Chapter 8 Landslides

Chapter8
Landslides
fromPerilousEarth:UnderstandingProcessesBehindNaturalDisasters,ver.1.0,June,2009
byG.H.Girty,DepartmentofGeologicalSciences,SanDiegoStateUniversity
Page1
Introduction
Landslidesoccurinawidevarietyofsettings,includingsubductioncomplexes,volcanic
arcs,transformfaults,andintraplatesettingslikeHawaii.Theyalsoarecommonanywhereon
the Earths surface where steep topographic slopes exist or where weak water saturated
material lies on slopes ranging from a fraction to many degrees of inclination. Under such
conditions,thedownslopemovementofmaterialiscommonlyreferredtoasmasswasting.In
thefollowingsections,Ifirstdefinethisphenomenoninmoredetail,andthenreviewtherole
thatgravityplaysinmovingmaterialdownslope.Ithencoverthevarioustypesoflandslides,
andthenendthischapterbylookingattwoimportantcasestudies.
MassWastingandLandslides
MasswastingreferstothedownslopemovementofEarthmaterialssuchasregolithor
solidrockundertheinfluenceofgravity.Regolithisatermusedtorefertoallofthematerials
lying between unweathered rock below and the Earths surface above. It therefore includes
weatheredrock,soils,andunconsolidateddepositsderivedfromflowingwater,ice(glaciers),
and wind. When such material rests on horizontal surfaces, then it is relatively stable.
However,ifitrestsonaninclinedorslopedsurface,thenthedegreetowhichtheinclinedor
sloped surface varies from the horizontal, determines its stability. In such settings the
resistance of the regolith to down slope motion is dependent upon its cohesiveness and its
frictionalresistancetomotion.Inaddition,plantrootstendtobindtheregolith,andtherefore
actasastabilizingagent.
Gravity
ShowninFigure1Aisalargeboulderrestingonahorizontalsurface.Insuchasetting,
theonlyforceactingontheboulderisthatduetogravity.Asyoumightrecallfromhighschool
physics,aforceisavectorandthereforehasbothdirectionandmagnitude.InFigure1A,the
gravitational force is depicted by the vertical black arrow pointing downward. The length of
thisarrowisthemagnitudeofthegravitationalforce.Ifthesurfaceonwhichtheboulderrests
slopes at some angle other than zero, then the gravitational force will consist of two
components,oneactingparalleltotheslopingsurface(seebluearrowinFigures1B,1C,and
1D),andtheotheractingorthogonallyornormaltoit(seeredarrowinFigures1B,1C,and1D).
Theformeristhetangentialwhilethelatteristhenormalcomponentofgravity.Thetangential
component is that part of the gravitational force that tends to pull the boulder down the
slantedsurface.Incontrast,thenormalcomponentisthatpartofthegravitationalforcethat
tendstoholdtheboulderontotheinclinedsurface.
If the surface on which the boulder rests makes an angle of say 40o relative to the
horizontal, then the normal component of gravity will be greater than the tangential
component,andtheboulderlikelywillnotmovedowntheslope(Figure1B).However,ifthe
angle of inclination is higher, say 50o, then the magnitude of the tangential component will
exceed the normal component, and thus the likelihood that the boulder will slide down the
inclinedsurfacewillbegreatlyincreased(Figure1Cand1D).
Page2
Figure1.Theeffectsofgravity.Seetextforexplanation.
As mentioned in the introductory comments, the physical properties of material that

