Server 2012 was released along with the Windows 8 Consumer Preview on
29 February 2012. The release candidate of Windows Server 2012 was released on 31 May
2012, along with the Windows 8 Release Preview.
The product was released to manufacturing on 1 August 2012 and became generally
available on 4 September 2012. However, not all editions of Windows Server 2012 were
released at the same time. Windows Server 2012 Essentials was released to manufacturing on 9
October 2012[] and was made generally available on 5 November 2012. As of 23 September

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2012, all students subscribed to Dream Spark program can download Windows Server 2012
Standard or Datacenter free of charge.

5.3 Future Clients (Windows 9 and Windows Blue)

Job adverts for Windows and Windows Phone and LinkedIn profiles for developers on the
Windows Server team all refer to "Windows Blue in relation to a future version of Windows,
Windows Server and Windows Phone.
That's only a codename and it's a codename not for the specific versions of these operating
systems but for the new development cadence, where Microsoft puts out new releases of
Windows, Windows RT and Windows Server every year, the way it already does for Windows
Phone. The next version of Windows is being referred to by Microsoft people who post their
details on LinkedIn as Windows 9; as usual, that will be a codename that might change.
While still just a codename, Windows 9 has also been referenced by Microsoft in a job
posting, spotted by MSFT Kitchen on 13 March 2013. The ad, for a Bing Software
Development Engineer, says that the team will be delivering products "in areas including
Windows 9, IE11 services integration, touch friendly devices including iPad and more."
Screenshots claiming to show a leaked build show the kernel number as Windows 6.3; that just
means that Microsoft is still being careful not to break applications that look for the Windows
version number.
That's why Windows 7 was version 6.1 internally and Windows 8 is version 6.2; it doesn't mean
this is 'only a service pack.

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5.4 Windows 9 release date

Microsoft communications chief Frank Shaw said Microsoft wasn't ready to talk about how
often Windows might come out when we spoke to him in January, but he agreed "you have
certainly seen across a variety of our products a cadence that looks like that; Windows Phone is
a good for example of that, our services are a good example of that".
The rumours say Windows 9 will be finished in July or August 2015; that's a year after the
RTM (release to manufacturing) of Windows 8. We don't know if it will be available to users
straight away through Windows Update or if PC makers will get time to test and integrate
updates for their systems (the RTM version could go on MSDN (Microsoft's Developer
Network Platforms site) in July, giving hardware partners a month to test before release in
August).
We also don't know if Windows 9 will be available as an upgrade from Windows 7 that you can
buy as a standalone product or if you'll have to have Windows 8 to get the upgrade (which
would explain new Windows business chief Tami Reller talking about "multiple selling
seasons" for Windows 8, as well as rumours that Windows 9 will be either a free upgrade or
part of an upgrade service you can subscribe to).
Microsoft seems to be on track; rumours say the first milestone, M1, was finished in midFebruary, putting the team halfway through the development cycle, with milestone 2, which
may be released publicly as the Milestone Preview in a few months (perhaps May or June, to
incorporate bug fixes in a July or August release).
5.4.1 Windows 9 features
To be competitive with iOS Windows RT has to get annual updates and it would make no sense
not to release those updates to the WinRT runtime for Windows 8 as well, but the job ads say
there's more to the next version of Windows than that with improvements to "the start screen;
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application lifecycle; windowing; and personalization enhancing ease of use and the overall
user experience".
Screenshots claimed to come from leaked builds show a new version of Internet Explorer, IE 11
(which isn't surprising - and might explain why IE 10 for Windows 7 has taken so long, if the
IE team has been concentrating on this).
Other rumors say the Search charm will show results from multiple apps automatically, instead
of waiting until you click another app in the list to see is search results. This would be more
like the universal search in Windows 7 which showed results from Explorer, Outlook and other
search providers in the same list of results.

138

REFERENCES

www.technet.microsoft.com
www.windowsreference.com/
www.datacenterknowledge.com
www.itworld.com/
www.mcitpguide.com/
www.techfuels.com/

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