Fluid Statics

AE 225 Incompressible Fluid Mechanics

Aniruddha Sinha

Department of Aerospace Engineering

IIT Bombay

Introduction to fluid statics

Fluid statics (colloquially called hydrostatics) is the study of fluids at rest
Hydrostatics is important in the following areas of Aerospace Engineering
Airships
Ships
Atmosphere

Fluid mechanics involves

Density
Pressure
Temperature

Since velocity is zero, shear strain rate is zero and hence shear stress is zero,
irrespective of coefficient of viscosity
This reduces the complexity of the fluid mechanics drastically

1 / 33

Pressure

Air
Gas

Balloon
wall

Gas

Fictitious
wall

Air

Gas
Gas

An imaginary surface separating fluid can have forces acting on each of

its side
Pressure is the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a

given plane within the fluid-mass of interest

Pressure varies from point to point
Does pressure vary depending on orientation of the plane passing

through the point?

2 / 33

Fluid particle FBD in hydrostatics

Consider a fluid particle within a mass of fluid at rest
There are no shear stresses since the velocity is zero everywhere; the only
external forces acting on the wedge shaped particle are:
pressure, and
weight of fluid within the particle.
z
ps (xs)
s

py (xz)
z
x

Fluid
y

x
pz (xy)

g(xyz)/2

Free-body diagram for a fluid particle within a fluid mass

Particle is small enough so that pressures are constant over each surface
3 / 33

Pascals law
xy z
ay ,
2
xy z
xy z
Newtons law in z-dir.: pz xy ps xs cos g
=
az
2
2
Newtons law in y -dir.: py xz ps xs sin =

where ay & az are accelerations in y & z directions, respectively

From geometry, y = s cos and z = s sin , so that
py ps = ay x/2,

pz ps = (az + g ) x/2.

Since RHS vanishes for a vanishingly small particle, py = pz = ps

But this result is for an arbitrary , so we conclude that px = py = pz .
Pascals law: The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is
independent of the direction as long as there are no shear stresses
For fluids in motion (with shear stresses), normal stress at a point (which
corresponds to pressure in hydrostatics) is not necessarily same in all
directions then pressure is defined as the average of any three mutually
orthogonal normal stresses at the point
4 / 33

Pressure variation in a fluid



p
z


p y
xz
y 2

p+

(x, y, z)

z
y


p z
xy
z 2


p+


p y
xz
y 2

g(xyz)/2

x


p z
p
xy
z 2

Surface and body forces acting on a fluid particle without shear

Consider a rectangular fluid particle centered at an arbitrary point (x, y , z),

where the pressure is p
Taylor series approximation gives the resultant surface force due to the
variation of pressure in the y -direction as




p y
p y
p
Fy ,pressure = p
xz p +
xz = xy z
y 2
y 2
y
Similarly, Fx,pressure =

p
xy z,
x

Fz,pressure =

p
xy z
z
5 / 33

Governing equation for fluid in absence of shear

Net surface force acting on fluid particle due to pressure variations is




p p p

=
Fx i + Fy j + Fz k
i+
j+
k xy z
x
y
z
pressure
Or,

F pressure = p (xy z)

Net surface force due to pressure per unit volume on the fluid particle is
f pressure = p
Net body force due to gravity per unit volume is f body = g
Newtons 2nd law applied to the fluid particle gives acceleration a as
a = f pressure + f body = p + g
With usual choice of coordinate system where z-direction is up, we have
p g k = a
General equation of motion for a fluid in absence of shearing stresses
6 / 33

Pressure variation in a fluid at rest

In hydrostatics, fluid acceleration is identically zero, a = 0, so
p = g k = k
Specific gravity of a fluid, := g is commonly used in hydrostatics
Remark: By definition of operator, p is perpendicular everywhere to
surfaces of constant p
Thus, fluid in hydrostatic equilibrium will align its constant pressure surfaces
everywhere normal to the local-gravity vector
If the fluid is a liquid, its free surface, being at atmospheric pressure, will be
normal to local gravity horizontal
In component form,
p
= 0,
x

p
= 0,
y

p
= g =
z

Thus, hydrostatic pressure is a function of z alone, and

dp
= g =
dz
7 / 33

Pressure variation in an incompressible fluid

Assume constant (water engineering problems)
Assume constant g (variation of g is negligible for many problems)

