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Technical report on the characterization of the

agro-ecological context in which Farm Animal


Genetic Resources (FAnGR) are found:
Sri Lanka

A report submitted to the FAnGR Asia Project - June 2004

B.V.R. Punyawardena
Ph.D, M.Phil, B.Sc(Agric.) Hons.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents

List of tables

iii

List of maps

iv

List of figures

Executive summary

vi

Introduction

Location

Geology

Climate

Major soil types of Sri Lanka

Flora and Fauna

Forest resources

Present situation

Current trends in the forestry sector

11

Water resources

15

Surface water

16

Ground water

21

Pastoral resources

22

Land use and land degradation

25

Socio-economic conditions

29

Livestock industry in Sri Lanka

32

Agro-ecology

39

Livestock production systems and AERs

42

Ruminant production systems (Siriwardena, 1999)

43

Mid & Up country intensive system

43

Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive system

44

Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system

44

Dry zone intensive system

45

Non-ruminant production systems

45

Poultry

45

Pigs

46

Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of target sites

46

Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites.

48

Potential and limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf)

54

Potential and limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf)

55

Siyambalanduwa target site

55

Panama and Pottuvil target sites.

59

Potential and limitations of Regosols and Alluvial soils

66

Thirappane and Galenbindunuwewa target sites.

66

References

74

ii

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1

Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with equivalent great soil groups
of Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975)

Table 2

Taxic diversity of plants in Sri Lanka

10

Table 3

Forest extent by type

10

Table 4

Natural forest area by districts (ha) 1994

14

Table 5

Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999)

15

Table 6

Surface water resources of Sri Lanka

19

Table 7

Present status of small tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka

20

Table 8

Extent of land under pasture and estimated yield of pasture

24

Table 9

Land use in Sri Lanka (as shown in the land use map of 1988)

27

Table 10

Arable land, their uses and other land use types in Sri Lanka

28

Table 11

Selected target sites and their respective administrative units & AERs

46

Table 12

Average climatic conditions of the DL5 agro-ecological region of


Sri Lanka

51

Table 13

Hydrological characteristics of major rivers in target sites

53

Table 14

Tanks found in the Hambantota DS division

53

Table 15

Tanks found in the Lunugamwehera DS division

54

Table 16

Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of


Sri Lanka Angunakolapellessa

Table 17

58

Average climatic conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological region of


Sri Lanka

62

Table 18

Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS division

65

Table 19

Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of


Sri Lanka - Maha-Illuppallama

70

Table 20

Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division

72

Table 21

Tanks found in the Galenbindunuwewa DS division

73

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LIST OF MAPS
Map 1

Climatic zones of Sri Lanka

Map 2

Agro-climatic zones of Sri Lanka

Map 3

Generalized soil map of Sri Lanka

Map 4

Protected areas under the Department of Wildlife Conservation and Forest


Department

12

Map 5

River basin map of Sri Lanka

17

Map 6

Surface water potential of Sri Lanka

18

Map 7

Generalized landuse map of Sri Lanka

26

Map 8

Land degradation map of Sri Lanka

30

Map 9

Vulnerability to food insecurity in Sri Lanka

33

Map 10

Spatial distribution of cattle in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)

34

Map 11

Spatial distribution of Buffaloes Sri Lanka (as on 2001)

35

Map 12

Spatial distribution of Goat in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)

36

Map 13

Spatial distribution of Pigs in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)

37

Map 14

Spatial distribution of Poultry in Sri Lanka (as on 2001)

38

Map 15

Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka

40

Map 16

Target sites of the FAnGR Project in Sri Lanka

47

iv

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1

Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 - 1990)

49

Figure 2

Average monthly rainfall at Lunugamwehera (1983 - 1999)

50

Figure 3

Average monthly rainfall at Siyambalanduwa (1943 - 1980)

57

Figure 4

Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988)

60

Figure 5

Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil (1983 - 2003)

61

Figure 6

Average monthly rainfall at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)*

68

Figure 7

Average monthly rainfall at Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 - 1963)*

69

Executive Summary
A variety of animals are raised in Sri Lanka including neat cattle, buffaloes, pigs, poultry,
sheep and goats under different environments and management systems. Meanwhile, it has
been evident that the population of the indigenous livestock of Sri Lanka is gradually
decreasing while some breeds/species have already been lost or are near at extinction.
Hence, it is important to conserve and utilize this broad genetic base to enhance the
productivity of livestock of the country in a sustainable manner. Spatial distribution of
livestock species, in particular their wild relatives, has a direct relationship with the
environment, in other word the agro-ecology of the island. Therefore, this report has
attempted to describe the main agro-ecological characteristics of the island in terms of biophysical and socio economic environment.

Sri Lanka has been delineated in to 46 Agro-Ecological Regions (AER) that spread across
three major climatic zones, namely Wet, Intermediate and Dry zones of the country. These
AERs represent an uniform climate, soils and terrain conditions and as such each AER
exhibits more or less similar characteristics in terms of natural vegetation while land use and
farming systems find their best expression within a zone.

Despite being a relatively small island, Sri Lanka's forests are strikingly diverse due to
spatial variation of rainfall, altitude and soil. These forests posses a very high bio-diversity
along with endemic fauna and flora. At the beginning of the last century, Sri Lanka had
about 70% of land area under natural forests. However, it has now been dwindled to around
20 per cent of the total land area due to various socio-economic reasons. Out of total land
area of the country, nearly 80% comes under the some form of state control of which about a
third is under the forest cover and another third is under agriculture.

Human settlements,

home gardens, urban and industrial areas, transportation and a variety of other uses including
undeveloped land account for the balance.

With increasing population, the land/man ratio of the island has declined from 2.7 ha/head to
0.36 ha/head within last 100 years. This decreasing trend will be continued even in the future
as population continues to increase. Meanwhile, the problem of scarcity of land for human

vi

use will be further aggravated due to land degradation. Even though soil erosion is the most
important manifestation of land degradation in Sri Lanka, loss of land productivity through
salinization/alkalization, desertification, eutrifiation and indiscriminate waste disposal can
not be neglected.

It is clear that most of the natural resources related to livestock production are currently
under some form of "stress "due to various physical and socio-economic reasons. This has
led to exposure of animals in to harsh environmental conditions and subsequently the
reduction of productivity them.

Therefore, the need of conserving FAnGR to enhance the

livestock production of the country is perceived than ever before. In the light of possible
financial assistance through FAnGR Asia Project, seven target sites covering four
administrative districts of Sri Lanka were selected to execute a full project on FAnGR. In the
process of selection of target sites, parameters such as abundance of indigenous livestock
species, agro-ecological diversity and poverty level of the people living in the area were
considered.

This report contains comprehensive details on bio-physical and agro-ecological

characteristics of target sites, namely, Hambantota, Lunugamwehera, Siyambalanduwa,


Pottuvil, Panama, Thirappane, and Galenbindunuwewa.

vii

Technical report on the characterization of the agro-ecological context in


which FAnGR (Farm Animal Genetic Resources) are found: Sri Lanka
Introduction
Location
Sri Lanka is located in the Indian Ocean between the latitudes of 50 55' N and 90 51' N and the
longitudes of 790 41' E and 810 53' E covering an area of 65,610 km2 . It is an elongated pearshaped tropical island with a maximum length of 434 km from Dondra Head on the south to
Point Pedro on the north, and a maximum width of 227 km from Colombo on the west to
Kalmunai on the east. There are also a few small islands scattered along its coast.

Sri Lanka lies in close proximity to the southeastern coast of India with which it shares a
continental shelf. A narrow strip of water (Palk Strait) has, however, separated two countries
since the Miocene epoch causing disruption of faunal migratory routes. This, along with the
subsequent brief land linkages with the sub-continent due to oscillation in sea level, has had
a significant bearing on the flora and fauna of Sri Lanka.

Geology
The geology of the island, which has many features in common with that of the Indian subcontinent, has endowed Sri Lanka with considerable mineral resources. About 90 per cent of
the land are consists of Precambrian crystalline rocks.

On the basis of lithology, structure

and age, the Precambrian rocks have been sub-divided into 3 major groups (Cooray, 1984),
namely, Highland Series, Southwestern Group and Vijayan Complex. The Highland Series is
composed of metasediments and closely associated with charnokite gneisses. It occupies a
broad belt running across the center of the island from southwest to northeast, and it thus
includes the whole of the central hill country and part of the northern plain. The
southwestern group occupies the southwestern sector of the island. The Vijayan Complex
occupies the lowlands to the northwest and southeast of the Highland Series.

viii

Other rock types found in Sri Lanka are of more limited distribution and consists of Miocene
limestone sedimentary deposits which extend northward from Puttlam and cover the Jaffna
peninsula and as a small outcrop at Minihagalkanda in the southeast. Two small occurrences
of Gondwana sediments (Jurassic deposits) are found in Tabbowa and Andigama within a
distance of 35 km in the northwestern province. Quaternary or recent deposits that are found
in the coastal areas consisting of sands, sand stones, clays, gravels and coral reefs. The gem
bearing gravels, also of quaternary origin are restricted spatially and found mainly in the
Sabaragamuwa province.

Climate
The dynamics of the atmosphere are extremely variable over Sri Lanka due to its location
near the equator and influence of the monsoonal circulation over south Asia. Subsequently,
climate of Sri Lanka, particularly rainfall, varies strikingly both over different space and time
scales. Moreover, presence of a central mountainous region with a peak elevation of 2,524
m has a major effect on the climate of various regions and produces much sharper climatic
contrast between southwestern quadrant and the rest of the island.

Rainfall distribution in Sri Lanka has traditionally been generalized in to three climatic zones
(Map 1) in terms of Wet Zone in the southwestern region including central hill country,
and

Dry Zone covering predominantly, northern and eastern part of the country, being

separated by an Intermediate zone, skirting the central hills except in the south and the
west.

In differentiating aforesaid three climatic zones, land use, forestry, rainfall and soils

have been widely used.

The Wet zone receives relatively high mean annual rainfall over

2,500 mm without pronounced dry periods. The Dry zone receives a mean annual rainfall of
less than 1,750 mm with a distinct dry season from May to September. The Intermediate
zone receives a mean annual rainfall between 1,750 to 2,500 mm with a short and less
prominent dry season.

Being located in the low latitudes and surrounded by the Indian Ocean, Sri Lanka shows very
typical maritime-tropical temperature conditions.

