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February

Leadership and Neuroscience:

Can We Revolutionize the Way That Inspirational Leaders Are Identified and
Developed?
by David A. Waldman, Pierre A. Balthazard, and Suzanne J. Peterson

Executive Overview
Recent advances in the field of neuroscience can significantly add to our understanding of leadership and
its development. Specifically, we are interested in what neuroscience can tell us about inspirational
leadership. Based on our findings, we discuss how future research in leadership can be combined with
neuroscience, as well as potential neurofeedback interventions for the purpose of leadership development.
We also consider ethical implications and applications to management-related areas beyond leadership.

eadership development is a multibillion-dollar

industry, with in-house as well as external consulting groups offering leadership development
techniques and programs for their clients. The
efficacy of traditional leadership development
methods, however, has recently been called into
question (Haines, 2009), with many researchers
recognizing the need to go beyond traditional
leadership assessment methods, which typically
involve evaluating leader behaviors and qualities
through some sort of survey process through
which followers or peers rate a leaders effectiveness. In particular, recent advances in neuroscience are expanding our understanding of behavior and learning (Boyatzis, Smith, & Blaize,
2006). Specifically, we are interested in what insights the study of the human brain and the field
of neuroscience may hold for understanding effec-

tive leadership, its assessment, and its development.

While there are many branches of neuroscience, the specific area of social cognitive neuroscience may have the most applicability to the
study of leadership. Ochsner and Lieberman
(2001) defined social cognitive neuroscience as an
emergent, interdisciplinary field that seeks to understand human interactions at the intersection of
social, cognitive, and neural spheres of science.
Recent advances in this area offer evidence of how
the human brain might support leaders in many
aspects of cognition and behavior. For instance,
Adolphs (2009) proposed a neural basis for the
construction of social knowledge, in particular the
manner in which social inferences about the feelings, thoughts, and intentions of others are
formed. Similarly, Tabibnia, Satpute, and Lieber-

* David A. Waldman (waldman@asu.edu) is a Professor in the Department of Management at the W. P. Carey School of Business, Arizona
State University.
Pierre A. Balthazard (Pierre.Balthazard@asu.edu) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Information Systems at the W. P. Carey
School of Business, Arizona State University.
Suzanne J. Peterson (Suzanne.Peterson@asu.edu) is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Management at the W. P. Carey School
of Business, Arizona State University.
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Waldman, Balthazard, and Peterson

man (2008) examined brain activity in relation to

perceptions of fairness versus unfairness.
Here, we have chosen to focus on the neurological basis of inspirational leadership behavior, a
type of behavior that is emphasized in many of
todays contemporary leadership theories, such as
transformational, charismatic, and visionary paradigms. Our goal is to explore two key questions.
First, can we use neuroscientific methodologies to
identify those people in leadership positions who
are likely to engage in behaviors associated with
inspirational leadership? Second, armed with this
information, can we consider neurologically
based, developmental interventions to enhance
behaviors associated with inspirational leadership?
In the remainder of this article, we attempt to
address these questions. We begin by defining
inspirational leadership. Next, we outline three
key challenges (and potential solutions) to the
integration of neuroscience with management
phenomena such as inspirational leadership.
These include (1) problems in attempting to build
theory that would conceptually link brain activity
to leadership behavior, (2) the use of expedient
and effective technologies to pursue basic research
that could link neuroscience to leadership, and
(3) a lack of knowledge or technology for how to
apply neurological findings to leadership development. As we present these challenges, we will also
summarize findings from a recent study that we
conducted to demonstrate how neuroscience
might be used in leadership research.
What Is Inspirational Leadership?
ver the past 30 years, there has been an increasing interest in a genre of leadership theories collectively labeled as neo-charismatic
by House and Aditya (1997). Despite a few differences, the various theories share the view that
outstanding leaders go beyond simple performance-versus-reward transactions and have a
deep impact on their followers and their organizations, including the potential to be a major force
in realizing new visions and change. Various labels
have been used to describe such leaders, including
transformational and visionary. However, inspiration rests at the core of what these theories propose in terms of consummate excellence in the

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leadership role (see Bass & Bass, 2009, for a review).

Notwithstanding our focus on inspirational
leadership, it is important to acknowledge that
other, more functional definitions of leadership do
exist. For example, in her book Bad Leadership,
Barbara Kellerman (2004) suggested that good
leadership is less about the ability of leaders to
inspire followers and more about mutual leader
and follower responsibility. Specifically, she suggested that effective leaders should emphasize
shared power with followers and supportive networks, and should surround themselves with people who tell them the truth. Despite this and other
alternative perspectives on leadership, here we
focus on inspirational leadership since it rests at
the center of the most widely studied forms of
effective leadership (Bass & Riggio, 2006).
Inspirational leaders articulate a vision that is
based on strongly held ideological values that
cause people to become energized and to identify
with the vision (e.g., Conger & Kanungo, 1998;
Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). The ability to
inspire is considered fundamental to establishing a
high degree of follower confidence, intrinsic motivation, and trust and admiration in the leader
(Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir et al., 1993).
Moreover, research has consistently found that
inspirational leadership is positively related to
performance at the individual, group, and organizational levels (Flynn & Staw, 2004, Judge &
Piccolo, 2004; Sully de Luque, Washburn, Waldman, & House, 2008).
According to leadership theorists, inspirational leaders are able to have these effects on
followers and organizations as a whole primarily
because of their visionary communication abilities (e.g., Conger & Kanungo, 1998; Shamir et
al., 1993). However, the type of vision put forth
by leaders makes a difference in their ability to
motivate and connect with followers. More specifically, vision can be delineated in terms of a
socialized versus personalized continuum. Socialized vision is characterized by such elements
as altruism and social responsibility, the inclusion of empowered followers as a necessary component to organizational success, and a focus on
serving the interests and goals of the greater