restson,ordirectlyunderlies,asegmentoftheEarthssurfacethatissteeplyinclinedplayan
important role in whether or not they will slide down such slopes under the influence of the
tangential component of gravity. For example, if the Earths surface is underlain directly by
solidfracturefreerock,thenitcanformverysteepslopeswithoutanymaterialbreakingfree
andslidingdownward.Attheotherendofthespectrum,ifthesolidfracturefreerocksurface
is overlain by loose granular materials (e.g., the regolith), then such material will slide down
slopes with even small inclinations. Lying between these two extremes is a wide variety of
materials with different physical properties that will determine if they will move under the
tangentialcomponentofgravityornot.Someofthismaterialwillbreakintocoherentblocks
thatwillfallfreelythroughtheairpriortobouncingorrollingdownhill,whereasothermaterial
when saturated with water will flow with the consistency of wet cement down slope. All of
these processes and their resulting deposits are often lumped under the general heading of
landslideswhichD.J.Varnes(1958)definedasthedownwardandoutwardmovementofslope
forming materials composed of natural rock, soils, artificial fills, or combinations of these
materials. The moving mass proceeds down slope by falling, sliding, spreading, flowing, or
somecombinationofthesethreeprocesses.Themovementoffalls,slides,spreads,andmost
flowsareperceptibletothehumaneye,whilecreepandsolifluctionoccursoslowlythatthe
humaneyecantdetectthedownslopemotioncharacteristicofthesetwoprocesses.
Alandslideisclassifiedonthebasisof(1)thetypeofmaterialthatexistedpriortothe
landslide and (2) the type of movement that dominates during the landslide. The types of
materialthatmightexistpriortoalandslidearerock,soil,earth,mud,anddebris.
Rockisdefinedasanyintact,hard,andfirmmassthatexistedinitsnaturalplaceprior
tothelandslide.Examplesincludeigneous,metamorphic,andlithifiedsedimentaryrocks.At
Page3
the other end of the spectrum is soil, an aggregate of minerals and rock fragments plus or
minusorganicmaterialthatformedfromtheinsituweatheringofrockorsediments.Inasoil,
pores or open voids between the minerals and rock fragments are often filled with gases or
water.
Material defined as earth is composed of ~80% or more particles smaller than 2 mm
(the upper size limit of sand) while mud is composed of 80% or more particles smaller than
about0.06mm(theupperlimitofsilt).Finally,debriscontains20%to80%particleslargerthan
2mm,whiletheremainderisgenerallylessthan2mm.
Thefourgeneralclassesofmovementduringanygivenlandslidearefall,slide,spread,
and flow. Hence, to classify a landslide you first determine the type of material that existed
prior to the landslide and then attach to that name the class of movement. Using such a
scheme, a rock fall is a landslide that involved intact, hard, and firm material that fell down
slopewhileanearthflowisalandslidethatinvolvedtheflowageofearthmaterialdownslope.
Acomplexlandslidecommonlyinvolvestwoormoreoftheclassesfall,slide,spread,or
flow.Forexample,initslowerparts,arotationalslidecommonlytransformsintoanearthflow.
Hence,suchalandslidewouldbeclassifiedasacomplexrotationalslideearthflow.
Falls
Rockfallsareproducedwhensolidmaterialorsoilbecomedetachedfromasteepslope
andthenfallfreelyforsomedistanceorbounceandrolldowntheslope(Figures2and3).
Figure2.Timesequencefordevelopmentofairfall.Attime2blockisdislodgedfrom
overhang.Itthenfallsfreelythroughtheatmosphereduringtimeintervals3through6.
Betweentimeintervals6and7itimpactsgroundandshatters.
Page4
Detachmentofsolidblocksorsoilsalongsuchsteepslopesoccursasaresultoffreezethaw,
ground shaking during earthquakes, saturation by water during torrential rainstorms, or
weakening by the growth of plant roots. Topples are rock falls that involve the forward
rotation of a detached block above a pivotal point located in the lower part of the detached
material(Figure4).Commoneverydayevidenceofarockfallortoppleisaroadlitteredwith
rockdebrisderivedfromanadjacentsteepslope(Figure5).
Figure3.PhotographtakenfromRoyalArchesRouteclimbfromacrossthecanyonbyrock
climberLloydDeForrestwhiledanglingontherope2000feetabovethevalleyfloor.Source:
USGSLandslidePhotoCollection.
Figure4.Atoppleisarockfallinwhichthedislodgedblockrotatesaboutanaxisinitslower
part(time2)asitpitchesforward(times2and3)priortofalling(time4).
Page5
Figure5.Resultsofrockfall,TruckeeRiver,California.Largebouldersanddebrisalongroad
weredislodgedfromsteepslopeinforegroundduringanearthquakeonSeptember12,1966.
Theyfellandbounceddowntheslopeshatteringonimpactwiththeroad.PhotographbyR.
Kachadoorian,UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.
Slides
Slides,asynonymoustermisslumps,formwhenacoherentmassofregolithorbedrock
breaksfreeandthenslidesdownslopealongeitheraplanarorcurvedsurface.Thegeometry
of the detachment or rupture surface and the degree to which the sliding material remains
coherentdeterminesthetypeofslide.
Translational:Ifthedetachedlandmassslidesalongarelativelyplanarsurface,thenthe
resultingslumpiscalledtranslational(Figure6).Relativelycommonplanarsurfacesoffailure
arejointsorbeddingplanes.Ifthematerialinthetoeregionliquefies,thenthedownslope
Figure6.Notethattheslidemassbrokefreeandthensliddownslopealongabeddingplane
andthatthetoeregionisanearthflow.Cracksthatformperpendiculartothelongdimension
ofthetranslationalslideareextensional.
Page6