These conditions are characterized by

greater daily than annual temperature ranges and moderate average

temperatures in comparison with the more continental tropics. Temperature conditions in Sri
Lanka are also characterized by a significant temperature decrease in the central highlands
according to the vertical lapse rate of temperature, approximately around 5-6C for every
1,000 m rise in elevation. However, descending southwest monsoon winds over the central
hills towards lee side get warmer adiabatically causing ambient temperature be increased
along with decreased humidity. Hence, in this region, fall of temperature with rising altitude
is not very distinct compared to the same elevations of the other side of the central hills, Wet
zone.
As low temperature is an important climatic factor affecting plant growth in the Wet and
Intermediate zones of Sri Lanka, a sub-division based on the altitude takes into account the
temperature limitations in these two climatic regions. In this delineation, the Low- country is
demarcated as the land below 300 m in elevation and the Mid-country with elevation
between 300 - 900 m while the Up-country is the land above 900 m elevation. Both Wet and
Intermediate zones spread across all three categories of elevation while the Dry zone is
confined to the Low-country resulting seven agro-climatic zones covering the entire island
(Map 2). There is a considerable variation of temperature across these agro-climatic zones.
For example, average temperature in the coastal Wet zone is 27 0 C and it decreases to about
20 0C in the Mid country and further dropping to 13 - 16 0 C in the montane areas of the Up
country. The entire Dry zone which consists of lowland plains, except for a few isolated
hills, has a mean annual temperature of 30 0 C, although maximum temperature may even
exceed 37 0 C occasionally. In general, the seasonal variation of temperature throughout the
island is minor, but there is a general tendency for higher temperatures during the period of
Match to October while December and January are cooler when temperatures at high
altitudes may even drop to around zero at night
Major soil types of Sri Lanka
The soils of Sri Lanka have been classified at great group level for the whole country (Map
3) and series level information are available for some parts of the country. Moorman and
Panabokke (1961) identified 14 great soil groups in the country. These 14 great soil groups
fall under nine soil orders out of 10 soil orders of the USDA soil taxonomy of 1975 (Table
1).

Agriculturally, important and widely spread soil orders are Alfisol, Ultisol and Oxisol.
Further, the soil orders Entisol, Inceptisol, Vertisol and Histosol also have been used for
agriculture under suitable hydrological conditions as determined by rainfall, irrigation and
flooding.

Table 1 Important great soil groups of Sri Lanka with equivalent great soil groups
of Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975)
Soil order

Sub-order

Great Soil Group

Great Soil Groups in Sri Lanka

Alfisol

Ustalfs

Rhodustalfs

Reddish Brown Earths

Haplustalfs

Non-Calcic Brown soils

Tropoaqualfs

Low-Humic Gley soils with low BS

Natraqulfs

Solodized Solonetz

Rhodudults

Reddish Brown Latasolic soils

Aqualfs

Ultisol

Udults

Plinthudults
Tropudults

Oxisol

Ustults

Tropustults

Humults

Tropohumults

Aquults

Tropaquults

Ustox

Eutrustox

Red Yellow Podsolic soils

Low-Humic Gley soils with high BS

Haplustox

Red Yellow Latosols

Vertisol

Usterts

Pellusterts

Grumusol

Aridisol

Orthids

Salorthrids

Solonchaks

Entisol

Aquents

Tropaquents

Fluents

Tropofluents

Ustents

Tropustents

Psamments

Quartzipsamments

Auepts

Tropaquepts

Half Bog soils

Tropepts

Ustropepts

Immature Brown Loam soils

Fibrists

Tropofibrists

Hemsists

Tropohemsists

Saprists

Troposaprists

Inceptisol
Histosol

Alluvial soils of variable texture & drainage

Bog soils

While chemical and physical properties of these soils have been discussed by Alwis and
Panabokke (1972) a detailed account on potential and constraints of these soils for
agriculture and other land uses can be found in Somasiri (1982).

Flora and Fauna


The rich and diverse flora of Sri Lanka consists of an estimated total of nearly 4,000 species
and varieties of flowering plants, classified into 200 families and 1,350 genera. In addition,
about 1,100 species of lower plants (liverworts, mosses, ferns and fern allies) in about 250
genera are on record (National Atlas, 1988). Grasses, legumes, orchids and sedges are the
largest Sri Lankan families. Apart from species diversity, Sri Lanka is blessed with very high
taxic diversity (Table 2). Taxic diversity (Taxonomic diversity) is the diversity above species
level. Species that are very different from each other contribute more to overall diversity
than closely related species (Wijesundara, 2004). Meanwhile, about 25% of the flowering
plants of Sri Lanka are endemic. A variety of factors such as climate, geology and altitude
determine the species composition in a given area and thus the vegetation types and their
zones.

Despite its small size, the island is home to 625 species of terrestrial vertebrates, a thousand
varieties of fishes in its inland and territorial waters.

Among vertebrates, there 84

mammalian species, 12% of which are considered to be endemic (National Atlas, 1988).
Moreover, there are wild species of buffalo, cattle, fish and fowl but with the notable
exception of marine fisheries (NARESA, 1991).

Forest resources
Present situation
Climate, the main determinant of forest distribution, does not preclude the presence of forest
in any part of Sri Lanka except in a few locations. Despite being a relatively small island, Sri
Lanka's forests are strikingly diverse due to spatial variation of rainfall, altitude and soil.
The Wet zone contains lowland rain forests, characterized by a high density of tall trees with
straight, columnar boles reaching heights of 30 - 40 m in the canopy. These forests believed
to be the richest in the country in terms of species diversity and endemic fauna and flora, and
found in the southwestern quarter of the island ranging from sea level to an altitude of 1,000
8

m where they give way to sub-montane forests. The latter grade in to montane forests that
occur at altitudes between 1,500 - 2,500 m with a lower canopy and denser under growth.
Their stems are often covered with lichens, bryophytes and other epiphytic plants. Wet zone
forests show a progressive decline in canopy height and culminate in the unique "Pigmy
forests" that occur at elevation above 2,000 m.

The forests in the Dry zone comprise mainly dry monsoon forests with a relatively open
canopy of trees less than 20 m in height and thorny scrub forests that occur in the semi-arid
areas covering the northwestern and southeastern regions of the island. The lowland
Intermediate zone located between Dry and Wet zones, contains moist monsoon forests.
Other distinct forest types in the island are fragmented mangrove vegetation and riverine
forests that occur along the banks of rivers flowing through the Dry zone (MOFE, 2000).

Sri Lanka has a natural forest cover of around 2,046,599 ha (Table 3). Of this, 463,842 ha
contain open canopy sparse forests while the balance comprises closed canopy forests. All
categories of closed canopy natural forests are not equally abundant. The dry monsoon
forests located mainly in the northern and eastern regions (Table 3) are the most widespread
and cover an area of about 1,094,287 ha (Table 3). The next in extent is the moist monsoon
forests of the Intermediate zone.

In contrast, valuable lowland rain forests cover only

141,549 ha while sub-montane and montane forests are even scarce. Mangrove swamps in
Sri Lanka are also not extensive as they are fragmented and occur in a narrow tidal belt
extending less than 1 km landward from the mean low water tidal level. It covers an extent
of 8,687 ha (Table 3).

Plantation forests in Sri Lanka consist mostly of even-aged monocultures of Teak,


Eucalyptus or Pine. A few mixed plantations of broad-leaved tree species such as Jak, and
Mahogany have also been established (NARESA, 1991)

Table 2 Taxic diversity of plants in Sri Lanka

Sub-class

No. of

No. of Orders

Orders in

in Sri Lanka

the world

No. of

No. of

families in

families in

the world

Sri Lanka

Magnolidae

100

38

18

47.4

Hamamelidae

11

18.2

24

16.7

Caryophyllidae

100

14

12

85.7

Dilleniidae

13

10

76.9

78

34

43.6

Rosidae

18

17

94.4

112

57

50.9

Asteridae

11

10

90.9

47

30

63.8

Alismatidae

100

16

43.8

Arecidae

75

80

Commelinidae

85.7

16

50

Zingiberidae

100

62.5

Lilidae

100

19

10

52.6

83

67

80.7

377

189

50.1

Total
Source: Wijesundara, 2004

Table 3 Forest extent by type


Type

Area (ha)

Lowland rain

141,549

Moist monsoon

243,877

Dry monsoon

1,094,287

Sub montane

68,838

Montane

3,108

Mangrove

8,687

Riverine dry

22,411

Sparse open

463,842

Total natural forest

2,046,599

Source: Forestry sector master plan, 1995

10

Current trends in the forestry sector


At the beginning of the last century, Sri Lanka had about 70% of land area under natural
forests (Wijesinghe et al, 1993). By 1992, however, the amount of closed canopy natural
forest had dwindled to around 23.8 per cent of the land area (MOFE, 2000). Table 4 shows
the distribution of different forest types in different administrative districts as at 1994 and
reveals that 31 per cent of the land area of the island is covered by natural forest of which 7
per cent consists of sparse forests. The present extent of natural forests in the country, and
the abundance of the different forest types are not due to natural forces alone, but have been
greatly influenced by human actions.

In general, the main reasons for the rapid loss of forest cover in the island during fast few
decades are clearing for irrigation, agriculture, human settlement, hydro-power generation,
timber extraction and forest encroachment by local people (MOFE, 2000). As the population
continued to increase, there was a pressure for land to meet the demand from above sectors
of the economy which resulted deforestation rate of over 40,000 ha per year between 1956
and 1983 and had accelerated to an annual rate of 54,000 ha between 1983 and 1992
(Wijesinghe et al, 1993). Recognizing the urgent need for conservation of Sri Lanka's natural
forests, considerable efforts have been taken to address the issue. Currently about 55% of
the total area under natural forest is reserved and administered by either the forest
department or the department of wild life conservation.

The designated areas under these

two departments constitute 17% and 13% of the total land area, respectively (Map 4). The
designated areas under the forest department in 1995 comprised Forest Reserves, Proposed
Forest Reserves and National Heritage and Wilderness Areas (MALF, 1995).

Protected

areas under the department of wild life and conservation are consisting of Strict Natural
Reserves, National Parks, Nature Reserves, Jungle Corridors and Sanctuaries (Table 5). In
total, Sri Lanka's Protected area network covers an impressive 14% of the total land area
(MOFE, 1999). Even though, it is a very favorable situation compared to other countries of
South Asia, it is still considered inadequate to conserve country's rich bio-diversity and
critical hydrological features due to poor representation of Wet zone forests in it.

For

example, the forest department trough its National Conservation Review study has found that
20 to 50% of species in selected plant and animal groups occur in the forests of just four
districts of the Wet zone.
11

12

Many of these species are rare and limited in distribution and a total of 119 woody plant
species are restricted to single forests, while 41% of these rare species are endemic (MALF,
1995). This issue has now been partly addressed by the inclusion of Wet zone's conservation
forests that are species rich and contain many of the endemic species and important
watershed areas, within the Protected Area network (MOFE, 2000).

Since 1970 the forest department has established 40 biosphere reserves within its Reserve
forests or Proposed reserve forests. They vary from 10 to 55,000 ha and total of 120,000 ha.
This program began as an activity of IUCN's International Biological Programme and later
continued under the UNESCO's Man and Biosphere Programme (NARESA, 1991). In the
natural forests of the Dry zone, under the Forestry Master Plan, deforestation and
exploitation for timber supply will continue everywhere except in the "Protected areas"
under the department of wild life conservation and the biosphere reserves under the forest
department.

There are around 600,000 ha in these reserves. However, even within these

areas encroachment and illicit felling continue. In the Wet zone region (Low country, Mid
country and montane region) the forest is estimated as 278,000 ha.

In the Low and Mid

country and in the Mahaweli catchment, the area of forest has been depleted to about 8% of
the land area resulting unfavorable forest/land ratio. Hence, according to the Forestry Master
Plan, no forest alienation would be permitted in the Wet zone (NARESA, 1991).
Deforestation being the major and most important environmental problem in Sri Lanka, in
recent years there has been a positive change in forest policy conferring a greater role on the
forest department for forest conservation as opposed to its prime objective of managing
forests production the past. The forest policy 1995 and Forestry Sector Master Plan 1995
and several management plans developed by the department clearly reflect this mandate.
Despite these initiatives, forest offences continue to report in courts and other judicial
institutes.