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collective (House & Howell, 1992). In short,

socialized vision leads to outcomes and processes that benefit followers as well as outside
stakeholders such as the larger community or
even nation in which a firm resides. Leadership
theorists have tended to view socialized vision
as prototypical of the type of visionary communication that will inspire followers (e.g., Shamir
et al., 1993). In contrast, personalized vision is
largely narcissistic in nature (e.g., Chatterjee &
Hambrick, 2007) and is characterized by selfinterest, an over-emphasis on the leader (rather
than others) in achieving organizational outcomes, and an obsession with authority and
achieving dominance over competition (House
& Howell, 1992). Such vision may be inspiring
only to followers with low self-concepts (Howell & Shamir, 2005).
From this review of inspirational leadership, we
now turn to the question of whether brain activity
can be linked to leadershipand, more specifically, to inspirational leadership.
Can Leadership Be Linked Conceptually to
Brain Activity?
key challenge for researchers is to attempt to
make theoretical connections between brain
activity and overt leadership behavior and
qualities. Without such theory, research endeavors might simply involve searches for relationships
between vaguely conceived neurological variables
on the one hand (see Vul, Harris, Winkielman, &
Pashler, 2009), and traditional, psychometrically
based measures of leadership on the other. More
than 30 years ago, Henry Mintzberg (1976) addressed this challenge when he suggested that left
brain/right brain differences may be relevant to
management and leadership. Specifically, he argued that managers may differ in relative strength
or dominance with regard to the two hemispheres
of the brain. As later summarized by Finkelstein
and Hambrick (1996), managers with dominant
left hemispheres (i.e., in which the focus is largely
logic and rational thinking) may make good planners. In contrast, they suggested that managers
with dominant right hemispheres (i.e., in which
the focus is largely imagination, creativity, visual

February

imagery, and emotional response) may make good

managers or leaders. While some researchers (e.g.,
Hines, 1987) were critical of what was termed the
left brain/right brain mythology, advancements
in neuroscience theories, methodologies, and
findings over the last decade have led to a renewed interest in, and exploration of, brain lateralization theories. In particular, a neuroscientific
construct known as coherence has facilitated
the study of the origin of complex behaviors associated with leadership.
Neuronal Coherence and Inspirational Leadership

While a number of indicators exist to interpret

brain activity, coherence is one of the more
commonly applied metrics in social cognitive
neuroscience research. Coherence is a way of
measuring the interconnectedness of areas of
the brain. More simply, coherence is a way of
tracking coordinated activity or communication
between various areas of the brain. This makes
coherence ideally suited for the examination of
complex behavioral concepts such as inspirational leadership behavior, which are likely to
require multiple parts of the brain (e.g., emotional and cognitive centers) to act jointly (Cacioppo, Berntson, & Nusbaum, 2008; Nolte,
2002). Coherence is typically reported in the
form of a percentage; for example, 90% coherence would indicate relatively high coherence
(i.e., a high degree of coordinated activity between two parts of the brain), while 10% coherence would indicate relatively low coherence (i.e., less coordinated activity between two
parts of the brain).
Furthermore, coherence levels may indicate
different behavioral phenomena for different locations in the brain. For example, the presence of
high coherence in the right hemisphere could
suggest greater emotional balance and understanding through integration in the processes that
manage emotional thought, including an understanding of ones own emotions as well as the
emotions of others (Thatcher, Krause, & Hrybyk,
1986; Thatcher, North, & Biver, 2007). It might
also reflect a greater cognitive understanding of

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the larger picture when reasoning and making

decisions (Thatcher et al., 2007).1
Regarding the former, various authors have
stressed the importance of the affective or emotional component of visionary communication,
which makes a direct appeal to the personal values, beliefs, and needs of followers and attempts to
get them excited and optimistic about the future
(e.g., Boal & Hooijberg, 2001; Shamir et al.,
1993). As such, the affective component underlies
the leaders ability to generate the motivation and
commitment necessary for followers to carry out
the vision. Indeed, emotions are important in
terms of the emotions leaders themselves experience and share, as well as the emotions followers
experience toward the leader and his or her vision
(Barsade & Gibson, 2007; George, 2000). Effective leadership involves the regulation of ones
own emotionsfor example, expressing a positive, optimistic mood about the future, while minimizing expressions of anxiety, sadness, or fear that
might demotivate followers. Furthermore, it involves an understanding of and an ability to influence the positive emotions of others through
hope and inspiration, despite the ambiguity, setbacks, or fears that they might otherwise face
(Barsade & Gibson, 2007).
The relationship between specific brain activity and emotions may be found through a better
understanding of the nature of emotional balance.
Using the terminology of emotional intelligence,
balance is achieved by promoting the positive
emotions associated with optimism and excitement, while keeping more disruptive negative
emotions such as anxiety, selfishness, fear, anger,
and sadness in check (Goleman, 1998). As argued
further below, leaders who espouse more socialized
visions may be better able to regulate feelings and
emotions (i.e., they have greater emotional intelligence), which allows them to inspire in others a
desire to achieve the goals of the collective (Ashkanasy & Daus, 2002; Humphrey, 2002).
1
We should note that the ideal level of EEG coherence varies by the
function of the particular brain network or region. Indeed, some brain
functions may be improved with integration (i.e., more coherence), while
others may be improved with differentiation (i.e., less coherence). In the
current research, we posited a region in the brain in which more coherence
would be associated with leader behavior.