endofatranslationalslidemayturnintoanearthflow.
A block slump is a translational slump in which the detached landmass consists of a
singleorafewcloselyrelatedunitsthatmovedownslopeasarelativelycoherentmass(Figure
7).
Figure7.Blockslumpimpactinganddestroyinghouse.
Rotational:Whenacoherentmassofregolithbreaksfreefromaslopealongacurved
slip surface, the resulting slump is called rotational (Figures 8 and 9). As the coherent mass
moves down slope along the curved slip surface it rotates downward leaving at its head a
crescentshapedscarporcrown.Attheoppositeendoftheslump,inthetoeregion,material
maylosecoherenceandflowslowlydownslopeasanearthflow. Insuchcases,theslideisa
complexrotationalslumpearthflow.
Figure8.Acomplexrotationalslumpearthflowconsistsofarotationalslumpwithan
earthflowinitslowertoeregion.
Page7
Figure9.PhotographfromUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.DuringtheMarch27,1964Alaskan
earthquake,alargeslumpoccurredintheTurnagainHeightsareaofAnchorage.Notethe
varioushousesforscale.Thevariousslumpblocksslidealongthevariousscarpsfromupper
righttolowerleftandrotateddownwardinaclockwisesense.
Spreads
Lateralspreadscommonlyoccuronverygentleorflatslopes.Failureoccursasaresult
ofliquefaction,theprocessbywhichsaturated,loose,cohesionlesssedimentsaretransformed
fromasolidintoaliquidstate.Suchchangesinstatecanbeinducedbygroundshakingduring
earthquakes.Ifliquefactionoccurswithinalayeroverlainbymorecoherentmaterials,thenthe
upperlayersmayfractureandthensubside,translate,rotate,disintegrate,orliquefyandflow
(Figure10).
Figure10.Cutawayviewofalateralspread.Greenanddarkbrownlayersinupperpartof
illustrationarerigidfirmmudstones.Underlyingthesetwouppermostlayersisanintervalof
watersaturatedsiltstonethatrestsonimpermeablebedrock.Duringanearthquakeground
shakingliquefiesaportionofthewatersaturatedsiltstoneanditspreadslaterallydownslopes
andtowardclifffaces.
Page8
Flows
Earthflows: Watersaturated finegrained slope material that liquefies and then runs
out,leavingabowlshapeddepressionontheslopinglandsurfacearecalledearthflows(Figure
11).Astheearthflowmovesdownslopeitremainscoveredwithvegetation.Attheheadofthe
bowlshaped depression, where the material in the earthflow pulled away from the slope, a
scarp is commonly present. Lying between the bowlshaped depression and the area of
depositionisthemaintrack,theareawheretheearthflowtraveledfromthesourceareatothe
depositionalsite.Dependentuponhowmuchwatertheycontain,earthflowstravelatvarious
speedsrangingfrom0.17to20kilometersperhour(0.11to12.4milesperhour).Thegreater
the water content, the faster they travel. However, earthflows are generally slower than
mudflows(seebelow).
Figure11.Earthflowsoccurwhenwatersaturatedfinegrainedmaterial(~80%ofthe
particlesarelessthanabout2.0mminsize)lyingonaslopeliquefies.Theliquefiedmaterial
thenflowsdownslopeleavingbehindabowlshapeddepression.
Thedepositresultingfromanearthflowiselongatedandcomposedofmorethan80%
finegrained sediment and/or soil particles finer grained than ~2.0 mm. In plan view (i.e.,
lookingfromtheskyverticallydownontheearthflowsystem),thebowlshapeddepressionand
siteofdepositioncommonlyformtheoutlineofanhourglass(Figure11).
Debrisflows:Followingintensetorrentialrainfall,orduringmeltingoflargeamountsof
snoworice,loseregolithonsteepslopesmaybecomewatersaturatedandunstable,andasa
result, give way flowing down slope accumulating in and moving down ravines and other
naturalchannelsasadebrisflow(Figure12).Suchflowsaresaidtohavetheconsistencyofwet
cement.Indebrisflowsgrainsizevariesconsiderably,rangingfromlessthan~0.004mmto
over ~256 mm (Figure 13). In such a watersaturated mixture, grains larger than sand (~2.0
mm)makeupbetween20%80%ofthesolidmaterial.Debrisflowscanreachspeedsupto
~56kilometersperhour(~35milesperhour).
Page9
Figure12.Debrisflowscommonlyoccurfollowingheavyrainfall.
Figure13.Snoutofdebrisflow,SanBernardinoMountains,California.Notethemanyblocks
largerthan256mm,theapproximatediameterofabasketball,andthewiderangeinsizeof
materialincorporatedintotheflow.PhotographbyD.Morton,UnitedStatesGeological
Survey.
Mudflows: If slopes are covered by watersaturated soils or finegrained sedimentary

