A

Mathematical
Operations

Appendix

A-1

Exponential Arithmetic

Measured quantities in this text range from very small to very large. For example,
the mass of an individual hydrogen atom is 0.00000000000000000000000167 g,
and the number of molecules in 18.0153 g of the substance water is
602,214,000,000,000,000,000,000. These numbers are difficult to write in conventional form and are even more cumbersome to handle in numerical calculations.
We can greatly simplify them by expressing them in exponential form. The
exponential form of a number consists of a coefficient (a number with value
between 1 and 10) multiplied by a power of 10.
The number 10n is the nth power of 10. If n is a positive quantity, 10n is greater
than 1. If n is a negative quantity, 10n is between 0 and 1. The value of 100 = 1.
Positive powers

Negative powers

100 = 1

100 = 1

101 = 10

10-1 =

102 = 10 * 10 = 100

10-2 =

103 = 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000

10-3

1
= 0.1
10

1
1
= 2 = 0.01
10 * 10
10
1
1
= 3 = 0.001
=
10 * 10 * 10
10

To express the number 3170 in exponential form, we write

3170 = 3.17 * 1000 = 3.17 * 103

For the number 0.00046 we write

0.00046 = 4.6 * 0.0001 = 4.6 * 10-4

A simpler method of converting a number to exponential form that avoids

intermediate steps is illustrated below.
3 1 7 0 * 3.17 + 103
321

0.0 0 0 4 6 * 4.6 + 10,4

1234

That is, to convert a number to exponential form,

* Move the decimal point to obtain a coefficient with value between 1 and 10.
* The exponent (power) of 10 is equal to the number of places the decimal

point is moved.

* If the decimal point is moved to the left, the exponent of 10 is positive.

* If the decimal point is moved to the right, the exponent of 10 is negative.

A1

A2

Appendix A

Mathematical Operations

To convert a number from exponential form to conventional form, move the

decimal point the number of places indicated by the power of 10. That is,
6.1 + 106 * 6.1 0 0 0 0 0 * 6,100,000
123456
,5

8.2 + 10

* 0 0 0 0 0 8.2 * 0.000082
54321

The instructions given here

are for a typical electronic
calculator. The keystrokes
required with your calculator
may be somewhat different.
Look for specific instructions
in the instruction manual
supplied with the calculator.

Electronic calculators designed for scientific and engineering work easily

accommodate exponential numbers. A typical procedure is to key in the number, followed by the key EXP or EE. Thus, the keystrokes required for the
number 6.57 * 103 are
6

5 7

EXP

and the result displayed is 6.5703

For the number 6.25 * 10-4, the keystrokes are
6

2 5

EXP

4 -

and the result displayed is 6.25,04

Some calculators have a mode setting that automatically converts all numbers and calculated results to the exponential form, regardless of the form in
which numbers are entered. In this mode setting you can generally also set the
number of significant figures to be carried in displayed results.

Addition and Subtraction

To add or subtract numbers written in exponential form, first express each
quantity as the same power of 10. Then add and/or subtract the coefficients as
indicated. That is, treat the power of 10 as you would a unit common to the
terms being added and/or subtracted. In the example that follows, convert
3.8 * 10-3 to 0.38 * 10-2 and use 10-2 as the common power of 10.
15.60 * 10-22 + 13.8 * 10-32 - 11.52 * 10-22 = 15.60 + 0.38 - 1.522 * 10-2
= 4.46 * 10-2

Consider the numbers a * 10y and b * 10z. Their product is a * b * 101y + z2.
Coefficients are multiplied, and exponents are added.

Multiplication

0.0220 * 0.0040 * 750 = 12.20 * 10-2214.0 * 10-3217.5 * 1022

= 12.20 * 4.0 * 7.52 * 101-2 - 3 + 22 = 66 * 10-3

= 6.6 * 101 * 10-3 = 6.6 * 10-2

Division
Consider the numbers a * 10y and b * 10z. Their quotient is
a * 10y
= 1a>b2 * 101y - z2
b * 10z

Coefficients are divided, and the exponent of the denominator is subtracted from the
exponent of the numerator.
12.00 * 101216.36 * 102211.50 * 10-12
20.0 * 636 * 0.150
=
0.0400 * 1.80
14.00 * 10-22 * 1.80
=

2.00 * 6.36 * 1.50 * 1011 + 2 - 12

14.00 * 1.802 * 10

-2

= 2.65 * 1012 - 1-222 = 2.65 * 104

19.1 * 102

7.20 * 10-2

A-2

To square the number a * 10y means to determine the value 1a * 10y2 , or

the product 1a * 10y21a * 10y2. According to the rule for multiplication, this
product is 1a * a2 * 101y + y2 = a 2 * 102y. When an exponential number is
raised to a power, the coefficient is raised to that power and the exponent is multiplied
by the power. For example,

Raising a Number to a Power

10.003423 = 13.4 * 10-32 = 13.423 * 101321-32 = 39 * 10-9 = 3.9 * 10-8

3

Extracting the Root of an Exponential Number

To extract the root of a number is the same as raising the number to a fractional
power. This means that the square root of a number is the number to the onehalf power; the cube root is the number to the one-third power; and so on. Thus,
3a * 10y = 1a * 10y2

1>2

= a 1>2 * 10y>2

2156 = 31.56 * 102 = 11.5621>2 * 102>2 = 1.25 * 101 = 12.5

In the following example, where the cube root is sought, the exponent 1 - 52
is not divisible by 3; the number is rewritten with an exponent 1- 62 that is
divisible by 3.
13.52 * 10-52

1>3

A-2

= 135.2 * 10-62

1>3

Logarithms

= 135.221>3 * 10-6>3 = 3.28 * 10-2

The common logarithm (log) of a number (N) is the exponent (x) to which the
base 10 must be raised to yield the number N. That is, log N = x means that
N = 10x = 10log N. For simple powers of ten, for example,
log 1 = log 100 = 0
log 10 = log 101 = 1

log 0.10 = log 10-1 = - 1

log 100 = log 102 = 2

log 0.01 = log 10-2 = - 2

Most of the numbers that result from measurements and appear in calculations are not simple powers of 10, but it is not difficult to obtain logarithms of
these numbers with an electronic calculator. To find the logarithm of a number, enter the number, followed by the LOG key.
log 734 = 2.866
log 0.0150 = - 1.824