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Various authors have proposed a specific neurological basis for emotional intelligence or skills
(Ashkanasy, 2003; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee,
2001). Goleman et al. (2001) noted that emotional intelligence has a basis in brain circuitry
and further suggested that it derives from how
cortical regions of the brain interpret and manage
neurotransmitter signals from the brains limbic
system. Morse (2006) suggested that a leaders use
of emotions and reasoning for the purpose of formulating and espousing a vision has a basis in the
limbic system. Naqvi, Shiv, and Bechara (2006)
further suggested that parts of the brain, such as
the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, may help a
person to balance emotions in decision making,
especially in situations in which outcomes are
ambiguous or uncertain. There is also recent research showing that regions of the cortex may
help to assess risk and guide behaviors in anticipation of emotional consequences, including such
negative consequences as fear and despair (Paulus,
Rogalsky, Simmons, Feinstein, & Stein. 2003;
Sanfey et al., 2003).
Beyond emphasizing the different hemispheres
of the brain (left and right), it seems logical to
focus on the frontal regions of the brain (as opposed to the distal or posterior regions). This is
because the front part of the brain may be especially involved in the regulation and expression of
emotions, as well as higher cognitive functioning
such as goal-directed or visionary behavior (Hagmann, Cammoun, Gigandet, Meuli, & Honey,
2008). For instance, Heisel and Beatty (2006)
found the right frontal part of the brain to be
essential for effective interpersonal communication and social relationships. Moreover, it has
been shown that right frontal dysfunction gives
rise to antisocial behavior and an inability to
understand relationships with other people (i.e.,
social skills, mood control, and awareness of self;
see Salloway, Malloy, & Duffy, 2001) and difficulties balancing emotions in decision making under
conditions of uncertainty (Naqvi et al., 2006). In
sum, the social/emotional skills or abilities associated with right frontal activity might also be
relevant to behaviors involved in inspirational
leadership, especially the espousal of socialized
visionary communication. In addition, in line

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with the assessment of neuronal coherence, recent

work would suggest that emotional regulation involves multiple regions of the brain working in
conjunction (Cacioppo et al., 2008). Thus, our
primary focus in this research is on right-brain
coherence, especially in the frontal regions
(Thatcher et al., 1986; 2007).
Visions that are socially based inherently involve the effective working through of potential
trade-offs pertaining to a wide range of possible
stakeholder groups, including employees, customers, and the greater community in which the organization exists. In line with our above arguments, we posit that individuals with enhanced
right frontal coherence may be able to both conceptualize the balancing of concerns of multiple
constituent groups in the formation of a more
socialized vision and deal with potential emotional strains, moral issues, and uncertainties.
They may further recognize that the positive emotions of others can be enhanced through visions
that emphasize more socialized, as opposed to personalized, content (Carmeli, Gilat, & Waldman,
2007).
In sum, it is possible that not only will right
frontal activity be heightened for inspirational
leaders, but we may also witness greater coherence
between areas in this portion of the brain. As
described below, we tested this prediction through
the use of a direct assessment of socialized visionary communication, as well as a more indirect
assessment through followers ratings of inspirational/charismatic leadership.
The Advancement of Neuroscience
Methodologies
challenge for the examination of neuroscience
and leadership is how to technologically examine the topic. The technology associated
with neurological assessment and research has advanced greatly in recent years. A number of techniques are now available to investigate brain activity that may be relevant to effective leadership
behavior. For research purposes, two of the more
popular ones are functional magnetic resonance
imaging (fMRI) and quantitative electroencephalogram (qEEG). These techniques vary in terms of