Then, integrating (dp/dz = g ) gives

Z p2
Z z2
dp = g
dz
= p2 p1 = g (z2 z1 ) = gh
p1

z1

p2
z

h = z2 z1
p1

z2
z1
y

Pressure must increase with depth to hold up the fluid above it

h = (p1 p2 )/(g ) is called pressure head
Interpreted as height of a column of fluid of specific gravity g required to
give a pressure difference p1 p2
8 / 33

Pressure in liquids at rest with a free surface

The free surface of a liquid is a convenient reference, if it exists
Reference pressure p0 will typically be the atmospheric pressure patm
Pressure at any depth h below the free surface is
p = gh + p0
The pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the
depth of the fluid relative to some reference plane, and it is not influenced
by the size or shape of the tank or container in which the fluid is held

9 / 33

Pressure in gases at rest

Gases, being compressible, have a variable density that should be considered
in the integration of (dp/dz = g )
However, gases have much lower density compared to liquids, so that the
pressure gradient in the vertical direction is correspondingly small
We can neglect the effect of elevation changes on the pressure in gases in
tanks, pipes, and so forth in which the distances involved are small
If height variation is large ( 1000 feet), variation becomes important
The ideal gas law (for compressible gases) is
p
=
RT
which, when combined with the hydrostatic equation results in
dp
gp
=
dz
RT
Integration after separation of variables yields
Z p2
Z
dp
g z2 dz
=
p
R z1 T
p1
The variation of temperature with elevation is required to complete this

10 / 33

Pressure in compressible gases isothermal

If the temperature has a constant value T0 over the range z1 to z2
(isothermal conditions), then


g (z2 z1 )
p2 = p1 exp
RT0

Even for a 10,000 ft altitude change, difference

in constant-temperature (isothermal) and
constant-density (incompressible) results are
relatively minor

Density variation is also given by



g (z2 z1 )
2 = 1 exp
RT0
11 / 33

Pressure in compressible gases linear temperature

Temperature may decrease with altitude at a constant lapse rate of over
the range z1 to z2 ; i.e.,
T (z) = T0 + (z z0 ) ,
where the altitude is measured from some reference level z0 (typically mean
sea level) where the temperature is T0
Integration then gives,
g /R

(z z0 )
p = p0 1 +
T0
Density variation is given by

g /R1
(z z0 )
= 0 1 +
T0

12 / 33

Standard atmosphere

Atmospheric conditions change day to day and across seasons

Standard atmosphere was first developed in the 1920s to codify

representative atmospheric conditions

It does not change with day, date or time
It is an idealized representation of middle-latitude, year-around mean

conditions of the earths atmosphere

The currently accepted Standard atmosphere is based on a report

published in 1962 and updated in 1976

In India we use Indian Standard Atmosphere

13 / 33

International standard atmosphere (ISA)

Mesopause

86.5 C, 85 km
= 2 C/km

Mesosphere

58.5 C, 71 km

Altitude h, km

= 2.8 C/km
2.5 C, 51 km

Stratopause
= 2.8 C/km

2.5 C, 47 km

Stratosphere
= 1 C/km

Tropopause

44.5 C, 32 km

56.5 C, 20 km
56.5 C, 11 km

Troposphere

= 6.5 C/km
Temperature T , K

15 C
14 / 33

Relevant pressures and densities in atmosphere

Altitude
0

T, C
15

P, bar
1

, kg/m3
1.225

10

-50

0.261

0.412

20

-56.5

0.054

0.088

50

-2.5

6.7 104

8.7 104

Relevance
Civilian aircraft fly
at this altitude
Military aircraft fly
at this altitude
Air-breathing vehicles cant fly at this
altitude