Another common example requires us to find the number having a certain

logarithm. This number is often called the antilogarithm or the inverse logarithm. For example, if log N = 4.350, what is N? N, the antilogarithm, is simply 104.350, and to find its value we enter 4.350, followed by the key 10x .
Depending on the calculator used, it is usually necessary to press the key
INV or 2nd F before the log key.
log N = 4.350
N = 104.350
N = 2.24 * 104

If the task is to find the antilogarithm of - 4.350, we again note that

N = 10-4.350, and N = 4.47 * 10-5. The required keystrokes on a typical electronic calculator are
4

3 5 0 +

INV

and the display, to three significant figures, is

4.47*05

log

Logarithms

A3

A4

Appendix A

Mathematical Operations

Some Useful Relationships

From the definition of a logarithm we can write M = 10log M, N = 10log N, and
M * N = 10log1M * N2. This means that
log1M * N2 = log M + log N

Similarly, it is not difficult to show that

log

M
= log M - log N
N
2

Finally, because N 2 = N * N, 10log N = 10log N * 10log N, and

log N 2 = log N + log N = 2 log N

Or, in more general terms,

log N a = a log N

This expression is especially useful for extracting the roots of numbers. Thus, to
1>5
determine 12.5 * 10-82 , we write
log12.5 * 10-82

log12.5 * 10-82 =

12.5 * 10 2
1>5

1
5

-8 1>5

= 10

-1.52

1
5

1 - 7.602 = -1.52

= 0.030

Significant Figures in Logarithms

To establish the number of significant figures to use in a logarithm or antilogarithm, use this fundamental rule: All digits to the right of the decimal
point in a logarithm are significant. Digits to the left are used to establish
the power of 10. Thus, the logarithm - 2.08 is expressed to two significant
figures. The antilogarithm of - 2.08 should also be expressed to two significant figures; it is 8.3 * 10-3. To help settle this point, take the antilogarithms
of - 2.07, -2.08, and - 2.09. You will find these antilogs to be 8.5 * 10-3,
8.3 * 10-3, and 8.1 * 10-3, respectively. Only two significant figures are
justified.

Natural Logarithms
Logarithms can be expressed to a base other than 10. For instance, because
23 = 8, log2 8 = 3 (read as, the logarithm of 8 to the base 2 is equal to 3 ).
Similarly, log2 10 = 3.322. Several equations in this text are derived by the
methods of calculus and involve logarithms. These equations require that the
logarithm be a natural one. A natural logarithm has the base e = 2.71828 .
A logarithm to the base e is usually denoted as ln.
The relationship between a natural and common logarithm simply
involves the factor loge 10 = 2.303. That is, for the number N, ln N =
2.303 log N. The methods and relationships described for logarithms and
antilogarithms to the base 10 all apply to the base e as well, except that the
relevant keys on an electronic calculator are ln and e x rather than LOG
and 10x.

A-3

Algebraic Operations

An algebraic equation is solved when one of the quantities, the unknown, is

expressed in terms of all the other quantities in the equation. This effect is
achieved when the unknown is present, alone, on one side of the equation, and
the rest of the terms are on the other side. To solve an equation, a rearrangement of terms may be necessary. The basic principle governing these rearrangements is quite simple. Whatever is done to one side of the equation must be
done to the other as well.

A-3
3x 2 + 6 = 33

Solve for x.

3x + 6 - 6 = 33 - 6

(1) Subtract 6 from each side.

3x = 27
3x 2
27
=
3
3

(2) Divide each side by 3.

x2 = 9
2x 2 = 29

(3) Extract the square root of each side.

x = 3

(4) Simplify. The square root of 9 is 3.

Quadratic Equations
A quadratic equation has the form ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, and c are constants (a cannot be equal to 0). A number of calculations in the text require us
to solve a quadratic equation. At times, quadratic equations are of the form
1x + n22 = m2

Such equations can be solved by extracting the square root of each side.
x + n = ; m and x = m - n or x = - m - n

More likely, however, the quadratic formula will be needed.

x =

- b ; 3b 2 - 4ac
2a

10.300 - x2

In Example 15-13 on page 685, the following equation must be solved.

10.200 + x210.100 + x2

= 2.98

This is a quadratic equation, but before the quadratic formula can be applied,
the equation must be rearranged to the standard form: ax 2 + bx + c = 0. This
is accomplished in the steps that follow.
10.300 - x2 = 2.9810.200 + x210.100 + x2

0.300 - x = 2.9810.0200 + 0.300x + x 22

0.300 - x = 0.0596 + 0.894x + 2.98x 2

2.98x 2 + 1.894x - 0.240 = 0

(A.1)

Now we can apply the quadratic formula.

x =

- 1.894 ; 311.89422 + 14 * 2.98 * 0.2402

2 * 2.98

- 1.894 ; 23.587 + 2.86

2 * 2.98

- 1.894 ; 2.54
- 1.894 ; 26.45
=
2 * 2.98
2 * 2.98

- 1.894 + 2.54
0.65
=
= 0.11
2 * 2.98
5.96

Note that only the 1 + 2 value of the 1 ; 2 sign was used in solving for x. If the
1 - 2 value had been used, a negative value of x would have resulted. However,
for the given situation a negative value of x is meaningless.