Meanwhile, the forest department and the department of wild life conservation

have now acknowledged that remedying this problem needs greater participation of local
people in forest and wildlife management and conservation (MOFE, 2000).

13

Table 4 Natural forest area by districts (ha) - 1994


District

Ampara
Anuradhapura
Badulla
Batticaloa
Colombo
Galle
Gampaha
Hambantota
Jaffna
Kalutara
Kandy
Kegalle
Kilinochchi
Kurunegala
Mannar
Matale
Matara
Monaragala
Mulaitivu
Nuwara Eliya
Polonnaruwa
Puttalam
Ratnapura
Trincomalee
Vaunia
Total
% of total
land area

Montane

93

Sub-

Lowland

Moist

Dry

Riverine

montane

rain

monsoon

monsoon

dry

45190

69265
180083
3353
21770

3888

1577
1832
18903
273
220

935

8504
3655

20240
14258
11791

17517
13302

14
739

1943

48

3108
0.05

5314
519
65

12831
16686
768

41337
2174
63558

31078

3977

2649
47266

15816

68839
1.04

38194

141549
2.14

292

1421

3710

187
122
539
260
70

3545

1827
89

19169
822

10160

Mangrove

4755
4
243877
3.68

32374
8153
111389
15237
516
113627
153769
68093
79452
3545
110491
103182
1094287
16.54

312
795

1261
6

4544
463
523
814

2264

1826

1491

22411
0.34

8687
0.13

Sparse

41760
116693
27843
16325
36
1699
20
55077
298
1266
5980
492
6042
14766
11762
9207
2076
52569
17987
3273
22949
17104
4491
17629
16503
463842
7.01

Grand total

166667
296776
54271
52818
1868
20789
429
79454
1380
21576
33222
15938
38728
24746
25207
84015
21977
235171
172219
42920
138831
99634
66849
131441
119685
2046599
30.93

Lowland rain forest - > 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevationMoist monsoon forest - 1,800 - 2,500 mm rainfall, < 1,000 m elevation
Dry monsoon forest - < 1,800 mm rainfall Sub-montane forest - > 1,800 mm rainfall, > 1,000 m Elevation,

Source: Administration report - Department of forest conservation

14

Table 5 Designated forest areas in Sri Lanka (as at 1999)

Category

Number

Area (ha)

Percentage

Forest department
Forest Reserves

177

518,199

7.8

Proposed Forest Reserves

217

621,147

9.4

11,187

0.2

395

1,150,533

17.4

Strict Natural Reserves

31,573

0.5

National Parks

13

524,660

10.0

Sanctuaries

52

256,902

3.8

Nature Reserves

38,720

0.6

Jungle Corridors

10,364

0.2

72

862,219

13.0

National Heritage
Sub-total

Wild life conservation department

Sub-total
Source: Forest and Wild life departments

Water resources
Water resources of a country can be divided in to two categories, namely, surface water
and ground water. Surface water occurs in rivers, streams, lakes, marshes, reservoirs and
ponds. Rainfall is the main source of water for both surface and ground water in Sri
Lanka supplemented by mist, fog and dew in certain montane areas. The principal
geographical determinant of water resources of the island is the highland massif in the
south-central region located across the passage of two opposing monsoonal winds. The
moisture laden monsoonal winds are intercepted by the hills in the central region leading
to unique rainfall pattern.

The mean annual rainfall of Sri Lanka is around 2,000 mm

which distributed over the surface area of 65,619 km2 gives an average volume of
131,230 million m3 of fresh water annually (Arulananthan, 1985). This volume of water
supports the vegetation of the country, recharges the ground water, fills the storage of

15

various reservoirs and lakes and supplies the daily needs human and livestock.

What

does not use run offs the surface or percolates in to the soil to reach the sea as river flow.
Average annual river flow is 31% of the rainfall and equals 40,680 million m3 (Bocks,
1959) while the balance, 90,550 million m3 is used for above purposes and evaporation in
to the atmosphere.

The radial drainage pattern that carries surface water down from the high watersheds
includes 103 distinct natural river basins that cover 90% of the island (Map 5).

The

remaining 94 small coastal basins contribute little to water resources of the country
(Arumugam, 1969). River basins originating from the wetter parts of the up country are
perennial while many of those in the Dry zone are only seasonal.

Surface water
Water that remains from rainfall after evapotranspiration and infiltration losses may
generally be considered as available surface water. Amounts are measured in terms of
water discharged by the rivers (m3 /year) or as units of water depth distributed over the
land surface as hectare-meters (HM). Annual surface run-off of Sri Lanka is estimated as
5 HM (Table 6). Much of this water now serves the irrigation and hydro-power projects
and only less than 3.3 HM escapes to the sea. About 79% of the run-off water from the
Wet zone is escaped to the sea while corresponding value from the Dry zone remain
around 50% (Table 6). Despite its favored location in the humid tropics and lying on the
path of two opposing monsoons, the distribution rainfall of Sri Lanka over the year and
over the country is not very much conducive in every aspects of the economy. The
greater part of the island especially the Dry zone and Intermediate zone is liable to dry
spells lasting several months. Areas of water surplus, however, are not uncommon along
the coastal belt of flood plain, villus and mangrove swamps. NARESA (1991) has shown
the surface water potential of the different districts of the country (Map 6). It reveals that
about 75% of the country has potential of less than 1 m of surface water per annum. It
also shows that about 50% of the area of country has surface water potential of less than
0.5 m per annum.

This is well below the evapotranspiration requirement of the

vegetation of the area.

16

17

18

Elements of Sri Lanka's surface water balance are subject to substantial annual variability
due to dynamic nature of rainfall governing mechanisms of Sri Lanka so that
consideration of averages can be misleading.

Variations are about 10% annually in the

Wet zone, 15% in the Dry zone and up to 20% on the east coast (NARESA, 1991).
Hence, attempts have been made to store the surface run-off for various uses since
ancient times. Therefore, Sri Lanka has unique distinction in the history of mankind of
having developed "Hydraulic civilization" even before the Christian era.

The hydraulic

structures that have survived to this day, such as long canals with imperceptible gradients,
Bisokotuwas, Ralapanawas, and cascades of village tank systems, bear an ample
testimony to the high achievements in surface water management and technology
(Madduma Bandara, 1998).

It is evident that in the Dry zone mainly the attempts had

been to store run-off water for use during dry periods.

In the Wet zone, diversion

structures have been built across perennial rivers and stream flow to provide the water to
places where it is not sufficient or available.

There are over 15,000 small reservoirs

known as "small tanks" found in Sri Lanka. Table 7 shows present statues of the small
tanks in the drier region of the island. It can be seen that the highest number as well as
highest density of small tanks are in the North Western province (NWP) and North
Central province (NCP). Meanwhile, the highest proportion of abandoned tanks is in the
Southern province (SP), Lower Uva, Eastern province (EP) followed by the Northern
province (NP) and the NCP. In general, the average tank density is one tank per 2.6 km2 f
or NP, NCP and SP. For the NWP the density is around one tank per 1.2 km2 . This
conforms to both the nature of the overall rainfall regime as well the nature of
geomorphology of the region.
Table 6 Surface water resources of Sri Lanka
Wet zone

Dry zone

Island total

Mean annual rainfall (mm)

2,424

1,450

1,937

Mean annual run-off (HM)

2.58106

2.55106

5.13106

Run-off/Rainfall ratio (%)

65.1

35.8

40.5

Escape to the sea (HM)

2.04106

1.3106

3.33106

75.83

51.11

64.91

Escape as a % of total run-off


Source: Ranatunga, 1985

19

Table 7 Present status of small tanks in the drier region of Sri Lanka
Province and area (km2

Number of small tanks


Operating

Northern 3,709

Total

Abandoned

608

816

1,424

North Central 10,365

2,095

1,922

4,017

North Western 7,760

4,200

2,273

6,473

653

757

1,410

Lower Uva 2,901*

16

543

553

Eastern (south of

1,017

1,017

48

425

473

7,620

7,753

15,373

Southern 2,849

Mahaweli) 3,885*
Eastern (north of
Mahaweli)*
Total

*Includes only the Dry zone part of the province


Source: Panbokke et al, 2002

Apart from these small tanks, Sri Lanka has relatively large number of major reservoirs.
Irrigation department (1965) has published the register of the irrigation projects in Sri
Lanka. This document has listed 64 major irrigation projects, 162 medium scale projects,
3,279 minor projects, 1,763 anicut projects, 46 flood protection, drainage and salt water
exclusion projects and 25 lift irrigation projects. This register has not been updated since
1975 even though some major irrigation and hydropower projects such as Mahaweli,
Samanala Wewa, Kirindi Oya and Kukule Ganga etc. have been commissioned
thereafter.

In Sri Lanka role of wetlands in maintaining the surface water balance can not be under
estimated. Wetlands comprising of swamps, marshes, fens and bogs are natural waterstorage features on the landscape. Wetlands play a crucial role in preventing flooding at
the other end of rivers while providing the habitat for variety of flora and fauna, some of
which are endemic to Sri Lanka.

In the headwaters and watershed, they store water

during heavy rains, slowing runoff into streams and reducing flood peaks. Some of the

20

trapped water returns directly to the atmosphere through evaporation or plant


transpiration, and while a few wetlands recharge groundwater, they slowly release the
water they hold to their outlet stream. In general, wetlands typically have a large inlet and
a small outlet. There are 41 wetland sites in Sri Lanka. (Scott, 1989). However, the
importance of wetland ecosystems was not understood during the post-colonial era of the
country.

In Colombo and its suburbs, a considerable area of natural wetlands has been

lost to construction of infrastructure, thus creating several environmental problems,


which include flooding and poor drainage.

However, the value of wetlands and flood

plains have received increasing attention and Sri Lanka is now a party to the international
treaty and convention on the protection of wetlands of international importance. Several
proposals have been considered to mitigate some of the hazards associated with the
destruction of natural wetlands.

A growing body of national laws and institutions and

scientific management information is being successfully attempted for the sustainable


development of wetlands in the country.

Ground water
From ancient times, ground water extracted trough dug wells has been the main source of
naturally clean, potable water supply that served domestic purposes and still remains the
principal source of domestic water supply in the rural sector. In Sri Lanka, rainfall is the
only source of supply of fresh water that seeps through the surface for circulation and
storage as ground water. As nearly 90% of the total land area of the island is occupied by
metamorphic crystalline rocks, called "hard rocks" of which both pore space and
permeability is relatively low, ground water is not present equally everywhere in the
country. In the Dry zone where ground water is most valuable for irrigation as well as
domestic use, several distinct categories of ground water sources have been identified.
They are: shallow Krastic aquifers (Miocene limestone) in Jaffna peninsula, shallow
unconfined aquifers on the sandy Regosol formation around the coast of mainland and
islands

such

as

Kalpitiya,

deep

confined

sedimentary

limestone

formations

of

Vanathavillu and Mulankavil and ground water occurring in the weathered and fractured
zones of the hard metamorphic rock complex, alluvial plains of major rivers/drainage
systems and major irrigation areas of the Dry zone. Use of ground water for farming in
Sri Lanka has been confined traditionally to the northern and eastern provinces, which are
21

deprived of perennial water resources. Systematic exploitation of shallow and deep


aquifers of the north started in early 1960s.

