Ceramic Floor and Wall Tile PDF

CERAMIC FLOOR AND WALL TILE:
PERFORMANCE AND CONTROVERSIES
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1
Quality and performance
CHAPTER 2
Technical characteristics
CHAPTER 3
Planning, design and installation of a tiled floor or wall
CHAPTER 4
Defects leading to controversies
Conclusions
References
CHAPTER 1
QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE
-
Introduction
Fabrication Technology and Product Types
Standards and Requisites
Choice Criteria
CHAPTER 1
QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE
INTRODUCTION
There are two main reasons why floors and walls are usually covered with various materials. One
has to do with aesthetic requirements, to improve the appearance and make the floor or wall
more pleasing to the eye. The other is to satisfy functional requirements, to protect the floor or
wall from aggressive action of the environment with a surface having suitable characteristics of
impermeability, stability, durability and ease of cleaning.
Various materials and techniques can be used to cover floors and walls. Walls can be covered
with cement- or gypsum-based plaster, painted or papered, or covered with cloth or cork. Floors
can be covered with natural stone such as marble or granite, with conglomerate cement brick,
wood, plastic (in the form of sheets or tile), carpet, etc.
One of the more important, traditional materials widely used to cover floors and walls is ceramic
tile. Ceramic tile is a very ancient material. The first examples of its use to cover and decorate
surfaces date back to the Babylonian civilization, i.e., to the VI century B.C. Over the centuries,
the fabrication technology and decorative potential of ceramic tile have been gradually amplified
and perfected. For hundreds of years ceramic tile remained a luxury product, used for floors and
walls in the homes of the wealthy. In this century, especially after World War II, the production
of ceramic floor and wall tile underwent considerable industrial development with the advent of
mass production techniques, especially in some countries such as Italy which had a long tradition
in the use of ceramics. The ability to produce tile on an industrial scale led to lower prices
making ceramic tile a product which could be afforded by the masses.
In the initial phase of this period, ceramic tiles were used mainly to satisfy particular functional
requirements for surfaces which were hygienic and easy to clean and thus were most often used
for floors and walls in bathrooms and kitchens. The ceramic floor and wall tile industry, evolved
rapidly, developing new types of glazes, new fabrication technologies and new materials, to
widen considerably the range and types of ceramic tile available. As a result, ceramic tile
gradually came to be considered a valid material for other rooms in the home, such as living
rooms, entrance ways, and bedrooms as well as a material to be used in public and industrial
environments, both inside and out-of-doors.
The reasons for this considerable diffusion
of ceramic floor and wall tile can be found,
on the one hand, in the wide range of colors,
decorative possibilities and shapes which
allow the designer and architect a variety of
design solutions distinctly superior to those
possible with any other material, and on the
other hand, in the superior technical
characteristics of ceramic tile as compared
with the other materials previously cited. It
is common knowledge, also confirmed by
technical tests carried out in various
laboratories, that, in general, ceramics have
a higher resistance to chemical attack than
marble and granite, are not subject to cuts
and scratches like wood, linoleum and
carpet, and neither burn nor are damaged by
direct contact with fire or incandescent
bodies, such as cigarettes. In addition,
ceramic tile are easy to clean, are not easily
punctured and have a hardness and
resistance to abrasion which, in general, are
not found in other materials.
FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY AND PRODUCT TYPES

The high performance of ceramic tile is the result of extensively studied fabrication technology,
always in evolution, whose key feature is the very high firing temperature which varies,
depending on type of product, from 950 to more than 1200 C. The raw materials for the
production of ceramic tile are widely available natural materials. This is one of the reasons for
the relatively limited cost of ceramic tile. The tile body is formed from a mixture of clay (to give
plasticity), quartz sand (the non plastic fraction to give structural strength) and carbonates or
feldspars (to provide a fluxing action). The glazes are formed from sand, kaolinitic clay,
previously prepared glasses (frit), and oxide-based pigments to provide the color. The raw
materials for the tile body are carefully mixed and ground, in order to obtain a perfectly
homogeneous material for shaping. Depending on the type of tile to be produced, the prepared
mix may be in the form of a powder with a 4-7% moisture content or a plastic clay with a 1520% water content. In the first case, the tile are shaped by pressing, with various types of presses
and pressures up to 300 kg/cm or higher. In the second case, the clay is extruded through a die
of the desired shape. After forming, the tiles must be first dried to remove most of the water and
then fired (in the case of unglazed tile) in continuously operating kilns at the temperatures
previously indicated. Physical and chemical transformations take place during firing which give
ceramic tile their characteristics o compactness, mechanical resistance and physical-chemical
inertness sufficient for the destined use. Depending on firing cycle and raw materials used, tile of
varying compactness and porosity can be obtained. As will be discussed later, the porosity,
which is characterized on the basis of the amount of water that the tile can absorb, is a very
important parameter which also has an influence on other technical characteristics. It is worth
noting here that the transformations which lead to very compact tile bodies, thus tile with a low
water absorption, are related to the formation of an abundant melted phase in the mass of the
body at high temperatures, which, during cooling, solidifies to form a glassy structure. This
process is accompanied by shrinkage, i.e., after firing, the dimensions of the tile are less than
before firing. Such shrinkage means there is the risk of a certain amount of dimensional
disuniformity and irregularities and the extent of shrinkage will be greater, the lower the value of
water absorption that is sought.
Fig.1.1 Technological
cycles for the production
of the different types of
ceramic floor and wall
tile
In the case of glazed tile, two different technological sequences are possible after the tiles have
been dried: one based on double firing and the other on single firing. In the first case, the dried
tiles are fired and then the glaze and decorations are applied to the so-called bisque ware; the
cycle is concluded by a second firing whose function is to stabilize (fire) the glaze. On the
contrary, in the case of single firing, the glaze is applied directly to the dried green ware and the
glaze and body are fired together in just one firing where the sintering of the body and
stabilization of the glaze take place at the same time.
At this point in the production cycle, the tiles are sorted, to eliminate defective tiles and separate
the higher quality tiles from those of lower quality as well as to divide them into homogeneous
groups according to work size and shade.
This brief summary of the technological cycle for the production of ceramic floor and wall tile
leads to the following two considerations:
1.
Ceramic tiles, just as all ceramic materials, are subjected to firing at high temperatures
which renders them stable and inert with respect to most of the aggressive physicalchemical action of the environment. The
other side of the coin, for ceramic tile
as for all ceramic materials, is their
fragility. Ceramic tile do not undergo
plastic deformation, but rather break
once the limit of elastic deformation has
been reached. They also are to very
resistant to mechanical impact, i.e., they
have poor resilience. It should be
emphasized, however, that this behavior,
which ceramic tile shares with many
other materials and products (porcelain
china tableware, drinking glasses,
window glass, etc.) is not to be
considered a defect, but rather a
characteristic which must be taken into
consideration for the correct use of the
product.
2.
It is possible to produce ceramic tile

with different technological cycles (e.g.,
single firing or double firing), starting
from different raw materials (e.g., white
firing or red firing clays), with different
technological solutions for each individual phase of production (e.g., shaping by pressing
or by extrusion) with different operating parameters of the machinery and equipment.
Each option, each parameter, corresponds to a different product (Fig. 1.1), with
correspondingly different characteristics and levels of performance. The differences are
considerable and can lead to serious problems if one chooses a ceramic tile for a definite
application without taking the specific characteristics of the tile into consideration.
The fact that the designer, builder, consumer can choose from a very wide range of
products (for example, see the classification of ceramic tile produces in Italy shown in
Table 1.1, based on commercial-product type) is certainly positive, but not without risks.
As will be discussed later, there are various defects in ceramic tile floors and walls which
can be attributed not to the choice of bad tile, but rather to a bad choice of tile.
The problem, therefore, is to make a correct choice of tile, and thus to have a thorough
knowledge of the material ceramic tile. In particular, one should know the technical
characteristics, which should constitute the basis for a correct choice but which should not be
considered to the exclusion of aesthetic and decorative criteria.
GLAZED
TYPE
MAJOLICA
WATER
ABSORPTION
(%)
15-25
SHAPING
METHOD
PRESSING
Wall tile (internal)
COTTOFORTE
4-15
PRESSING
Floor tile (internal)
SINGLE FIRED
WHITEWARE
0-6
PRESSING
Floor tile (internal & external)
SINGLE FIRED
REDWARE
0-12
PRESSING
EARTHENWARE
(WHITE BODY)
6-25
PRESSING
0-7
EXTRUSION
Wall tile (external)

COTTO
3-15
EXTRUSION
RED STONEWARE
0-4
PRESSING
PORCELAIN
STONEWARE
0-0.5
PRESSING

KLINKER
0-7
EXTRUSION

UNGLAZED
KLINKER
MAIN USE
Table 1.1 Classification of Italian ceramic floor and wall tile according to product type.
STANDARDS AND REQUISITES

Examples of different types of
floor and wall tile. 1) Cotto;
2) Earthenware (white body);
3) Klinker 4) Porcelain
stoneware; 5) Majolica; 6)
Red stoneware; 7) Singlefired redware; 8) Singlefired whiteware; 9)
Cottoforte.
The working conditions of the tile, i.e., the stress to which the tile will be subjected in the
environment for which it is destined, must first be evaluated by the person choosing the tile, who
is called upon to make a careful and knowledgeable choice of tile, from the wide range of
products available on the market, capable of reliably resisting the various stresses to which it will
be subjected.
Knowledge of the technical characteristics of ceramic tile, therefore, is of fundamental
importance for anyone responsible for designing a tiled floor or wall. Often the technical
characteristics are indicated in the catalogues, or in any case are supplied by the producer. The
determination of these characteristics and the evaluation of the respective performance levels, is
carried out and certification made by official laboratories, on the basis of existing standards. The
certificate of quality according to recognized standards is the passport for ceramic tile. In order
to fully understand the significance and correctly use this important technical documentation, it
is necessary to have an understanding of the basic structure of the standards.
The standard for ceramic floor and wall tile presently accepted in Australia and in other countries
of the Commonwealth, is Standard BS 6431. It consists of 23 Parts, corresponding to the 23 EN
Standards (Europen de Normalisation), whose members are as follows: Austria, Belgium,
Denmark, Finland, France, Great Britain, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal,
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and West Germany.
The structure of Standard BS 6431 is illustrated in Table 1.2, and it includes:
2 general standards
8 product standards
13 standards specifying testing methods.
The general standards form Part 1 (EN 87) which gives definitions, the classification of ceramic
tile, a list of the characteristics that the standards take into consideration, marking requirements
for packaging, etc., and Part 23 (EN 163), which establishes the criteria for batching, sampling,
inspection and acceptance/rejection of the tile.
GENERAL
BS 6431
Part 1 Definitions, Classification
Part 2 Sampling
TESTING METHODS
PRODUCT
REQUISITES
Part 2 Group A!
Part 3 Group A IIa
Part 4 Group A II b
Part 5 Group A III
Part 6 Group B I
Part 7 Group BII a
Part 8 Group B II b
Part 9 Group B III
Part 10 Dimensions and Surface Quality
Part 11 Water Absorption
Part 12 Modulus of Rupture
Part 13 Scratch Hardness according to Mohs
Part 14 Resistance to Abrasion, Unglazed Tiles
Part 15 Linear Thermal Expansion
Part 16 Resistance to Thermal Shock
Part 17 Crazing Resistance
Part 18 Chemical Resistance, Unglazed Tiles
Part 19 Chemical Resistance, Glazed Tiles
Part 20 Resistance to Abrasion, Glazed Tiles
Part 21 Moisture Expansion
Part 22 Frost Resistance
Table 1.2 - BS 6431 Standard for ceramic floor and wall tile.
SHAPING
METHOD
WATER ABSORPTION, WA (%)

I
II a
II b
III
WA<3
3<WA<6
6<WA<10
WA >10
A
Extruded
AI
A II a
A II b
A III
Tile
B
Dust
B1
B II a
B II b
B III
Pressed
Tile
Table 1.3 - Classification of ceramic floor and wall tile according to Standard BS 6431 Part 1
The method of classification is very important (Table 1.3). In this classification, there is no
reference to the commercial-product type classification reported in Table 1.1. In fact, the tile are
classified into 8 groups on the basis of just two parameters: water absorption and shaping
method. Superimposed on this classification is the further division, on the basis of the nature of
the surface, into glazed and unglazed tile.
The product standards specify the requisites for the various classes: dimensions, size tolerances,
mechanical, chemical, and physical characteristics, appearance and the designation of the tile.
These standards, then, specify the quality criteria according to which the various types of tile are
evaluated in order to be classified and sold as top quality tile. A summary of the various
requisites is given in Tables 1.4-1.8.
Finally, the standards specifying testing methods define the procedures, necessary
instrumentation, and the way in which results should be expressed for the measurement of the
various tile characteristics. It should be emphasized that the product standards are closely
correlated to the testing methods. This means that the various characteristics, with no exceptions,
must be measured according to the specified testing methods so that a correct comparison can be
made with the requisites established in the respective product standards.
Table 1.4
GROUP A
Dimensions and surface quality characteristics (BS 6431 Part 10)
Table 1.5
GROUP B
Dimensions and surface quality characteristics (BS 6431 Part 10)
Table1.6
GROUP A
Physical properties
Table 1.7
GROUP B
Physical properties
Table 1.8
GROUPS A AND B
Chemical properties
CHOICE CRITERIA
Before continuing with a more detailed discussion of the various characteristics expressly
considered by the standards, the importance of having a knowledge of the standards themselves
should be emphasized. The advantage of being able to refer to these standards as a means of
expressing the quality of a tile lies in the fact that they are structured in such a way as to suggest
precise criteria for making a correct choice of tile, in terms of the previously discussed.
For example, consider the two parameters upon which the classification is based. The first, water
absorption, provides a measure of the porosity. High values of water absorption indicate a porous
structure, while low values of this parameter (at the limit tending towards zero) indicate
increasingly compact structures. In general, the lowest values of water absorption (tile in Groups
AI and BI) correspond to better performance of the tile as regards mechanical resistance,
hardness, resistance to abrasion and chemical attack (obviously for unglazed tile) and frost
resistance. It is implicit, therefore, that tile belonging to Groups AI or BI should be used in those
environments subjected to he greatest stress from both the chemical-mechanical point of view
(e.g., public environments such as offices, supermarkets, shopping centers, cafeterias, etc. or
industrial environments, such as laboratories, workshops, etc.) and hygro-thermal point of view
(outside environments, refrigerators). In effect, the requisites for Groups AI and BI are more
severe than those for the other groups (see Tables 1.6 & 1.7). At the same time, it must be
remembered that the structural compactness is obtained by using suitable raw materials and very
high firing temperatures with the formation of a considerable amount of a liquid phase in the tile
body. This requires a more careful control of the dimensions of the tile because of the greater
risk, not so much of variations in surface flatness, but rather in the work size of the tile. These
risks essentially do not exist for porous tile.
The shaping method, the other parameter upon

which the EN-BS 6431 standards are based,
influences, in particular, the geometric
configuration of the tile. In general, it is not
possible with extrusion (shaping methods A) to
assure a surface finish and so accurate control of
dimensions as can be obtained by pressing
(shaping method B). Indications for the consumer
also emerge from these observations. Tile in
group A must always be installed with open
joints, while tile in group B can also be installed
with closed joints.
Finally, the surface layer also is an important
criterion for choice, and it is necessary to take due
consideration, on the one hand, of the fact that a
glazed surface consents a distinctly greater choice
in colors and decorations, while, on the other
hand, an unglazed tile is more homogeneous
throughout its entire thickness with no
compositional or color discontinuities between the surface and the underlying layers. The
implications are evident, especially in regard to durability in environments subjected to
particularly high stress such as abrasive wear.
Particular attention also should be given to the fact that, especially for glazed tile, the standards
do not fix definite requisites for some important characteristics.
In these cases, the requisites must be established, case by case, by mutual agreement between
producer/seller and buyer/user.
A typical example, is that of abrasion resistance for glazed tile. All 4 levels of resistance
established by standard BS 6431 Part 20 are acceptable (from Class 1, which defines tile for
environments with particularly light abrasion, to Class IV, tile suitable for conditions of severe
abrasion.) The user, in this case, must specify the performance required on the basis of the
environment for which the tile is destines.
In concluding this brief discussion, in repetition of how important it is to have a knowledge of
the characteristics of the tile when planning a tiled floor or wall, it is worthwhile also to
emphasize the fact that the ceramic tiles are only a part, only the surface layer, of the finished
floor or wall. As will be discussed later on, floors and walls are complex, multilayer systems
formed by the ceramic tile, grout, mortar or adhesive that form the tile bed, and separation,
impermeabilization, and thermo-acoustic insulating layers which may be present as well as the
supporting structure. The stresses caused by the environment act on this system was a whole,
and thus it must react in its entirety. The choice of a tile with suitable characteristics for the
particular environment, according to the criteria previously discussed, is certainly a necessary
condition to assure the required durability of the installed tile, but that alone may not be
sufficient, if the tiled floor or wall has not been correctly designed and installed.
CHAPTER 2
TECHNICAL
CHARACTERISTICS
***
Water absorption
Dimensions and surface quality
Modulus of rupture
Scratch hardness
Resistance to abrasion
Linear thermal expansion
Resistance to thermal shock
Chemical resistance
Crazing resistance
Moisture expansion
Frost resistance
Electrical conductance
Ease of cleaning
Resistance of colors to light
Slipperiness
Impact resistance.
CHAPTER 2
TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Since a thorough knowledge of the characteristics and behaviour of ceramic floor and wall tile is
a fundamental requisite in order to choose, install and use them correctly, the following
summary of important tile characteristics is given in this chapter for use as an informative tool
to aid in evaluating the various types of tile available on the market.
The water absorption is the quantity of water which a ceramic tile can absorb under particular
experimental conditions, expressed as percent in weight of the dry tile. Since this absorption
takes place through the pores of the material which are in communication with the external
surface, water absorption serves as a measure of the quantity of such pores, i.e., of the type of
porosity known as open porosity (closed porosity, in contrast, is the porosity due to pores
which are not intercommunicating, and thus not accessible to the external surface). The water
absorption, therefore, provides immediate indication of the structure of the material. High water
absorption corresponds to a porous structure, while compact, vitrified structures have a low
water absorption.
As already mentioned in the preceding section, many physical and chemical characteristics of the
tile depend on its porosity. This, in fact, is the reason why water absorption was chosen as one
of the classification parameters in the EN Standards (see Standard BS 6431 Part 1) A general
criterion on which to base the choice of a ceramic tile is that the lower the water absorption of
the tile, the better the resistance of the tile to severe mechanical and hygrothermal stress imposed
by the working environment. The testing method for water absorption is given in Standard
B2 6431 Part II.
A ceramic tile is a modular element which is repeated over and extended surface such as a floor
or a wall. The quality and the value of a tiled surface is directly related to the regularity and
uniformity of the individual components, i.e., of the individual tile as regards surface quality and
dimensions. For this reason, all the dimensional differences and irregularities in surface quality
which in some way alter or disturb the harmony of the tile and its surface flatness, thus
compromising the visual and tactile effect of the tiled surface as a whole are considered to be
defects. As a direct consequence of this definition, dimensional and surface irregularities are
effectively defects only to the extent that they affect the appearance and functionality of the tiled
surface. In this respect, for example, small effects or irregularitites in the surface which can be
seen only very close up in particular lighting conditions or even only with a magnifying glass are
not considered to be defects, in the same way that deviations from surface flatness which are
whithin the limits set by the standards are not considered as defects. Clearly, the evaluation of
the quality of any object can not be made independently of the use for which the object is
destines, and therefore, one can not expect that ceramic tile, for example, should have
dimensional tolerances of the order of hundreths of millimeters as instead is necessary for a
motor part.
The important dimensional characteristics for ceramic tile are as follows:
Length of the sides and thickness: The importance of the uniformity of dimensions
within the same lot of tiles is evident because of its influence on the regularity of the
design and the flatness of the tiles surface.
straightness of sides: This characteristic is controlled by determining that the sides do