15 / 33

Transmission of fluid pressure

The required equality of pressure at equal elevations throughout a system is
important for the operation of hydraulic jacks, lifts, and presses, as well as
hydraulic controls on aircraft and other type of heavy machinery
F1 = pA1 ,

F2 = pA2 ,

F2 =

A1
F1
A2

The transmission of fluid

pressure throughout a stationary
fluid is the principle upon which
many hydraulic devices are based

16 / 33

Measurement of pressure conventions

Absolute pressure is measured w.r.t. perfect vacuum
Gauge pressure is measured w.r.t. local atmospheric pressure

pgauge = pabsolute patmosphere

If the pressure being measured is expected to be below atmospheric

pressure, then vacuum pressure is used

pvacuum = patmosphere pabsolute

17 / 33

Barometry
Measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually with a mercury barometer
The tube is initially filled with mercury and then turned upside down with
open end in the mercury container
patm = Hg gh + pvapour

For mercury, pvapour is 0.16 Pa, and is therefore

neglected
Atmospheric pressure is conventionally specified as
height of mercury column, h
Standard atmosphere (101325 Pa, 1 bar) is 760
mm of Hg

18 / 33

Manometry example
U-tube manometer as a flow meter
The volume rate of flow, Q, through a
pipe can be determined using a flow
nozzle within the pipe. The nozzle
creates a pressure drop along the pipe

which is given by Q = K pA pB ,
where K is a constant depending on
the pipe and nozzle size. Obtain an
expression for the pressure drop in
terms of the parameters shown.

19 / 33

Manometry example
U-tube manometer as a flow meter
The volume rate of flow, Q, through a
pipe can be determined using a flow
nozzle within the pipe. The nozzle
creates a pressure drop along the pipe

which is given by Q = K pA pB ,
where K is a constant depending on
the pipe and nozzle size. Obtain an
expression for the pressure drop in
terms of the parameters shown.
Account for the pressure start at A, move vertically upward to (1), switch to (2)
(same pressure), switch to (3) (same pressure), move upward to (4), switch to (5)
(same pressure), move vertically down to B
pA 1 h1 2 h2 + 1 (h1 + h2 ) = pB

= pA pB = (2 1 )h2

19 / 33

Manometry
When pressures are small, they can be measured by measuring height/depth
of liquid column in vertical or inclined tubes

Piezometer tube
pA patm = 1 h1

Simple U-tube manometer

pA patm = 2 h2 1 h1

Differential U-tube manometer

pA pB = 2 h2 + 3 h3 1 h1

Piezometer is only useful if pressure in a liquid is above patm

20 / 33

Inclined tube manometer enhanced precision

To measure small pressure changes, an inclined-tube manometer is
frequently used
One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle , and the differential
reading `2 is measured along the inclined tube

pA + 1 h1 = pB + 2 `2 sin + 3 h3
Neglecting the contributions of gas columns of heights h1 & h3 ,
pA pB = 2 `2 sin
Thus, for small , the same pressure difference is magnified to larger `2
value for greater accuracy in reading
21 / 33

Hydrostatic force on a plane surface

A surface submerged in a fluid develops hydrostatic pressure on it
Hydrostatic forces are important in design of ships, dams, storage tanks, etc.

Pressure is constant on the bottom wall as height is not changing

Pressure is changing on side walls as height is changing

22 / 33

Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface

Free surface

p = patm

Liquid of
sp. gravity

h(x, y)
hc
= h/ sin

Net resultant
force, F = pc A

dA = dx dy

Side view

y
Centroid, c

p = patm

x
CP

Plan view

Assumptions: Liquid density is constant & pressure on lower side is patm

23 / 33

Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface (contd.)