The Method of Successive Approximations

The quadratic equation that was just solved using the quadratic formula can
be solved by an alternative method that can be extended to equations of higher
order, such as the cubic, quartic, and quintic equations often encountered in
solving equilibrium problems. To illustrate the method suppose we wish to

Algebraic Operations

A5

A6

Appendix A

Mathematical Operations

solve expression (A.1) without recourse to the quadratic formula. We can

rewrite the equation as follows
x =

2.98x 2 - 0.240
- 1.894

and make a guess at the value of x, which we substitute into the right hand side
of the equation to calculate a new value of x. If we guess 0.15, which is reasonable given the starting concentrations involved in Example 15-13, we calculate
x =

2.98 * 10.1522 - 0.240

- 1.894

2.98 * 10.09122 - 0.240

= 0.091

We can now use this value of x to calculate a new one.

x =

- 1.894

2.98 * 10.11422 - 0.240

= 0.114

Repeating this procedure one more time, we get

x =

- 1.894

= 0.106

One more attempt gives a value of 0.11, which is in agreement with the answer
previously obtained. The method that we have just used is called the method
of successive approximations.
Let us now apply the method of successive approximations to the equation
obtained in the Integrative Example of Chapter 15, namely
256x 5 - 0.74311.00 - x211.00 - 2x224 = 0

(A.2)

The approach we can take here is to guess a value of x; evaluate the expression
to see how close to zero it comes; and then adjust the value of x accordingly.
Let us start with a guess of 0.40. The result is
25610.4025 - 0.74311.00 - 0.40211.00 - 2 * 0.40224 = 2.60

Clearly the value of 0.40 is too large. If we now try 0.10 we obtain a value of
- 0.42. We have overshot the value of x. We can now try a value of 0.25 (halfway
between our two previous guesses) and obtain 0.11. We realize now that we
have to reduce the guessed value of x slightly to get closer to zero. If we try 0.20
we obtain - 0.13, and if we next try the value x = 0.225 we obtain - 0.03. We are
now very close to our goal of finding the value of x that satisfies the expression.
One final guess of 0.23 gives a value of - 0.001, a very satisfactory result.
An alternative approach is to rewrite expression (A.2) as
x5 =

0.74311.00 - x211.00 - 2x224

256

and evaluate x as the fifth root of this new expression. If we substitute a value
of x = 0.40 on the right side, we obtain x = 0.15 on the left side. Now by using
this value on the right we calculate a new value of x = 0.26 on the left. By
using this value we obtain x = 0.22 on the left, and finally with this last value
we obtain x = 0.23, in agreement with our previous procedure. Which
method we use is a matter of convenience, but the second method provides a
new value of x whereas the first method may require more trial and error.
When using the method of successive approximations, it is often a useful strategy to take the average of two results in order to speed up the convergence.
The method of successive approximations can be very useful, but sometimes,
depending how the equation is set up, the convergence to the correct answer
may be slow or the process may even diverge. In such circumstances, the expression can be graphed as a function of x to ascertain where the solutions
occur. In any event, we must always make sure that any answer obtained is
reasonable from a chemical or physical point of view.

A-4

A-4

Graphs

Suppose the following sets of numbers are obtained for two quantities x and y
by laboratory measurement.
x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
y = 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,

The relationship between these sets of numbers is not difficult to establish.

y = 2x + 2

Ideally, the results of experimental measurements are best expressed

through a mathematical equation. Sometimes, however, an exact equation
cannot be written, or its form is not clear from the experimental data. The
graphing of data is very useful in such cases. In Figure A-1 the points listed
above are located on a coordinate grid in which x values are placed along the
horizontal axis (abscissa) and y values along the vertical axis (ordinate). For
each point the x and y values are indicated in parentheses.
The data points are seen to define a straight line. A mathematical equation
of a straight line has the form
y = mx + b

Values of m, the slope of the line, and b, the intercept, can be obtained from the
straight-line graph.
When x = 0, y = b. The intercept is the point where the straight line intersects the y-axis. The slope can be obtained from two points on the graph.
y2 - y1 = m1x2 - x12 + b - b

y2 = mx2 + b and y1 = mx1 + b

m =

y2 - y1

x2 - x 1

From the straight line in Figure A-1, can you establish that m = b = 2?
y
10

(4, 10)

Slope

y
x

10
4

2
0

8
4

8
7
6

(1, 4)

2
1

(0, 2) x

4
5
6

A straight-line graph: y * mx + b

(2, 6)

5
4
3

2
3

* FIGURE A-1

(3, 8)

Graphs

A7

A8

Appendix A

Mathematical Operations

The technique used above to eliminate the constant b is applied to logarithmic functions in several places in the text. For example, the expression written
below is from page 516. In this expression P is a pressure, T is a Kelvin temperature, and A and B are constants. The equation is that of a straight line.
A 1
T

In P

We can write this equation twice, for the point 1P1 ,T12 and the point 1P2 ,T22.

equation of straight line:

ln P1 = - A +

1
1
* + B and ln P2 = - A + * + B
T1
T2

The difference between these equations is

ln P2 - ln P1 = - A +
ln

A-5

1
1
* + B + A+ * - B
T2
T1

P2
1
1
= A+
*
P1
T1
T2

Using Conversion Factors

(Dimensional Analysis)

Some calculations in general chemistry require that a quantity measured in

one set of units be converted to another set of units. Consider this fact.
1 m = 100 cm

Divide each side of the equation by 1 m.

1m
100 cm
=
1m
1m

On the left side of the equation, the numerator and denominator are identical;
they cancel.
1 =

100 cm
1m

(A.3)

On the right side they are not identical, but they are equal because they do
represent the same length. The ratio 100 cm>1 m, when multiplied by a length in
meters, converts that length to centimeters. The ratio is called a conversion factor.
Consider the question, how many centimeters are there in 6.22 m? The
measured quantity is 6.22 m, and multiplying this quantity by 1 does not
change its value.
6.22 m * 1 = 6.22 m

Now replace the factor 1 by its equivalent the conversion factor (A.3).
Cancel the unit, m, and carry out the multiplication.
6.22 m *

100 cm
1m

= 622 cm

this factor
converts
m to cm

Next consider the question, how many meters are there in 576 cm? If we
use the same factor (A.3) as before, the result is nonsensical.
576 cm *

100 cm
= 5.76 * 104 cm2>m
1m

A-5

Using Conversion Factors (Dimensional Analysis)

A9

Factor (A.3) must be rearranged to 1 m>100 cm.