Since 1970s, farmers in the North-central

province also have started to use ground water of the hard rock aquifers for cultivation
through shallow, large diameter dug-wells, popularly known as the agro-wells. Although,
ground water is an excellent source of water, its availability, extractability, rate of
depletion and quality etc. depend on a number factors.

These factors depend on the

characteristics of the water bearing substrata (the geological formation that hold water
under ground) and external factors such as recharging area, general hydrology, rainfall,
infiltration, run-off, soil storage and evapotranspiration of the recharging area. However,
being environmentally very sensitive source of water, indiscriminate extraction of ground
water may lead to catastrophic consequences and therefore, regionally based extraction
guidelines for safe limits and well-density should be worked out.

Pastoral resources
As in many countries in the region, in Sri Lanka the cheapest source of animal feed are
pasture and fodder out of which pasture constitutes the major source of nutrients of
animals grazing on natural pastures. In Sri Lanka, with a total land area of 6.56 million
ha, the open natural grasslands in different climatic zones make up an extent of about 0.4
million hectares (Sivalingam, 1977). There are about 20,000 ha grasslands, mainly in the
government farm, under improved grasses with at least double the fodder yield of
indigenous grasses (NARESA, 1991). The important species of grass and fodder that
support the livestock industry in Sri Lanka are, Guinea grass in the Mid country, Dry
zone and parts of the Intermediate zone; Bracharia spp. and natural pasture varieties in
the coconut triangle and parts of the Dry zone; and a combination of Guinea grass and
large number natural pasture species in the rest of the island (Siriwardena, 1999). The
natural grasslands consist of four main types, namely, Damana, Villu, Dry & Wet
Patanas.

Damana type natural grasslands are Savannah type vegetation found in the lowland Dry
zone especially in its eastern region. However, it is different from the typical Savannah
forest on the eastern slopes of the central highland between 300 to 900 m altitudes in
terms of composition of the tree species. Savannah forest in the eastern slopes is an open
22

plant community of scattered trees amidst a sea of grass where main trees are occupied
with Terminalia chebula (Aralu), T. belerica (Bulu), Emblica officinalis (Nelli), Careva
arborea (Kahata), Diospyros melanoxylon (Kadumberiya) with two main species of
grasses,

Imperata

cylindrica

(Iluk)

and

Cymbopogon

confortiflorous

(Mana).

Nevertheless, the principal tree species in the Damana grasslands or Savannah forest in
the lowland Dry zone of the eastern region constitutes Limonia acidissima (Divul),
Manikara hexandra (Palu) Acacia leucophloea (Keeriya) amidst Imperata and other
grasses (National Atlas, 1988). There are over 80,000 has of Damana grasslands in the
Dry zone (Sivalingam, 1977).

Villu is natural grassland associated with moist conditions in the Dry zone around
abandoned irrigation tanks, backswamps of major rivers and streams, and waterholes.
Both Villu and Damana provide a home for the wild animals and also permit the domestic
ungulates to fend within their means. During greater part of the Major rainy season
(October to February), Maha season, about 25,000 ha of Villu grassland remain inundated
with Mahaweli waters (Sivalingam, 1977). Dry Patana grasslands occur mainly in the Up
country Intermediate zone, especially in the Uva basin and western slopes of the
Knuckles range.

Principal grasses are Cymbopogon confortiflorous (Mana) and

Themeda tremula.

Occasional trees Carea arborea (Kahata) are present. Wet Patana

grasslands occurs in the Up country Wet zone at elevation above 1,400 m where there is
no moisture deficit periods.

It is characterized by Chrysopogon - Pollinia - Arundinella

grasses with Rhododendron (Maha ratmal) trees. The largest expanse of this grassland is
Horton Plains. They are also found in Moon Plains, Sita Eliya, Elk Plains, Ambewela,
Pattipola, and Kandapola areas (National Atlas, 1988). Both these Dry and Wet Patanas
in the Montane region extent over an area of about 65,000 ha (Sivalingam, 1977). Even
though, these land only marginally suitable for arable farming, they are ecologically
important in controlling soil erosion and for the sustenance of wildlife. In addition to
these large-scale natural grasslands, animals are being fed with pastures available under
some other form of land uses.

Piyasinghe (1984) categorized 10 major forms of lands

with pasture along with their respective annual dry matter production (Table 8).

23

Table 8 Extent of land under pasture and estimated yield of pasture

Extent (ha)

Total Dry Matter


production
(MT/year)

Un-irrigated highlands in the Dry zone

325,000

325,000

50,000

200,000

30% of the land area under coconut

140,000

560,000

5% of the hill country tea estate land

4,500

31,500

55,000

55,000

120,000

120,000

5,000

10,000

20,000

40,000

150,000

300,000

13,000

130,000

882,500

1,771,500

Villus in the Dry zone

Patana lands in Montane regions


Herbage from paddy lands ) 2 months of
grazing between seasons)
Road sides etc.
Grazing land in the Wet zone
Fallow paddy land
Improved pasture in farms
Total

The Table 8 reveals that pasture production potential of un-irrigated highlands in the Dry
zone is 1 MT/year while grasses in land under coconut produces 4 MT per year. In
contrast, improved pastures in large-scale farms have the potential of yielding 10 Mt per
annum.

Hence, at present it is estimated that with 882,500 ha of pasturelands in the

country produce 1,771,500 MT total DM of grass and fodder in a year. However, this
resource base can not support the feed requirement of the livestock of the country. The
deficit of fodder requirement in relation to fodder production has been estimated to be 2.8
million MT (Siriwardena, 1999). Hence, it is clear that some other means of feed supply
should be worked out in order to bridge the deficit. In the light of no extra lands to bring
under pasture, utilization of crop residues, agro-industrial by-products and other nonconventional feed resources would be an appropriate strategy to overcome the continuing
problem of livestock feed scarcity in the island. Such strategies would be of particular
importance for the areas having distinct dry season between two rainy seasons. In these

24

regions, the pasture production during the dry period is well below the pasture
requirement.

Therefore, areas such as Intermediate and Dry zones where the annual

rainfall rhythm depicts a distinct bi-modal pattern demand either pasture conservation
during wet period or use of alternative feed resources during the dry period or both. Apart
from the quantity of pasture, the quality of available pasture during dry periods decline
rapidly as pasture and fodder mature rapidly during dry spells. Apart from the Dry and
Intermediate zones, this is a common problem in the areas of Mid and Up country during
Mid January to Mid March where long dry spells are frequent resulting both quality and
quantity of forage resources to decline sharply.

Land use and land degradation


Sri Lanka has a total land area of 6.56 m.ha out of which nearly 80% comes under some
form of state control. In general, nearly one-third of the total land area is under forest
cover and another one-third is under agriculture. Human settlements, home gardens,
urban and industrial areas, transportation and a variety of other uses including
undeveloped land account for the balance.

Although the total extent of the land set apart

for forestry and wild life exceeds the total area of agricultural lands, much of the former
are in ecologically marginal dry areas such as Yala and Wilpattu National Parks (National
Atlas, 1988).

The most recent scientific land use mapping exercise was undertaken by the Survey
Department of Sri Lanka during 1983-1988 period and identified 7 major categories of
land use such as Arable lands, Built up and residential lands, Forests, Range lands,
Wetlands, Barren lands and Water bodies (Table 9 & Map 7). The arable lands include
croplands (all cultivated) and sparsely used lands. The croplands are the lands cultivated
continuously.

These lands include tea, rubber, coconut, rice, vegetable, export-

agricultural crops and non-traditional plantation crops such as sugar cane and cashew etc.
The sparsely used croplands include "Chena" lands (slash & burn agriculture) and
abandoned plantations, which are cultivated now and then.

The category of urban and

residential lands includes built up lands, associate non agricultural lands (archeological
reservations) and homesteads.

25

26

The forestlands includes natural forest and forest plantations. The rangeland consist of
scrub lands and grasslands. Grasslands comprise of both natural (Patana & Villus) and
cultivated grasslands. The marshy lands and mangroves are grouped as wetlands. Rocky
lands and erosional remnants are grouped as are grouped as barren lands.

All natural

water bodies and reservoirs in the inland are included in the category of water bodies.

Table 9 Land use in Sri Lanka (as shown in the land use map of 1988)
Type

Extent (ha)

Arable land
Cultivated

1,641,100

Sparsely used

1,288,500

Total

2,929,600

44.92

Built up and Residential


Built up & associated nonagricultural lands
Homestead
Total

29,200
781,300
810,500

12.42

1,759,800

26.98

593,500

9.09

Wetlands

61,800

0.95

Barren lands

77,500

1.18

Water bodies

290,500

4.45

Forest lands
Natural & plantations
Range lands

A recent study on land use types in Sri Lanka shows that rice, the staple food of the island
occupies in about 41.8 % of the total arable land while tea, rubber, and coconut occupy in
11.0, 9.2 and 25.2 per cent from the arable land, respectively (Table 10). Eight per cent of
the arable land is occupied with subsidiary crops along with another 3.8% under the other
export crops.

27

Table 10 Arable land, their uses and other land use types in Sri Lanka

Agricultural land

Proportion %

Area (ha)

25.0

1,640,250

Paddy

41.8

685,625

8.0

131,220

Coconut

25.2

413,343

Rubber

9.2

150,903

11.0

180,428

Other export crops

3.8

62,330

Sugar

0.6

9,842

Tobacco

0.4

6,561

Subsidiary crops

Tea

Forest & woodlands

27.1

1,778,031

Homesteads

11.9

780,759

7.7

505,197

19.6

1,285,956

8.7

570,807

100.0

6,561,000

Scrubland
Sparsely used croplands
Others (including inland water)
Total Land area

Source: National Environmental Action Plan (1988 - 2001), Ministry of Forestry & Environment

It has also been estimated that nearly 80% of land holdings are less than 1.2 ha and over
40% of them are less than 0.4 ha of the total land area. With increasing population, the
land/man ratio of the island has declined from 2.7 ha/head to 0.36 ha/head within last 100
years (Gamage, 1997). This decreasing trend will be continued even in the future as
population continues to increase. Meanwhile, the problem of scarcity of land for human
use will be further aggravated due to land degradation, a process that diminish or impair
land productivity. According to the FAO estimates of 1989, the total extent of degraded
land due to soil erosion in Sri Lanka is about 700,000 which is about 10% of the total
arable lands of the country. Deforestation has been the major cause of land
degradation/soil erosion in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka had a forest cover of nearly 80% in
1880. Significant land degradation began during the past 150 years, particularly after the
advent of commercial plantation agriculture during colonial period.

In 1900, with a

28

population of only 3.5 million, Sri Lanka had approximate forest cover of 70 per cent.
By 1953, when population reached 8.1 million, natural forest cover had diminished to
approximately 44% and when population doubled by the mid 1980s, the forest was cut by
nearly half, to less than 25 per cent (NARESA, 1991).