Net hydrostatic force on the plate is
Z
Z
Z
Z
F = pgauge dA = hdA = hdA = sin dA
since h = sin , and is constant along the plate
Slant distance from the free surface to the centroid of the plate is
Z
1
c =
dA
A
so that
F = c sin A = hc A = pc,gauge A
Thus, the net hydrostatic force is independent of the particular shape of the
plate except for
the depth of the centroid of the plate w.r.t. the free surface hc , and
the area of the plate
24 / 33

Center of pressure for an inclined plane surface

Point of action of net hydrostatic force is called center of pressure
Net hydrostatic moment (due to F ) about the x axis thru the centroid is
Z
Z
Z
FyCP = pgauge y dA = hy dA = sin y dA
Z
Z
Z
= sin (c y ) y dA = sin c y dA sin y 2 dA

R
But, the integral y dA in first term is identically 0 by definition of centroid
R 2
With Ixxc := y dA being the area moment of inertia of the plate about its
centroidal x axis, computed in the plane of the plate, we have
yCP =

Ixxc sin
Ixxc sin
=
hc A
hc A

Since all individual quantities in the last expression are positive, center of
pressure is always below the centroid for the inclined flat pate
For a given plate, CP approaches centroid as hc increases and/or decreases

2
2
With radius of gyration rgx
:= Ixxc /A, we also have yCP = rgx
sin hc

25 / 33

Center of pressure for an inclined plane surface (contd.)

To find the x-coordinate of the center of pressure, xCP , we calculate the

moment about the y axis thru the centroid
Z
Z
pgauge xdA
sin (c y ) xdA
Ixyc sin
xCP =
=
=
F
hCG A
hc A
R
where Ixyc := xy dA is the area product moment of inertia of the plate
about its centroidal x y axes
Plates with area distributed symmetrically about an axis in the slant
direction will have Ixyc = 0, so that their xCP will be 0

26 / 33

Moments of inertia of common geometries

27 / 33

Buoyancy force
Buoyancy force FB on fluid acting
downward is
FB = F2 F 1 + W
= (h2 h1 )A {(h2 h1 ) A V }
= V
This is Archimedes principle
Buoyancy force FB on body acts upward
FB passes thru centroid of displaced
volume, called center of buoyancy
Same results apply to fully-submerged
and floating bodies, as long as sp.
gravity of outside fluid can be neglected

28 / 33

Stability of fully submerged bodies

29 / 33

Stability of floating bodies

Stable configuration (e.g., barges that ride low in the water)

Unstable configuration (e.g., tall slender bodies)

30 / 33

Rigid body motion of a fluid

The fluid mass moves as if it were a rigid body
Although fluid elements are in motion, there is no relative motion

between them
Thus there are no shear stresses and only pressure forces are acting

so although fluid is not static, hydrostatic analysis is suitable

For rigid body motion, acceleration must be constant
In practice, the container must be moved with constant acceleration

and one must be patient till transients (sloshing) die out

The general equation of motion in this case is



p = g k + a

Using Cartesian coordinates,

p
= ax ,
x

p
= ay ,
y

p
= g + az
z
31 / 33

Linear rigid body motion of a fluid

Let fluid accelerate with constant acceleration a = ax i + az k
The differential pressure is given by
dp =

p
p
p
dx +
dy +
dz = ax dx (g + az ) dz
x
y
z

The free surface is, by definition, acted upon by uniform atmospheric

pressure, so dp = 0 thereat
Thus the equation for the free surface (or any isocontour of pressure) is
ax
dz
=
= tan
dx
g + az
az
ax
z
g

ax

x
a=0

p/

az

ax 6= 0, az 6= 0
32 / 33

Rigid body rotation

Centripetal acceleration on fluid particle is in radial direction, ar = r 2
Pressure gradient in cylindrical coordinates is
p = p/r e r + r 1 p/ e + p/z e z
Thus, rigid body motion equation gives differential pressure as
dp = r 2 dr g dz
The free surface (or any other constant-pressure surface) is then given by
dz/dr = r 2 /g

= z = 0.5 2 r 2 /g + constant

(a paraboloid)

33 / 33