not curve towards the outside or inside, in the plane of the tile.
rectangularity: control of this characteristic consists in determining whether or not the

sides of the tile are perpendicular to each other. Straightness of sides and rectangularity
are important to assure the regularity of the tiled surface, in particular the warp of the
joints which should be as straight as possible and of constant thickness.
surface flatness: The significance and importance of this characteristic are evident, Just
as is its role in determining the possibility of obtaining a tiled surface which is flat,
without steps, wavyness, etc. This characteristic is controlled by measuring the center
curvature (departure of the center of a tile from the plane in which 3 of the 4 corners
lies), edge curvature (departure of the center of one edge of a tile from the plane in
which 3 of the 4 corners lie) and warpage (departure of the fourth corner of a tile from
the plane in which the other corners lie).
In general the variations in dimensions and dimensional tolerances are expressed in %, referred
to the corresponding work size of the tile.
With regard to the characteristic of surface quality, it is controlled by evaluating the following
types of defects: cracks, crazing, short glazing, unevenness, depressions, holes, glaze
devitrification, specks and spots, underglaze faults, decorating faults, shading, nipped edges, and
nipped corners.
The testing methods for determining dimensional characteristics and surface quality are
given in Standard BS 6431 Part 10.
The modulus of rupture is a parameter characteristic of each material and corresponds to the
maximum stress per unit area that a test specimen can withstand without breaking when it is
subjected to an increasing load. The modulus of rupture is measured in newtons per square
millimeter (N/mm).
The modulus of rupture is the mechanical characteristic to which reference is most generally
made in regard to the quality control of ceramic tile. This parameter is used on the one hand to
determine the correctness of the production process in relation to having obtained the desired
degree of compactness and consistency, and on the other hand to determine whether or not the
tile is capable, as far as its compactness is concerned, to support the static and dynamic loads to
which the ceramic floor or wall may be subjected.
In order to understand fully the significance of this characteristic and in order to make correct
use of test results, the following two concepts must be made clear:
1. The modulus of rupture is a characteristic of the material, not of the tile. It therefore
provides a measure only of the internal cohesive characteristics of the material forming the
tile and is not a direct measure of the specific mechanical performance of the tile itself, as is
for example, the load bearing capacity. If two tiles of the same material but different shapes
and sizes are taken into consideration, assuming for example that one of the tiles is twice as
thick as the other, they will have the same modulus of rupture but the load necessary to break
the thinner tile will be of that which must be applied to break the thicker tile. From the
point of view of performance, therefore, the two tiles are very different even though they
have the same modulus of rupture. This fact represents a limitation of the BS 6431 Standard,
which, however, is destined to be modified. The relative ISO Standard, presently in
preparation, will establish a specific requisite for breaking load as well as for modulus of
rupture.
2. The breaking load, measured following the methods specified by the standards is
generally quite inferior to the true load bearing capacity of the ceramic tile when in
service, where it is an integral part of a multilayer complex such as a floor or a wall. Based
on complex calculations, supported by experimental results and taking into consideration not
only the effective stresses and conditions of loading, but also actual limitations, research at
the Italian Ceramic Center of Bologna has demonstrated that the load bearing capacity of a
tiled surface is greater, often by ten times or more, than the load which causes breakage
during the modulus of rupture measurements made in the laboratory on individual tile not
fixed in a tiled surface.
The testing method for modulus of rupture is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 12.
The scratch hardness is a mechanical characteristic of the tile surface, and expresses the
resistance that the surface has to cuts and scratches by bodies in movement over the surface.
These effects deteriorate the surface, sometimes in a very evident way, especially when the
surface is bright and shiny and a single color.
It is worthwhile to point out an important difference between the performance of ceramic
materials in general and some of the other materials used for floor and wall coverings such as
linoleum, cork, and wood. Generally, both glazed and unglazed ceramic tile are relatively hard
and any scratches, when no completely irrelevant, only influence the aesthetic characteristics of
the tile surface but do not damage its functionality. The other materials cited are much less
resistant form this point of view, since cutting actions can even cut clear through the covering
layer and in this way the covering not only loses its aesthetic characteristics but also its
functionality.
The scratch surface hardness of a tile is measured in reference to Mohs Scale following the
testing method given in Standard BS 6431 Part 13.
The resistance to abrasion is a mechanical characteristic of the tile surface and represents the
resistance of the surface itself to wear caused by the movement of bodies, surface or materials in
contact with the tile. A wide variety of bodies may come into contact with and move across a
tiled surface, either intentionally or unintentionally. In particular, if the tiled surface, is a floor,
such bodies include, soles of shoes worn by the people walking on the floor, the wheels of
trollies or other vehicles, furniture, chairs, and other loads which sometimes are dragged across a
floor. Other materials also may be interposed between the body moving across the surface and
the tile, materials such as water, mud, snow, sand, organic substances, etc. Even cleaning and
ordinary maintenance of a tiled surface, carried out using brooms, mops, rags, detergents in
powder form, etc., is a source of abrasion due to the movement of relatively hard materials over
the tiles surface.
In general, there are two main effects which result from these various types of abrasive action:
1) the removal of material from the tile surface, which becomes progressively consumed, and 2)
the alteration of the appearance of the surface, itself, with loss of brilliance, variations in shade,
etc. Although these two effects are clearly related they do not always occur at the same time,
especially with glazed tile. In any case, with glazed tile, it is to be expected that particularly
intense and prolonged abrasive action will, over a determined period of time, result in at least a
partial removal of the glaze layer (and accompanying exposure of the tile body), as well as a
substantial loss not only of the aesthetic characteristics but also in the functionality of the tiled
surface.
For unglazed tile, the damage caused by abrasion is less because any removal of the tile surface
caused by abrasive action always reveals an underlying layer of the same composition and thus
with the same appearance as the original surface. The testing method for resistance to
abrasion of glazed tiles is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 20 (P.E.I. Method). The method
consists of a visual evaluation, in defined conditions of observation, of the effect produced by
abrasion of the tile surface with specified amounts of abrasive material using an apparatus
designed expressly for carrying out this test. The resulting observations are used as the basis for
assigning the class of abrasion resistance, according to the following definitions (in agreement
with the recommendations of the CEC/EUF):
Class 1: Tile for areas that are walked on essentially with soft soled footwear or bare feet
without scratching dirt (e.g., bathrooms and bedrooms in private homes without direct access tot
he outside).
Class II: Tile for areas that are walked on with soft soled or normal footwear with, at the most,
occasional small amounts of abrasive dirt, (e.g., rooms in the living areas of homes, with the
exception of kitchens, entrance ways and other rooms which may have considerable traffic).
Class III: Tile for areas that are walked on quite often with normal footwear and small amounts
of abrasive dirt, (e.g., halls, kitchens, corridors, balconies, loggias and terraces).
Class IV: Tile for areas that are subjected to considerable traffic with some abrasive dirt so that
the conditions are the most severe for which glazed floor tiles are suitable, (e.g., entrances, work
rooms, restaurants and exhibition and sales rooms as well as other rooms in public and private
buildings not mentioned in Classes I, II and III).
In reference to this test, it is important to emphasize that unlike most of the other tests of the tile
quality, this test does not result in a limiting value to be used as the criterion of acceptability of
the tile, but rather the results of the test allow the tile to be assigned to one of the four classes, all
of which are acceptable. In this case, then, the specific requisite will depend on what has been
agreed, case by case, between producer-seller and buyer-consumer. For this reason, the
resistance to abrasion, even more than other tile characteristics, represents a precise and
fundamental criterion for choice of the tile as a function of its intended working environment.
The testing method for resistance to abrasion of unglazed tile is reported in Standard BS
6431 Part 14. The method involves measuring the volume of material removed from the proper
surface of the tile by means of a rotating disc under given conditions and with the use of
specified abrasive material. The results from this test are more related to the technical
performance of the tile surface rather than to the aesthetic effects of wear.
An aspect not always given due consideration (not even in the standards where the evaluation
and measurement of the various characteristics almost never allows for the superimposition of
two or more effects) regards the influence that abrasion may have on some important functional
characteristics of the surface, such as, for example, the resistance to chemicals and stains, and the
ease of cleaning. Clearly, this is quite an important aspect for both glazed and unglazed tile
since, in general, wear due to abrasion has the effect of weakening the structure of the surface
due to the appearance of pores and microcracks which, although invisible except with a
microscope, serve as points of attack for dirt, residues, etc.
Linear thermal expansion can be defined as the dimensional change exhibited by all materials as
a result of changes in temperature. More precisely, materials expand when the temperature is
increased and contract when the temperature is decreased.
This behavior is characterized through the measurement of the thermal expansion coefficient, ,
whose average value in a given temperature interval T is defined as the ratio between the
increase in length of a test piece of the material being examined corresponding to the increase in
temperature T, and the product of its initial length and T. The value of hte thermal expansion
coefficient is expressed in C .
The testing method for linear thermal expansion is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 15.
The thermal expansion coefficients for ceramic floor and wall tile usually range from
4 x 10 C to 8 x 10 C. This means that for each increase in temperature of 1 C, the length
of the tile will increase from 4 to 8 thousandths of a millimeter for each meter of initial length. It
is important to control in thermal expansion coefficient for ceramic tile so that it can be taken
into account in relation to the other materials which constitute the completed tiled surface, when
planning the project and installing the tile. Further discussion on this topic can be found in later
chapters.
The term thermal shock refers to the stress that a body undergoes when it is subjected to rapid
changes in temperature, such as may occur when a tiled floor or wall comes into contact,
intentionally or unintentionally, with hot or cold bodies (e.g., boiling liquid, hot vapors used for
cleaning, or in the case of tile installed out-of-doors, unexpected changes in temperature, etc.).
Thermal shock resistance is the characteristic which indicates whether or not the tile is capable
of withstanding such rapid changes in temperature without being damaged.
The testing method for thermal shock resistance is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 16.
Chemical resistance is the characteristic that defines the behavior of a ceramic surface when it
comes into contact with aggressive chemicals, i.e., those substances which because of their
chemical composition or characteristics are potentially capable of reacting with the ceramic
surface, corroding it or penetrating it permanently or in any case altering its appearance.
Aggressive chemicals, acids or bases, can be found in various processing liquids (e.g., milk in
milk and cheese plants, grease and oil in garages, blood in slaughtering houses, laboratory
chemicals), in other materials which may come into contact with a tiled floor or wall (e.g., food,
ink, etc.), and in detergents which are used for ordinary and extra-ordinary cleaning and
maintenance.
The deterioration of a tiled surface by the various chemicals cited can generally be attributed to
two distinct mechanisms: (i) one a true chemical reaction between the substance and the tile
which results in alteration of the surface (in general al ceramic surfaces are relatively inert to the
action of chemicals ; the only exception being hydrofluoric acid), and (ii) the other a physical
action of absorption where the chemical is able to penetrate below the surface so that it is in
some way held there, if not permanently, at least such that it is extremely difficult to remove.
These mechanisms of chemical attack explain why very often, as mentioned in the preceding
discussion on abrasion resistance, the chemical resistance of a ceramic surface tends to decrease
for surfaces exposed to relatively severe conditions of abrasive wear, conditions which in general
tend to develop a certain surface microporosity. The combination of two types of stress,
mechanical and chemical, can therefore lead to a more evident deterioration of a ceramic surface
that just the arithmetic sum of the separate effects.
The testing method for the chemical resistance of glazed tile is given in BS 6431 Part 19 and
involves the determination of the resistance of the tile to various staining agents or
chemicals. The results of the test allow the tile to be assigned to a particular class of resistance,
for each staining agent or for each chemical specified in the standard. The classes, in order of
decreasing resistance are as follows:
Stains: Class 1, Class 2, Class 3;
Chemicals: Class AA, Class A, Class B, Class C and Class D. (Class 1: good resistance to
staining; Class 3: persistence of the stains, and thus poor resistance. Class AA: optimum
resistance to chemicals; Class D: poor resistance to chemicals).
The testing method for chemical resistance of unglazed tile is given in Standard BS 6431
Part 18. The method involves determining whether or not the tile is resistant to specified
chemicals.
The term crazing refers to fine fissures or hair cracks on the surface of the glaze; the pattern
formed by these hair cracks may be roughly circular or also quite irregular. The causes of this
defect can be traced essentially to poor agreement between the thermal expansion coefficient of
the glaze and of the tile body. Although such crazes are extremely thin, they are nevertheless an
interruption in the continuity of the glaze, which can cause a loss in the impermeability of the tile
as well as an alteration to its appearance. It should be remembered, however, that for certain
types of tile, just as for other ceramic products, crazing may be an intentional aesthetic effect,
i.e., specifically created during production in order to confer the surface of the ceramic with an
antique appearance.
The testing method for crazing resistance is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 17.
The moisture expansion corresponds to the expansion, expressed in mm/m, that a tile may
undergo as a result of the absorption of moisture.
The tendency for this behavior, whose effects are essentially analogous to those which can be
produced by an increase in temperature (see the previous discussion relative to the coefficient of
linear thermal expansion) is found, as would be expected, more or less exclusively in porous tile.
Thus testing for this characteristics is required only for unglazed tile with values of water
absorption greater than 6% (specifically, tile falling into Groups AIIb, AIII and BIIb).
The testing method for moisture expansion is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 21.
Frost resistance is the characteristic which some types of ceramic tile have to resist the action of
frost in humid environments and at temperatures below 0 C.
The mechanism of frost action involves two distinct steps. The first step is the penetration of
water coming from the environment (rain, snow and ice in the case of tile installed out-of-doors;
wash water or process water, in the case of indoor tiled surfaces such refrigeration chambers)
into the pores of the tile, and the second is the solidification (freezing) of the water inside the
pores. As is well know, the transformation of water from the liquid to the solid state is
accompanied by an increase in volume due to the fact that density of ice is less than that of
water. For this reason, when the water inside a pore freezes, it subjects the material to
considerable mechanical stress which can lead to cracking of the tile and possibly breaking-off of
a portion of the material. The action of freezing, therefore, can give rise to the appearance of
fractures and chipping which results usually has a typical concoidal shape.
Based on the mechanism described, the frost resistance of a material is determined by two
parameters, (i) the presence and quantity of pores, thus the possibility that water will penetrate
into the interior of the material, and (ii) the shape and size of the pores present, thus, depending
on the more or less complete filling of the space available, the amount of space the water has in
which to expand during freezing which, in turn, determines the degree of stress induced.
Consequently, there exists a certain correlation between frost resistance and water absorption:
the lower the water absorption, the greater the probability that the material will be frost resistant,
since it will be more difficult for water to penetrate into the material. It should be pointed out,
however, that there do exist certain ceramic building materials which are highly porous, but
which are frost resistant. Bricks, for example, which have water absorptions greater than 1015%. The frost resistance of these materials is explained by the particular distribution of the
shape and size of the pores present.
Still another aspect merits attention: The choice of frost resistant tile is certainly indispensable
for tiled surfaces exposed to high humidities and low temperatures, but that alone may not be
sufficient to avoid the appearance of frost damage, because not only the tiles, but rather the
whole floor or wall system must be frost resistant. This important aspect will be discussed in
more detail in a later chapter.
The testing method for frost resistance is given in Standard BS 6431 Part 22.
All the characteristics discussed up to this point are expressly considered in Standard BS 6431.
There are, however, other characteristics that are worth having a knowledge of which either
have not yet been standardized, or which are considered in specific standards of other countries.
The electrical conductance of a material is the amount of current which flows through a portion
of the material of unit length and unit area when a unit difference of potential is applied across
the extremes. Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. Those materials with a high electrical
resistance and corresponding low electrical conductance form the class of materials known as
electrical insulators. Ceramic floor and wall tile belong to this class of materials as do most
ceramics. Ceramic tile do not permit the passage of an electric current (as long as they are not
wet, in which case it is the water with the salts contained in it that carries the electricity). This is
a very important characteristic as regards safety, in particular for lowering the risks of
electrocution.
Another important characteristic related to the electrical conductance is the capacity to allow the
accumulation of electrostatic charge on the surface. This accumulation of static electricity
which, for example, can be generated on a floor by the rubbing action that occurs when one
walks across the floor, usually eventually leads to the discharge of that electricity, often through
the body of a person, what is commonly known as getting a shock. Some materials have the
characteristic of being able to inhibit the accumulation of static electricity. Such inhibitors of
the accumulation of static electricity, as might be expected, usually do not have excessively
low values of conductance.
In the case of floors, the use of materials capable of inhibiting the accumulation of static
electricity assures, on the one hand the absence of that physiological annoyance of getting a
shock, however small, and on the other hand can provide conditions of more reliable or absolute
safety in those environments where the release of accumulated static electricity could be
dangerous (operating rooms, laboratories, chemical plants, where the presence of potentially
explosive substances leads to the risk of an explosion even with the smallest spark, such as that
resulting from the release of accumulated static electricity).
Ceramic tiles generally have quite high values of resistance, nevertheless experience has shown
that ceramic tiles do not tend to accumulate static electricity, as does a carpet for example,
therefore the use of ceramic floor tile, in general, eliminates the problem of getting a shock after
walking across the room.
Most types of ceramic tile, however, have excessively high values of electrical resistance to be
used in the particular applications cited where safety considerations take priority. Special
ceramic tile is necessary for such applications, tile characterized by an electrical conductivity
greater than that of normal tile.
Generally, for the applications in question, a metallic net or other equivalent surface is positioned
below the tile bed. In addition to establishing the equipotential of the system, the metallic net
also allows the system to be grounded.
In reference to ceramic floor and wall tile, the ease of cleaning refers to the facility and
efficiency with which dirt, stains, dust, and other materials which come into contact with the tile
surface can be removed, while the ease of maintaining hygienic conditions indicates the
facility and efficiency with which hygienic conditions can be achieved capable of assuring that
the occupants of a certain environment are living in clean and healthful conditions.
The performance aspect of this characteristic rests in the terms ease, efficiency, facility, in
the sense that a material is considered easier to clean and maintain in hygienic conditions the
easier it is to completely eliminate the stains, dirt, bacteria and microbes that come into contact
with it under normal working conditions, without there remaining any permanent traces, using
fast, easy and if possible automated cleaning systems.
The requirements for cleanliness and hygiene, to which this characteristic refers, are too often
unjustly underestimated. This happens not only in regard to the construction of residential
buildings but also and especially for public buildings such as offices, schools, community halls
and sometimes even places where hygiene represents a priority requirement, such as hospitals,
restaurants, and cafeterias. The difficulties that are encountered in these environments are
caused not only by the lack of sufficient personnel or inadequate tools, but frequently also by the
choice of materials which are not particularly suitable from the hygienic point of view.
Cleaning and maintaining the hygiene of a surface is easier and more efficient the more compact
and smooth the surface, i.e., when the surface is not uneven and wrinkled and when it is
impermeable and chemically inert. Compactness essentially refers to the cohesion of the material
and its mechanical resistance under the effect of energetic cleaning. An important aspect of the
ease of cleaning is that the material being cleaned not have the tendency to ravel, crumble, and
come apart, thus itself producing particles of material, i.e. dirt. The presence of wrinkles and
uneveness of the surface creates points of preferential, persistent accumulation of dirt since it is
more difficult to remove the dirt from these points. Surfaces which are braided, woven,
honeycombed etc., inevitably have cavities from which dust and dirt, and thus bacteria, can be
removed only with very accurate cleaning systems and often then, not completely. An
impermeable surface is a nonporous, thus nonabsorbent surface; liquids, oil, and ink are not able
to penetrate beneath such surfaces. Finally, a chemically inert surface does not react either with
dirt or staining substances or with detergents.
Clearly, ceramic tile, especially glazed tile and low porosity unglazed tile, in general is the
material for floor and wall coverings having the best characteristics with regard to ease of
cleaning and maintaining hygienic conditions. Not only does ceramic tile have a smooth,
compact, impermeable, chemically inert surface, albeit to different degrees depending on product
type, but also, as confirmed by common experience, it is capable of withstanding severe
conditions of uncleanliness and aggressive cleaning. It is worthwhile however, to emphasize an
important aspect: The ease of cleaning must be considered as a characteristic not only of the
individual tile, but rather as a characteristic of the tiles surface as a whole. A suitable, properly
applied material in the spaces between tiles is therefore an absolute necessity from the ease of
cleaning and hygienic point of view.
Finally, it should be pointed out that just as for chemical resistance, the ease of cleaning of
ceramic tile also may decrease as a result of abrasive wear. Abrasion, in fact, can cause the
progressive removal of the tile surface, even just infinitesimal thicknesses, which can result in
the appearance of micropores capable of providing dirt with better conditions for attaching itself
to the surface.
At present there are no standardized methods for determining the ease of cleaning and
maintaining hygienic conditions of ceramic tile. However, in the course of specific research on
this aspect of performance, within the framework of pre-standardization investigations, the
Italian Ceramic Center of Bologna has developed a testing procedure to evaluate this
characteristic.
Everyone has experienced the fact that prolonged exposure to light alters many colors, especially
exposure to ultraviolet light. Thus, for a material, the resistance of colors to light represents the
resistance of the material to the action of deterioration, which usually takes the form of
alterations in the intensity or shade of a color. Such alterations are undersired not only because
they cause an overall variation in the appearance of the surface, but especially because with time,
quite unappealing chromatic differences from zone to zone on the same surface can develop in
correspondence to different light intensities and lengths of exposure. This characteristic is
particularly important for floor and wall tile installed out-of-doors and thus subject to prolonged
exposure to the sun.
The colors used in ceramic materials, in general, are stable with respect to the effects of exposure
to sun and light. Even so, there are some types of decorations or chromatic effects, especially
with glazed tile, which are more susceptible to alterations caused by such exposure.
A testing method for the resistance of the colors in cermaic tile to light is given in the German
standard DIN 51094.
The slipperiness of a surface is the characteristic which describes the kinetic and dynamic
conditions of the movement of a body in contact with it.
In the case of floors, it is immediately evident how the slipperiness is closely related to the safety
of walking across the floor and thus is a very important performance characteristic. Today this
characteristic is receiving increasingly greater attention, partly because of laws and regulations
which establish the precise responsibility of the owner of a floor with respect to accidents and
damage to third parties caused by falls.
The parameter used to characterize the slipperiness of a surface is the coefficient of friction
which is proportional to the force, parallel to the surface of contact, which must be applied in
order to produce relative movement between the two bodies and thus it also is the force that
defines the conditions of equilibrium. The higher the coefficient of friction, the lower the
slipperiness.
The coefficient of friction depends on the nature of the two bodies in contact as well as on the
conditions of contact itself, in particular, the state of the surface, the presence or absence of
material interposed between the surfaces, the humidity and temperature, etc.
In regard to the nature of the surface, the coefficient of friction for lfoor coverings (in contact
with the soles of shoes) is lower the smoother, shinier and shape-retaining the surface, i.e., the
greater the resistance to perforation, the greater its tendency to allow coverage with a thin,
continuous film of water, etc. The coefficient of friction, in comparison with that for a dry, clean
surface, decreases in the presence of oil, grease, dirt, water, and other materials which serve as
lubricants between the sole of a shoe and the floor. When such materials are present, therefore,
the slipperiness of the floor increases as does the risk of falls and accidents.
Rough uneven surfaces tend to have higher coefficient of friction. Such roughness can be natural
or expressly created by various types of relieve in suitable shapes and sizes. Surfaces of this type
retain relatively high coefficients of friction even when water or other liquids are present because
the unevenness inhibits the formation of a continuous film of liquid, responsible for the decrease
in friction. It should be pointed out, however, that the surface profiles giving optimum
conditions of safety as regards prevention of slipping and falling also make the surfaces more
difficult to clean. This is an important factor which must be kept in mind when choosing a floor
covering. Ceramic tile, especially unglazed tile, in general is one of the least slippery materials
among those most commonly used for floor coverings.
Environments where safety requirements are of prime importance are above all public places
with heavy pedestrian traffic (both inside and out-of-doors) where often there exist conditions
such that walking becomes quire difficult (presence of water, dirt and other slippery materials on
the floor). Swimming pools in particular fit this category, especially as regards the changing
rooms and the walk-ways around the pool itself. Slipperiness of the floor is also particularly
important in industrial environments where the floor often is dirtied with oil, grease, etc.
An instrumental method for the determination of slipperiness, or more precisely the coefficient
of friction has been developed by the British Ceramic Research Association.
The impact resistance, or resilience, of a material for floor coverings is its resistance to being
broken, throughout its thickness, or to surface chipping as a result of heavy blows. In general
ceramic tile, as all ceramic materials, is not resilient and thus the mechanical impact of a weight
may initiate cracking. In general, therefore, the use of ceramic tile, especially glazed tile,
requires the user to be careful to avoid dropping heavy, sharp objects, a precaution which is not
necessary with the so-called resilient materials (linoleum, rubber, etc.).
In regard to surface chipping, glazed tiles are at a greater risk because they are covered with a
layer of glass, the glaze, an intrinsically fragile material which is very thin, and even though it is
intimately attached to the tile body, there is a net physical-chemical discontinuity at the interface. A method for the determination of the resistance of glazed tile to impact is given in
Standard BS 1281. For unglazed tile, the risk of chipping is quire limited, especially for the very
compact materials.
Finally, in regard to breakage of the tile over its entire thickness, it is worthwhile to point out the
importance, for the same microstructural and mechanical characteristics, of a uniform,
continuous tile bed. Indeed, it is clear, for example, that the presence of cavities underneath the
tile would favor the type of breakage discussed here.
CHAPTER 3
PLANNING, DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF A TILED FLOOR OR WALL
***
Introduction
Planning and Design
Installation
CHAPTER 3
PLANNING, DESIGN AND INSTALLATION OF A TILED FLOOR OR WALL
INTRODUCTION
The ceramic tiles constitute the final surface layer of a floor or a wall, which in its entirety is a
complex building system. This system is formed by different materials. Each layer is called upon
to carry out a specific function. The more important layers in the complex system forming a floor
or a wall are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Outer layer (working surface): formed by the ceramic tile, whose function is to provide
the final surface.
Tile bed: whose function is to connect the tiles to each other and to make the tiles adhere
to a support. The tile bed may be formed by cement mortar, or by various types of
cement-based or organic-based adhesives.
Levelling and regulatory layer: whose function is to absorb the deviations from flatness
of the support, eliminate any surface roughness and irregularities, and also hold any
necessary tubing. This layer is generally formed by cement binders.
Strengthening and load distribution layer: this layer, in the presence of other
compressible layers, has the function of avoiding punctures and disgregation of the tile
layer which could result from the fact that the other layers can be compressed, i.e., give
under pressure. Usually this layer is formed by a bed of concrete, reinforced with an
electro-welded metallic net.
Sound absorption layer: in the specific case of floors, this layer has the function of
avoiding the direct transfer of vibrations (caused by blows) to the load bearing layer. This
layer may be various materials, including polyethylene sheets, granulated cork or cork
sheets, granulated rubber glued to cardboard, felts of mineral wool, tarpaper, bituminous
conglomerates, etc.
Separation or slippage layer: whose function is to separate one layer from another,
chemically, physically or mechanically. Generally polyethylene film is used to form this
layer.
Thermal insulation layer: whose function is to control the flow of heat through the wall
or floor, in order to limit energy consumption and assure greater thermal comfort. This
layer may be formed by (i) relatively compressible thermoinsulating materials, usually
available in sheets (e.g., fiberous agglomerates of wood or cork, polyurethane foam,
polystyrene foam), (ii) a bed of concrete lightened with various materials (expanded clay,
vermiculite, perlite), or (iii) cellular concrete.
Impermeable layer: whose function is to prevent the passage of water (coming from the
environment or from various washing operations, etc.) to the underlying layers or to
neighboring rooms. Polyethylene film is generally used to achieve impermeability.
Load bearing layer: this essentially is the basic structure which must be covered, it has
the function of transferring the loads on the floor or wall to the vertical static load bearing
structure. Very different types of structures can be used to construct the load bearing
layer. If the load bearing layer is a floor, in most cases one of the following types of
construction is used: mixed brick-concrete built on the work site, mixed brick-concrete
constructed with prefabricated elements, concrete-steel, mixed brick-steel, and reinforced