deposits, then following an intense rainfall or the melting of large amounts of snow and ice,
suchmaterialmaybecomeliquefiedresultinginamudflow(Figures14).Ofthesolidmaterial
incorporatedintosuchflowsmorethan80%arelessthansiltsize(~0.06mm).Mudflowsare
generallyfasterthanearthflowsandarefinergrainedthandebrisflows(Figure14).
Page10
Figure14.Themajordifferencebetweenamudflowandadebrisflowisthesizeofthe
materialcarriedbytheflow.Asshowninthisillustration,thegeneralsizeofparticlesina
debrisflowissignificantlylargerthanthesizeofparticlesinamudflow.Bothtypesofflows
commonlyfollowandplugupstreamchannels.
Creep
Theimperceptibleslowandsteadydownslopemovementoftheregolithisdefinedas
creep.Thoughyoucantperceivesuchmotionwiththenakedeye,curvedorbentsegmentsof
treetrunks(Figure15),restrainingwalls,fences,roads,orrailroadtracks(Figure16)alongwith
the down slope tilting of layered rocks (Figure17) and tilted telephone poles, allattest to its
existence.
Figure15.Benttreetrunksasaresultofdownslopecreep.PhotographbyG.K.Gilbert1969,
UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.
Page11
Figure16.Effectsofhillsidecreeponrailroadtracks.PhotographbyW.W.Atwood,United
StatesGeologicalSurvey.
Figure17.Creepinshale.PhotobyG.W.Stose,UnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.
Solifluction
Permafrost is soil that remains frozen for at least two consecutive years. During the
summer, the surface layer melts creating a watersaturated mobile layer that then moves
slowlydownslopeasitslidesoverthestillfrozenandimpermeableunderlyingregolith(Figure
18). In areas of permafrost, this slow imperceptible motion down slope is referred to as
solifluction.
Figure18.SolifluctionlobesSewardPeninsula,Alaska.PhotographbyP.S.Smith,UnitedStates
GeologicalSurvey.
Page12
Summary
Landslides are the result of the mass wasting of the Earths surface. Down slope
movementistheresultofgravityand/oritstangentialcomponentoftenactinginconjunction
with a change in the physical state of the acted upon material. Lets take a look at two
relatively recent examples that exemplify well why we should know something about this
importantandubiquitousprocess.
TwoCaseStudies
TheMountSoledadLandside
On Wednesday morning, just before 9:00 am, October 3rd, 2007 a large mass of the
slope lying between Soledad Mountain Road and Desert View Drive, La Jolla, California
detachedandbeganslidingdownslope(Figures19).Asaresult,intheareaoftheslide,gas
mains,waterlines,andsewerlinesbroke.Becauseofextensivedamage,ninehouseswerered
tagged. The costs were estimated at $26 million for public works such as broken sewer and
water mains and a sunken section of Soledad Mountain Road, and $22 million for private
propertylosses.ShouldtheresidenceinvolvedintheMountSoledadslidehavebeensurprised?
Figure19.AerialviewofMountSoledadlandslide.PhotographcourtesyM.Hart.
Before answering this question lets review some of the geology and history of the
MountSoledadarea.
(1)MuchoftheMountSoledadareaisunderlainbythemiddleEoceneArdathShale,a
formationthatisknowntobesusceptibletolandslides(Figure20).
Page13
(2)ThegeologicmapforSanDiegoshowsmanyancientlandslidedepositsintheMount
Soledad area. In fact, the October 2007 landslide occurred in an area where geologists had
mappedseveralancientlandslides(Figure20).
(3) The Mount Soledad area is transected by the Rose Canyon Country Club fault
system (Figure 20), first recognized in the 1970s. This fault system was not recognized in the
1950s and 1960s when many of the houses were built in the Mount Soledad area.
Nevertheless,theOctober2007landslideoccurredalongthetraceoftheCountryClubfault,as
did several other ancient landslides shown on the geologic map of the Mount Soledad area
(Figure20).
(4) A landslide destroyed 7 homes under construction in December 1961, while
additionallandslidesoccurredin1990and1994.
Inshort,thereisalonghistoryoflandslideactivityintheMountSoledadarea,andthe
factthatanotheroneoccurredisnotatallsurprising.Doyouthinkthatstillotherswilloccur
sometimeinthefuture?
Figure20.GeologicmapofMountSoledadarea,SanDiego,California.
TheLaConchitaLandslide
La Conchita is located along the Pacific Coast of California about midway