The high degree of soil erosion reduces the long-term productivity of the land since the
fertile top-soil is eroded. Some studies have shown that crop yields have declined 3 to
7.5% after 1 mm of soil loss due to natural erosion and 10 to 25% loss after 8 mm of soil
is eroded (Marsh, 1971). Land degradation due to soil erosion could occur in all agroecological regions of the island, although its intensity could vary according to the rainfall
regime/intensity, soil type, slope, ground cover and management practices.

The worst

affected area is the Mid country where intensity of rainfall is high, slopes are moderate to
high and erodibility of soils is also relatively high. At higher elevation, although slopes
are steep, rainfall intensities are relatively lower.

In the Low country, where rainfall

intensities could be high, slopes are less steep and soil possesses a considerable resistance
to the erosion.

Even though soil erosion is the most important manifestation of land degradation in Sri
Lanka, loss of land productivity through salinization/alkalization, dystrification (lowering
of soil acidity), eutrifiation (increase of certain nutrients impairing the plant growth) and
indiscriminate waste disposal can not be neglected (Map 8).

Socio-economic conditions
Sri Lanka has a population over 19 millions as at 2002 with a range of 1.3-1.5 per cent
annual population growth. Population is projected to reach 22.3 million by 2021 and to
stabilize at about 25 million by 2046. Sri Lanka is one of the worlds most densely
populated countries.

Population density was estimated as 287 persons per square

kilometer in 1994 and has increased to 295 persons in 2000. The estimated mid year
population density in year 2003 was 307 per square kilometer. Population in Sri Lanka is
unevenly distributed across the country and is concentrated mainly in the Wet zone,
which include both maritime provinces with higher level of development and hill country
districts having large scale plantations.
29

30

In the nineteen-fifties and sixties, the Sri Lanka economy depended primarily on export
oriented

commercial

plantations

of

manufacturing existed prior to 1950.


plantation-based economy.

tea,

rubber

and

coconut.

No

significant

By 1973, Sri Lanka was still essentially a

Over a third of the food requirements were imported.

Cultivation of paddy and other food crops is very vulnerable to the vagaries of the
weather, as modern methods of irrigation and water control has not yet been widely
adopted.

The modern industrial sector, established mainly towards the end of the

nineteen-sixties was heavily dependent on imports and still producing well below the full
capacity.

Until the mid-seventies, the government controlled most economic activities

and most industries were government operated monopolies. In 1977, with the adoption of
open economic policies and industrialization led to a growth in the economy.

An

economic liberalization programme started in 1989 increased the market orientation of


the economy, emphasizing export led growth and development of the private sector.
Despite severe civil strife, these economic reforms resulted in relatively high growth rates
of 5.6 percent on annual average during 1990-94. In year 2003, Sri Lanka recorded a
broad based 5.9% real economic growth (Central Bank, 2003), a continuing recovering
after her economic set-back in year 2001. Sectoral composition of GDP in 2003 show
that service sector comprises 55% of the GDP while industry and agriculture account for
26 and 19 per cent, respectively. The per capita GDP of Sri Lanka at market prices is 947
US $ (Central Bank, 2003)
Despite all these, poverty has persisted in Sri Lanka over the decades except with a slight
drop in 1970s. The rural and estate sectors have high levels of poverty compared to the
urban sector. As a result of withdrawal of several subsidy schemes during recent past and
increasing inflation rate, the poverty has become an integral aspect of the society and the
economy of Sri Lanka. Apart from other consequences, the poverty will deprive people,
at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutrious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for active and healthy life, in other words
they are vulnerable to food insecurity.

A recent study conducted by the World Food

Programme of the UN has categorized country's 323 DS divisions in to 3 groups in terms


of the food security, namely, Most vulnerable, Less vulnerable and Least/not vulnerable
(Map 9). This map is a composite product of 22 biophysical and socio-economic
31

parameters developed in a GIS environment. A detailed description on parameters and


methodology can be found in Satharasinghe (2003). This study shows that out 323 DS
divisions, 148 are either "Least vulnerable" or "Not vulnerable" to food insecurity. Most
of them are located in the Wet zone or adjoining Intermediate zone. There are 82 DS
divisions, which are "Less vulnerable" to food insecurity, located mostly in the
Intermediate zone, and adjoining Wet and Intermediate zones. There are 93 DS divisions
in the country that are "Most vulnerable" to food insecurity of which majority found in
the Dry zone of Sri Lanka, particularly in the North-east province.
Livestock industry in Sri Lanka
The current population estimates indicate that there are around 1.51 million cattle, 0.64
million buffaloes, 0.45 million goats, 0.07 million pigs and 10.6 million poultry (Dept. of
Census & Statistics, 2002). Livestock are spread throughout all regions of the country
with concentration of certain farming systems in particular areas because of agroclimatic, market and cultural reasons (Map 10 - 14).

A variety of animals are raised in the country including neat cattle, buffaloes, pigs,
poultry, sheep and goats.

Cattle and buffaloes are raised for dairy, draught and for

slaughter. Pigs and sheep are raised exclusively for slaughter while goats are raised both
for slaughter and supply of milk.

The dairy and poultry industries of the country

represent more prominent and organized sectors of the country's livestock industry.

Cattle and buffalo keeping is generally distributed throughout all regions of the country.
In the up and mid-country, cattle keeping is primarily for milk. In the low country wet
zone and in the coconut growing area buffalo form an integral part of agriculture
providing draft power, weed control and manure as well as being used for milk
production. In the dry zone these species are regarded as a source of insurance by the
small-holders as they provide a store of wealth and access to cash by means of animal
sales, and milk. In irrigated areas of Mahaweli settlement scheme in Dry Zone, cattle and
buffalo are kept mainly to produce milk and draft power. In total nearly half of the cattle
in the country are found in the dry zone (Map 10).

32

Map 9 : Vulnerability to food insecurity of Sri Lanka

33

34

35

36

37

38

Goats are largely found in the Dry zone (Map 12).

The total number of animals

slaughtered at registered abattoirs is around 97,000 animals with an extraction rate of


18.8% 1300 MT of mutton are produced. More recently the rearing of goats for milk
purpose is becoming popular in the urban areas of the country.
Pig farming is concentrated in the Western coastal pig belt (Map 13) are undertaken as
intensive systems (10-15 fatterners) and extensive systems (1 to 2 pigs kept by small
farmers in a predominantly subsistence system).

Approximately 26,300 pigs are

slaughtered every year producing 5,500MT of pork.

Swill and rice bran are the most

common feeds used for pigs.

Poultry production is concentrated in Western and northwestern part of the country as a


commercial venture (Map 14). Most of the operations found in these areas are medium
large scale having 1,000 10,000 birds. Annual poultry meat and egg production in the
country stands at 88 million kg and 954 million, respectively.

Agro-ecology
An

agro-ecological

region

represents

particular

combination

of

the

natural

characteristics of climate, soil and relief (Panabokke, 1996). When an agro-climatic map,
which can be considered as areas where the integrated effect of climate is uniform
throughout the area for crop production, is superimposed on soil and terrain the resulting
map identifies agro-ecological regions.

Thus, each agro-ecological region represents an

uniform agro-climate, soils and terrain conditions and as such would support a particular
farming system where certain range of crops and farming practices find their best
expression.

The demarcation of the island into 46 agro-ecological sub-regions is shown in the Map 15
(Punyawardena et al, 2003). The main distinguishing characteristics of each agroecological region is denoted by a 4-character code consisting of letters and a number.
Three major climatic zones are indicated by the first upper case letter of the code (W, I
and D). The second upper case letter of the code (L, M and U) denotes three categories of
elevation. The numerical character in the third place of the code represents a more

39

40

detailed moisture regime (rainfall and evaporation combined) with a degree of wetness on
the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 being the most favorable. The lower case letter in the fourth
place indicates a sub-region as determined by rainfall distribution and other physical
environmental factors where degree of wetness decreases a f.

In the Wet zone, there are 15 agro-ecological sub-regions. Four sub-regions found in the
Up-country wet zone show a distinct variation in the distribution of the South West
Monsoon (SWM) rains. Being in the most effective area of the SWM rains, WM1a,
WL1a and WU1a sub-regions receive the highest amount of rainfall in the country. Apart
from the amount and distribution of SWM rains, relative effectiveness of North East
Monsoon (NEM) rains has also played a vital role in distinguishing 6 sub-regions in the
mid- country wet zone.

The four months period from December to March is relatively

"dry" in WM3a agro-ecological sub-region while there are two distinct dry periods in the
WM3b due to reduced effectiveness of SWM rains over this sub-region.

In the Low-

country Wet zone, amount and distribution of SWM as well as First Inter Monsoon (FIM)
rains were important in identifying the 5 agro-ecological sub-regions. Meanwhile, the
months July, August and December in WL3 agro-ecological region does not receive
adequate amount of rainfall and hence cannot be considered as wet months. As such, 4
months period extending from December to March is relatively "dry" in this region.

The Intermediate zone consists of 20 agro-ecological sub-regions out of which 15 subregions are in the central hills.

Varying degree of effectiveness of different rainfall

governing mechanisms across the central hills has caused variety of growing
environments in this region.

There are 7 agro-ecological sub-regions in the Up country

Intermediate zone out of which IU1 is reported to receive the highest annual rainfall
among all sub-regions of the entire Intermediate zone. Being in the Knuckles range, this
region receives ample amount of rains from NEM while the contribution from SWM
rains is also substantial. Complex geographical settings of the IU3 agro-ecological region
which encompasses almost whole of the so-called "Uva basin" have resulted 5 agroecological sub-regions due to high spatial variability of intermonsoonal and NEM rains in
this region. Meanwhile, being located in the rain shadow area of the SWM, this region

41

does not receive adequate rains during June to September resulting in dry and windy
environment. The Mid country Intermediate zone has 7 agro-ecological sub-regions.
Most of these sub-regions also do not receive adequate rains from SWM and, hence, 4
months period from June to September is relatively dry. Low country Intermediate zone
consists of 5 agro-ecological sub-regions. Other than IL2, all other agro-ecological subregions in the Low country Intermediate zone resemble a bi-modal rainfall distribution.
Since Second Inter Monsoon (SIM) and NEM rains are the only effective rainy seasons in
the region, the IL2 agro-ecological region exhibits a distinctly uni-modal rainfall
distribution along with a long and pronounced dry period from April to September.

In the Dry zone, there are 11 agro-ecological sub-regions with different rainfall
distribution and edaphic features. The DL3, DL4 and DL5 agro-ecological regions of the
Dry zone receive the lowest annual rainfall of the country in combination with some soil
limitations that are found in these regions. Out of 11 agro-ecological sub-regions, only
DL1a and DL1b are characterized by two discernible peaks in the rainfall distribution and
thus, support crops in both Maha and Yala growing seasons. Those agro-ecological subregions found in the eastern sector of the Dry zone, i.e., DL1c, DL1d, DL1e and DL2a
and DL2b, exhibit a distinct uni-modal rainfall pattern, and support only the crops in
Maha season. The rest of the agro-ecological sub-regions of the Dry zone also support
only the Maha crop since Yala rains in those sub-regions are not adequate to meet the
evapotranspiration requirements.