concrete floors either poured on the work site or prefabricated. Wall may be constructed
of brick, concrete block, corrugated sheet metal, prefabricated metal panels, etc.
Clearly, although effectively the ceramic tiles represent the interface between this complex
building system (the floor or wall) and the environment and thus are called upon to perform a
particularly important and demanding job, it is the system as a whole that must withstand the
stress put on it by the environment. The ceramic tiles, then, are not everything, they alone are not
the floor or wall; they are only a part, albeit very important part, of the system. Even so, this fact
is not always given proper consideration in practice. Often the role and importance of the
ceramic tile layer is overestimated, and the fact that the performance of the system also depends
on many other factors is neglected, including the quality of the materials used and the
dimensions of the various layers (i.e., how the system is designed) as well as the quality of the
construction (i.e., the methods and care used in building the various layers and in installing the
tile).
As will be seen in the following chapter, there are various defects in ceramic floors and walls
whose main cause are errors in design or poor installation of the tile, even though the tile itself is
of optimum quality.
The choice of tile is just one step in the planning and design of a tiled floor or wall. It is a phase
which often is not given sufficient consideration and as a consequence the results are sometimes
not at all good in terms of quality and durability of the tiled surface.
PLANNING AND DESIGN
The planning and design of a tiled floor or wall is the phase where, starting from a certain
amount of data and a complete picture of the performance requisites which must be fulfilled, one
proceeds to the choice of material to be used for each layer, the selection of the method for
installing the tile, and the size of the system. (Table 2.1).
Although an exhaustive discussion of this phase does not lie within the scope of the present
publication, it is worthwhile at this point to present the main aspects which must be taken into
account during planning and design of a tiled surface in order to insure that the installation will
be good quality and long lasting. A good understanding of this phase in the construction of a
tiled surface is important because many of the defects which can occur, that will be discussed
later on, result from improper planning and design, of not having attributed sufficient importance
to facts and circumstances that should have been taken into consideration before beginning
actually to install the tile, i.e., during the phase of planning and design. Just as for any project,
building, mechanical, whatever, there are certain project data necessary for designing a tiled
floor or wall, i.e., parameters defined and specified by someone other than the designer or tile
setter. These data are very important because they define the starting situation and the final
results desired, i.e., the environment in which the tile are to be installed and the performance
levels required.
Fig. 2.1 - Schematic

representation of the planning
and design phase of tile floors
and walls.
The first step in planning and design, then, is a careful analysis of this situation; in particular,
data and information must be collected regarding the following three aspects:
1.
Type of environment
2.
Type and characteristics of the structure
3.
Geometry of the surface to be covered
Clearly, much information must be known about the type of environment, before any project
choice can be made (Fig. 2.1): the position of the surface to be covered (horizontal, i.e., a floor;
or vertical, i.e., a wall); location of the surface (inside or out-of-doors) and whether or not severe
climatic conditions can be expected; whether or not the surface is for a residential building or a
public building, for civil or industrial use; and finally, the specific activity carried out in the area
where the tiled surface is found (e.g., in the case of a floor in a private home, if it is a floor in the
kitchen, hall, bedroom, etc.) Each different type of environment has a corresponding different
level of stress (mechanical, chemical and hygrothermal) on the floor and walls, which must be
taken into account in the various project choices and installation procedures.
In regard to the type and characteristics of the structure (i.e., the load bearing layer), the data,
characteristics and behavior of the structure which must be known include, the state of the
surface, its thermal expansion behavior, or possible dimensional variations which could occur, its
modulus of elasticity, and thus the rigidity or flexibility of the structure under the action of
applied loads, and the composition or articulation of the structure. Such information is
indispensable in order to take the proper measures regarding the treatment of the surface,
coupling between the tile and the structure and the location of expansion joints and shrinkagebending joints.
Fig. 2.1 - Classification

of types of surfaces to be
tiles
Finally, the geometry of the surface to be covered can influence the choice of the size and
shape of the tiles, their disposition, and the choice of the technique with which the tiles are
installed, etc.
An examination of the project data discussed up to this point, begins to assume a fundamental
role, in view of the successive steps in planning and designing a ceramic floor or wall, for which
two basic criteria must be considered:
1.
2.
The materials used (tile, materials for the joints, materials for the tile bed, etc.) must have
sufficient chemical physical-mechanical characteristics to withstand the stress resulting
from the environment for which they are destined.
All these materials must be assembled in such a way as to prevent pathological
interference between the physiological behaviors of the constituent materials.
In regard to the second criterion, it is important to remember that the individual layers are
formed by different materials, which, if they were free to move, would react quite differently to
the stresses imposed by the environment. Once assembled, however, they do not have this
freedom, each material, each layer is, in fact, bound and constrained by the other layers and other
materials to which they are connected. The presence of these constraints leads to the formation of
strain within each layer. The greater the rigidity (i.e., the higher the modulus of elasticity) of the
materials involved, the greater the strains can reach values greater than the resistance of the
materials, causing cracks, buckling and adhesion failure of the tile.
The second step in planning and designing a tiled surface is the choice of materials: the choice of
the tile (according to the criteria previously discussed), choice of the materials for the tile bed,
and the choice of the materials for filling the joints.
The range of choices for the tile bed is quite wide and can be subdivided into two main
categories: cement mortar (applied in a thick layer) and adhesive (applied in a thin layer).
In general, cement mortar is a mixture of a binder (lime and/or cement) and an inert material
(sand), which has been homegeneized with a sufficient amount of water to give the mixture a
pasty consistency as well as to supply the binding material with the water necessary for its
complete hydration. The layer in direct contact with the tile is enriched in cement, via dusting,
i.e., the application of a very thin layer of pure cement. The components of a cement mortar
should be in approximately the following ratio: 200-350kg of cement (usually portland cement
325 is used) per m of sand.
The use of adhesives for the installation of ceramic tile is becoming increasingly more common
throughout the world. Various types of adhesives are available. Teh Australian Standard 23581980 Adhesive for ceramic wall tiles and mosaics classifies adhesives into the following two
general categories:
adhesives based on organic compounds (adhesives in which the principal bonding
component is an organic material...and may be supplied as either a one-part or a two-part
mix) these adhesives can be further classified as follows:
Type I: water resistant, organic-based adhesives for installation of ceramic wall tiles and
mosaics in areas where the face of the tile is subjected to prolonged exposure to water;
Type II: general purpose, organic-based adhesives for installation of ceramic wall tiles
and mosaics in interior areas where the face of the tile is subjected to intermittent
exposure to water;
adhesives based on cement (adhesives in which the principal bonding component is a
hydraulic cement, e.g., portland cement, modified by the inclusion of such other admixtures as
may be necessary in order to achieve satisfactory bonding of ceramic wall tiles and mosaics).
The standard cited, gives the characteristics that the various types of adhesives must have, as
well as the respective requisites. It is important to emphasize that the different commercial types
of adhesives can differ extensively on from the other, as regards truly fundamental characteristics
from an applicative point of view, such as chemical resistance, flexibility, frost resistance, etc.
The choice of adhesive, then, is a key point in the planning and design of a tiled surface, no less
important that the choice of the tile itself.
Finally, in regard to the choice of material to fill the spaces between tiles (i.e., the material
forming the joints), today, alongside the more traditional products based on cement grouting
materials sometimes with additions of latex, there is a wide range of other types of materials for
this purpose with various compositions and colors as well as various technical characteristics.
Again, in this case, carefully considered choices are necessary, especially because the
characteristics of the joints influence both the technical and aesthetic quality of the tiled surfaces
of which they are an integral part.
The successive step in the planning and design of a tiled surface is the choice of the system for
installing the tile.
Two techniques are possible:
one involving closed joints, with the tile practically touching each other and thus with
spaces between tile less than 1mm;
the other involving open joints, with spaces between tile usually around 5 to 10mm.
This choice must be based on the following criteria:
type of tile: In the case of extruded tile (cotto, split tile), open joints are obligatory,
because extrusion, in general, does not assure sufficiently accurate control of the
dimensions to consent perfect contact between tile;
expected stress on the tile layer: Open joints (with the spaces between tile filled with
material which has a certain amount of flexibility) allow a less rigid layer of tile to be
obtained, which, consequently, is capable of adapting better to the stresses and
deformations induced by the underlying layers or by applied loads; with closed joints, the
tiled layer tends to behave almost as a monolithic sheet. This is the reason why the use of
closed joints is often not advised in some countries (e.g., U.S.A., France) and the
minimum size of the joints used is 2mm;
desired aesthetic effect: Closed joints enhance the uniformity of the tiled surface, while
open joints emphasize to a greater extent the separation between individual tile, imparting
a sort of woven appearance, or particularly evident network structure, and thus clearly
influence the aesthetic characteristics of the surface.
Closed joints
Open joints
The planning and design phase, in the case of floors, continues with the definition of the position
of the expansion joints. Expansion or deformation joints are those discontinuities in the tiled
surface, filled with permanently deformable material, positioned with the following objectives:
separation of the tiled surfaces from fixed elements of construction such as columns,
walls, baseboard, etc.;
subdivide tiled surfaces of large extensions into fields of conveniently limited dimensions
in order to compensate for strain induced by variations in dimensions resulting from
various causes;
interrupt the tiled surface in correspondence to any expansion joints, and shrinkage joints
realized in the structure).
The importance of expansion joints in controlling induced tensions in the tiled surface, and thus
guaranteeing its stability and durability is clear. It also is evident that these joints must also
involve the entire tile/tile bed double layer (Fig. 2.2). The joints must be filled with permanently
deformable materials which are equally deformable as well as resistant to the chemical and
physical stresses from the environment. The key points to remember in the planning and design
phase are the following:
Separation joints must be realized at the perimeter of the tiled surface and in any case
where this surface borders fixed elements of construction.
Joints must be located in correspondence with the structural joints.
For tiled surfaces of considerable extension, a network of expansion joints should be
realized and their frequency should be greater the more severe the hygrothermal conditions of the
destined environment, the more flexible and deformable the load bearing structure, and the
smaller the size of the joints between tile. In general, the distance between neighboring
expansion joints varies from 2-3m in the case of a tiled surface located out-of-doors with closed
joints, to 6-10m in the case of a tiled surface located indoors with open joints.
Fig. 2.2 - Expansion