betweenVenturaandSantaBarbara(Figure21).OnMarch4,1995at2:03pm,asectionofthe
hills in back of La Conchita dropped downward and flowed slowly toward the Pacific Ocean
(Figure 22). This particular masswasting event has been classified as a complex slump
earthflow.Thescarpattheheadofthe1995slumpisclearlyvisibleinFigure22.Thelower
partofthelandslidethattunedintoanearthflowisthatpartencroachingonthehomesinthe
lowerhalfofthephotograph.NoonewaskilledduringtheMarch4event,buttheearthflow
destroyedorseverelydamaged9houses.
Page14
Figure21.LocationofLaConchitamidwaybetweenVenturaandSantaBarbara,California.
Figure22.LaConchitalandslide,March4,1995.PhotographfromUnitedStatesGeological
Survey.SeetextfordiscussionofRinconslide.
OnJanuary10,2005at12:30pmanothermassivelandslideoccurred.Thiseventdidnot
involve new material, but remobilized the southeastern portion of the old 1995 landslide
(Figure23).ThishorrifyingexperiencewascaughtonvideobyaTVcameracrew.Duringthe
Page15
Figure23.LaConchitafollowingthe2005landslide.The2005landslidereactivatedtheSE
portionofthe1995landslide.PhotographcourtesyUnitedStatesGeologicalSurvey.
January 10 event, the slide material was mobilized nearly instantaneously into a highly fluid,
and rapidly moving debris flow that ultimately buried four blocks of the town in over ~9.1
meters(~30feet)ofdebris.Tenpeoplewerekilledand14wereinjured.Ofthe166homesin
LaConchita,15weredestroyedand16weretaggedasuninhabitable.
BoththeMarch4andJanuary10landslidesoccurredfollowingintenselongperiodsof
rainfalls that elevated ground water tables and weakened the cliffs above La Conchita. For
example,the2005landslideoccurredattheendofa15dayperiodthatproducedrecordand
nearrecordamountsofrainfallinsouthernCaliforniawhilethe1995eventoccurredduringan
extraordinarilywetyear.
InvestigationsbyLarryGurrolaandotherscientistsatUCSantaBarbaraindicatethatthe
March 4 and January 10 events are small parts of a much larger ancient landslide called the
RinconMountainslide.Themainscarporthislargerancientlandslideisclearlyvisibleinthe
photographshowninFigure22.
AccordingtoGurrola,landslidessimilarorlargerthanthe1995and2005eventsmay
occur next year or in coming decades, during or shortly after intense rain falls. If the
inhabitantshadrecognizedthegeologicsettingofLaConchitawouldtheystillhavebuilttheir
homesonanarrowcoastalstripadjacenttoasteepslopecomposedofsoftweaksedimentand
clearevidenceofanancientlandslidescarp?IsitsafetocontinuelivinginLaConchita?
ReferencesUsedintheDevelopmentofthisChapter
BooksandArticles
Varnes, D.J., 1958, Landslide types and processes in Eckel E.B., ed., Landslides and
Engineering Practice, Highway Research Board Special Report 29, NASNRC Publication 544,
Washington,D.C.,p.2047.
Page16
Maps
Kennedy, M.P., and Tan, S.S., 2005, Geologic map of the San Diego 30' x 60' Quadrangle,
California;CaliforniaDepartmentofConservation
Web
http://cfx.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20071004/images/slide.pdf
http://nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_geohazards.html#three
http://www.nationalatlas.gov/articles/geology/a_landslide.html#one
http://pbs.usgs.gov/fs/2004/3072/
http://sports.uniontrib.com/uniontrib/20071007/news_1n7geology.html
http://wikipedia.org
http://www.signonsandiego.com/uniontrib/20071004/news_1n4slide.html
http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/landslide
http://www.ukgeohazards.info/pages/eng_geol/landslide_geohazard/eng_geol_landslides_
classification.htm
http://www.ia.ucsb.edu/pa/display.aspx?pkey=1356
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/10/051023123104.htm
Page17

Chapter 8 Landslides

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 8 Landslides

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter8

As mentioned in the introductory comments, the physical properties of material that

Mudflows: If slopes are covered by watersaturated soils or finegrained sedimentary

La Conchita is located along the Pacific Coast of California about midway

You might also like