February

their precision and exact capabilities, but nevertheless represent a large improvement over past
techniques in their ability to detect and quantify
key aspects of brain activity.
For our research program, we have chosen to
use qEEG, which employs advanced signal processing techniques to infer data about the brain
through the scalp and skull (Niedermeyer & Silva,
1995). The data produced by qEEG can be readily
used in conjunction with statistical analysis programs. In addition, qEEG is relatively inexpensive, portable, and non-invasive, and its use involves no health risk. Unlike fMRI and other
methods that require people to remain immobilized in an unnatural setting (that is, in a clinical
setting within a confined tube), qEEG assessment
can be completed while people are comfortably
seated and engaged in everyday tasksincluding
conversations associated with the type of vision
communication task described below.
Two basic measurements are commonly used to
analyze a qEEG recording: (1) the amplitude, or
the size of the electrical waves, and (2) the frequency, or the number of waves per second. Amplitude and frequency of brain waves can be assessed with regard to five bandwidths and range
from low arousal (sleeping) to high arousal (extreme alertness). From lowest to highest arousal
levels, these bandwidths are known as delta, theta,
alpha, beta, and gamma rhythms. In the current
research, we were interested in examining brain
activity in the beta rhythm because beta waves are
the most prevalent in the alert brain. In addition,
beta waves are involved with affective and cognitive processes, selective attention, concentration,
and anticipation (Classen, Gerloff, Honda, &
Hallet, 1998). More will be said below regarding
our use of beta waves and coherence in our study
of the relationship between neurological functioning and inspirational leadership.
A Study of Business Executives
s an illustration, we now describe a specific
research project that we conducted in our
attempt to link qEEG assessment with inspirational leadership. We collected qEEG data,
coded visionary communication statements, and
rated leadership data from a diverse sample of 50

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individuals who held leadership positions in a

large metropolitan area located in the western
United States. While this sample is somewhat
small, it is fairly unique in that it provides leadership and neurological data for individuals who
are at the upper echelons of their organizations, as
opposed to samples that might include students or
lower level supervisors or employees. The sample
included an eclectic mix of people in business and
community leadership roles, such as physicians,
lawyers, deans, politicians, developers, company
executives, entrepreneurs, and community activists. To illustrate the senior level of these individuals in their respective organizations, the modal
salary reported was $125,001 plus, and 90% of
participants self-reported themselves as a senior
executive, professional, owner, or self-employed/
entrepreneur. The median number of direct and
indirect reports was reported as 25 to 99 individuals, although half of our sample led organizations
with significantly larger workforces.
qEEG Assessment of Coherence. As mentioned above, coherence is a measure of coordinated activity between multiple parts of the brain
and is calculated as a percentage; 0% represents
low coordinated activity and 100% represents
high levels of coordination. Coherence measures
were generated using NeuroGuide software.2
The software examines electrical data collected
from 19 electrodes placed on a participants scalp,
and reports (as coherence values) the pairwise
comparison of the activity patterns from the 171
possible combinations of the electrode locations.
We focused on the three electrodes that are located on the right frontal regions of the brain,
known as Fp2, F4, and F8.3 Thus, our right frontal
brain coherence index was derived by averaging
the coherence scores obtained from the three electrode combinations in this region. Further, as
mentioned earlier, we examined coherence associated with the high-frequency beta rhythm
(20 30 Hz) because of its association with an
alert/active mental state.
2
NeuroGuide is a product of Applied Neuroscience, Inc., of Tampa,
Florida, and is widely used by therapists in clinical settings.
3

The 19 scalp locations, including the right frontal areas Fp2, F4, and
F8, are based on the International 10/20 system of electrode placement that
was originally developed by Jasper (1958).

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Vision Statements. While participants were

undergoing qEEG assessment, we asked them to
engage in a vision taskan activity that is common to conceptualizations of inspirational leadership behavior. Participants were asked two questions about the future of their organizations, and
responses were recorded and transcribed: (1) Can
you please describe your current plans for your
organization, as well as plans for the future? and
(2) As you look toward the future, can you formulate a vision statement for your firm?
The vision statements of the participants were
coded by two trained coders on a scale of 1 to 3.
Vision statements that scored 1 tended to fall into
the personalized vision category. This style can be
characterized by use of singular pronouns (e.g., I
and me); a focus on dominance, exploiting others,
beating the competition, and financial results; and
a refusal to acknowledge the roles of the team,
employees, or other constituents/stakeholders. Examples of personalized statements were My vision
is to be the number-one supplier of essential office
products and services, regardless of what that
product line is within the markets that I service
and I look at my accomplishments or what am I
planning . . .
In contrast, statements that scored a 3 were
considered to be examples of a more socialized
vision. These visions were focused on the collective we, empowerment, values, the necessary role
of the team in the organizations future success, a
desire for all levels of the organization to benefit
from the outcomes, and positive contributions to
employees, customers, the community, and the
environment. The following excerpts were illustrative of such statements: To also provide an
environment at work that is fun, rewarding, fulfilling, and with opportunities to grow and expand
for our associates, and also to be a player in the
community and We will operate within an umbrella of a vibrant and productive environment
that promotes the best possible working conditions for our workforce, and to give them the best
possible development opportunities. Statements
coded as 2 were somewhat mixed, with both personalized and socialized elements.
Traditional-Rated Leadership Assessment. Perceptions of inspirational leadership were obtained

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via surveys from three to six direct reports of each

participant in the days or weeks following his or her
qEEG assessment. In line with prior work (Avolio,
Bass, & Jung, 1999), these perceptions were assessed
using the idealized influence and inspirational motivation scales from the short form of the Multifactor
Leadership Questionnaire (Bass & Avolio, 1990).
While much research has labeled these perceptions
simply as charismatic leadership, in line with our
earlier definition we believe that they tap heavily
into the inspirational component of charisma. Accordingly, we provide the label inspirational/charismatic leadership. As is commonly the case in prior
research (cf. Judge & Piccolo, 2004; Lowe, Kroeck,
& Sivasubramaniam, 1996), we summed the scores
of these scales across respective followers to form an
overall measure of inspirational/charismatic leadership for each study participant ( .91, 8 items).
Summary of Study Findings