joints
Finally, the composition of the entire system and the dimensions of each layer are determined on
he basis of the criteria and considerations discussed up to this point. In general there is more than
one correct solution which can be adopted, case by case, with respect to the criteria discussed.
On the other hand, the real situations are practically infinite and identical conditions will rarely
be found. For these reasons, it is difficult to compile a repertory of project solutions, with precise
indications for optimum solutions. It is easier, perhaps, to establish what are the more risky
conditions and the less correct solutions. And, that indeed is the objective of the following
chapter, where the possible defects in tile installations will be presented and analyzed. Two
examples of practical solutions are reported in Fig. 2.3 and Fig. 2.4.
Tiles
Tile bed
Separation layer
Strengthening layer
Impermeable layer
concrete
Fig. 2.3 Example

of a floor system at
ground level
French drain
Tiles
Tile bed
Separation layer
Strengthening layer
sound absorption layer
impermeable layer
Fig. 2.4 Example

of a floor system at
upper level
load bearing layer
INSTALLATION
Once the planning and design phase has been correctly completed, as discussed in the previous
section, it is time to proceed to the actual installation of the tile, i.e., assemblage of the various
layers and thus the actual construction of the floor/wall system.
The methods and techniques used to install the tile are no less important than the planning and
design phase and have an equal influence on the quality and durability of the installations. The
various operations (Table 2.2) must be carried out with extreme care and attention in order to
avoid the occurrence of serious defects, such as those which will be discussed in the following
chapter.
It is worthwhile to emphasize that the scope of this section is simply the executive aspect of
installing the tile, i.e., how the various materials, chosen in the planning and design phase
according to the criteria previously discussed, are assembled and installed, and what are the
more suitable techniques for different systems of installing tile (with cement mortars or with
adhesives, with open joints or with closed joints), among those which were chosen during the
planning and design phase as being most suitable and congruent with eh requirements of the
specific case. It is necessary to be very clear on this point because of its implications regarding
the diagnosis of any defects which may occur as well as the attribution of the relative
responsibility for such defects. For example, the adhesion failure with separation of the tile from
the floor or wall is a defect which, as will be discussed in the following chapter, can be the result
of various causes and sometimes results from excessive weakness in the anchorage between the
tiles and the tile bed. In some cases poor anchorage is due mainly to the use of the wrong
adhesive, as regards performance, for the particular situation, i.e., an error in the planning and
design phase. In other cases the same with a notched spatula of inadequate size, or to the fact
that the tiles were not correctly tapped into position, or due to the fact that the tiles were applied
after the adhesives open time had elapsed. All these are installation errors. This distinction,
to which reference will be made throughout the discussion, is very important because in practice
the same person often is not responsible for both the planning and design and installation
phase.
Fig. 2.2 Schematic

representation of the
installation phase of tile
floors and walls
The operations involved in installing the tile are as follows:

1.
Preparation of the support surface.
2.
Preparation of the binder (cement mortar or adhesive)
3.
Application of the binder, i.e., preparation of the tile bed
4.
Setting the tile
5.
Sealing the joints
6.
Cleaning the freshly tiled surface
It is not possible within the scope of this volume to present a detailed description of each
individual step of the installation phase, relative to the various operating and environmental
conditions (e.g., installation of a tiled floor, out-of-doors with cement mortar, or installation of a
tiled wall, inside with adhesive.) Discussion in this section is limited to pointing out the general
aspects of each step, specifying from time to time the requirements which must be met and the
precautions to take in the more critical situations, in order to provide a sufficient basis for a
correct interpretation of the defects which are discussed in the following chapter.
It should be emphasized that, on the basis of the previous considerations, an evaluation of the
correctness of the installation of a tiled surface is made on the basis of (i) the force and tenacity
of the anchorage of the tile bed between the tile and the underlying support layer (in relation,
therefore, to the adhesion between tile and tile bed and between tile bed and support layer, as
well as the internal cohesion of the tile bed itself) and (ii) the regularity, the aesthetic quality and
the technical to the regularity of the joints between tile, and the compactness, cohesion and
chromatic uniformity of the material filling the joint sand of the overall tile surface when
completely installed).
The support surface must be perfectly clean, free from dust, paint, scraps, grease and oil, friable
or easily removed materials, etc. Very careful washing of the surface is advisable; in many cases
simple cleaning with a broom may not be sufficient.
When the tile are to be installed with cement mortars, the support surface must be first wet with
clean water to avoid later on the possibility that the surface itself extracts part of the water from
the mortar necessary for setting and hardening.
The support surface also must be chemically compatible with the binder which is to be applied.
For example, if the surface to be tiled contains gypsum, as is the case with plasterboard panels
and other types of lightweight vertical partitions, and cement-based binders or adhesives are to
be used, it is necessary to first treat the surface with a primer; otherwise the chemical reaction
between the gypsum in the surface and the cementing component would have a negative effect
on both the strength of adhesion and cohesion of the tile bed itself.
Cleaning the
support surface
The support must be flat and even, especially when adhesives in a thin layer (thin-set method)
are to be used. It is very important that the thickness of the adhesive layer be as uniform as
possible, in order to avoid the onset of dangerous tensions during maturation. In some cases it is
necessary to make recourse to a specific levelling and regulatory layer, with which any required
inclination can also be realized.
Finally, the support layer must be mechanically resistant and rigid, especially in the case of
floors destined to be walked on by many people or travelled over with heavy vehicles (trollies,
motor vehicles, etc.). In these cases, thus in industrial environments, supermarkets, garages, etc.,
as well as anytime the floor includes lightweight, compressible, thermal insulating layers, it is
important to reinforce the support layer with a strengthening and load distribution layer, i.e., with
a bed of concrete, reinforced with electro welded metallic net.
The mortar constituents (cement, sand, water) must be carefully controlled. The sand should
have a suitable particle size distribution and be clean, free from clay, organic compounds and
soluble salts. The water also must be pure, in particular it should not contain any organic matter.
The three mortar constituents, together with any additives, such as latex which is particularly
advisable for installations out-of-doors as well as in cases where the support layer is very
compact, must be measure and carefully mixed to obtain a perfectly homogeneous paste. It is
therefore essential that the cement mixer used is of sufficient size for the size of the job.
Adhesives supplied in the form of powders must be mixed with water, in scrupulous accordance
with the suggested dosages and instructions of the producer. The resulting paste must be
perfectly homogenized using a suitable mixer.
The two-component adhesives require the same careful homogenization, which once again
should be carried out with a mechanical mixer.
Ready-to-use adhesives, finally, only require rough homogenization with a trowel.
Mixer for
preparation of the
adhesive
The first step is to spread the mortar onto the support surface in the required thickness, which in
any case should not be less than 3-4cm. The bed of mortar must then be tamped down to prevent
the formation of cavities within the bed, and then levelled with an appropriate straightedge or
measuring rod. For these operations it is worthwhile to make use of mechanical vibrators that
allow both operations to be carried out correctly, easily and quickly. A thin layer of dry cement
should then be dusted on the surface of the mortar.
Preparing the
cement mortar tile
bed
Spreading the
adhesive with a
notched spatula
The adhesive should be applied with an appropriate notched spatula which allows a regular
thickness of the adhesive layer to be obtained as well as the realization of a surface having
suitably deep grooves to delineate the zones of initial contact between the binding layer itself and
the tile.
In regard to the choice of the size and shape of the notches on the spatula, it is advisable to
scrupulously follow the instructions of the producer as well as take into consideration the type of
tile to be applied.
The adhesive must be applied a section at a time on limited portions of the support surface in
order to allow sufficient time for the application of the tile within the established limits of the
open time and adjustment time of the adhesive. (The open time is the time between the
moment the adhesive is spread on the support and the moment in which the adhesive is no longer
capable of carrying out its gluing action; this time usually varies from 20 to 30 minutes. The
adjustment time is the time available to modify or correct the position of a poorly placed tile
after its application on the adhesive; in most cases, the minimum adjustment time is around 10
minutes). It is important to remember that the open time indicated by the producer has been
determined under normal conditions of temperature, humidity and ventilation; in practice, the
open time can be appreciable shortened if the adhesive is used in environments or periods which
are particularly, hot, dry and ventilated.
When installing tiled floors, the tile should first be wetted by immersion for at least 2 hours in
clean water; in particular, this is essential for porous tile. The wet tile are laid on the bed of
mortar, edge against edge, in the case of closed joints, or against the appropriate strips of wood
or spacers, in the case of open joints. The tiles should be pushed into the mortar, taking care,
however that the underlying mortar does not penetrate between the joints far enough to reach the
external tile surface. Next, the floor must be wetted with a sufficient amount of clean water to
permit its entrance in the interstitial spaces between tile and tile, thus integrating the mortar bed
and the dusting of cement with the water necessary for the setting reactions. Finally, once the
tiles have been put into position, they must be uniformly and energetically tapped into place, in
order to assure accurate levelling of the surface as well as good contact and thus sufficient
adhesion between tile and mortar. It is worthwhile to use mechanical tappers or vibrators for this
operation (both vibrating plate and vibrating roller models are available).
When installing tiled walls, the tile are applied one at a time, after having spread about 1cm of
mortar on the back. Application of the tile is begun at floor level, or if this does not allow the
definition of a sufficiently horizontal baseline, a strip of wood is positioned horizontally along
the bottom of the wall to temporarily take the place of the first row of tile.
Setting the tile

using spacers
With adhesive binders, the tile are placed on the adhesive surface, prepared as previously
discussed, and then firmly pressed into position. In this way the ridges in the adhesive are
flattened and enlarged until the adhesive covers and adheres to practically all of the underside of
the tile. This wetting must be verified by visual observation of a tile removed immediately
after it has been applied.
When the tile are installed with open joints, use should be made of appropriate spacers.
In the case of installation of very compact tile, in external environments where particularly
severe stress is anticipated, use of the double glueing technique is advisable. This technique
consists in the application of a thin layer of adhesive on the back of the tile as well as on the
support layer.
This operation should be carried out a certain time after application of the tiles, which varies
from a few hours to an entire day. Cement grout can be used (very fluid cement mortar
composed of 5 parts cement, 2 parts very fine sand, 3 parts water, and often an additive of latex
and a colorant. Various other types of sealers to use as grouting materials are commercially
available. The operation of applying the grout is carried out using a rubber or plastic spatula in
such a way as to obtain complete, regular and compact filling of the joints. Machines are
available, essentially rotating spatulas, which allow the grouting operation to be achieved easily
and effectively.
This is the final operation, and has the purpose of eliminating traces of grout and other materials
used during the installation process. An initial general cleaning should be made using a wet
sponge or jute cloth while the grouting is still fresh. This is a delicate operation and much care
must be taken not to ruin the surface of the joints.
Successively, a more accurate cleaning must be done using water or acid solutions capable of
dissolving and removing the residual traces of the various products used while installing the tile.
Prior knowledge and understanding of the characteristics and performance of the particular tile
being installed I fundamental to avoid the possibility of damaging the tile during this cleaning
operation.
For particular types of tile, such as cotto, further treatment (impregnation with wax) and
polishing follows the cleaning operations.
At the conclusion of these operation, the tiled surface is completed, but not necessarily and not
always ready for use. The setting and hardening reactions of the tile bed must be taken into
consideration. These reactions, which require a certain period of time, determine the quality of
the adhesion between the tile and the tile bed and between the tile bed and the support as well as
the cohesion within the tile bed itself. If adhesives have been used, the instructions of the
producer are to be followed. If cement mortar has been used, for which as is known, the
hardening process is quite slow, it is worthwhile to wait at least 15 days before subjecting the
tiled surface, floors in particular, to the stress of normal working conditions. In the case of
particularly severe stress, such as would be expected in public and industrial environments, the
waiting period should be still longer, in order to avoid any risks or inconveniences of the various
defects which will be discussed in the following chapter.
Spreading the
grout
Refinishing the application of

the grout using a
mechanically operated rubber
spatula
CHAPTER 4
DEFECTS LEADING TO CONTROVERSIES
***
Introduction
Classification of defects
Defects involving the tiles surface noted or observable immediately after the completion
of the floor or wall
Differences in the tiles surface from that originally chosen or

agreed upon
Tiles surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment
Mechanical deterioration (scratches, abrasion, etc.)
Defects involving the tiles surface which appear after a certain period of use
Fracture, chipping, flaking and scaling
Deterioration by chemicals
Color differences and dirty joints
Pinholes, craters, specks and spots
Crazes and cracks
Efflorescence and molds
Alterations in color
Defects in the stability of the system

-
Frost damage
Adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors
Adhesion failure, localized or extensive, of individual tiles
Breakage of several adjacent tiles across the surface
Shattering of the tiled surface
CHAPTER 4
DEFECTS LEADING TO CONTROVERSIES
INTRODUCTION
As discussed in the previous chapters, a ceramic tile floor or wall is the final result of a well
defined process of planning and design and installation. The quality and durability of the tiles
surface depend, therefore, directly and strongly on various aspects (Fig. 3.1):
-
quality of the materials used;

quality of the planning and design of
the system;
quality of the installation of the tiled
surface;
quality of the use and maintenance of
the finished tiled surface.
A defect, or, to borrow a term from the field of

medicine, a pathology in a ceramic tile floor or
wall is almost always caused by one or more errors,
negligence, omissions in relation to the quality of
the materials, the quality of the planning and design
of the tiles surface, the quality of the installation
itself, and the working conditions.
Before continuing this discussion, it is important
first to define clearly what is meant by the term
defect in regard to a tiled surface, as well as
how one measures and evaluates a defective state.
Fig. 3.1 Factors

influencing quality and
durability of ceramic tile
floors and walls.
As a general statement, it can be said that a tiled