Livestock production systems and AERs


Compared to many countries in the region, Sri Lanka has no exception that major sources
of feeds for ruminants are pasture and fodder, which includes tree fodder. Therefore,
spatial population distribution of ruminants in Sri Lanka has a direct relationship with the
environment, in other word the agro-ecology of the island. However, spatial distribution
of poultry and Pigs which do not depend directly on pasture are less related to the agroecology while some other factors such as socio-economic and religious aspects may play
a major role in deciding the spatial distribution of these two animals.

42

Based on the feeding practices of major livestock, the ruminant production systems are
consisting of 5 major groups (Siriwardena, 1999) while non-ruminants having 2 major
production systems.

Ruminant production systems (Siriwardena, 1999)

UP country

Mid country

Wet & intermediate

Intermediate

Dry zone

Intensive

intensive

zone

& dry zone

intensive

System

system

semi-intensive

extensive

system

System

system

Zero grazing

Zero grazing

Combination of

free grazing

Zero grazing

With high

with moderate

tethered and/or

in crop/stock

Levels of

levels of

free grazing

integrated

Concentrate

concentrate

with limited

system

Feeding

feeding

feeding of
concentrates

Mid & Up country intensive system


The main crop grown here is tea.

Rainfall is fairly well distributed throughout the year

while the temperature is conducive for temperate breeds of livestock. The estate workers
keep dairy cattle mainly of improved European breeds under stall-fed condition.
have no own lands.

They

For forage requirement, they have to depend on natural grasses

grown in the canal bunds, waste and uncultivated lands are cut and fed to the cattle
together with concentrate feeds.

In the village-based system, farmer owns a piece of land and their farming is mainly
crop-livestock integration.

They are engaged in commercial oriented intensive vegetable

cultivation. Dairy cattle are kept mainly to get manure and the milk is often a secondary
43

income.

The main grasses found here are Panicum maximum (wild type) and Panicum

repense.

Wet & Intermediate zone semi intensive system


This system exists mainly in the coconut growing area of the low-country. Cross breeds
of Jersey, AMZ Sahiwal are popular animals in this system.

They have medium

production potentials of about 4-5 liters of milk/day. In normal practice animals are tied
to the coconut palms and rotate the location during the daytime or let loose in large
plantations or in fallow paddy lands.

Live fences erected with Glyricidia type trees

provide additional source of feeds to the animals.

In some instances, leguminous cover

crops like Pueraria and Centrosema are grown under the coconut plantations. They also
serve as a source of animal feed. It is found that considerable proportion of coconut lands
is inter-cropped with Banana, Pineapple, Coffee and Pepper like crops to increase the
land use efficiency.

In pepper inter cultivation, usually Glyricidia sticks are used to

support the pepper vines. The excessive growth of Glyricidia is lopped and such would
also provide a fair amount of biomass for livestock production.

Coconut meal, the by

product of coconut oil extraction process with rice bran forms the most popular
combination of concentrate feed supplement in this system. At present, inter-cropping of
improved grasses under coconut plantations is also catching up gradually.

Dry & Intermediate zone extensive system


This zone is typified by use of indigenous breeds. They graze for most of the year on
bunds, tank beds, villus and scrub jungle.

During good cropping seasons, the animals

may be moved some distance to scrub jungle. There is almost no use of concentrates and
little use of crop residues although buffaloes are fed rice straw.

The herd size is

comparatively large and varied from 30 to 200 heads of cattle mainly of indigenous and
some Indian crosses.

Use of natural tree fodder such as Accacia leucophloea

(Katuandara). Azadirachta indica (Kohomba), Drypetes sepiaria (Weera), Grewia


microcos (Keliya, Kohukirilla), Grewia polygama (Boru damaniya) Grewia tiliaefolia
(Damaniya, damina) is common in these areas.

These herds utilize feed resource of

wildlife.

44

In this system, animals are kept as a live saving and they are sold at any moment when
there is a need of money. Slaughter of cattle for home consumption is rarely practiced.
However, milk is sold mainly to the local market.

The buffaloes are used for draught

purposes in the northern dry zone while dairy buffaloes are common in the southern dry
zone and part of the north-central province for curd production.

Dry zone intensive system


The dry zone intensive system operates in Mahaweli settlement area under irrigation
facilities.

Since the major crop grown in this region is paddy, a substantial amount of

paddy straw and rice bran is available for livestock feeding. In addition, the crop residues
of maize and legumes are also available during the harvesting period of respective crops.
Some of the sugar cane factories and their contract grower systems are also located in this
production.

Thus, molasses feeding along with roughages as a multi nutrient block has

become a popular feeding practice in this area. But, farmers do very limited feeding of
sugar cane tops and bagasses to their animals.

Tree fodder and improved forages

growing in open areas, and bunds are also becoming popular.

The herd size in this

system is fairly small and the keeping buffaloes are less common. LocalZebu crosses
are used for land preparation purposes. The lands in this area are fully occupied in most
of the time of the year.

Non-ruminant production systems


Poultry
The poultry industry is consist of multitude of small producers and a few large producers.
The intensive poultry production systems are concentrated in Western and North Western
part of the country as a commercial venture where easy access to market facilities and
input are available with improved infrastructure facilities. Most of the operations found in
these regions are medium to large scale having 1,000 10,000 birds. The extensive
production systems are scattered throughout the island as a backyard system.

45

Pigs
Pig farming is concentrated in the Western coastal pig belt as intensive systems (10-15
fatterners) and extensive systems. Under the extensive pig farming, small farmers keep 1
to 2 pigs as a scavenging system. It is understood that localization of the pig industry in
Sri Lanka is mainly due to the cultural and social reasons than that of its environmental
adaptability.

Bio-physical and agro-ecological characteristics of target sites


It has been evident that the population of the indigenous livestock is gradually decreasing
while some breeds/species have already been lost or are near at extinction. Hence, it is
important to conserve and utilize this broad genetic base to enhance the productivity of
livestock of the country in a sustainable manner.

Therefore, in the light of possible

financial assistance through FAnGR Asia Project, seven target sites covering four
administrative districts of Sri Lanka were selected to execute a full project on FAnGR
(Table 11 and Map 16). In the process of selection of target sites, parameters such as
abundance of indigenous livestock species (Map 10 - 14), agro-ecological diversity (Map
15) and poverty level of the people living in the area (Map 9) were considered.

Table 11 Selected target sites and their respective administrative units & AERs

AgroTarget site/DS division

Administrative

Province

District

ecological
region

Hambantota

DL5

Lunugamwehera

Hambantota

Southern

DL5

Siyambalanduwa

Monaragala

Uva

DL1b

Pottuvil
Panama

DL2a
Ampara

North-eastern

Thirappane
Galenbindunuwewa

DL1b
DL1b

Anuradhapura

North-central

DL1b

46

47

Hambantota and Lunugamwehera target sites.


These two DS divisions are located in the Hambantota administrative district of the
Southern province of Sri Lanka.

According to the agro-ecological map of Sri Lanka

(2003), these two sites fall under the DL5 Agro-Ecological Region (AER). The DL5 AER
of Southern Dry zone is considered as the driest part of Sri Lanka with an annual average
rainfall of 900 mm and annual dependable rainfall of greater than or equal to 650 mm.
The distribution of rainfall is not conducive any form of crop growth having a longer
growth cycle.

Considerable amount of rainfall, nearly 70% of the annual total receives

only during mid-October to mid-January, the Maha season (Map 15, Figure 1 & 2). The
Yala rains of about 300 mm between mid March to mid May are not adequate to raise a
crop. The period between mid May to September is dry and windy with very high
temperatures and evaporation rates. The daytime maximum temperature in this region
could vary from 30 to 35 degrees of Centigrade depending on the time of the year. The
highest temperatures are being recorded during May to September, the dry period of the
year (Table 12).

Natural vegetation of both DS divisions is predominately scrubland with thorny type


species with isolated trees and patches of trees.

Meanwhile, tank beds of abandoned

small tanks found in these two target sites could be converted to grazing lands with
improved varieties. Moreover, there is a considerable extent of land that is salt affected,
especially in the lowest position of the catenary sequence in Lunugamwehera target site.
For some part of these salt affected lands, irrigation water is also available. In some
cases, drainage water coming from the upper catenary positions could also be used.
Hence, establishment salt tolerant pasture species could be one of the best form of land
use for such lands, making the way for animal husbandry with appropriate breeds that are
adaptable to high temperature conditions prevailing in the area.

48

Figure 1 Average monthly rainfall at Hambantota (1921 - 1990)

200

180

160

Rainfall mm

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month
49

Figure 2 Average monthly rainfall at Lunugamwehera (1983 - 1999)

250

Rainfall mm

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month

50

Table 12 Average climatic conditions of the DL5 agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Weerawila/1990-1996)
Jan
0

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Max temp. ( C)

31

32

33.4

34.1

33

34.4

33.6

34

32.8

32.6

31.8

29

Min temp. (0 C)

21.3

21.6

21.7

22.5

22.5

22.8

21.7

21

20.6

20.8

20.3

19.2

Rainfall (mm)

77.3

49.8

32.8

92.6

72.2

24.6

28.5

39.3

68.4

117.1

274.9

158.5

Evaporation (mm/day)

4.4

4.9

5.9

4.6

5.2

6.2

6.8

7.6

7.1

5.3

4.0

4.0

Wind velocity (kmph)

7.7

7.4

6.2

4.8

9.8

12.1

12.6

13.2

10.5

8.2

5.0

6.6

Bright sunshine Hours

7.1

7.7

8.2

6.7

7.6

5.7

6.2

7.6

7.7

5.4

5.8

5.7

RH (%) - morning

79

77

73

75

75

72

76

79

79

61

80

81

RH (%) - evening

71

68

68

72

67

66

68

79

71

73

74

78

51

Malala Oya and Karagan Oya are the major streams that flow through the Hambantota
DS division while Kirindi Oya is the only stream that flows through Lunugamwehera DS
division (Table 13 & Map 5).

Catchments of these three streams, which are relatively

small, are mainly concentrated in the Dry zone and posses intermittent flows. However, a
part of the catchment of the Kirindi Oya lies in the Intermediate zone. There is large
number of tanks in the Hambantota DS division (Table 14) out of which Bandagiriya tank
is the prominent one and others mostly belongs to the category of small tanks.
Bandagiriya tank is fed by both Malala Oya and diverted water of Lunugamwehera
reservoir. However, most of the small tanks found in the area are either abandoned or
heavily silted.

There are 14 tanks in the Lunugamwehera DS division (Table 15)

including the Lunugamwehera major reservoir, built in 1980s and Weerawila Wewa and
Pannegamuwa Wewa. Even though Lunugamwehera reservoir is one of the few recently
built major irrigation schemes of Sri Lanka with an irrigable area of 13,000 ha, on
average it does not receive the estimated design discharge in 3 out of 4 years. This is
mainly due to over estimation by about 20% of basin water availability during the
planning phase (IIMI, 1990). Therefore, crop failures have become frequent problem in
this irrigation scheme with a serious issue of poverty and malnutrition of settlers and their
dependents. A study conducted by the world food programme in 2003 has flagged
Lunugamwehera DS division as an area of "Most vulnerable" to food insecurity while
Hambantota DS division falling under the category of "Less vulnerable" (Map 9).