The values for coherence varied from 3% to 71%,

with a sample average of 23.7%. These values
represent differences across the participants in this
study in terms of the degree of neural connectivity
in the right frontal portions of their brains. More
specifically, we found three key results relevant to
coherence in the right frontal portion of the brain.
First, as predicted, right frontal coherence was
associated with participants who were coded as
high on socialized visionary communication (r
.36, p .05).4 Second, socialized vision was correlated with follower perceptions of inspirational/
charismatic leadership (r .39, p .01). Third,
right frontal coherence was only marginally associated with follower perceptions of inspirational/
charismatic leadership (r .26, p .10). In short,
these findings suggest that right frontal coherence
may help to form the basis of socialized visionary
communication, which in turn helps to build follower perceptions of the leader in inspirational or
charismatic terms. That is, right frontal coherence
4

To explore the robustness of our findings we examined the relationship between socialized vision communication and coherence in several
other regions in the brain (e.g., left frontal coherence). The purpose of
these analyses was to eliminate the possibility that coherence in general
(i.e., in any region of the brain) might be related to socialized vision
communication. In none of these instances did we find a significant
relationship between coherence and socialized vision communication.

February

(i.e., our neurological indicator) was more

strongly related to our direct coding of socialized
visionary behavior, rather than the more indirect
or generalized behavioral measure involving perceptions of inspirational/charismatic leadership
on the part of followers. To further illustrate our
findings, we identified two illustrative case examples from our participant sample.
Case Examples

Figure 1 shows a grayscale translation of a colored

spectral analysis associated with more versus less
coherence in the right frontal region, specifically
for the three areas mentioned earlier: Fp2, F4, and
F8. Dark regions with plus () signs represent
areas with high degrees of coherence (75% or
higher), while dark regions with minus (-) signs
represent areas with low coherence (25% or
lower). In general, as described further below,
Leader #1 displays more coherence emanating
from each of the three right frontal regions. Coherence is especially concentrated within those
three regions for this individual, as compared to
Leader #2.
Leader #1 is a 52-year-old leader of a private
non-profit, community-based corporation that
provides health and human services to Hispanic
communities. This individual earned a masters
degree in educational leadership. Based on evaluations by followers, Leader #1 rated very high on
inspirational/charismatic leadership. In addition,
in response to the vision task, this individual
demonstrated a highly socialized vision, as illustrated by the following statements: Our goal is to
create a good environment for this community
and to give back to the community, which has
been nurturing our company all these years, to
make it a profit-sharing endeavor, we hope that
the community can benefit more from our products, and we hope to be able to add more workers so that we will reduce the amount of unemployment in this area. Thus, this leader seemed to
display a vision that was both positive and socially
responsible. Furthermore, this individual tended
to have a great deal of thought and reasoning
behind the ideas put forth. In short, leader #1
appeared to display a socialized vision and, in turn,
was viewed largely as inspirational/charismatic by

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Figure 1
Case Examples of the Right Front Coherence of Leaders

Note: Grayscale translation of a color spectral analysis of right front coherence. The gradient shows the levels of beta coherence from the perspective
of the three right frontal electrode locations, including areas at 0% (indicated by the minus signs), areas at 100% (indicated by plus signs), and areas in
between. Dark regions with plus () signs represent areas with high degrees of coherence (75% or higher) while dark regions with minus (-) signs represent
areas with low coherence (25% or lower). The numerical values of .69 and .17 represent the summed and averaged coherence scores for the Fp2, F4, and
F8 regions for respective leaders.

followers. Concomitantly, the qEEG analysis revealed high frontal right hemisphere coherence
(69%) for this individual.
Leader #2 is a 48-year-old senior executive in
an engineering/construction firm. In the housing
boom of the early 2000s, leader #2 changed employers several times while simultaneously gaining
higher-level management positions. Despite this
persons personal success at navigating the corporate ladder, in response to the vision task, this
individual offered only a non-socialized or generic
view of the future: to produce good products.
Leader #2 then became frustrated and apologized
for the (self-perceived) less-than-adequate responses. Overall, crafting the vision seemed to be
difficult and somewhat frustrating, with the coded
socialized vision score ranking very low. Leader #2
also produced one of the lowest scores recorded in
our research in terms of follower ratings of inspi-

rational/charismatic leadership. Moreover, this

persons brain activity presented only limited coherence (17%) in the right frontal regions, a
marked contrast to the patterns seen in leader #1.
Implications for Research and Leadership
Development
he above discussion demonstrates that neuroscience may provide information relevant to
underlying brain patterns associated with inspirational leadership. But what exactly can be
done with such data to further the goals of leadership research and leadership development? As
mentioned earlier in the article, leadership research over the past several decades has centered
around constructs that are measured largely
through psychometric methods (e.g., surveys), and
are then correlated with other phenomena (e.g.,