surface is considered defective if and when it does not have (or no longer has) suitable aesthetic
and functional characteristics; when, in other words, (i) the surface is no longer capable of
carrying out the functions of furnishing and decorating the environment in which it is located,
but rather even worsens the appearance so that the surface is not aesthetically pleasing, or (ii) the
tiles surface loses one or more of its characteristics of compactness and mechanical resistance,
stability and cohesion, and impermeability and possibility of maintaining hygienic conditions
that permit its normal use. After saying this, it should also be pointed out that the defective state
must be considered in relation with the time factor, according to an evaluation of the durability,
in the sense that a defect of the same type and intensity is considered more serious the earlier it
becomes evident. While it can be considered completely normal that a tiled surface show, for
example, some abrasive wear after 10 or 20 years of use, the appearance of abrasive wear just 6
months to a year after installation is without doubt a defect.
Both aesthetic and functional defects are serious defects since they alter the specific and
fundamental purpose of the tiles surface. It should be remembered, however, that while the
functional characteristics are always essential and the lack of which invariably leads to
unacceptable conditions, the easthetic characteristics and their worsening, have a different
importance, that varies, case by case, from one environment to another. In some cases the
appearance of the tile can be, so to speak, sacrifieced, especially in certain environments or
locales where the appearance of the surface is not an element of prime importance. This
certainly would not be the case, for example, in prestigious environments such as the entrance
hall of a hotel, the main area of a bank, etc.
Both types of defects are more serious when they are more evident and detrimental. The obvious
consequence of this assertion, agreed upon by everyone, is that one begins to speak of a defect
only when there is actual functional or aesthetic damage. The following two examples are
given to clarify this aspect. Let us first consider the appearance, the aesthetic aspect, in relation
to the presence of pinholes, specks or spots. In evaluating this effect, it is necessary to have
clearly in mind that a tiled surface is not a plate or a cup for which a pinhole or spot clearly
visible from a distance of a few centimeters is effectively a serious defect. What is important for
a tiles surface are the defects which are visible under normal working conditions. For a floor this
means pinholes, specks, or spots than can be noted from the distance of the height of a person.
Any effect such as a pinhole or speck that can be seen only close up, in particular conditions of
illumination, or even only with a magnifying glass, surely is not to be considered a defect.
Now let us consider a second example. it is well known how important it is that ceramic tiles be
flat and that all the tiles in a single surface have the same dimensions. At the same time it must
be remebered that ceramic tiles are not mechanical parts for which very severe dimensional
tolerances must be respected. The dimensional tolerances established by the standards for
ceramic tile take this into account and fix reasonable limits within which any variations, for
example in surface flatness, are not to be considered as defects.
Experience show that almost all the defects in the tiles floor or wall system, regardless of the
origin and cause, are manifested on the tiles, the surface layer of the floor or wall complex,
the layer most exposed. As will be discussed later on, sometimes the tiles show considerable
spotting, pop off, break, are not well aligned and form steps, etc. In most cases one hears
defects in the tile spoken of rather than defective floors or walls, and often the mistake is
made of confusing the place where the pathology is manifested with the cause of the pathology,
i.e. , the error of quickly concluding the investigation, attributing all responsibility for the defect
to the ceramic tile.
Indeed, because of the variety of possible causes, diagnosis of defects is complex and difficult.
As has been continually emphasized, a tiled floor or wall does not consist of the tile alone, but
rather is a complex multilayer system of various materials, whose behavior and performance
depend on many factors such as the intrinsic quality of the materials used, the criteria with which
they were chosen, how the system was designed, installation techniques used, etc. An accurate
diagnosis of the cause for a given defect must take into consideration all these aspects, and
attribution of the specific responsibility for a defect can only be based on an accurate diagnosis
of the cause.
The following are some specific examples. If it can be shown that a material is defective or has
characteristics inferior to those claimed, then responsibility for the corresponding defect lies with
the producer of the material (tile, adhesive, etc.). If it is found that the materials are of the stated
quality but with characteristics and performances unsuitable for the working environment, then
responsibility for the defect lies with the person who chose the material. If the defect was caused
by the fact that the need for expansion joints was not recognized, then responsibility lies with the
person who planned and designed the floor. If the tiles are found not to have been properly
applied, then responsibility lies with the tile setter. Sometimes responsibility for a defect lies
with those using the tiled surface, for example when improper maintenance techniques are used
or when sharp objects are dropped on a tiled floor. In most cases, diagnosis is made even more
difficult by three further circumstances. The first is that a defect is almost never the result of just
one error but rather results from a combination of many small imperfections, choices which have
not been the best, particular conditions leading to risks improperly evaluated, etc. The second is
that some defects are the result of physiological behaviors, interferences, or actions of the
materials. Even materials which perfectly satisfy existing standards when considered alone,
may, when used in combination and rigidly anchored with each other give rise to undesired
effects. It is the responsibility of the designer to foresee such effects and take the necessary
precautions to prevent their occurrence. The third circumstance is that at the time the defect
actually appears and thus the necessity arises to determine its cause, it is almost always virtually
impossible to obtain all the information necessary for an accurate diagnosis since the original
materials may no longer be available or the planning and design data have long been discarded,
etc. Finally, it would seem particularly useful and instructive at this point, after the diagnosis,
to reflect for a moment on the therapy, i.e., on the possibility of eliminating a defect and
bringing the beauty and functionality of a tiled surface back to the original state. For most
defects, especially the more serious ones, the only way to achieve this objective is to completely
demolish the old floor or wall and begin again. This always means a considerable expense. it is
worth emphasizing, also, that in most cases the cost of the ceramic tile itself is usually less than
half the overall cost of redoing the tiled surface.
This aspect is very important and should induce all those involved with constructing tiled floors
and walls to take particular care with the quality of planning and design and installation, as well
as with the quality of the materials themselves in order to prevent defects, pathologies, whose
correction is always costly.
CLASSIFICATION OF DEFECTS
On the basis of the considerations discussed in the preceding section, and in confirmation of the
fact that in most cases the tiles are the location in which the manifestation of the various
pathologies is noted, the various types of defects can be divided into the following two main
categories:
A Defects which mainly or exclusively involve the surface of the tiles;
B Defects in the stability of the system.
Defects falling into the first category (A) include all those pathologies which result in a
deterioration of the surface of the tiled floor or wall, as compared with the initial or desired
technical and/or aesthetic characteristics. In some cases these defects are only or mainly of an
aesthetic nature and in others they are also detrimental for the functionality of the tiles surface.
Defects in this category can be further divided into the following two subgroups:
A.1 Defects noted or observable immediately after completion of the floor or wall;
A.2 Defects which appear after a certain period of use (a period of use sufficiently short
such that the situation can be considered pathological, as discussed previously).
In the following descriptions and discussion of the various types of surface defects, for
simplicity, we have excluded the case of a defective surface resulting from the application of
tiles which are obviously defective. In these cases, any litigation is always initiated before
installation of the tiles themselves, and thus is limited to the single material, and not to the
building system, floor or wall in this entirety, which constitutes the object of this volume.
Defects falling into the second category (B) include all those pathologies which put the system
into a crisis situation, in that they affect the anchorage, bonding between the various layers or the
internal mechanical cohesion of one or more layers. These defects always resul tin a more or
less serious loss in functionality of the tiled surface without, however, the obvious consequences
to the appearance of the tiled surface, which always are present, adding to the seriousness of the
situation.
The following is an outline of the main types of defects, catalogued according to the above
criteria (Fig. 3.2):
A Defects which mainly or exclusively involve the surface of the tiles
A.1 Defects noted or observable immediately after completion of the floor or wall
A.1.1 Differences in the tiled surface from that originally chosen or agreed upon.
A.1.2. Irregular surfaces, with the tiles not all at the same level
A.1.3 Tiled surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment.
A.2 Defects which appear after a certain period of use
A.2.1 Mechanical deterioration (scratches, abrasion, etc.)
A.2.2 Fracture, chipping, flaking and scaling
A.2.3 Deterioration by chemicals
A.2.4 Color differences ad dirty joints
A.2.5 Pinholes, craters, specks and spots
A.2.6 Crazes and cracks
A.2.7 Efflorescences and molds
A.2.8 Alterations in colour
B Defects in the stability of the system
B.1 Frost damage
B.2 Adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors
B.3 Adhesion failure, localized or extensive, of individual tiles
B.4 Breakage of several adjacent tiles

across the surface
B.5 Shattering of the tiled surface
The following three points will be
developed in regard to each type of defect:
1.
Description. The nature of each
defect will be discussed thoroughly
including how it looks, its consequences
on the functionality and appearance of the
tiled surface and its peculiarities upon
which identification is based.
2. Cause. The various causes that can
lead singularly or in combination to the appearance of the defect
are analyzed. Also discussed are the diagnostic tolls to be used, Fig. 3.2 Classification of
measurements to be made and any tests to be carried out for the defects of ceramic tiled
purpose of evaluating the effective existence or relative incidence floors and walls
of the various possible causes. Further discussion, in regard to
each cause, centers on whether or not it can be attributed to the quality of the materials used, the
quality of planning and design (in which, as previously pointed out, the customer, too, may have
an important role), factors regarding installation, or the way in which the tiled surface was used.
In this way indications can be obtained as to responsibility for the defect. It should be
emphasized, however, that for the same cause, depending on circumstances, different people can
be responsible. For example, in any particular case, the consumer-user, constructor, or even the
retailer or tile setter may be the one who actually chooses the tile used. If the incorrect choice is
made, then responsibility for the resulting defect lies with the person charged with choosing the
tile, or in any case the person who assumed the responsibility for the choice of tile.
3. Prevention. The procedures to be used, precautions to take, and criteria to be considered in
the phases of planning and design and installation of the tile in order to prevent the defect will be
discussed for each of the various possible causes. In some cases the possibility of eliminating
the defect also will be considered, i.e. possible actions which can be taken to remove or at least
attenuate the effects of the defect. Unfortunately, many defects can neither be eliminated nor
attenuated.
Development of the discussion in this way provides a relatively amply study of the types of
defects as well as investigatory procedure, specific for each defect.
DEFECTS INVOLVING THE TILED SURFACE NOTED OR

IMMEDIATELY AFTER COMPLETION OF THE FLOOR OR WALL.
OBSERVABLE
Differences in the tiled surface from that originally chosen or agreed

upon
The user, after seeing the completed floor or wall, finds it different, and in particular,
aesthetically inferior to that expected. This can be a so-called subjective opinion, in the sense
that the tiled surface in that particular environment, produces an unpleasant sensation in the user
not anticipated at the time the tiles were chosen. It also can be the case that the tile laid are
objectively different from those chosen at the time they were purchased, different, for
example, as regards shade of color, class of material, etc. In both situations, the user is, in any
case, unsatisfied, and convinced that he has been treated unfairly by the supplier (or suppliers) of
the floor or wall.
In regard to the differences defined as subjective, the problem is quite complex and difficult to
define since actually, relatively speculative aspects are involved related to perception and the
visual and psychological impact of a combination of modular elements repeated over a vast
surface, as compared with the image produced by a single element. In effect, in most cases, the
choice of tile is made from a set of samples that reproduce extremely limited portions of the
surface, and one does not always think about the problem of predicting or trying to imagine the
effect that an extensive surface composed of the chosen tile (with their decorations, flare,
possible lack of harmony with the structure, and surface texture created and emphasized by the
joints) may produce in the particular environment where they are to be installed. In such cases,
then, the cause of the dissatisfaction of the customer lies in an oversight, which in all fairness
cannot be defined as an error in the decorative or architectural planning of the tiles surface.
With regard to the objective differences, however, the causes are almost always due to errors
or misunderstandings between the customer-buyer and the supplier of the tile. In respect to the
class of choice, it should be remembered that all the product standards in Standard BS 6431
specify as tolerable in top quality tile a maximum percent of defective pieces equal to 5 % of the
lot sampled. Of course, these pieces in which the defects are clearly obvious, must be eliminated
at the time the tiles are installed. In addition, a net distinction should be made between the
following two situations; 1) The customer orders top quality tile and instead receives tile from
the supplier declared as being of a lower quality. Clearly, a misunderstanding has occurred
somewhere in the commercial chain between producer and customer. 2) The customer orders
top quality tile and receives tile declared as top quality, but which in reality does not conform to
the specified requisites that distinguish top quality from lower quality tiles. In this case, the
product is clearly defective since it does not conform to the agreed upon requisites.
The subjective differences can be prevented by taking greater care in the visual planning of the
surface, including the use of practical tests to be carried out just before final installation of the
tile. A test, for example, could involve laying out a sufficiently large number of tile on the floor
to be covered, in order to allow direct verification of the resulting aesthetic effects.
The objective differences can be prevented by more accurate control of the tile before
installation, and careful checking of the tile supplied to verify that the quality agreed upon has
actually been received. In addition, for further protection against misunderstandings and errors,
the buyer should always conserve samples of the tile he has chosen for comparison, at the time of
delivery, with the tiles to be installed. In the case that during installation defective tiles are
found in such numbers and of such quality to indicate that the supply of tile corresponds to a
class of tile lower than that agreed upon, it is worthwhile to suspend installation and begin
suitable testing according to the methods specified in Standard BS 6431 part 10.
Tiled surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment
This defect consists in the presence of small differences in height between adjacent tiles (small
steps, to use a term of more immediate comprehension, even though, in most cases, it is perhaps
excessive), thus the tiled surface does not have the required or expected requisites of surface
flatness, regularity and uniformity. This has immediate aesthetic consequences; the effects in
question disturb the visual enjoyment of the surface, especially in environments of particularly
large extension, and thus characterized by a greater visual depth, as well as in particular lighting
conditions (e.g., with incoming light having a low angle of incidence, which emphasizes the
shadows produced by any zones or parts of the surface in relief.) If the surface is a floor, these
defects make it more difficult and less comfortable to walk on. With time and with use of the
surface, still other effects of this defect appear. The preferential accumulation of dirt will
inevitably occur in correspondence with the steps, dirt which can only be removed with some
difficulty. The zones, locally in relief, also are more exposed to wear and mechanical impact,
with consequent early appearance of chipping, abrasion, etc.
There are two possible causes for the appearance of this defect. The first is incorrect installation
of the tile, especially in the operation of applying the tie (e.g., insufficient tapping of the tile into
position when cement mortar is used) or even, particularly when thin-set mortars are used, as a
result of insufficient flatness of the support surface or defective spreading of the adhesive.
The second possible cause is the quality of the tile, i.e. , the tile may have dimensional defects,
such as greater differences in surface flatness than those specified in the relative standard. This
situation can easily be demonstrated by carrying out the appropriate tests specified in the
Standard. The tests must, of course, be carried out on a representative sample of the tile in
question (i.e., tile that have not been installed); for this reason it is always worthwhile to
conserve samples of the tiles used.
To the extent that the presence of this defect depends on the competence of the tile setter, its
prevention lies in taking adequate care in all the operations for installation of the tile, from
preparation of the tile bed and spreading of the mortar or adhesive to actual application of the tile
(with subsequent tapping of the tile into place when cement mortar is used).
When the tile setter encounters difficulty during his work in aligning the tiles and obtaining a flat
surface, he should request a control of the dimensional characteristics of the tiles, and in any case
refuse to take the responsibility for continuing the work with presumably defective material. It
should be pointed out that difficulties in installing the tile with respect to the appearance of the
defect in question are in general greater the lower the water absorption of the tile body and the
larger the size of the tile.
In any case, it is known that highly vitrified tile (tiles belonging to Group B1, and especially the
impervious tiles) are more susceptible to deformation during firing. In regard to the tile size, it is
necessary to remember that the dimensional tolerances established in the Standard are expressed
as a percent of the work size, thus the absolute value of the deviations that are acceptable
according to the Standard are greater the larger the size of the tile.
These factors are important and should be taken into account during the phase of planning and
design of the tiled surface. A convenient way to prevent or reduce the risk of the defect in
question, or at least of its being easily noted is, for example, to install the tile with open joints.
Indeed, with open joints, the edges of the tile are distant some millimeters one from the other,
and the adequately filled joint provides a convenient and smooth connection between tile; if
closed joints are used, adjustment and smooth connections between tile are much more difficult
to achieve.
Tiled surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment
The tiled surface, at the time of consignment and thus before the locale is lived-in, shows
noticeable signs of deterioration (abrasion, fissures, spots, scratches, signs of chemical attack,
etc.) which are sufficiently evident as to compromise the appearance of the floor or wall. In
other words, the floor or wall does not seem to be new as it should be, and its appearance is
distinctly poor. In this discussion, it is assumed that before installation, the tiles were free from
defects, in agreement with the considered previously in the section, Classification of Defects.
From the description of the defects in question, one can deduce that they are in some way related
to installation of the tile since their appearance occurs at the time of consignment of the
completely assembled tiled floor or wall system. For this reason, it is logical to consider the
installation first, and suggest as possible origins of the defects, the installation operations that
cause the greatest chemical and mechanical stress on the working surface of the tile. These
operations are tapping the tile into position (when cement mortar is used in the case of tiled
floors) and cleaning, with the elimination of traces of mortar, grout and other products used in
the installation. In particular, the nature of the defect suggests a negative interference between
the chemical-mechanical resistance characteristics of the tile and the operations cited.
In order to diagnose the causes, it is worthwhile first of all to start with the tiles and verify their
hardness, abrasion resistance and resistance to chemicals (clearly, samples of unlaid tile must be
available in order to carry out the necessary tests). If the results show that the performance of
the tile is inferior to that agreed upon, or to that specified in the relative standards, it is
reasonable to deduce that the poor quality of the material is the most probable cause of the
defect; if the opposite is true, then it would seem reasonable to infer that the installation
operations may have been excessively severe and thus attribute a consistent part of the
responsibility for the defect to those operations.
It should be remembered with respect to the defects in question, that according to the standards
and thus also in defining the agreement between customer and supplier, a quite wide range of
values are acceptable within a particular class for abrasion resistance and resistance to chemicals.
Clearly, tile with values for these characteristics which lie near the lower limits of acceptability,
are the types of tile most subject to damage during installation. It is important, in these cases,
that the tile setter be adequately informed of the situation, in order that he can take the necessary
precautions.
A third possible cause of these defects consists in chemical-mechanical aggression to which the
tiles surface is often subjected just after it has been completed, connected with the fact that the
locale is frequented by various workers (painters, carpenters, electricians) in particularly
damaging conditions (e.g., with the presence of dirt, dust and other potentially abrasive materials
on the tiled surface).
The prevention of this defect, in correspondence with the three causes cited above, respectively,
requires that:
the tile setter be expressly informed of the mechanical and chemical performance
characteristics of the tile, especially when the performance levels indicate that the
tiles themselves are quite delicate (without, however, the tiles being considered
defective; as we have repeated several times, there are various types of tile and
ceramic surfaces, some of which are, by nature, less resistant then others);
The intensity of the action of some operations such as tapping the tile into position
and cleaning after installation is regulated in relation to the resistance characteristics
of the tile; obviously, this requirement should mean that suitable measures also are
taken in the planning and design phase, with the choice of methods and products for
the installation such that the effectiveness of the various operations is assured;
the tiled surface is sufficiently protected during the interval between the time the
installation is completed and consignment of the surface; such protection can be
achieved, for example with a floor, by putting down sheets of polyethylene, wooden
boards, a layer of sawdust, etc.
DEFECTS INVOLVING THE TILES SURFACE WHICH APPEAR AFTER A CERTAIN