It is unlikely that more investment will be made available to rescue this ill-fated irrigation
project in the near future. Hence, there is a greater potential for livestock farming in this
region. However, care must be given to choose suitable livestock species for the region
as high temperature regime may hinder the potential performance of animals.

52

Table 13 Hydrological characteristics of major rivers in target sites

Basin

Name of

Catchment

Precipitation

Discharge

No.

basin

area (km2 )

volume (Million

volume (Million

Discharge

m3 )

m3 )

19

Karagan Oya

58

67

15

22

20

Malala Oya

399

434

74

17

22

Kirindi Oya

1165

1606

476

22

34

Helawa Ara

51

82

28

34.5

35

Wila Oya

484

653

215

33

36

Heda Oya

604

967

394

41

37

Karanda Oya

422

676

196

29

38

Semane Ara

51

82

25

31

67

Yan Oya

1520

2269

300

19

90

Aruvi Aru

3246

4592

568

12

Source: National Atlas, 1988

Table 14 Tanks found in the Hambantota DS division


Name

Name

Bandagiriya Wewa

12

Weligatta Wewa

Kelliywalana Wewa

13

Anokkan Wewa

Weheragoda Wewa

14

Nabada Wewa

Palessa Wewa

15

Kuda Wewa

Andara Wewa

16

Metigatta Wewa

Kapuwatta Wewa

17

Koholangoda Wewa

Keligama Wewa

18

Hangaranga Wewa

Juligama Wewa

19

Divul Wewa

Kalupalla Wewa

20

Kattana Wewa

10

Rambuk Wewa

21

Beligas Wewa

11

Gat Wewa

53

Table 15 Tanks found in the Lunugamwehera DS division


Name

Name

Sinikku Wewa

Ijukpelessa Wewa

Kadawara Wewa

Degaldehera Wewa

Kukulkatuwa Wewa

Kotakumbuka Wewa

Lutana Wewa

10

Pannagamuwa Wewa

Punchi Appu Jandura Wewa

11

Weerawila Wewa

Unctu Wewa

12

Lunugamwehera Reservoir

13

Kikiliwidda Wewa

Being a semi-arid region, the crop or pasture production in these two sites is largely
determined by climatic and edaphic features. Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) with high
amount of gravel is the predominant soil type of this region that can be found on crest,
upper and mid slopes of gently undulating to undulating highlands.

Low Humic Gley

(LHG) soil is the most commonly found soil type in valley bottoms with inclusion of
pockets of Solodized Solonetz where soil drainage is very poor. Potential and limitations
of these two predominant soil types are given below.
Potential and limitations Reddish Brown Earths (Rhodustalf)

This is the most widespread soil type in the Dry zone including two target sites under
review. It occupies in crest and well-drained mid and upper slopes of the catenary
sequence. The structure is weak to moderate sub-angular blocky.

The soil moisture

relationship is characterized by low water holding capacity with a rapid release of soil
moisture at tension lower than one atmosphere. The soil is extremely hard when dry,
friable to firm when moist and sticky when wet. A good account of physical properties of
RBE can be found in Joshua (1988). This soil type possesses good chemical
characteristics compared to other soil types of the country. The soil reaction is slightly
acidic to neutral with 60 to 80% base saturation.

54

RBE is characterized by having a gravel layer in the sub-soil and therefore root growth is
restricted due to shallow depth. It becomes easily slake under heavy rainfall and make
tillage operations are difficult, thus, can operate only under limited moisture range. As
soil moisture is lost at low tensions, soil moisture stress is very common even in short dry
spells. As the structure is weak, it is highly vulnerable to soil erosion and requires
adoption of soil moisture conservation measures. The presence of characteristics gravel
layer in the sub-soil hinders the downward movement of water and hence, an
improvement to drainage during rainy seasons is essential.

Potential and limitations Low Humic Gley soils (Tropaqualf)


Next to the RBE, Low Humic Gley soils (LHG) are the most extensive great soil group in
Sri Lanka with no exception in these two target sites.

This soil group is essentially a

hydromorphic soil located in the footslopes of undulating landscape of the Dry zone.
However, due to low rainfall and highly saline ground water in Hambantota and
Lunugamwehera DS divisions, a greater proportion of the LHG in these two DS divisions
are salt affected. The base saturation is in the range of 90 to 100% and free carbonates
are present at varying depth of the sub-soil and thus, soil reaction is moderately alkaline.
The water holding capacity of the soil is fairly good because of the presence of high
amount of clay with smectite. The most suitable land use for this soil group is paddy and
when the soil bears high salt contents, the salt tolerant grasses are the most appropriate
land use. Cultivation of upland crops or non-water loving plants is a difficult task in this
soil due to poor drainage condition.

In some places, drainage improvement has to be

done before the establishment of any crop or grass to facilitate flushing out of salts and
excess water coming from the higher positions of the catena.
Siyambalanduwa target site
The Siymbalanduwa DS division is located in the Monaragala administrative district of
the Uva province of Sri Lanka and belongs to the Wellassa region of the ancient
kingdom. According to the agro-ecological region map of Sri Lanka (2003), this DS
division

comes

under

the

DL1b

Agro-Ecological Region (AER). An important

characteristics of the DL1b AER is the presence of well defined two rainy seasons,

55

namely, Yala and Maha with annual average rainfall of 1,600 mm and annual dependable
rainfall of greater than or equal to 900 mm. The Maha or major rainy season is from
October to late January and the Yala, minor rainy season is from late March to mid May.
Hence, monthly rainfall records depict a bi-modal rainfall pattern with two marked dry
seasons, one during February to mid March, which is short and moderate, and the other
during mid May to September which is long and protracted (Map 15). Nearly 70% of the
annual total rainfall occurs during the Maha season while the balance occurs during the
Yala season. Months from June to September are generally rainless. Even if it rains, it
will be far below the evapotranspiration requirement due to prevailing high temperature
and winds (Table 16). However, in contrary to other parts of the DL1b AER, this area
receives considerable amount of rains during January and February through northeast
monsoon rains (Figure 3). This is mainly attributed to its proximity to the eastern coast
where northeast monsoonal winds begins to shed its moisture. Therefore, dryness during
February to mid March may not be so severe as compared to other typical DL1b regions
of the Dry zone.

Natural vegetation of Siyambalanduwa DS division is "moist deciduous forest".


However, due to clearing of forest for shifting or "Chena" cultivation, what is left of the
forest vegetation is quite small and predominant type existing vegetation is secondary
vegetation of scrub jungles.

Heda Oya is the only major stream that flows through the Siyambalanduwa DS division
(Map 5).

Unlike the other target sites in the Hambantota district, the Siyambalnduwa DS

division is not blessed with large number of tanks having only Heda Oya reservoir, Una
Ela reservoir and Polgahagama Wewa in operation.

The world food programme study

(2003) has categorized the Siyambalanduwa DS division as an area of "Most vulnerable"


to food insecurity (Map 9) and it could be attributed to lack of large number of surface
water reservoirs in the area.

56

Figure 3 Average monthly rainfall at Siyambalnduwa (1943 - 1980)

350

300

Rainfall mm

250

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month
57

Table 16 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Angunakolapelessa/1992 -2001)
Jan
Max temp. (0 C)

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

30.9

31.6

32.8

32.7

32.6

32.3

32.3

32.5

32.1

31.6

30.8

30.6

Min temp. ( C)

22.0

22.2

22.6

24.3

25.1

24.6

24.7

24.4

24

23.5

23

22.5

Rainfall (mm)

63.9

67.0

55.4

100.4

95.2

64.4

42.0

41.3

112.8

167.3

235.0

111.4

Evaporation (mm/day)

4.1

4.6

5.3

4.5

4.5

4.6

5.0

5.1

4.7

4.0

3.4

3.6

Wind velocity (kmph)

6.2

5.5

4.8

4.8

6.9

7.9

8.5

8.6

7.4

5.7

4.3

5.3

Bright sunshine Hours

7.1

8.3

8.9

7.5

7.2

7.4

8.1

7.1

6.5

6.1

RH (%) - morning

84

84

81

82

81

81

79

78

79

82

85

85

RH (%) - evening

70

71

69

75

73

72

70

67

69

75

78

68

58

Being in the Dry zone, predominant soil type of the Siyambalanduwa DS division is well
and imperfectly drained Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) on the convex uplands and lower
mid slopes of gently to undulating landscape.

Low Humic Gley (LHG) soil, the poorly

drained member of the catenary sequence is the most commonly found soil type in the
concave valleys and bottomlands. Potential and limitations of these two predominant soil
types of the target area have already been discussed in a preceding section.
Panama and Pottuvil target sites.
Both these target sites are located in the Pottuvil DS division of the Ampara
administrative district of the northeastern province of Sri Lanka. According to the agroecological region map of Sri Lanka (2003), Panama falls under the DL1b AER while
Pottuvil is coming under the DL2a AER. Even though, Siymbalanduwa target site, which
was discussed in the preceding section and Panama site, are located in the same AER, the
DL1b, rainfall distribution of Panama is quite different from the typical rainfall
distribution of DL1b.

Generally, Panama resembles a uni-modal rainfall distribution

(Figure 4) where as bi-modal pattern is the characteristics rainfall distribution of DL1b


(Figure 3). Under such situation Panama should have been categorized under DL2 AER
where the characteristics rainfall distribution is uni-modal. However, delineation of DL2
was primarily based on the presence of Non Calcic Brown (NCB) Soils as the
predominant soil type. Since Panama is characterized by having RBE soils with no NCB
soils or its associations, it has been compelled to categorized Panama under the DL1b
AER.

Panama area receives about 1,500 mm annual rainfall with 1,150 mm of annual

dependable rainfall.

Nearly 80% of the annual rainfall is received during the Maha

season. None of the months in the Yala season receive rainfall in excess of
evapotranspiration and hence, a Yala season is not discernible in the region (Figure 4).
Pottuvil target site is located in the DL2a AER where predominant soil type is NCB and
monthly rainfall distribution is uni-modal (Figure 5). Hence, it does not permit year
around cultivation unless irrigation water is provided. The annual dependable rainfall of
this region equals or exceeds 1,300 mm. The Maha season at both target sites is relatively
longer compared to other parts of the Dry zone, starting from October to February
receiving nearly 80% of the annual rainfall (Figure 4 & Figure 5).