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performance outcomes). Despite honing leadership constructs and theory, researchers have typically not been able to account for more than 10%
of the variance in outcomes (Bass & Bass, 2009).
Neuroscience techniques and theories present
the potential for important breakthroughs. Thus,
we agree with Lieberman (2007, p. 279), who
suggested that social cognitive neuroscience can
contribute to the development of new theories
and the enrichment of existing theories within
the social sciences, demonstrating that social cognitive neuroscience can be both a science of new
techniques and a science of new ideas. Furthermore, in line with our work, Cacioppo et al.
(2003, p. 653) stated that an understanding of
where and how activity in the brain covaries with
a social process, construct, or representations . . .
has the potential to inform theory.
In short, traditional attempts to observe leader
behavior, clinically or through survey methodology, can go only so far in terms of our understanding of leadership processes and their outcomes.
Neuroscience and its associated methodologies
hold the potential for a much broader understanding of the source of such behavior. For example, a
common theme of theories of effective leadership
is that both cognitive and affective (or emotional)
elements come into play. As noted by Phelps
(2006), the neural circuitries of cognition and
affect/emotion are intertwined in decision making
and reasoning processes. Through neuroscience
methodology, cognition and emotion can be theorized and examined simultaneously in order to
fully understand the neurological basis of effective
leadership. That said, however, we also recognize
that effective leadership is a broad concept. Thus,
theoretical and empirical attempts to link neurological phenomena to leadership might best be
limited to somewhat focused or narrow qualities
and behaviors. In the research summarized here,
we have attempted to link neuronal coherence to
socialized vision, rather than pursuing broader
linkages to more general characterizations of effective leadership.
In sum, we suggest that neuroscience has the
potential to greatly inform theory and assessment
pertaining to leadership and other managerial
phenomena (e.g., decision making) described be-

February

low. By exploring the neurological bases of leader

behavior, more informed theory may be produced
to model leadership processes. Moreover, new
techniques or measures may be developed to more
precisely assess leadership potential.
Can We Apply Neurological Findings to
Leadership Development?
he explanation of leadership processes is an
area worthy of research, and as argued above,
neuroscience can provide new insights and
techniques to further such goals. But can such
brain activity research be used to identify and
develop leaders? If the brain is relatively static in
terms of its electrical wiring, then our line of
research could at most have implications for
leader assessment and perhaps selection. For example, traditional methods of assessing leaders
(interviews, assessment centers, and so forth)
could be potentially augmented by an examination of neurological profiles. On the other hand, if
the neural pathways in the brain are malleable,
there could be some interesting implications for
leadership development. In short, these issues
could shed new light on the age-old question of
whether leaders are born versus made, and the
efficacy of leadership development versus natural
ability.
Current thinking in neuroscience would suggest that the brain is indeed relatively plastic in
terms of the capability to change the nature of
electrical brain activityand thus behavior. For
example, people with maladies such as attention
deficit disorder (ADD), depression, sleep disorders, anger management issues, and anxiety associated with phobias now routinely engage in neurofeedback therapy activities for the purpose of
correcting such problems (Hanslmayer, Sauseng,
Doppelmayr, Schabus, & Klimesch, 2005; Monastra, 2003; Sterman & Egner, 2006). These therapies are based in qEEG research that has identified
discriminant functions that delineate neural patterns in the normal population (e.g., individuals
without ADD) versus individuals with the malady
(e.g., those with ADD). Based on these discriminant functions, neurofeedback training protocols
can be developed that are analogous to playing

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Waldman, Balthazard, and Peterson

video games with ones brain instead of ones

hands. The video game in this instance is designed
to provide feedback by rewarding targeted performance (e.g., providing a soothing sound) and penalizing undesired brain patterns (e.g., providing
an unpleasant sound). Accordingly, neurofeedback represents a form of operant conditioning.
Thus, the brain (unconsciously) learns to adapt to
the desired patterns of performance. By repeating
the process multiple times, the brain learns the
desired pattern in response to a given stimulus,
leading toward optimal functioning.
The concept of brain plasticity coupled with
emerging techniques associated with neurofeedback would suggest the third challenge that we
address in this article: to try to apply findings, such
as the ones described here, to leadership development. As outlined below, we see two specific
possibilities pertaining to leadership development,
one of which can be applied immediately; the
other could see applications in the near future. In
terms of immediate application, the implication
for leadership development is relatively clear. In
our work, we have found a small subgroup of
managers to have one or more brain profile deficiencies. Unfortunately, such conditions can limit
an individual from reaching his or her leadership
potentialincluding being seen as inspiring in
the eyes of followers.
As a case example, one of our participants was
a manager who reported anger management problems. Obviously, someone with such issues might
be challenged when assuming a leadership role, as
emotional equanimity is an important quality. It is
hard to imagine that anyone in a leadership position who flies off the handle could be seen as
inspirational. With the help of a neurotherapist,
we were able to pinpoint the root cause of the
behavior, which as it turns out could be traced to
a childhood baseball injury. This injury had affected a portion of the brain particularly relevant
to an individuals emotional stability, especially
with regard to anger issues. Based on knowledge
gained through prior qEEG research dealing with
the neurological basis of anger management problems (Fava, 1997; Lubar, Congedo, & Askew,
2003; Martens, 2001), with a series of neurofeedback sessions, the individual was able to rearrange