PERIOD OF USE
Mechanical deterioration (scratches, abrasion, etc.)
The defects in question consist in what can be called mechanical deterioration of the tiled
surface which appears after a certain period of use considered to be excessively short (usually
after one or two years, but sometimes after only a few months). The defectiveness lies in the fact
that ceramic tiles should have a long lifetime, i.e., the performance characteristic of ceramic tile
known as durability should be very good. The deterioration in question is in the form of
scratches or cuts or even abrasion, i.e., more or less evident and localized removal of the surface
layer as a result of wear. The consequences of such deterioration are both aesthetic (abrasion,
especially, leads to particularly noticeable alteration of the tiled surface such as loss of brilliance,
variations in the shade of color, etc.) and functional, such as the negative effect on important
characteristics such as impermeability, ease of cleaning, etc. In regard, above all, to the aesthetic
consequences, the expected superior durability of unglazed tile, especially in environments
subjected to severe stress should be kept in mind. As a consequence of the homogeneity of
unglazed tile throughout the entire thickness of the tile, any removal of material caused by
abrasive wear gradually brings to light material of the same composition and color and
consequently the general appearance of the tiled surface in most cases is not appreciably
influenced (there can be, however, negative consequences on the ease of cleaning). On the
contrary, glazed tiles have a discontinuity in composition, and thus also color, between the tile
body and the thin surface layer of glaze. Removal of the glaze layer leads to a definite change in
the appearance of the tile as well as deterioration of the initial performance characteristics.
This type of defect also can be the result of more than one possible cause. The first step in
diagnosing the cause is verification of the hardness and abrasion resistance of the tile and
comparison of the test results obtained with the standard or agreed upon performance requisites.
Once again, samples of the tile which have not been installed must be available in order to carry
out the necessary tests following the standardized methods.
If this comparison leads to the conclusion that the tile does not conform to the relative requisites,
then it can be assumed that hte defect is caused by the poor quality of the material, i.e., it is the
tiles that must be considered as defective and responsible for the appearance of the defect.
If however, there is no evidence that the tiles are defective, then cause and responsibility must be
sought in the planning and design of the tiled surface. The most frequent error that occurs here is
that tiles have been chosen which are unsuitable, from the performance point of view, for the
particular environment in question. In this respect, we wish to emphasize the following very
important general aspects which must be taken into consideration when choosing a tile, thus in
the planning and design phase; The abrasion resistance of a tile, both glazed and unglazed,
measured according to the standard methods, allows an important qualitative evaluation, but does
not provide a secure and documented basis for making predictions about the durability of the tile.
Durability, in fact, depends on a multitude of factors, some of which are difficult to quantify,
especially those relative to the characteristics of the destined environment. Neither the test, nor
the concept itself of abrasion resistance makes any reference to the time factor, which is,
however, the essence itself of any evaluation of durability. For this reason, with our present state
of knowledge, one finds oneself in the planning and design phase, with quite serious
uncertainties. The choice of a glazed tile with Class IV abrasion resistance for environments
subject to severe stress is certainly necessary, but may not be sufficient to prevent the appearance
of the defect in question, since different types of tile, although all Class IV abrasion resistant, can
have very different lifetimes in identical environments.
Still another possible cause of the defect in question can be excessively vigorous, and thus
incorrect, maintenance of the tiles surface.
This means that the user of a tiled surface also may have some responsibility in the appearance
of this defect if unsuitable cleaning methods are used (e.g., abrasive pads, such as steel wool, and
detergents and cleaning powders that are very aggressive chemically), such as often is the case
when the surface has been neglected or the accumulation, deposition and compaction of several
layers of dirt has been tolerated for a long time.
The defect in question can be prevented by more careful planning and design in regard to the
choice of tile on the basis of a more thorough evaluation of the stresses which can be expected
from the destined environment.
In this phase, especially in the case of public environments, both inside and to a greater extent
outside, and in the case of industrial environments, it is necessary to take into consideration the
certainly superior performance, including durability, of unglazed tile (tiles which are
homogeneous throughout their thickness) as well as special glazed products in which not only is
the declared quality of the glaze superior to conventional glazes but the thickness of the glaze
also is considerable. Another factor worthy of note is that the surface of unglazed tile can be
regenerated by polishing, something not possible with glazed tile. Such polishing treatments can
restore good aesthetic characteristics to the parts of the surface affected by abrasion. A further
preventative measure for the defect in question consists in frequent and regular maintenance and
cleaning of the tiles surface in such a way as to avoid persistent accumulation of dirt that requires
the use of extraordinary, excessively aggressive maintenance which is potentially dangerous
even for ceramic tile.
Fracture, chipping, flaking and scaling
These defects consist in localized damage involving only individual tiles (when the extension of
the defect is such that large portions of the floor or wall are involved, another type of
pathology must be considered and will be discussed in a later section).
Intended here by the term facture are any fissures which cross an entire tile and involve the
entire thickness of the tile, while chipping is more localized, in points or zones limited to the
surface of the tile (chipping leads to the separation of parts or chips from the surface).
Flaking or scaling consists in the separation of portions of the mass of the tiles along planes
approximately parallel to the plane on which they are laid. In this case the fracture surface is
relatively smooth and regular.
the consequences of these types of defect are both aesthetic and functional but limited to the
particular areas of the surface involved.
Fracturing and chipping are related to a characteristic of ceramic tiles in regard to which their
performance is not as excellent as for other characteristics: resistance to mechanical impact.
Because of their structure, ceramics (all types of ceramic form tile to tableware, sanitary ware to
heavy clay products) are mechanically fragile materials with low resilience. it is worth repeating
here that this characteristic should not be considered a defect in the material, just as the
combustibility of wood, the elasticity of rubber, or the ease with which fabric becomes dirty, for
example, are not considered as defects. The fragility and poor resilience are characteristics
intrinsic to ceramics, glass and other materials which must be considered along with their other
properties in order to obtain a clear picture of their performance capabilities.
Therefore, the risk of fracture and chipping effectively exists for a floor or wall covered with
ceramic tile. As a result, the use of ceramic tile always requires a certain attention on the part of
the user to avoid dropping heavy, pointed objects on the floor, for example, and ceramic tile is
not a suitable material for use in environments where the risk of mechanical blows of this type is
high (resilient materials such as rubber or some plastics are better for such applications).
Excluding the case in which the defects in question are due to improper or incorrect use of the
tiled surface, the more frequent causes are the following:
-
Inadequate choice of the type of tile, and thus insufficient care in planning and design
of the surface. In regard to fractures, the fundamental parameters are structural
compactness and thickness. For environments subject to considerable stress,
therefore, the tiles chosen should have low values of water absorption and in some
cases the thickness of the tile should be greater than that normally used (e.g. 15mm
rather than the 8-10mm of conventional tile). In regard to chipping, glazed tile are
more susceptible since the working surface is constituted by the glaze, which is a
relatively thin glassy coating, anchored to the tile body but having an evident
physico-chemical discontinuity at the glaze-tile body interface.
Poor quality tile. The quality of the tile is considered poor when testing the tile
according to the standard method, shows that the performance is inferior to that
specified in the standard or that agreed upon.
Poor quality installation of the tile. It is intuitively understood how the quality of the
tile bed can have a significant influence on the resistance of the tile to the types of
stress in question. If, as a result of incorrect installation methods, there are cavities
underneath the tiles, or the tiles are not properly anchored to the support then the risk
of fracture increases sensibly.
It should be noted that this is one of the cases in which it is most difficult to distinguish and
evaluate the relative influence of the various possible causes of the defect.
In regard to flaking and scaling, the most frequent and most probable cause can be attributed to
the quality of the material. Indeed, flaking and scaling are generally the efect of a fault in the
fabrication process, and in particular a defective pressing operation. It should be remembered,
however, that in many cases, the appearance of this defect is also related to other factors that
determine the degree of tension in the tile layer. These states of tension will be discussed further
in the section. Defects in the Stability of the System.
The most effective prevention of fractures and chipping can be achieved during the planning and
design phase, in particular in the choice of tile which is structurally more suitable to support
stress due to mechanical impact, albeit within the limits possible for a ceramic material. In
addition, the care with which the various installation operations are carried out (in particular,
preparation of the tile bed, positioning, and application of the tile) can make a fundamental
contribution to reducing the risk of the appearance of the defects in question.
In regard to flaking and scaling, prevention is essentially the responsibility of the manufacturer.
Taking into consideration, however, that this is a hidden imperfection which is not always
observable in the whole tile before the pathology itself appears, a further precaution that can be
made to limit the risk is that of installing the tile with open joints. Filling open joints with
material having adequate elasto-plastic characteristics can reduce the modulus of elasticity of the
tiles surface considerably as compared with that for the same tile installed with closed joints.
Thus, all other conditions being equal, the level of tension induced by any differential
movements, deformations, settling, etc. also will be less for the tiles surface with open joints.
Deterioration by chemicals
These defects take the form of spots, discoloring, reduced brilliance, etc., sometimes widespread
but in most cases in quite limited and distinct areas, due to the corrosive action of various
substances (solid, liquid or gas) which have intentionally or accidentally come into contact with
the tiled surface.
Sometimes effects of discoloring and attenuation of the shade of color due to attack of the
surface by chemicals can be confused with the effects of abrasive wear. Often, in fact, the two
actions (chemical attack and abrasive wear) take place together and synergistically, as discussed
earlier, and, therefore, when trying to diagnose the cause of an effect, it is not always possible to
distinguish between the consequences of two or more actions and evaluate the relative incidents.
A point worth remembering in this respects is that often the effects of chemical attack are noted
in a well defined zone of the tiled surface that outlines the area that has been in contact with a
liquid spilled, poured, splashed, etc. onto the surface, while the effects of abrasion are almost
always more uniformly spread over the surface with poorly defined outer limits to the zone of
attack.
The consequences of the defect in question are essentially aesthetic, even though sometimes
there can also be an appreciable loss in functionality, in terms of impermeability of the surface,
ease of cleaning and possibility of maintaining hygienic conditions, etc.
With a procedure analogous to that used to investigate abrasion damage, the first possible cause
to take into consideration in this case, too, is the quality of the tile, i.e, determine that its
chemical resistance conforms with the standard requisites or to those agreed upon.
If the tests for chemical resistance give negative results, i.e., show the tile to be of inferior
quality as compared with that expected, then it is quite certain that the cause of the defect can be
attributed to the tile: it is a defect in the quality of the material used.
If, however, the tiles are found to conform with the established requisites, then the possibility
must be taken into consideration that insufficient care was taken in the planning and design
phase and tile were chosen whose performance was not sufficient to support the chemical stress
in the working environment. Remember, in regard to chemical attack, the standards themselves
allow for various performance levels, at least for glazed tile; there is a minimum acceptable
level, but there also are levels of higher performance which are called for in working
environments where there is risk of exposure to chemical attack. In this respect, the role of the
designer is particularly important in the case of special destinations where frequent contact
between the tiled surface and aggressive or staining chemicals is expected (acids and bases,
chemical reagents in a laboratory, blood in a slaughter house, milk in a cheese plant, etc.).
Indeed, it is the responsibility of the person choosing the tile to request certification or
documentation specifying the resistance of the tile to specific aggressive action.
Finally, the defect in question may also be caused by excessively severe methods of
maintenance, always to be judged in relation to the stated quality and performance characteristics
of the material. In this case, the user of the tiled surface also may have some responsibility for
the appearance of the defect due to improper use of the tiled surface. It is frequently the case that
the defects due to chemical attack appear following extraordinary maintenance operations carried
out to clean a surface which has been neglected for some time.
Again with this defect, the most effective prevention can be achieved during the planning and
design phase by taking particular care in the choice of the tile and the designer should receive
written documentation of the resistance of the tile to chemicals.
In regard to the conditions under which the tile is used, excluding unexpected and accidental
occurrences which can not be prevented, the importance of regular and constant ordinary
maintenance (cleaning) of the surface should be emphasized. Regular maintenance of the tiled
surface should be carried out in such a way as to avoid the necessity of periodic extraordinary
maintenance using particularly aggressive chemical products.
In completion of this discussion, it also should be remembered that in environments where
particularly severe chemical attack can be expected (chemical laboratories, pharmaceutical and
food industries, etc.), it is necessary to make sure, during the planning and design phase, that the
entire floor or wall system is capable of resisting such stress. it is necessary, therefore, not only
to use chemically resistant tile, but also particular materials for setting the tile (epoxy resin- and
polyurethane-based adhesives and materials for filling the joints between tile) as well as the
predisposition, beneath the tile bed, of an acid-resistant membrane to protect the load bearing
layer form any risk of contact with chemically aggressive substances.
Color differences and dirty joints
In some tiled floors and walls, especially those exposed to contact with chemically active or
staining substances, the joints between tile become excessively dirty in a relatively short time.
The consequences of such dirty joints are both aesthetic, since the overall appearance of the tiled
surface is less pleasing, and functional, since the ease of cleaning and maintaining hygienic
conditions is compromised. The latter characteristic is particularly important in some of the very
environments where the risk of this defect is highest due tot he activities carried out (kitchens,
especially in restaurants, cafeterias, etc., the food industry, hospitals, schools and public
environments in general.)
It is worth emphasizing once again that the performance of a tiled surface does not depend on the
tile alone, but also on the other materials making-up the system. The case in discussion is a clear
illustration of the truth of this observation.
Up until a few years ago, the joints between tile were usually filled with a portland cement grout
and thus had a relatively dark grey color. The original dark color of the joints made it difficult to
notice any appreciable difference in appearance of the surface when the joints became dirty.
Today, with the increasingly more frequent use of material to fill the joints which is white or
lightly colored, the appearance of the defect in question is much more evident. These materials
consent the designer more freedom as regards the decorative effects which can be achieved with
a tiled surface, but in general also are less reliable and conserve the initial aesthetic aspect for a
shorter period of time.
The problem, however, as previously indicated, also involves a loss in functionality of the tiles
surface, especially as regards maintaining suitable conditions of hygiene. In this respect,
parameters other than the color of the grout are of prime importance; specifically they are the
structural compactness, cohesion and mechanical resistance, resistance to chemicals and the
regularity of filling of the joints. This is the basis, together with that discussed in Chapter 3,
upon which the following list of possible causes for the appearance of the defect in question was
compiled:
-
Poor quality of the materials employed, as compared with the agreed upon standards of
quality.
Poor choice of materials; this reflects poor planning and design of the tiled surface. In
this respect, it should be remembered that the range of products and available solutions is
quite wide, extending from cement-based compositions for the grout to organic based
materials, with epoxy resins the material best suited to assure resistance to acids and
aggressive chemicals in general. There also are various additives, essentially latex of one
type or another, which sensibly improve the compactness and chemical resistance of
cement-based grouts. It is important to choose the products with the most suitable
performance characteristics for each particular application.
poor filling of the joints, with material that is not compact enough to completely fill all
the space available; this reflects a deficiency in the operation of installing the tile. When
the joints are not properly filled, the grout is weakened, mechanically, and parts of the
material filing the joints between tile may come away from the tiled surface, with the
formation of cavities which, in turn, are easily filled with dirt, residues, etc. In addition
to this, poor filling of the joints with material that is not sufficiently compact leads to
undesired porosity that provides further points of attachment for dirt and the penetration
of chemically aggressive substances. If the level of the grout does not reach the level of
the tile surface, the joints themselves act as furrows where dirt and residues can
accumulate with persistence, in spite of thorough cleaning. The necessity for
extraordinary maintenance, in turn, means prolonged contact between the joints and
aggressive cleaning agents.
Improper cleaning of the tiles surface after its completion. This cause also reflects
incorrect installation procedures. Improper cleaning can create furrows, cuts, and cavities
in the surface of the material filling the joints which compromise the resistance to
chemicals and mechanical resistance of the joints themselves.
Once again, in order to prevent the appearance of the defect in question, greater care is required
in both the planning and design phase (particularly in the choice of materials with the use of
products of known and adequate performance characteristics for the destined environment) and
the actual operations of installing the tile (specifically filling the joints and final cleaning of the
completed tiled surface).
Pinholes, craters and spots
These are point defects (pinholes, small craters, specks where the glaze has come off) of variable
size but in any case quite small (in general, their diameter is less than 1 mm). Traces of such
defects may already be present on the surfaces of the tile before installation, but they become
increasingly noticeable and assume a pathological situation, after the tiled surface has been in
service for some time. it is this latter aspect that constitutes the object of this section. The
presence of the same defect, clearly visible in the new, unlaid tile should have led either to
contestation of the tile quality before installation or to acceptance of the presence of the defect in
the tile to be used.
The consequences of the defect in question are essentially aesthetic.
Various causes can give rise to the defect in question. Some examples include (i) the presence,
near the surface of the tile, of inclusions due to impurities or poor homogenization of the raw
materials, (ii) in the specific case of glazed tile, the separation of small particles from the surface
of the glaze, and (iii) breaking, due to abrasion or mechanical impact, of minuscule bubbles that
have formed in the glaze during firing.
In all cases, the cause lies in some point of weakness on the surface of the ceramic, upon which
the working conditions initiate the appearance of a visible effect. Sometimes, but not always, the
same effect also is seen during the tests carried out in the laboratory to determine the quality of
the tile according to existing standards (for example, during the course of the tests for abrasion
resistance), and in this case it may be possible, if not to predict explicitly the appearance of the
defect in question, at least to obtain attestation of the less than excellent performance of the
material. Unfortunately, in most cases this is not possible and the defect is truly hidden.
In any case, given the probable causes cited here, appearance of the defect in question is
determined by the quality of the tile.
Clearly, the most effective prevention of these defects lies in the hands of the producer of the tile
and requires careful optimization of the various phases in the production cycle. During planning
and design of the tiled surface, it is possible, within certain limits, to avoid choice of tile exposed
to the risks cited (which, as observed, are greater the more severe the working conditions to
which the tiled surface is subjected) by careful visual evaluation of the surface of a
representative sample of the tile to be installed. Such observation should show the presence of
any imperfections which, although of a size and quantity so limited as not to be considered
defects themselves, with use of the tiled surface could lead to the appearance of the defects in
question.
Crazes and cracks
Crazes and cracks are microfissures that form and are clearly visible on the tiled surface. The
term crazing refers to thin fissures or hair cracks which involve only the glaze (thus, only
glazed tile are at risk for the formation of this defect); only the surface of the glaze contains
fissures, and the tile body is not affected at all. The pattern formed by the crazes may be roughly
circular as well as quite irregular.
In this context, the term cracking, refers to the formation of equally fine fissures which involve
not only the glaze, but rather the entire thickness of the tile, thus cracks may appear in both
glazed and unglazed tiles, Usually, cracks form in nearly straight lines and in mot cases there
will be just one crack within an individual tile.
The effects of these pathologies are predominantly aesthetic, but can also lead to deterioration
of the functional characteristics of the tiled surface in relation to the ease of cleaning and
maintenance of hygienic conditions, since the microfissures in question serve as receptacles for
dirt and staining substances.
The origin of both these defects can be traced to the quality of the tile. In most cases crazing is
caused by poor agreement between the thermal expansion of the glaze and that of the tile body.
This means that under certain conditions involving variations in temperature the glaze is
subjected to tensile stress sufficient to cause breakage. The glaze is a thin layer of glass and as
such its resistance to this type of stress is quite limited; breakage with the appearance of the hair
cracks (crazes) in question often follows. Crazing resistance is a tile characteristic taken into
consideration in Standard BS 6431 Part 17.
When crazing occurs in a tiled floor or wall it is worthwhile, first of all, to verify the crazing
resistance of the tile. The cause of the defect is unquestionably due to the tile quality, if the tiles
are found to be nonresistant.
Cracking is often a fabrication defect that generally occurs during the cooling phase, i.e., the
final phase of the firing process. Cracked tiles should be discarded during the sorting process,
but often the defect is latent and thus not seen during sorting. In this case, too, a careful check
on a representative sample of unlaid tiles may make it possible to determine whether or not the
tiles are defective as supplied, and thus responsible for the pathology in question.
There are, however, other possible causes of both crazing and cracking that derive from the
planning and design and installation phases. The choice during the planning and design phase,
for example, of a tile bed characterized by high cohesive and adhesive strength as well as
considerable shrinkage during maturing (as may be the case with mortars having a high cement
content) leads to the risk of the appearance of tensile stresses on the glaze which may be
sufficient to induce crazing; the application of locally excessive thicknesses of adhesive can lead
to the same result. It also must be remembered that all industrial ceramic materials contain
internal microcracks that can serve as initial points for the propagation of more macroscopic
fissures such as the cracks under consideration. The possibility of the formation of such fissures
is greater the greater the state of induced tension in the tiled surface. All other conditions being
equal, the tensile stresses are greater in tiled surfaces installed with closed joints or in system
where the support layer or structure is characterized by movements, settling, etc. In general,
such causes of the defects in question are not determining factors, however it is possible that the
importance of insufficiently accurate choices in the planning and design or installation phases
should not be neglected.
Prevention of these defects, in addition to the obvious responsibility of the producer of the tile,
lies in remembering the importance of sufficient care in the planning and design phase in the
choice of tile, choice of the material for the tile bed and choice of the type of installation (closed
or open joints) as well as analogous attention in the actual installation of the tile, especially as
regards the preparation of the tile bed.
Efflorescences and molds
These defects consist in patinas of various colors and consistencies which often are difficult to
eliminate. Their formation usually occurs on the surface of unglazed tile, especially in damp
conditions and when the tile body is relatively porous.
The molds are whitish or greenish fungus formations which form on various types of materials,
especially in damp environments. Efflorescence is a patina of soluble salts in the form of a
whitish powder that remains attached to the surface and originates from phenomena of water
rising up trough the tile.
These effects have mainly aesthetic consequences since they appreciably alter the appearance,
color and uniformity of the tiled surface.
The origin of molds is almost always external to the floor or wall system itself, i.e., the tiled
surface is simply a support for the growth of microorganisms already present in the environment.
Certainly any porosity in the tiled surface favors the attachment of the molds, but the ceramic tile
is absolutely extraneous to their genesis (just as, in general, are the other materials which
constitute the floor or wall system). Even the organic-based adhesives are always reliable
because of their specific compositions, since phenomena of fermentation and the formation of
molds are absent. For these reasons, the choice of porous unglazed tile for installation in humid
environments, i.e., high-risk environments for the appearance of the defects in question,
represents a risky design solution, this choice then and not the quality of the tile would be
responsible for any appearance of the defect.
The origin of efflorescence, i.e., of the soluble salts giving rise salts giving rise to efflorescence,
is in contrast, almost always from within the floor or wall system. Indeed, soluble salts can be
contained in the tile, in the tile bed (specifically, in some sands which have not been properly
chosen, in the case of installation with cement mortar), or even in materials constituting the
support surface. In addition to the salt content of the various materials used, important roles in
the appearance of the defect in question are also played by the porosity of the tile and the
presence of moisture coming both from the environment and from and from within the system (it
is necessary only to remember the water used in the preparation of the adhesives and mortars).
It can be concluded, therefore, that the cause of an efflorescence can be due to the quality of the
materials, when it is possible to ascertain that they do contain considerable amounts of soluble
salts, but also can result from poor planning and design of the tiled surface when the previously
cited risk factors are not taken into due consideration. It should be pointed out that there are no
standards which establish acceptable levels of soluble salt content for ceramic tile or for the other
materials used. This renders the diagnosis relatively problematic and makes greater care in the
planning and design phase even more important.
Since the use of porous unglazed ceramic tile constitutes a factor of risk in damp environments,
or for tiled surfaces exposed to the possibility of water rising to the surface from below,
convenient preventative measures can be taken during the planning and design phase, in
particular by favoring the use of compact products with low values of water absorption. In the
same way, another effective preventative measure in the planning and design phase, in addition
to recourse to suitable impermeable layers is the choice of materials for the tile bed which are
structurally compact and of known soluble salt content. In the environments under consideration,
the use of mortars containing lime is to be avoided, and it is advisable to make use of various
additives, such as latex, which improve impermeability and compactness of the tile bed as well
as its adhesion properties. In these cases, particular care must be taken to assure the purity of the
sand used for mortar.
Alterations in color
The chromatic effects on the tile surfaces which fall into this category are those effects whose
appearance indicates an origin from within the floor or wall system itself (alterations in color due
to external causes, regarding the conditions in the working environment, have already been dealt
with in the discussion regarding deterioration caused by abrasion and chemicals). In the present
case, the surfaces of the tile, in some zones of the tiled surface, take on a different hue, often
darker than the original color. This effect is glazed tiles generally is noted within or beneath the
layer of glaze, while in unglazed tile it occurs on the surface, but in such a way as to indicate the
involvement of the underlying support, and thus an internal origin for the effect. This origin is
particularly clear for glazed tile, in which, as already said, manifestation of the effect under
consideration occurs within or beneath the layer of glaze. The consequences of this defect, the
risk of which is the greater the greater the porosity of the tile body, are essentially aesthetic; the
functionality of the tiled surface remains unaffected.
In most cases, the origin of the defect in question can be traced to phenomena or events of water
rising from the underlying layers. Such phenomena, in turn, can result from accidental events
such as a broken pipe or other types of infiltration of water. In any case, for some reason, excess
water is present in the layers beneath the tile. In general, the effect is of limited duration. Once
the excess water has been removed, the alteration in color disappears and the tiled surface
reacquires its original appearance. At this point, it should be remembered that the rise of water
from beneath the tiled surface was also discussed in the preceding section as a condition that can
lead to the appearance of efflorescence. That risk also exists in the present case where
efflorescence may accompany or follow the alterations in color just described. If this should
happen, the defect in question may leave more persistent traces. The most problematic case in
this respect is that of glazed tile, where a definite deterioration in the appearance occurs and the
lower surface of the glaze, i.e., the interface between glaze and tile body, undergoes an alteration
in color which can not be eliminated. In this latter case, the quality of the tile should also be
taken into consideration and tests should be made to determine if the observed alterations in
color could be caused by chemical instability of the glaze or some of its parts. The research to
establish if and tow what extent the tile are responsible for the defect is quite laborious and not
always successful. In addition it should be recognized that with our present state of knowledge,
the responsibility of the tile for the defect in question also is somewhat questionable.
Excluding accidental causes which can not always be prevented, it is worth emphasizing once
again the importance of correct planning and design and installation of the tiled surface. Of
fundamental importance for the prevention of the defect in question, or at least prevention of its
most persistent effects, is an accurate control of the constituents forming the tile bed and the use,
above all when installing high porosity tile, of mortars and adhesives which are reliable in regard
to permeability and release of substances which may damage the surface of the tile; also
important is the use of suitable impermeable layer beneath the tile bed.
Frost damage
Frost damage is characterized by the breaking-off of portions of tile in pieces that very in size
from a few millimeters to several centimeters. In most cases the fracture is concoidal and often
entire portions of tile break and separate from the tile bed. The mechanism of frost action has
been described in the section of Frost Resistance.
Both the covering layer and the entire floor or wall system undergo breakage, often typical in
form, due to the increase in volume which the water that has penetrated into the structure
undergoes when it freezes, i.e., solidifies into ice.
The consequences of this defect are essentially functional, although the aesthetic characteristics
of the tiled surface are also affected. Even more serious than the loss of aesthetic qualities is the
loss of the characteristics of consistency and stability which are necessary for regular use of the
tiled surface.
The first step in diagnosing the cause is to check the quality of the tile by verifying its frost
resistance according to the method given in BS 6431 Part 22. If these tests show that tile which
has been declared frost resistant is indeed not resistant to frost, then there is no question about
the quality of the tile being responsible for the appearance of the defect.
The most frequent causes of this defect, however, usually can be traced to errors in planning and
design: the choice of tile which are not frost resistant (in the sense that frost resistance was not
included among the characteristics requested or agreed upon) and the choice of tile beds (mortars
and adhesives as well as the material for filling the joints) which are not frost resistant or at least
which are not sufficiently compact and impermeable. Further choices, that in themselves are not
incorrect, can add to the previous errors by helping to create conditions where the risk of frost
damage is high. An example of such a choice is the use of closed joints to install the tile: as
previously emphasized, closed joints render the tile layer more rigid which, in turn, means the
tensil stresses induced by any movement of the underlying layers will be greater.
It is important to realize that the entire floor or wall system must be frost resistant and not just
the tiles. The choice of frost resistant tile, certified according to the testing method specified in
the relative Standard, is a necessary conditions for obtaining a frost resistant floor or wall, but is
not sufficient to assure the reliability of the system as a whole. The tile bed and the material used
to fill the joints also must be frost resistant. Experience shows that even floors or walls realized
with tile certified as frost resistant may fail if they have not been correctly planned and designed.
In this respect, a further factor of uncertainty also must be taken into consideration and that is the
fact that the standardized method of testing is not completely reliable in predicting the effective
performance of the tile under the actual working conditions. All such testing methods are
designed to simulate the real conditions, in the laboratory and in a relatively short period of time;
it is intuitively clear that all possible situations can not be covered. In the specific case of frost
resistance, there is no absolute certainty that a tile certified as frost resistant will not, under
certain exceptionally severe conditions, undergo damage due to freezing. An important fact to
take into consideration when planning and designing a tiled surface that must withstand freezing
conditions is that the reliability of the frost resistance of a tile is greater the closer the values of
water absorption are to zero.
Finally, the defect in question also can be caused by improper installation of the tile which
results in (i) cavities beneath the tiles, (ii) porosity at the tile-tile bed interface or within the tile
bed itself due to defective application of the material, or (iii) joints between tile that are not
impermeable because they have been poorly constructed.
Clearly, recognition of the cause and attributing the responsibility for the occurrence of frost
damage is particularly difficult because al of the materials and all of the people involved in
producing the tiled surface play fundamental and important roles. There are however, two
extreme cases in which the diagnosis is more certain. The first is that of the use of tile
susceptible to frost damage in an environment exposed to freezing temperatures because no one
thought to request frost resistant tile at the time the choice was make. In this case, the error is
clearly and incontestably due to incorrect planning and design. The second case is that in which
tile that has been declared as a frost resistant is found, in fact, not to be resistant to damage by
freezing when tested according to the method established in the Standard. In this case
responsibility lies with the supplier of the tile. Outside of these two extremes, it is often difficult
to attribute responsibility for the frost damage observed, responsibility which is shared by all the
various operators and materials involved.
Prevention of the defect under consideration requires careful planning and design with respect to
the choice of all the materials and the type of joints used for the installation (once again we
repeat that there is less risk when open joints are used) as well as particular care in the various
installation operations, especially with respect to the impermeability of the surface and of the
system as a whole. Planning and design and installation are therefore fundamental factors,
especially in applications characterized by the most severe environmental conditions, a
significant example of which is exposure to freezing temperatures.
Adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors
This pathology is mainly a problem with tiled floors. It is characterized by a period of