576 cm *

1m
= 5.76 m
100 cm

this factor
converts
cm to m

Because of the importance

of the cancellation of units,
this problem-solving method
is often called unit analysis or
dimensional analysis.

This second example emphasizes two points.

1. There are two ways to write a conversion factor in one form or its reciprocal (inverse). Because a conversion factor is equal to 1, its value is not
changed by the inversion, but:
2. A conversion factor must be used in such a way as to produce the necessary cancellation of units.
Calculations based on conversion factors are always of the form

(A.4)

Often several conversions must be made in sequence in order to get to the

desired result. For example, if we want to know how many yards (yd) there
are in 576 cm, we find that there is no direct cm : yd conversion factor available. From the inside back cover of the text, however, we do find a conversion
factor for cm : in. Thus, we can develop a conversion pathway, that is, a series
of conversion factors that will take us from centimeters to yards:
:

? yards = 576 cm *

in.

ft

yd

1m

cm

1 ft
1 ft

information sought = information given * conversion factor(s)

1 yd
1 in.
1 ft
*
*
3 ft
2.54 cm
12 in.

= 6.30 yd

We can use the same idea of a conversion pathway to deal with the somewhat
more challenging situation faced when the units are squared (or cubed). Consider the question, how many square feet (ft 2) correspond to an area of 1.00 square
meter (m2), given that 1 m = 39.37 in and 12 in = 1 ft? Here, it may be helpful
to begin by drawing a sketch or outline of the situation. Figure A-2 represents an
area of 1.00 m2. Think of it as a square with sides 1 m long. Figure A-2 also represents the length 1 ft and an area of 1.00 ft 2. Do you see that there is somewhat
more than 9 ft 2 in 1 m2?
We can write expression (A.4) as follows:
39.37 in. 39.37 in.
1 ft
1 ft
? ft 2 = 1.00 m2 * a
ba
b * a
ba
b
1m
1m
12 in. 12 in.

to convert
m2 to in2

This is the same as writing

2

? ft = 1.00 m *

139.3722 in.2
1 m2

to convert
in2 to ft 2

11222 in.2
1 ft 2

= 10.8 ft 2

Another way to look at the problem is to convert the length 1.00 m to feet,
? ft = 1.00 m *

39.37 in.
1 ft
*
= 3.28 ft
12 in.
1m

and square the result

? ft 2 = 3.28 ft * 3.28 ft = 10.8 ft 2

1m
* FIGURE A-2

Comparison of one square

foot and one square meter
One meter is slightly longer
than 3 ft; 1 m2 is somewhat
larger than 9 ft2.

A10

Appendix A

Mathematical Operations

Our last example incorporates several ideas discussed above. Here we will
examine the situation in which the units in both the numerator and denominator must be converted. Consider the question, how many meters per second (m>s) correspond to a speed of 63 mph, given that 1 mi = 5280 ft?
We need to convert from miles to meters in the numerator and from hours
to seconds in the denominator. We will need to use conversion factors from
elsewhere in Section A-5 in addition to the given value. Also, we must be careful that our conversion factors produce the correct cancellation of units.
?

63 mi
m
5280 ft
1h
1 min
12 in.
1m
=
*
*
*
*
*
39.37 in.
1h
60 min
60 s
1 mi
1 ft
s
= 28

m
s

In an alternative approach we break down the problem into three steps:

(1) Convert 63 miles to a distance in meters; (2) convert 1 hour to a time in seconds; and (3) express the speed as a ratio of distance over time.
Step 1.
distance = 63 mi *

5280 ft
12 in.
1m
*
*
= 1.0 * 105 m
39.37 in.
1 mi
1 ft

Step 2.
time = 1 h *

60 min
60 s
*
= 3.6 * 103 s
1 min
1h

Step 3.
speed =

m
1.0 * 105 m
distance
=
= 28
time
s
3.6 * 103 s

In conclusion, we have shown (1) how to make a conversion factor; (2) that
a conversion factor may be inverted; (3) that a series of conversion factors may
be used to make a conversion pathway; (4) that conversion factors may be
raised to powers, if necessary; and (5) that conversions of values with units in
both the numerator and the denominator (such as miles per hour or pounds
per square inch) can be performed in one step or in several steps.

Some Basic
Physical Concepts

Appendix

B-1

Velocity and Acceleration

Time elapses as an object moves from one point to another. The velocity of
the object is defined as the distance traveled per unit of time. An automobile
that travels a distance of 60.0 km in exactly one hour has a velocity of 60.0 km>h
(or 16.7 m>s).
Table B.1 contains data on the velocity of a free-falling object. For this
motion, velocity is not constant it increases with time. The falling object
speeds up continuously. The rate of change of velocity with time is called
acceleration. Acceleration has the units of distance per unit time per unit time.
With the methods of calculus, mathematical equations can be derived for the
velocity 1u2 and distance 1d2 traveled in a time 1t2 by an object that has a constant acceleration 1a2.
u = at

d =

(B.1)

1 2
2 at

(B.2)

For a free-falling object, the constant acceleration, called the acceleration due
to gravity, is a = g = 9.8 m>s 2. Equations (B.1) and (B.2) can be used to calculate the velocity and distance traveled by a free-falling object.