69

neuropathways in the affected area, create new

pathways with healthy neighboring neurons, and
largely correct the problem. Accordingly, he was
able to set the stage to become a more effective
leader.
By dealing with the neuronal deficiencies, we
are addressing the issue of leadership development but only indirectly. That is, we are cleaning up problems that might prevent an individual
from realizing his or her potential in life, but we
are not using neurofeedback to directly develop
leadership capabilities. To this end, the ultimate
goal is to be able to assess leadership potential via
neuroscience technology, and then use neurofeedback to more directly develop the neurological
wiring associated with effective leadership behaviors. For example, it may be possible to rewire
right frontal pathways to achieve greater coherence. In turn, individuals potential for effective
leadership may be enhanced.
Thus, by understanding the neurological bases
for inspirational behavior, we may be better positioned to develop inspirational leaders in a more
realistic and systematic manner. For instance, instead of simply putting people through a one-sizefits-all leadership development program, the brain
may give us some insight as to how and why
specific individuals in leadership roles feel, think,
and ultimately learn new behaviors. Armed with
this knowledge, leadership development could be
better customized to fit the unique neurological
blueprint of each individual leader. In short, the
overall goal of the type of research described here
could be to identify specific neurological underpinnings of behaviors associated with inspirational leadership, and to then use such knowledge
for development purposes.
While at first glance this may seem far-fetched
or even science fiction, there is some precedent
for using neurofeedback in the workplace. Specifically, neurofeedback has been used to help with
peak performance.5 Business executives as well
as top athletes are using neurofeedback as a
coach for their minds. It works by helping the
brain to focus and be present in the moment with
5
Refer to Vernon (2005) and Gruzelier, Egner, & Vernon (2006) for
evidence of the efficacy of neurofeedback for optimizing performance.

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Academy of Management Perspectives

employees, customers, and teammates. Training

the brain, much as one might train the body with
physical exercise, allows it to learn to regulate
itself and function better. For example, neurofeedback can help improve ones ability to regulate
certain bodily reactions, such as responding to
stress with less reactivity and intensity. As such,
neurofeedback may be useful for those who want
to function to the best of their capabilities.
On the basis of such developments in neurofeedback technology, we may be able to directly
address the neural pathways associated with inspirational leadership behaviors. At this point, it is
still too early to predict our potential ability to
successfully use this knowledge to develop more
effective leaders. First, the current research focused on one variable, coherence, in one portion
of the brain. It could be that other neurological
variables in additional portions of the brain may
be relevant to the display of effective leader behaviors. That is, using broader data collection
efforts, it may be possible to expand our current
focus on coherence to a number of other variables
identified through qEEG analyses. If a normative
pattern can be identified in these variables that
delineates the neurological basis of visionary or
inspirational behaviors from less effective behaviors, there is the possibility of applying neurological feedback strategies for the purpose of selfdevelopment (i.e., training the brain for better
leadership performance). Such techniques could
be cost-effective and even pursued in the privacy
of a leaders office or home.
Second, we may perhaps find that to achieve
maximum results, we will need to join neurofeedback techniques with other, more traditional,
leadership development approaches, such as 360degree feedback and executive coaching. In other
words, we do not expect that neurofeedback will
replace these more traditional approaches. Rather,
through neurofeedback, a leader may have a stronger basis for pursuing the type of behavioral
change suggested through 360-degree feedback
and coaching.
It should be clear that both the research and
practice implications described above require
more than just lip service with regard to interdisciplinary efforts. Indeed, such efforts are abso-

February

lutely critical. For example, neuroscience, behavioral, and management expertise would need to be
fused to achieve the type of broadened approach
to leadership development suggested here. We
suggest that the key to going down this road is not
for single individuals to develop all of the necessary expertise. Rather, the practical solution is to
form research or application teams containing
that expertise. Obviously, efforts of this nature can
run counter to traditions, norms, and even organizational structures that may have been focused
on the development and application of knowledge
within particular specialties (e.g., organizational
behavior, human resource management, and so
forth).
As we move forward, it is also important to
recognize the moral and ethical implications of
work directed toward linking neuroscience and
leadership. The forms of leadership investigated
here represent positive, constructive approaches
toward influencing individuals and groups. However, we acknowledge that a darker side exists
with regard to leadership in the form of manipulation and personalized vision (House & Howell,
1992). It is imperative that future efforts to use
neurofeedback for the purpose of leadership development be cognizant of such distinctions, and that
attempts be made to promote only positive uses of
such technologies.
Future Research Directions
e envision additional research directions beyond what has been described here. For example, in line with the vast majority of
existing leadership theory and research, we have
focused on individual leaders who occupy formal
hierarchical roles. A broader perspective depicts
leadership as a process of positive influence in
which formal leaders are only a part (Day, 2000).
Day, Gronn, and Salas (2004) suggested that the
overall leadership capacity of an entity is a form of
social capital that involves the sharedness, distributedness, and connectivity of members of the entity. Along related lines, Pearce and Conger
(2003) defined shared leadership in terms of a
dynamic process of mutual influence among peers
or individuals at differing hierarchical levels in an
organization. Accordingly, to fully understand