incubation that is sometimes quite long (months), during the course of which there occurs a
slow progressive separation of some of the tiles from the tile bed. During this first phase, the
tiled surface itself maintains its integrity and cohesion in the sense that the tiles are still united
one with the other by the material filling the joints. The sound one hears when the surfaces of
some of the tiles are tapped indicates however that in some areas, which sometimes are quite
extensive, the tiles are no longer attached to the underlying surface. (The hollow sound that is
heard when the tiles are tapped often is clearly audible when walking across the floor). In this
first phase, sometimes slight buckling of the floor begins. Usually such buckling is not yet
visible, but can be noted in other ways such as a door that touches the floor when it is opened or
a piece of furniture that can no longer be maintained level. Finally, and in most cases quite
unexpectedly, the separation and buckling become so severe as to cause entire portions of the
tiled surface to break away completely and the floor loses its internal cohesion and stability of
assemblage entirely. There are two quite typical circumstances that are worth considering here in
order to interpret the origin of this pathology as well as to recognize and diagnose it. The first is
that in most cases, the underside of the tiles that have come off will be almost completely clean,
indicating that the separation has occurred right at the tile-tile bed interface. The second is that
the dimensions of the surface of the floor from which the tile have come off are smaller than
those for the total area of the separated tiles so that the tiles can no longer be replaced in their
original positions.
Clearly, the consequences of this pathology are functional, since the tiled surface is no longer
whole.
The course of this pathology clearly indicates that it originates from a dangerous state of
compression in the tiled surface parallel to the plane of the surface. The tiles are compressed one
against the other which, in turn, creates tension at the interface between the tile and the tile bed
which in some areas can reach values so high as to put the anchorage of the tile to the tile bed in
crisis. In this way, separation of the tile from the tile bed begins and the tiles begin progressively
to loose the collaboration of the tile bed in resisting the compressive stresses cited. A situation of
instability of the peak load type is gradually reached and the relative tensions are transferred to
the tiles which in turn will tend to buckle perpendicular to the surface onto which they have been
laid. The result is sudden yielding of the tiled surface which separates completely from the tile
bed.
Although only qualitative and highly simplified, this interpretation leads to a search for the
origin of the defect in question in the causes for the formation of dangerous states of
compression in the tile layer. The causes are usually related to shrinkage in the surface of tile bed
due to the effect of phenomena such as settling of the building, thermo-hygrometric variations,
maturation processes or phenomena of expansion of the tiles themselves. The compressive
stresses in the tile layer are greater, and thus more dangerous in respect to the appearance of the
defect in question, the greater the limitations to mobility between the various layers (in particular
between the tile layer and tile bed), as well as the greater the modulus of elasticity (i.e., the
greater the rigidity) of the layers involved and in particular that of the tile layer.
Many of the phenomena that lead to the stresses under consideration correspond to completely
physiological behaviors of the materials used. It is absolutely normal that materials undergo
variations in size with changes in temperature, just as it is normal that mortar and cement
conglomerates are characterized by shrinkage during maturing, a process that can go on for quite
a long time (around two years). In the same way, it is a physiological fact that certain structures
are less rigid than others, as a consequence of the constituent materials and dimensions involved.
Therefore, the responsibility for the defect in question, in general, can not be attributed to the
quality of the materials, unless, of course, it is possible to demonstrate that the tiles for example,
have a coefficient of thermal expansion or moisture expansion that is abnormal or in any case
greater than the levels agreed upon, or that the building has undergone abnormal settling
documented by other events such as cracking, the formation of lesions. etc.
The heart of the problem lies in the planning and design of the floor, based on a thorough
understanding of all the materials involved and precise criteria of assemblage. It is worth
recalling again that a floor or wall is an assemblage of different materials closely bound one to
the other so that reciprocal bonds are imposed on the behavior of each individual materials such
that stress applied to one material is transferred to the others in the system. Indeed, in most cases,
responsibility for the defect in question can be traced to the planning and design phase. Again in
this case, as for many of the other defects discussed, it is difficult to distinguish a single and well
defined cause. Usually the causes are diverse and interacting so the risky design choices are to
be considered as contributing to the appearance of the defect but in most situations are not the
sole cause. The following are examples of such risky design choices:
Not including expansion joints around the perimeter of the tiled surface as well as within
the surface for those surfaces of considerable extension.
Use of closed joints which leads to greater rigidity of the tile layer.
Installation of the tile with a thin layer of cement-based adhesive (thus very rigid),
directly on a support structure characterized by high mobility or deformability.
Premature installation of the tile, without adequate separation or slippage layers, on
cement structures not yet sufficiently mature, and thus still in a phase of major shrinkage.
The consequences of these choices in general are more severe the more severe the environmental
conditions where the tiled surface is located (e.g., external environments exposed to considerable
differences in temperature, and public and industrial environments where the tiled surface is
subject to high mechanical stress).
The operations for installation of the tile also play a particularly important role in these cases,
even though they are almost never exclusively responsible for the appearance of the defect. It is
evident from this discussion that the appearance of the defect, if not preventable, can certainly be
limited or postponed if the tile bed is constructed well as regards compactness and uniformity
and if the layer of tile is perfectly flat.
It is evident that the most effective prevention of this defect can be achieved in the planning and
design phase, and includes, in correspondence with the possible causes cited previously, the
following measures:
Take particular care in the location, size and correct installation of expansion joints.
Whenever possible use open joints since they pose less risk with respect to the defect in
question.
Avoid installing tile directly on flexible surfaces or surfaces exposed to the risk of
movement, using mechanically rigid adhesives such as those with a cement base. In these
cases it is worthwhile to use organic-based adhesives with adequate elasto-plastic
characteristics as well as to make use of separation or slippage layers between the floor
and the underlying structure (floating floors). In any case, it is important to remember
the fact that this reduction in rigidity, in addition to preventing or reducing the transfer of
stress from the underlying layers to the floor, also reduces the collaboration between
these layers and the floor itself, with effects that are absolutely counterproductive if
suitable expansion joints are not also installed. Once again, greater care in carrying out
the installation operation can make an effective contribution to the prevention of the
defect in question.
Adhesion failure, localized or extensive, of individual tiles
This defect is a problem with both floors and walls. It consists in the loss of adhesion between
the tile and the underlying layer, so that some tiles singly or grouped together in a particular area,
begin to who the typical hollow sound when tapped and complete separation of tiles from the
surface can occur following the normal stress to which the tiled surface is exposed.
If this description is compared with the preceding pathology discussed, many common points are
found. Actually, the former case, although characterized by its own course of quite typical
behavior, can be regarded as a particular case of the defect now under consideration. In the
present case, however, the phenomenon of separation of the tile is more general and may have
different characteristics and causes from those discussed for the preceding defect. Indeed, the
states of stress previously cited as the main origin for separation of the tiles from the tiled surface
are only of marginal importance with regard to the defect presently under consideration.
First of all, it should be pointed out that separation of the tile can occur in four ways, in four
different positions: at the tile-tile bed interface, within the tile bed, at the tile bed support layer
interface, and within the support layer. It is easy to determine which of the four possibilities has
occurred by a simple visual examination of the tiles which have come away.
The defect in question has essentially functional consequences, since a loss in the integrity of the
system is involved. The seriousness of the defect corresponds to the extension of the surface
involved, although there is considerable risk that appearance of the defect in a limited area is
only just the initial phase of a degenerative process, the completion of which is just a matter of
time.
The origin of a break-down in the bond between the tile and tile bed is clearly insufficient
adhesiveness of the tile bed. This can be due to one or more of the following causes:
Choice of a tile bed with insufficient performance characteristics as compared to the
quality of the tile (e.g., conventional cement mortars or organic adhesives in an aqueous
medium with tiles having extremely compact tile bodies such as porcelain stoneware tile,
i.e., impervious tiles). Conventional mortars develop sufficient adhesive bonds only with
porous tile, while organic adhesives in aqueous media require suitable removal of the
water in order to develop sufficient adhesion. This cause reflects improper planning and
design of the tiled surface.
Removal of water from the mortar by porous, thus absorbent, tile when cement mortars
are used. If this has occurred, the upper surface of the mortar is not very consistent in the
zone where the tile have come away. This situation may develop if the porous tile have
not been sufficiently wetted, i.e., allowed to absorb water, before installation, or when the
mortar has not been properly prepared. This cause reflects improper installation of the
tile.
Contamination of the underside of the tile by dust and dirt deposited during long or
unprotected storage of the tile. Wetting the back of the tile also serves to remove this dust
and dirt. Again, the origin of this cause is improper installation techniques. It is worth
pointing out, in this respect, the potential impact of the presence of alumina powder used
by the producer of the tile to prevent phenomena of adhesion of the tile to the kiln rollers.
In general the presence of this alumina powders has little impact since the amounts are
very small and present only on the parts of the underside of the tile in relief.
Adhesion failure due to external causes such as infiltration of water, freezing
temperatures, etc. In this case there may have been an error in the planning and design
phase, but only if the conditions of exposure to moisture, water and freezing temperatures
represent consistent and foreseeable risks in the particular environment, or if a tile bed
with unsuitable performance characteristics was chosen.
Insufficient contact between the tile and the tile bed due to lack of wetting by the tile
bed. This can be caused (i) by defective positioning of the tiles during installation
because they have not been sufficiently tapped into position, (ii) as a consequence of the
fact that, in the case that adhesives are used to install the tile, the tile were applied onto
the adhesive layer after the open time had elapsed, or (iii) by the use of improper
techniques or tools for spreading the adhesive (e.g., use of a notched spatula of the wrong
size). All these possible causes define precise errors in installation of the tile. It should be
noted that in these cases, the tiles which have come away from the surface all show traces
of the tile bed sufficient to demonstrate unquestionable that contact between tile and
adhesive involved only a very small portion of the surface.
In regard to adhesion failure within the tile bed itself (indicated by the fact that part of the
tile bed remains attached to the tile that has come away, and part to the support surface),
this is clearly a defect of internal cohesion that may originate either from an incorrect
choice of adhesive (in cases where the failure is recognized as attributable to
environmental conditions, such as high moisture and freezing temperatures which were
not taken into consideration during the planning and design phase), or from incorrect
preparation or application of the adhesive itself. There also is the possibility that the
quality of the tile bed does not conform to that expected or agreed upon.
Adhesion failure between the tile bed and the support layer usually is caused by improper
installation techniques such as insufficient cleaning of the surface to remove all traces of
loose material, dust and dirt, oils and any substances capable of interfering with the
strength of adhesion. Improper planning and design also may be at fault, for example,
when cement based adhesives are used on gypsum-based support surfaces, without first
treating the support surface with a primer.
Finally, when adhesion failure occurs within the support layer itself, responsibility lies
with both the planning and design and installation phases during which it is necessary to
predict and assure, respectively, that the tile layer is applied to a sufficiently consistent
and stable support layer.
The precautions that must be taken in both the planning and design phase and in actually
installing the tile to prevent or at least attenuate the defect in question are clear from the
preceding discussion of the causes, and hence are not repeated here.
It is important, however, to emphasize here the fundamental role in prevention of this pathology
played by the way the various operations involved in installing the tile are carried out.
Experience has shown that, in the case of the defect in question, a job particularly well done by
the tile setter can compensate for more than one of the planning and design errors cited above.
Breakage of several adjacent tiles across the surface
This defect consists in the appearance of extremely thin, straight line or curved fissures that pass
through several adjacent tiles.
In most cases this cracking of the tile is not accompanied by separation (not even incipient) of
the tile from the underlying layer. Only rarely does tapping on the tile produce the noted hollow
sound indicative of a discontinuity in the tile-tile bed anchorage. It is frequent, however, that the
observed cracks (fissures) not only involve the entire thickness of the tiles but also reach down to
the underlying layer, in particular the tile bed and concrete support layer.
The defect has essentially aesthetic consequences which are in general more serious in the case
of glazed tile because scaling and flaking of the glaze often occur in correspondence with the
crack. Even though such fissuring has quite a negative psychological impact in that it suggests
the worrying possibility of break-up and failure of the floor or wall, the functionality of the tiled
surface is almost never in question.
In this case too, as with that of adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors, the origin of the
defect is caused by states of stress on the tile layer (more precisely, on the tile-tile bed double
layer) which are greater than the mechanical resistance of the tile. These states of stress are
transmitted from the load bearing layer, and the behavior and relative intensities are the same as
discussed previously in the section on Adhesion Failure and Buckling of Tile Floor.
In most cases, the defect in question occurs when the following two circumstances exist at the
same time: The first is the presence of a very strong (as regards the characteristics of adhesion
and cohesion) but rigid tile bed. Tile beds with such characteristics include cement mortars with
particularly high cement contents and cement-based adhesives wit rapid setting and hardening
(type 425 or 525). The second is the presence of (i) an easily deformable structure, i.e., a
structure capable of withstanding quite consistent pressure along certain directions (often the
fissuring in question forms in correspondence to those directions), or (ii) a structure with
particular mobility or capacity to yield along certain lines, or (iii) a structure under tension, with
tensions induced, for example, by shrinkage upon maturing or by variations in temperature
opposed by internal or external bonds to the point that cracks appear in the structure (the fissures
in question in the tile surface initiate in correspondence with the cracks in the structure).
In most cased, then, the appearance of this defect is the result of insufficiently accurate planning
and design. In addition to determining whether or not any accidental events such as structural
failure are at fault, a rigorous diagnosis requires various information about the composition of
the system, which in practice is sometimes quite difficult to obtain. To cite a few examples:
There are known pathologies of this type related to (i) not respecting structural joints, (ii) the
support surface for the tile having been incorrectly positioned (e.g., considerable extensions of
concrete without the insertion of shrinkage/bending joints, which inevitably are destined to
crack), and (iii) technical systems (wiring, plumbing, etc.) incorrectly insulated, etc. Poor
planning and design in this case consist essentially in the realization of an excessively rigid tiletile bed double layer (with the use of closed joints), which is not capable of accepting
deformations (i.e., without suitably positioned and sized expansion joints) and/or is excessively
bound to the underlying layers (i.e., without including suitable separation or slippage layers).
In most cases, the execution of the operations involved in actually installing the tile is not in
question.
In regard to the necessary precautions for prevention of the defect in question, that discussed
previously for the defect of adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors also is valid here. In this
case, too, the appearance of the defect results from the presence of stress transmitted to the tile
surface from the underlying layers. Stress which can be controlled by suitable design choices
such as the adoption of open joints for installation of the tile, the use of adhesives with adequate
elasto-plastic characteristics, particular care in planning the necessary expansion joints, and the
correct use of techniques to reduce solidity such as floating floors.
Shattering of the tiled surface
This defect is not very frequent and is always associated with floors in public and industrial
environments which are under high mechanical stress. It consists in the appearance of breakage
in various directions, both in straight lines and curves, that begins in the corners of the tile and
also involves several tiles. Fragments of tile may break away and, with the passage of time and
continued exposure to the high stress, the defect can advance and gradually involve increasingly
more extensive areas of the surface. The final result is the almost complete destruction of large
portions of the tiled surface, with the evident consequences on not only the aesthetic
characteristics but, even more important on the functionality.
Tiled floors at greatest risk of the appearance of the defect in question are those floor subjected
to heavy loads transported on hard-wheeled carts, e.g., supermarkets, industrial environments,
passenger areas in airports, etc.
It is evident from the preceding description of the defect, that its origin lies in the inadequate
performance of the system to resist the severe stress imposed by the particular working
environment.
Once again, the causes of such inadequacy are the result of incorrect planning and design, and in
particular (i) the choice of tile with dimensional (in particular, thickness), microstructural
(porosity), and mechanical characteristics which are not sufficient to withstand the expected
levels of stress, (ii) the choice of a tile bed which not only is insufficiently compact without
sufficient resistance but also does not have suitable characteristics of adhesion in relation to the
expected conditions of stress, (iii) not having prevented phenomena of localized inflection and
stress via the disposition of a strengthening and load distribution layer, and (iv) not having
prevented further states of additional tension, of the types considered in the discussion of the
preceding defect.
When making the diagnosis, it is necessary also to take into consideration the possibility that the
materials employed are defective, i.e., do not conform to that agreed upon. For example,
although experience shows that very rarely is defective tile responsible for the defect in question,
the possibility that this may be the case should not be overlooked.
More frequent are the cases in which this defect is caused by one or more of the cited errors in
planning and design accompanied by improper installation of the tile such as lack of surface
flatness, poor quality filling of the joints, defective conditions for good bonding of the tile with
the tile bed, etc. The first two conditions lead to severe stress on the edges of the tiles, with the
risk of premature appearance of the pathology under consideration; the third leads to an
inevitable crisis in collaboration between tile and tile bed, with the easily predictable
consequences. It is worth noting, finally, that the tile-tile bed anchorage may be put in danger by
another circumstances, and specifically, utilization of the floor too soon, when the setting and
hardening reactions are not yet complete. If this is the case, responsibility for the defect can not
be attributed to the material used, or to the quality of design or to the installation operations, but
rather it is essentially the user who is at fault. This possibility also should not be overlooked.
Precautionary measures to prevent the defect in question are implicit in the discussion of the
causes. Particular care should be taken in the planning and design phase; the more important
points being the following:
Choice of tile with a tile body having a compact structure (such as the impervious tiles)
and possibly greater thickness than conventional tiles.
Choice of a structurally compact tile bed with suitable adhesive characteristics for the
type of tile chosen.
Positioning of a strengthening and load bearing layer.
Adoption of open joints to install the tile and the insertion of suitable expansion joints.
Particular care also should be taken in carrying out the actual installation of the tile.
A further important preventative measure is to make sure that the floor is not used for a sufficient
period of time after all the tile have been installed to allow completion of the setting and
hardening reactions. This is especially important in consideration of the fact that in the
environments where this defect is more likely to occur, initial use of the floor almost always
coincides with the accommodation of heavy furniture and fittings in the locale (benches,
machinery, instruments, etc.) with consequent mechanical stress even greater than that to be
expected in normal working conditions. In these cases it is worthwhile to wait at least 30 days or
more before using the locale.
CONCLUSIONS
The analyses developed lead to the following conclusions:
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
The fundamental role of the following four factors (illustrated schematically in Fig. 3.1)
in determining the durability and aesthetic and functional qualities of ceramic floor and
wall tile are confirmed and documented:
Quality of the materials used.
Quality of the planning and design of the entire floor or wall system.
Quality of the installation of the ceramic tile.
Quality of the maintenance and the way in which the floor or wall is used.
All of the defects considered in this volume can always be traced to deficiencies, errors and
negligence with respect to one or more of the above factors, and therefore, prevention of these
defects is possible only be taking care that all of these factors are carefully and correctly taken
into consideration.
2.
Planning and design of the floor or wall system almost always is a consideration in regard
both to the causes of the defects examined and in the relative discussion of means of
prevention. It would seem logical, then, to deduce that the quality of the planning and
design of the system is the most important factor, or at least that factor to which the
attention given is most frequently insufficient and inadequate with respect to its relative
importance. The experience of the authors, on which that reported in the preceding pages
is essentially based, is that errors in the planning and design phase are more numerous
and more frequent than, for example, defects in the quality of the materials used.
3.
In addition to the people directly involved in the realization of a ceramic tile floor or
wall, many others also may and should contribute (and do contribute in practice) to the
planning and design phase: contractor, builder, supervisor on the work site, tile setter, and
also the user. Often this collaboration is not sufficiently close, sufficiently coordinated
and organized as it should be based on the complexity of this phase of the process. The
roles and responsibilities are not always clearly defined and understood by those
involved, at least this has been the case in various situations that the authors have had the
opportunity to verify and study. This is one of the reasons why we have chosen to speak
generically about errors in the planning and design phase and never specifically about
the responsibility of one or the other of those involved in realizing a ceramic floor or
wall. Even so, it is worthwhile once again to emphasize the necessity that there be good
interaction and dialogue between the various people involved, precise understanding of
all the project data, especially in those cases where many different people are called upon
to make a contribution to the planning and design. Of equal importance, producers of
materials should make available all the data regarding the quality of their materials, with
clear, detailed and easily understood documentation.
4.
The actual installation of the tile is a determining factor, not so much because it is the
main cause of defects, but rather because it makes a fundamental contribution to the
degree of prevention. Good installation of the tile even seems to be capable of reducing
the risks caused by project choices which in one way or another are questionable, while
incorrect installation can put both the aesthetic and functional performance of a tiled
surface in crisis, even surfaces where tile and materials of optimum quality have been
used.
5.
We have emphasized many times that the ceramic tile represent just one of the various
constituents making-up the complex, multilayer building system, the floor or wall. The
tile have a well-defined role in this system and thus their responsibility is limited to
that of their particular role. At the same time, the user tends inevitably to identify the
floor or the wall with the tile surface, i.e., the part is considered to be the whole.
Consequently, it is on the tile alone that the user tends to direct any appreciation or
judgment, positive or negative, regarding the durability of the system and the aesthetic
and functional quality of the floor or wall. Because of this, the image of ceramic tile
depends more on the performance of the floor or wall as a whole rather than on any
intrinsic quality of the tile itself.
ONLEESBAAR!!
CITALIAN CERAMIC CENTER