B-2

19.6

44.1

78.4

14.7
24.5
34.3

4.9

4.9

Acceleration,
m/s2

Velocity,
m/s

Total
Distance, m

Time
Elapsed, s

Velocity and Acceleration of a Free-Falling Body

TABLE B.1

9.8
9.8
9.8

Force and Work

Newton s first law of motion states that an object at rest remains at rest, and
that an object in motion remains in uniform motion unless acted upon by an
external force. The tendency for an object to remain at rest or in uniform
motion is called inertia; a force is what is required to overcome inertia. Since the
application of a force either gives an object motion or changes its motion, the

A11

A12

Appendix B

Some Basic Physical Concepts

actual effect of a force is to change the velocity of an object. Change in velocity

is an acceleration, so force is what provides an object with acceleration.
Newton s second law of motion describes the force F required to produce an
acceleration a in an object of mass m.
F = ma

(B.3)

The basic unit of force in the SI system is the newton (N). It is the force required
to provide a one-kilogram mass with an acceleration of one meter per second
per second.
1 N = 1 kg * 1 m s -2

(B.4)

The force of gravity on an object (its weight) is the product of the mass of the
object and the acceleration due to gravity, g.
Work 1w2 is performed when a force acts through a distance.
F = mg

(B.5)

work 1w2 = force 1F2 * distance 1d2

(B.6)

1J = 1N * 1m

(B.7)

The joule (J) is the amount of work associated with a force of one newton (N)
acting through a distance of one meter.
From the definition of the newton in expression (B.4), we can also write
1 J = 1 kg * 1 m s -2 * 1 m = 1 kg m2 s -2

B-3

(B.8)

Energy

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work, but there are other useful descriptions of energy as well. For example, a moving object possesses a kind of energy
known as kinetic energy. We can obtain a useful equation for kinetic energy by
combining some of the other simple equations in this appendix. Thus, because
work is the product of a force and distance (equation B.6), and force is the product of a mass and acceleration (equation B.3), we can write
w 1work2 = m * a * d

Now, if we substitute equation (B.2) relating acceleration 1a2, distance 1d2, and
time 1t2, into equation (B.9), we obtain
w 1work2 = m * a *

1 2
at
2

(B.9)

(B.10)

Finally, let s substitute expression (B.1) relating acceleration 1a2 and velocity
1u2 into (B.10). That is, because a = u>t,
w 1work2 =

1
u 2
m a b t2
2
t

(B.11)

Think of the work in (B.11) as the amount of work necessary to produce a

velocity of u in an object of mass m. This amount of work is the energy that
appears in the object as kinetic energy 1ek2.
ek 1kinetic energy2 =

1
mu2
2

(B.12)

An object at rest may also have the capacity to do work by changing its position. The energy it possesses, which can be transformed into actual work, is
called potential energy. Think of potential energy as energy stored within an
object. Equations can be written for potential energy, but the exact forms of
these equations depend on the manner in which the energy is stored.

B-5

B-4

Static Electricity

A13

Magnetism

Attractive and repulsive forces associated with a magnet are centered at

regions called poles. A magnet has a north and a south pole. If two magnets are
aligned such that the north pole of one is directed toward the south pole of the
second, an attractive force develops. If the alignment brings like poles into
proximity, either both north or both south, a repulsive force develops. Unlike
poles attract; like poles repel.
A magnetic field exists in that region surrounding a magnet in which the influence of the magnet can be felt. Internal changes produced within an iron
object by a magnetic field, not produced in a field-free region, are responsible
for the attractive force that the object experiences.

B-5

Static Electricity

Another property with which certain objects may be endowed is electric charge.
Analogous to the case of magnetism, unlike charges attract, and like charges repel
(recall Figure 2-4). The unit of charge is called a coulomb, C. In Coulomb s law,
stated below, a positive force between electrically charged objects is repulsive;
a negative force is attractive.
F =

where Q1
Q2
r
e

Q1 Q2

(B.13)

4per2

is the charge on object 1,

is the charge on object 2,
is the distance between the objects, and
is a proportionality constant called the dielectric constant,
whose numerical value reflects the effect that the medium separating two charged objects has on the force existing between
them. For a vacuum, e = e0 = 8.85419 * 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 =
8.85419 * 10-12 C2 J-1 m-1; for other media, e0 is greater than 1
(for example, for water e = 78.5e0).

An electric field exists in that region surrounding an electrically charged object in which the influence of the electric charge is felt. If an uncharged object
is brought into the field of a charged object, the uncharged object may undergo internal changes that it would not experience in a field-free region. These
changes may lead to the production of electric charges in the formerly uncharged object, a phenomenon called induction (illustrated in Figure B-1).

**
**
**
* Glass rod
**
**
*
**
*

Metal rod

+
+
+
+

* *

Gold leaf

*
*

*
*

FIGURE B-1

Production of electric charges by induction

in a gold-leaf electroscope
The glass rod acquires a positive electric charge by
being rubbed with a silk cloth. As the rod is brought
near the electroscope, a separation of charge occurs in
the electroscope. The leaves become positively charged
and repel one another. Negative charge is attracted to
the spherical terminal at the end of the metal rod. If the
glass rod is removed, the charges on the electroscope
redistribute themselves, and the leaves collapse. If the
spherical ball is touched by an electric conductor before
the glass rod is removed, negative charge is removed
from the ball. The electroscope retains a net positive
charge, and the leaves remain outstretched.

A14

Appendix B

Some Basic Physical Concepts

The potential energy (PE) associated with the interaction of two charged objects
is given by
PE =

Q1Q2
4per

(B.14)

PE is equal to the work done when the distance between the two objects is
decreased from infinity to r.

B-6

Current Electricity

Current electricity is a flow of electrically charged particles. In electric currents in

metallic conductors, the charged particles are electrons; in molten salts or in
aqueous solutions, the particles are both negatively and positively charged ions.
As pointed out in Section B-5, the unit of electric charge is called a coulomb (C).
The unit of electric current known as the ampere (A) is defined as a flow of one
coulomb per second through an electrical conductor. Two variables determine
the magnitude of the electric current I flowing through a conductor. These are
the potential difference, or voltage drop, E, along the conductor, and the electrical resistance of the conductor, R. The units of voltage and resistance are the
volt (V) and ohm, respectively. The relationship of electric current, voltage, and
resistance is given by Ohm s law.
I =

E
R

(B.15)

One joule of energy is associated with the passage of one coulomb of electric charge through a potential difference (voltage) of one volt. That is, one
joule = one volt-coulomb. Electric power refers to the rate of production (or
consumption) of electric energy. It has the unit watt (W).
1 W = 1 J s -1 = 1 V C s -1

Since one coulomb per second is a current of one ampere,

1W = 1V * 1A

(B.16)

Thus, a 100-watt light bulb operating at 110 V draws a current of

100 W>110 V = 0.91 A.

B-7

Electromagnetism

The relationship between electricity and magnetism is an intimate one. Interactions of electric and magnetic fields result in (1) magnetic fields associated
with the flow of electric current (as in electromagnets), (2) forces experienced
by current-carrying conductors when placed in a magnetic field (as in electric
motors), and (3) electric current being induced when an electric conductor is
moved through a magnetic field (as in electric generators). Several observations described in this text can be understood in terms of electromagnetic
phenomena.