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Waldman, Balthazard, and Peterson

leadership effectiveness, neuroscience assessment

may need to be applied to multiple members of
groups or entities.
We also foresee research that goes beyond leadership phenomena per se. Three areas pertaining
specifically to decision-making processes are evident. First, neuroeconomics is an emerging transdisciplinary field that utilizes the measurement
techniques of neuroscience to understand how
people make economic decisions (Camerer, Loewenstein, & Prelec, 2005; Zak, 2007). One particular area of interest to neuroeconomists is how
people make decisions around trust (e.g., Zak,
2007). Despite the large literature that exists on
the importance of trust in organizations (e.g.,
Lewicki, McAllister, & Bies, 1998; McAllister,
1995), we know very little about why some people
choose to trust, or how they become trustworthy.
However, because decisions involving trust have
been deemed to be largely an unconscious process,
neurophysiological measurement during trust experiments has allowed researchers to gain insights
into how people make decisions around trust,
even when they themselves are unaware of how
they make such decisions. Organizational trust
researchers may benefit from these findings and
methodologies.
Second, there may be implications in terms of
the upper echelons perspective (Hambrick & Mason, 1984), which views strategic choice as a function of the demographic and psychological composition of an organizations top management
team. Research might address potential neurological differences between executives who tend to
pursue bolder or more risky alternatives and those
who are more conservative or risk-averse in their
decision making. Relatedly, Ashkanasy (2003, p.
15) discussed the neurological basis of the freezing response or the tendency to freeze with fear.
Referring to the work of Le Doux (1995), Ashkanasy (2003) described how the fear response appears to involve linkages between the cortex or
thalamus and the limbic areas, specifically the
amygdala. For a review of such findings, see Phelps
(2006). The point here is that it is possible that
specific aspects of brain activity may identify strategic decision makers who are risk-averse, in that
such individuals are more prone to the freezing

71

response described by Ashkanasy (2003) when

considering potentially bold or risky decisions.
Third, moral judgment is also relevant to decision making. Neuroimaging has established that
locations in the frontal cortex are involved in
moral judgment and evaluations of fairness, as
well as morally based emotions such as compassion, indignation, and guilt (Knabb, Welsh, Ziebell, & Reimer, 2009). Dysfunction in these locations can result in a variety of moral deficiencies
relevant to decision making, including apathy,
impulsiveness, lack of consideration, and inability
to maintain goal-directed behavior. Greene and
colleagues found that when an individual reasons
through a variety of moral dilemmas, a network of
prefrontal areas is activated (Greene, Sommerville, Nystrom, Darley, & Cohen, 2001). The
activation is greater when the moral decision involves potential negative consequences for other
people. What is not clear at this point is whether
patterns of brain activity can be identified for
those who tend to make more ethical or moral
judgments and decisions, versus those who do not.
We also believe that it is important to recognize the potential contributions of additional synergistic research intersections to illuminate leadership and organizational theory. Of particular
promise may be the future integration of neuroscience, genetics, evolutionary psychology, and
leadership research. For instance, there is early
evidence (Lee & Chamberlain, 2007) that genetics may influence brain processes, such as the
efficiency of the prefrontal cortex and sensitivity
of the amygdala, which in turn may affect leadership behaviors. Similarly, recent empirical work
integrating behavioral genetics and leadership research has concluded, based on samples of twins,
that about 30% of the individual differences in
leadership role occupancy can be attributed to
latent genetic factors (Arvey, Rotundo, Johnson,
Zhang, & McGue, 2006; Arvey, Zhang, Avolio, &
Kruger, 2007). However, the impact of genetic
factors can be lessened by the leaders social environment (Zhang, Ilies, & Arvey, 2009).
Further, evolutionary psychology (Pinker,
2002) is a field predicated on the notion that the
human brain has evolved and changed due to
environmental and social circumstancesand

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Academy of Management Perspectives

will continue to do so. It suggests that although

much of the human brain remains fixed by genetic
factors, certain portions may be enhanced or modified over time. For example, the enlargement of
the human brain over time has allowed for increased capacity in learning and memory. This, in
turn, has led to the development of more sophisticated skill sets such as the ability to be flexible
and adaptable to new situations (Pinker, 2002), a
competency often associated with effective leadership. Additional leadership implications of evolutionary psychology rest on the idea that some
leadership behaviors may be hardwired, rendering
them difficult to change, while others may be
developable (Nicholson, 1998). A recognition of
both the limitations and possibilities of the brains
malleability and potential for adaptability is important to future investigations of leadership phenomena through the use of neuroscience methodologies.
Conclusion
n this article, we have identified three key challenges in the pursuit of applications of neuroscience to leadership assessment and development. Based on the early findings summarized
here, we believe that research may now have the
potential to advance our understanding of the
brains role in producing effective leadership behavior and to explore how the brain itself might
be used to better develop exemplary leadership
potential. This knowledge could be useful to organizations that undertake extensive efforts to
identify and improve leadership skills and behaviors.

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