59

Figure 4 Average monthly rainfall at Panama (1950 - 1988)

350

300

Rainfall mm

250

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month

60

Figure 5 Average monthly rainfall at Pottuvil (1983 - 2003)

350

300

Rainfall mm

250

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month
61

Table 17 Average climatic conditions of the DL2 agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Aralaganwila/1992 -2001)
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

29.7

31.5

34.1

31.8

35.6

34.5

34.5

35

35.3

33.5

31.2

29.6

Min temp. ( C)

21.2

20.7

21.2

23.3

23.9

24.1

24.2

23.5

22.9

22.8

22.7

22

Rainfall (mm)

245.4

141.2

14.5

111.4

64.9

19.8

35.0

31.8

88.7

184.6

387.9

358.0

Evaporation (mm/day)

3.3

4.0

5.1

4.9

5.6

6.7

7.0

7.0

6.2

4.8

3.5

3.0

Wind velocity (kmph)

3.2

3.7

6.3

6.9

5.9

4.7

3.8

2.7

Bright sunshine Hours

6.2

7.5

8.6

7.2

7.6

8.4

7.6

6.5

5.5

5.1

RH (%) - morning

92

91

86

82

77

69

68

70

70

80

89

92

RH (%) - evening

77

70

58

65

60

56

54

54

55

66

77

80

Max temp. ( C)

62

At both Panama and Pottuvil, the period between mid May to September is dry and
windy with very high temperatures and evaporation rates. The daytime maximum
temperature in this region could vary from 30 to 37 degrees of Centigrade depending on
the time of the year. The highest temperatures are being recorded during May to
September, the dry period of the year (Table 17).

Natural vegetation of both these target sites is predominately "Dry evergreen forests".
Helawa Ara and Wila Oya are the major streams that flow through Panama area while
Heda Oya, Karanda Oya and Semane Ara find their way to the eastern coast through
Pottuvil area (Map 5). Catchments of these three streams, which are relatively small, are
mainly concentrated in the Dry zone and posses intermittent flows.

There is a large

number of small tanks in the Pottuvil DS division with some lagoons (Table 18). The
world food programme study of 2003 has flagged Pottuvil DS division as an area of
"Less vulnerable" to food insecurity and is among 4 of such DS divisions in the Ampara
district out of total of 19 DS divisions (Map 9).

Being in the DL1b AER, the predominant soil types in the Panama area are well and
imperfectly drained Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) on the convex uplands and lower mid
slopes of gently to undulating landscape of inland. Low Humic Gley (LHG) soil, the
poorly drained member of the catenary sequence is the most commonly found soil type in
the concave valleys and bottomlands. Potential and limitations of these two predominant
soil types of the target area have already been discussed in a preceding section. In
addition, sandy Regosols are found along or near to the coastline usually as elongated
strips. Generally, Regosols show no structural development and both surface and subsurface soils are single grain. Soil reaction is neutral with a base saturation of 75 to 90%.

64

Table 18 Tanks found in the Pottuvil DS division


Name
Pottuvil area

Name
Panama area

Kirikovi Kulam

Helawa Kalpuwa

Serolai Kulam

Kunikala Kalpuwa

Tamara Kulam

Solambe Kalpuwa

Pallanchi Wettiya Kulam

Weddana Kalpuwa

Manthodai Kulam

Pannakala Wewa

Siriyawa Kulam

Helawa Wewa

Rota Kulam

Panama Wewa

Semani Kulam

Viagalla Wewa

Arugam Kalapu

Wedagama Wewa

10

Paladi Kalapu

10

Miyangoda Wewa

11

Nalitta Wewa

12

Watawana Wewa

13

Naulla Wewa

14

Uipassa Wewa

15

Ullawera Villu

16

Eratil Tank

17

Rugam Well Kulam

Although, the sandy Regosols have a rapid infiltration, the infiltrated water is stored in
the under lying static Gyben-Herzberg lens of fresh water, which permits stable human
settlement and agricultural production on this landscape even in the very dry environment
(Panabokke, 1996). Apart from these soils, Alluvial soils could be found in either side of
banks of river and streams with a variable texture and drainage. Soil reaction of the
Alluvial soils of the Dry zone is slightly acid to slightly alkaline with a base saturation of
60 to 90%. As reported by Alwis and Eriyagama (1969), "the best Dry zone vegetation
occur on these soils. Paradoxically, some of the worst vegetation also exists on Alluvial

65

soils where a high water table or very clayey texture impedes aeration.

In general, tall

trees with other mesophytic species of the Dry zone are found on these soils".

Potential and limitations of Regosols and Alluvial soils


The most significant feature of Regosol is the occurrence of Gyben-Herzberg lens of
fresh water for cultivation. However, over exploitation of lens of fresh water could lead
to contamination of ground water by brackish water from the sea. Tillage operations in
these soils are very easy.

As the soil is highly permeable, micro irrigation is the most

suitable type of irrigation for these soils. It also helps to reduce the accumulation of
added nutrients in the ground water.

Alluvial soils posses good physical characters and

highly productive. As these soil occur near to rivers and streams, surface and ground
water availability is relatively higher compared to other soils of the area. Depending on
the location, flooding and poor drainage may become a problem in Alluvial soils.

Thirappane and Galenbindunuwewa target sites.


These two DS divisions are located in the Anuradhapura administrative district of the
North-central province of Sri Lanka. According to the agro-ecological map of Sri Lanka
(2003), these two target sites fall under the DL1b Agro-Ecological Region (AER). The
main features of the DL1b AER have been adequately described in a preceding section,
therefore

needs

no

further

elaboration.

However,

it

must

be

noted

that

Galenbindunuwewa being closer to the DL1 e may experience uni-modal rainfall pattern
with an extended Maha season and poor Yala rains (Figure 7). For the special need of this
report, however, the general climatic condition of the DL1b AER of North-central
province has shown in the Table 19. As there was no rain measuring stations from
respective target sites, rainfall climatology of the two sites has shown using data from
nearby stations (Figure 6 & 7).

Natural vegetation of both DS divisions is "moist deciduous forest". However, due to


clearing of forest for shifting or "Chena" cultivation, what is left of the forest vegetation
is quite small and predominant type existing vegetation is secondary vegetation of scrub

66

jungles. Meanwhile, tanks beds of abandoned small tanks found in these two target sites
could be converted to grazing lands with improved varieties.

Aruvi Aru is the major stream that flows through the Thirappane DS division, which has
fairly large catchment across the Dry zone (Map 5). There are a large number of small
tanks in the Thirappane DS division along with some big tanks such as Nachchaduwa
Wewa in a cascade system (Table 19). However, most of the small tanks found in the
area are either abandoned or heavily silted. A study conducted by the world food
programme in 2003 has flagged Thirappane DS division as an area of "Most vulnerable"
to food insecurity amidst large number small tanks available in the area. It suggests that
even though the number is higher, these tanks operate well below their capacity due to
siltation and disturbance in the respective minor catchment of the cascadei .

Yan Oya is the major stream that flows through the Galenbindunuwewa DS division,
which has a relatively small catchment compared to Aruvi Aru ( Table 13 & Map 5). As
in the case of Thirappane DS division, Galenbindunuwewa DS division has also been
blessed with large number of small tanks along with Hurulu Wewa in a cascade system
(Table 21). However, most of the small tanks found in the area are either abandoned or
heavily silted. The world food programme study in 2003 has identified the Thirappane
DS division as an area of "Most vulnerable" to food insecurity amidst large number small
tanks found in the area. Short-sighted efforts to develop each tank in isolation has made
tremendous damage to these tanks cascades resulting reduced inflow conditions along
with increased siltation.

Cascade or chain of tanks is series of small reservoirs that are constructed at successive locations down
one single common water course.

67

Figure 6 Average monthly rainfall at Maradankadawala (1970 - 1999)

250

Rainfall mm

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

*Nearest raingauge station to Thirappane

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month
68

Figure 7 Average monthly rainfall at Kahatagasdigiliya (1941 - 1963)

350

300

Rainfall mm

250

200

150

100

50

0
Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

Nearest rain gauge station to Galenbindunuwewa

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Month
69

Table 19 Average climatic conditions of the DL1b agro-ecological region of Sri Lanka (Location: Maha-Illuppalama/1992 -2001)
Jan
Max temp. (0 C)

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

29.4

32

33.8

33.9

33.1

32.1

32.4

32.7

33.1

31.5

30.2

29.2

Min temp. ( C)

20.9

20.8

21.7

23.7

25

24.8

24.6

24.4

23.8

23.2

22.6

21.7

Rainfall (mm)

101.6

129.6

29.9

175.5

77.8

26.2

21.0

38.6

82.2

248.0

304.8

185.5

Evaporation (mm/day)

2.9

3.8

4.8

4.6

4.7

4.8

5.3

5.5

5.0

3.6

2.6

2.5

Wind velocity (kmph)

4.0

4.2

4.4

4.9

9.6

12.4

12.4

12.1

10.4

6.5

3.5

3.6

Bright sunshine Hours

6.9

8.6

9.5

8.6

8.9

7.9

7.6

8.2

8.1

6.7

5.6

5.6

RH (%) - morning

97

86

82

82

80

80

79

78

78

83

87

89

RH (%) - evening

71

61

51

65

67

66

62

61

64

74

79

70

70

Being in the Dry zone, the crop or pasture production in these two sites is largely
determined by climatic and edaphic features. Reddish Brown Earth (RBE) with high
amount of gravel is the predominant soil type of this region that can be found on crest,
upper and mid slopes of gently undulating to undulating highlands.

Low Humic Gley

(LHG) soil is the most commonly found soil type in valley bottoms.

Potential and

limitations of these two predominant soil types have already been discussed in a
preceding section and therefore, will not elaborate here.

Table 20 Tanks found in the Thirappane DS division


Name

Name

Nachchaduwa Wewa

17

Meegassegama Wewa

Thirappane Wewa

18

Kon Wewa

Sembukulama Wewa

19

Alistana Wewa

Wellamudawa Wewa

20

Kudagama Wewa

Hammilla Kulama Wewa

21

Wagaya Kulama Wewa

Hinnawatta Wewa

22

Bulankulama Wewa

Pahala Mawata Wewa

23

Vendarankulama Wewa

Wettan Kulama Wewa

24

Ittikattiya Wewa

Selesti Maduwa Wewa

25

Periya Kulama Wewa

10

Tammennagala Wewa

26

Puduk Kulama Wewa

11

Ulan Kulama Wewa

27

Uttimaduwa Wewa

12

Aiyatiyagama Wewa

28

Muriyakadawala Wewa

13

Amanakattuwa Wewa

29

Karuwalagas Wewa

14

Siwalagala Wewa

30

Galkulama Wewa

15

Torapitiya Wewa

31

Eru Wewa

16

Mahakanumulla Wewa

32

Periya Maduwa Wewa

72

Table 21 Tanks found in the Galenbindunuwewa DS division


Name

Name

Hurulu Wewa

17

Aswayabendi Wewa

Ichchan Kulama Wewa

18

Pahala Kantegama Wewa

Kele Kumbuk Wewa

19

Taranagollewa Wewa

Kanni Maduwa Wewa

20

Maha Keligama Wewa

Gatalawa Wewa

21

Kuda Himbutugollewa Wewa

Divul Wewa

22

Maha Himbutugollewa Wewa

Pahala Nittawa Wewa

23

Bora Wewa

Palugalla Wewa

24

Siyambala Wewa

Jayanthi Wewa

25

Rotagollagama Wewa

10

Rambewa Wewa

26

Kolongas Wewa

11

Karawalagas Wewa

27

Muwapitiya Wewa

12

Ulpotagama Wewa

28

Uddiyan Kulama Wewa

13

Elapatgama Wewa

29

Tammenawa Wewa

14

Thimbirigas Wewa

30

Manakkettiya Wewa

15

Ranorawa Wewa

31

Galwetiya Wewa

16

Upuldeniya Wewa

32

Yakalla Wewa

73

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