SI Units

Appendix

The system of units that will in time be used universally for expressing all
measured quantities is Le Systme International d Units (The International
System of Units), adopted in 1960 by the Conference Gnrale des Poids et
Measures (General Conference of Weights and Measures). A summary of some
of the provisions of the SI convention is provided here.

C-1

SI Base Units

A single unit has been established for each of the basic quantities involved in
measurement. These are as follows:

C-2

Physical Quantity

Unit

Length
Mass
Time
Electric current
Temperature
Luminous intensity
Amount of substance
Plane angle
Solid angle

Meter
Kilogram
Second
Ampere
Kelvin
Candela
Mole
Radian
Steradian

Symbol
m
kg
s
A
K
cd
mol
rad
sr

SI Prefixes

Distinctive prefixes are attached to the base unit to express quantities that are
multiples (greater than) or submultiples (less than) of the base unit. The multiples
and submultiples are obtained by multiplying the base unit by powers of ten.

C-3

Multiple

Prefix

Symbol

1012
109
106
103
102
101

tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka

T
G
M
k
h
da

Submultiple

Prefix

Symbol

10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

d
c
m
m
n
p
f
a

Derived SI Units

A number of quantities must be derived from measured values of the SI base

quantities [for example, volume has the unit (length)3]. Two sets of derived
units are given, those whose names follow directly from the base units and

A15

A16

Appendix C

SI Units

Two other SI conventions

are illustrated through this
table: (a) Units are written in
singular form meter or m,
not meters or ms; (b) negative
exponents are preferred to
the shilling bar or solidus (>),
that is, m s-1 and m s-2, not
m>s and m>s>s. In some
chapters both ways of
expressing units have been
used as you need to be
comfortable with both
systems.

those that are given special names. Notice that the units used in the text differ
in some respects from those in the table. For example, for the most part, the
text expresses density as g cm-3, molar mass as g mol-1, molar volume as
mL mol-1 or L mol-1, and molar concentration (molarity) as mol L-1, or M.
Physical Quantity

Unit

Symbol

Area
Volume
Velocity
Acceleration
Density
Molar mass
Molar volume
Molar concentration

Square meter
Cubic meter
Meter per second
Meter per second squared
Kilogram per cubic meter
Kilogram per mole
Cubic meter per mole
Mole per cubic meter

m2
m3
m s -1
m s -2
kg m-3
kg mol -1
m3 mol -1
mol m-3

Physical Quantity

Unit

Symbol

In Terms of
SI Units

Frequency
Force
Pressure
Energy
Power
Electric charge
Electric potential difference
Electric resistance

hertz
newton
pascal
joule
watt
coulomb
volt
ohm

Hz
N
Pa
J
W
C
V

s -1
kg m s -2
N m-2
kg m2 s -2
J s -1
As
J A-1 s -1
V A-1

C-4

Units to Be Discouraged or Abandoned

There are several commonly used units whose use is to be discouraged and
ultimately abandoned. Their gradual disappearance is to be expected, though
each is used in this text. A few such units are listed.
*

Another SI convention is
implied here. No commas
are used in expressing large
numbers. Instead, spaces are
left between groupings of
three digits, that is, 101 325
rather than 101,325. Decimal
points are written either as
periods or commas. Numbers
in this text retained the
comma separators in
numbers of at least five
digits.

Physical Quantity

Unit

Symbol

Definition of
SI Units

Length
Force
Energy
Energy
Pressure
Pressure
Pressure

ngstrom
dyne
erg
calorie
atmosphere
millimeter of mercury
torr

dyn
erg
cal
atm
mmHg
Torr

1 * 10-10 m
1 * 10-5 N
1 * 10-7 J
4.184 J
101 325 Pa
133.322 Pa
133.322 Pa

Data Tables

Appendix

TABLE D.1

Ground-State Electron Configurations

Element

Configuration

Element

Configuration

Element

Configuration

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr

1s1
1s 2
[He] 2s1
[He] 2s 2
[He] 2s22p1
[He] 2s 22p2
[He] 2s22p3
[He] 2s 22p4
[He] 2s22p5
[He] 2s 22p6
[Ne] 3s1
[Ne] 3s 2
[Ne] 3s23p1
[Ne] 3s 23p2
[Ne] 3s23p3
[Ne] 3s 23p4
[Ne] 3s23p5
[Ne] 3s 23p6
[Ar] 4s1
[Ar] 4s 2
[Ar] 3d14s2
[Ar] 3d 24s 2
[Ar] 3d34s2
[Ar] 3d 54s 1
[Ar] 3d54s2
[Ar] 3d 64s 2
[Ar] 3d74s2
[Ar] 3d 84s 2
[Ar] 3d104s1
[Ar] 3d 104s 2
[Ar] 3d104s24p1
[Ar] 3d 104s 24p2
[Ar] 3d104s24p3
[Ar] 3d 104s 24p4
[Ar] 3d104s24p5
[Ar] 3d 104s 24p6

37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71

Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
I
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu

[Kr] 5s1
[Kr] 5s 2
[Kr] 4d15s2
[Kr] 4d25s 2
[Kr] 4d45s1
[Kr] 4d55s 1
[Kr] 4d55s2
[Kr] 4d75s 1
[Kr] 4d85s1
[Kr] 4d10
[Kr] 4d105s1
[Kr] 4d105s 2
[Kr] 4d105s25p1
[Kr] 4d105s 25p2
[Kr] 4d105s25p3
[Kr] 4d105s 25p4
[Kr] 4d105s25p5
[Kr] 4d105s 25p6
[Xe] 6s1
[Xe] 6s 2
[Xe] 5d16s2
[Xe] 4f 26s 2
[Xe] 4f36s2
[Xe] 4f 46s 2
[Xe] 4f56s2
[Xe] 4f 66s 2
[Xe] 4f76s2
[Xe] 4f 75d16s 2
[Xe] 4f96s2
[Xe] 4f 106s 2
[Xe] 4f116s2
[Xe] 4f 126s 2
[Xe] 4f136s2
[Xe] 4f 146s 2
[Xe] 4f145d16s2

72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106

Hf
Ta
W
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Th
Pa
U
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lr
Rf
Db
Sg

[Xe] 4f145d26s2
[Xe] 4f 145d36s 2
[Xe] 4f145d46s2
[Xe] 4f 145d56s 2
[Xe] 4f145d66s2
[Xe] 4f 145d76s 2
[Xe] 4f145d96s1
[Xe] 4f 145d106s 1
[Xe] 4f145d106s2
[Xe] 4f 145d106s 26p1
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p2
[Xe] 4f 145d106s 26p3
[Xe] 4f145d106s26p4
[Xe] 4f 145d106s 26p5
[Xe] 4f 145d106s 26p6
[Rn] 7s 1
[Rn] 7s2
[Rn] 6d17s 2
[Rn] 6d27s2
[Rn] 5f 26d17s 2
[Rn] 5f36d17s2
[Rn] 5f 46d17s 2
[Rn] 5f67s2
[Rn] 5f 77s 2
[Rn] 5f76d17s2
[Rn] 5f 97s 2
[Rn] 5f107s2
[Rn] 5f 117s 2
[Rn] 5f127s2
[Rn] 5f 137s 2
[Rn] 5f147s2
[Rn] 5f 146d17s 2
[Rn] 5f146d27s2
[Rn] 5f 146d37s 2
[Rn] 5f146d47s2

The electron configurations printed in red are those of the noble gases. Each noble gas configuration serves as the core of
the electron configurations of the elements that follow it, until the next noble gas is reached. Thus, [He] represents the core
configuration of the second period elements; [Ne], the third period; [Ar], the fourth period; [Kr], the fifth period; [Xe], the sixth
period; and [Rn], the seventh period.

A17

A18

Appendix D

Data Tables

TABLE D.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Substances at 298.15 K*. Substances are at 1 bar
pressure. For aqueous solutions, solutes are at unit activity (roughly 1 M). Data for ions in
aqueous solution are relative to values of zero for H*f , G*f, and S* for H*
Inorganic Substances
H *f , kJ mol+1

G *f , kJ mol+1

S*, J mol+1 K+1

Cp, J mol+1 K+1

0
- 531
- 704.2
- 1291
- 1504
- 1676
- 1276
- 3441

0
- 485
- 628.8
- 1220.
- 1425
- 1582

28.33
- 321.7
110.7
490.
66.44
50.92

24.2

- 3100.

239

0
- 537.6
- 1216
- 858.6
- 1207
- 553.5
- 944.7
- 3342
- 1473

0
- 560.8
- 1138
- 810.4
- 1157
- 525.1

62.8
9.6
112.1
123.7
96.36
70.42

- 2793
- 1362

427
132.2

Aluminum
Al(s)
Al3+(aq)
AlCl3(s)
Al2Cl6(g)
AlF3(s)
Al2O 3(a solid)
Al(OH)3(s)
Al2(SO 4)3(s)

91.1
157.72
75.1
79.0
93.1
259.4

Barium
Ba(s)
Ba2+(aq)
BaCO3(s)
BaCl2(s)
BaF2(s)
BaO(s)
Ba(OH)2(s)
Ba(OH)2 # 8 H 2O(s)
BaSO4(s)

28.1
85.35
75.1
71.2
47.3
101.6
101.8

Beryllium
Be(s)
BeCl2(a solid)
BeF2(a solid)
BeO(s)

0
- 490.4
- 1027
- 609.6

0
- 445.6
- 979.4
- 580.3

9.50
82.68
53.35
14.14

16.4
62.4
51.8
25.6

0
- 379.1
- 573.9

0
- 315.0
- 493.7

56.74
177.0
151.5

25.5
105.0
113.5

0
- 427.2
- 1137
35.6
- 1273

0
- 387.4
- 1120.
86.7
- 1194

5.86
206.3
254.1
232.1
53.97

11.1
106.7
50.45
56.7
62.8

Bismuth
Bi(s)
BiCl3(s)
Bi 2O 3(s)
Boron
B(s)
BCl3(l)
BF3(g)
B2H 6(g)
B2O3(s)
Bromine
Br(g)
Br -(aq)
Br2(g)
Br2(l)
BrCl(g)
BrF3(g)
BrF3(l)

111.9
- 121.6
30.91
0
14.64
- 255.6
- 300.8

82.40
- 104.0
3.11
0
- 0.98
- 229.4
- 240.5

175.0
82.4
245.5
152.2
240.1
292.5
178.2

20.8
- 141.8
36.0
75.7
35.0
66.6
124.6

*Data for inorganic substances and for organic compounds with up to two carbon atoms per molecule are adapted from
D. D. Wagman, et al., The NBS Tables of Chemical Thermodynamic Properties: Selected Values for Inorganic and C1 and C2
Organic Substances in SI Units Journal of Physical and Chemical Reference Data 11 (1982) Supplement 2. Data for other organic
compounds are from J. A. Dean, Lange s Handbook of Chemistry. 15th ed., McGraw-Hill, 1999, and other sources.