OFFICIAL LABORATORY FOR TESTING AND ANALYSIS OF CERAMIC MATERIALS
AND PRODUCTS
Tests and analyses on tile and other building materials

carried out by the laboratories of the Italian Ceramic Center
RAW MATERIALS
Chemical analysis
Differential thermal analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis
Mineralogical analysis
Vitrification diagrams
Dilatometry
Microscopic examinations
Microscopic examinations using a heating
microscope
Plasticity
Swelling properties of clay
PRODUCTS
Testing according to the requisites of the
following Norms: UNI, CEI, AFNOR, ANSI,
ASTM, BS, CAN, DIN, EN, JIS, JUS, MSZ,
NBN, NEN, NP, ONORM, SI, SNV, STAS,
UNE and UPEC
Ceramic Floor & Wall Tile
Frost resistance
Staining resistance
Thermal shock resistance
Impact resistance
Slipperiness
Resistance of colors to light
Adhesives
Specific gravity
Pot life
Water retention
Slippage
Open time
Adjustability
Setting time
Pull strength after 24h, 72, 28 days
Pull strength after heat exposure
Pull strength after water immersion
Pull strength after freeze-thaw cycles
Shear strength
Shrinkage
Compressive strength
Tensile strength
Chemical resistance
Water absorption
Electrical conductivity
Control of dimensions
Rectangularity
Sanitaryware
Surface flatness
ASCED testing
Straightness of sides
Hydraulic testing
Thickness
Water absorption
Dilatometry
Abrasion resistance
Mohs hardness
Resistance to chemicals
Moisture expansion
Resistance to detergents
Abrasion resistance
Modulus of rupture
Resistance to chemicals
Resistance to mechanical shocks
Crazing resistance
Thermal shock resistance
Compressive strength
Modulus of rupture
ITALIAN CERAMIC CENTER Italian Center for Research and Testing for the Ceramic
Industry Bologna (Italy) via Martelli 26 tel. (051) 534015 fax (051) 530085 telex
510891 CENCER 1
ASSOPIASTRELLE
ASSOCIATION OF ITALIAN CERAMIC TILE AND REFRACORIES MANUFACTURERS

Assopiastrelle (Association of Italian Ceramic Tile and Refractories Manufacturers) is an
independent national organization representing the majority of ceramic tile and refractories
manufacturers in Italy.
Over 360 companies are involved in ceramic tile manufacturing in which Italy is world leader.
With an overall output of 4.100 million sq.ft in 1988, Italy accounted for 54% of EEC and 30%
of world tile output; in this year exports of 2.109 million of sq.ft. brought in 1.7 billion dollars.
ASSOPIASTRELLES PRIMARY GOALS:
Representing and safeguarding the tile industrys interests
Assopiastrelle safeguards the interests of manufacturers in dealing with government, tradeunions and non governmental entities.
Back up services
The Association provides a number of specialized information services in the various fields of
interests of the members companies:
technical research
industrial relations
economics and environment
statistics and publishing
Promotional Activities
Assopiastrelle is committed to constantly provide services that fulfill the requirements of the
Italian ceramic tile and refractories industries and help to improve their leadership on the world
market.
For this reason Assopiastrelle promotes CERSAIE - International Exhibition of Ceramics
for the Building Industry and Bathroom Furnishings, the major international annual display
of technical and design trends for the building and home decorating industries, which takes place
yearly in Bologna, and supports other expositions abroad like The World Exposition of
Ceramic Tile and Bathroom Furnishings in the U.S.A.
In collaboration with ICE (Italian Trade Commission), the Association has set up several
Italian Tile Centers abroad (in New York, Dsseldorf, Paris), as coordination point for all
publicity and promotional work for Italian tiles in the USA, Germany and France respectively,
and organized special promotional programs in Australia, Japan, Canada and Austria.

Ceramic Floor and Wall Tile PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ceramic Floor and Wall Tile PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CERAMIC FLOOR AND WALL TILE:

PERFORMANCE AND CONTROVERSIES

Fabrication Technology and Product Types

Standards and Requisites

FABRICATION TECHNOLOGY AND PRODUCT TYPES

It is possible to produce ceramic tile

Wall tile (internal)

Floor tile (internal)

Floor tile (internal & external)

Floor tile (internal & external)

Wall tile (internal)

Wall tile (external)

Wall tile (internal)

Floor tile (internal & external)

Wall tile (external)

Wall tile (external)

STANDARDS AND REQUISITES

WATER ABSORPTION, WA (%)

The shaping method, the other parameter upon

straightness of sides: This characteristic is controlled by determining that the sides do

rectangularity: control of this characteristic consists in determining whether or not the

Planning and Design

constructed with prefabricated elements, concrete-steel, mixed brick-steel, and reinforced

Fig. 2.1 - Schematic

Fig. 2.1 - Classification

Fig. 2.2 - Expansion

Fig. 2.3 Example

Fig. 2.4 Example

load bearing layer

Fig. 2.2 Schematic

The operations involved in installing the tile are as follows:

Setting the tile

Refinishing the application of

Differences in the tiles surface from that originally chosen or

Tiles surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment

Mechanical deterioration (scratches, abrasion, etc.)

Fracture, chipping, flaking and scaling

Color differences and dirty joints

Pinholes, craters, specks and spots

Crazes and cracks

Efflorescence and molds

Defects in the stability of the system

Adhesion failure and buckling of tile floors

Adhesion failure, localized or extensive, of individual tiles

Breakage of several adjacent tiles across the surface

Shattering of the tiled surface

quality of the materials used;

A defect, or, to borrow a term from the field of

Fig. 3.1 Factors

As a general statement, it can be said that a tiled

B.4 Breakage of several adjacent tiles

DEFECTS INVOLVING THE TILED SURFACE NOTED OR

Differences in the tiled surface from that originally chosen or agreed

Tiled surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment

Tiled surfaces already damaged at the time of consignment

DEFECTS INVOLVING THE TILES SURFACE WHICH APPEAR AFTER A CERTAIN

Mechanical deterioration (scratches, abrasion, etc.)

Fracture, chipping, flaking and scaling

Color differences and dirty joints

Pinholes, craters and spots

Crazes and cracks

Efflorescences and molds