D-2

Thermodynamic Properties of Substances at 298.15 K

A19

Inorganic Substances
H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

0
- 75.90
- 391.5
- 258.2

0
- 77.61
- 343.9
- 228.4

51.76
- 73.2
115.3
54.8

26.0

41.42
- 53.1
92.9
104.6
68.87
42
193.3
39.75
83.39
236.0
106.7

25.9

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

Cadmium
Cd(s)
Cd 2+(aq)
CdCl2(s)
CdO(s)

74.7
43.4

Calcium
Ca(s)
Ca2+(aq)
CaCO3(s)
CaCl2(s)
CaF2(s)
CaH 2(s)
Ca(NO3)2(s)
CaO(s)
Ca(OH)2(s)
Ca 3(PO 4)2(s)
CaSO4(s)

0
- 542.8
- 1207
- 795.8
- 1220.
- 186.2
- 938.4
- 635.1
- 986.1
- 4121
- 1434

0
- 553.6
- 1129
- 748.1
- 1167
- 147.2
- 743.1
- 604.0
- 898.5
- 3885
- 1322

80.6
72.9
67.0
41.0
149.4
42.0
87.5
227.8
99.7

Carbon (See also the table of organic substances.)

C(g)
C(diamond)
C(graphite)
CCl4(g)
CCl4(l)
C2N2(g)
CO(g)
CO2(g)
CO3 2-(aq)
C3O2(g)
C3O2(l)
COCl2(g)
COS(g)
CS 2(l)

716.7
1.90
0
- 102.9
- 135.4
309.0
- 110.5
- 393.5
- 677.1
- 93.72
- 117.3
- 218.8
- 142.1
89.70

671.3
2.90
0
- 60.59
- 65.21
297.4
- 137.2
- 394.4
- 527.8
- 109.8
- 105.0
- 204.6
- 169.3
65.27

158.0
2.38
5.74
309.9
216.4
241.9
197.7
213.7
- 56.9
276.5
181.1
283.5
231.6
151.3

121.7
- 167.2
0
- 163.2
102.5
80.3

105.7
- 131.2
0
- 123.0
120.5
97.9

165.2
56.5
223.1
281.6
256.8
266.2

20.8
6.1
8.5
83.3
130.7
56.8
29.1
37.1
67.0
57.7
41.5
76.4

Chlorine
Cl(g)
Cl-(aq)
Cl2(g)
ClF3(g)
ClO2(g)
Cl2O(g)

21.8
- 136.4
33.9
63.9
42.0
45.4

Chromium
Cr(s)
[Cr(H 2O)6]3+(aq)
Cr2O3(s)
CrO4 2-(aq)
Cr2O7 2-(aq)

0
- 1999
- 1140.
- 881.2
- 1490.
0
- 237.9
- 539.7

23.77

23.4

- 1058
- 727.8
- 1301

81.2
50.21
261.9

118.7

0
- 214.2
- 454.3

30.04
52.97
79

24.8
55.2
68.8

Cobalt
Co(s)
CoO(s)
Co(OH)2(pink solid)

(continued)

A20

Appendix D

Data Tables

Inorganic Substances
H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

0
64.77
- 1051
- 157.3
- 449.8
- 2280.

0
65.49
- 893.6
- 129.7

33.15
- 99.6
186.2
42.63

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

Copper
Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq)
CuCO3 # Cu(OH)2(s)
CuO(s)
Cu(OH)2(s)
CuSO4 # 5 H 2O(s)

- 1880.

24.4
42.3
95.19

300.4

Fluorine
F(g)
F -(aq)
F2(g)

78.99
- 332.6
0

61.91
- 278.8
0

158.8
- 13.8
202.8

22.7
- 106.7
31.3

126.2

20.8

218.0
0
0
- 36.40
- 92.31
- 167.2
- 51.9
135.1
- 271.1
26.48
- 174.1
- 207.4
- 241.8
- 285.8
- 136.3
- 187.8
- 20.63
- 814.0
- 909.3

203.2
0
0
- 53.45
- 95.30
- 131.2
5.9
124.7
- 273.2
1.70
- 80.71
- 111.3
- 228.6
- 237.1
- 105.6
- 120.4
- 33.56
- 690.0
- 744.5

114.7
0
130.7
198.7
186.9
56.5
188.3
201.8
173.8
206.6
155.6
146.4
188.8
69.91
232.7
109.6
205.8
156.9
20.1

20.8
0
28.8
29.1
29.1
- 136.4

106.8
- 55.19
62.44
0
40.84
17.78
- 23.89

70.25
- 51.57
19.33
0
3.69
- 5.46
- 13.58

180.8
111.3
260.7
116.1
258.8
247.6
135.1

20.8
- 142.3
36.9
54.4
36.4
35.6
135.1

0
- 78.90
- 4.7
- 666.7
- 334.0

27.28
- 137.7
- 315.9
92.9
- 142.3

Helium
He(g)
Hydrogen
H(g)
H +(aq)
H2(g)
HBr(g)
HCl(g)
HCl(aq)
HClO2(aq)
HCN(g)
HF(g)
HI(g)
HNO3(l)
HNO3(aq)
H2O(g)
H 2O(l)
H2O2(g)
H 2O 2(l)
H2S(g)
H 2SO 4(l)
H2SO4(aq)

35.9
29.2
109.9
- 86.6
33.6
75.3
43.1
89.1
34.2
138.9
- 293.0

Iodine
I(g)
I -(aq)
I 2(g)
I 2(s)
IBr(g)
ICl(g)
ICl(l)
Iron
Fe(s)
Fe 2+(aq)
Fe3+(aq)
FeCO3(s)
FeCl3(s)
FeO(s)
Fe2O3(s)
Fe3O 4(s)
Fe(OH)3(s)

0
- 89.1
- 48.5
- 740.6
- 399.5
- 272.0
- 824.2
- 1118
- 823.0

- 742.2
- 1015
- 696.5

87.40
146.4
106.7

25.1
82.1
96.7
49.91
103.9
143.4
101.7

D-2

Thermodynamic Properties of Substances at 298.15 K

A21

Inorganic Substances
G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

0
- 1.7
- 175.5
- 277.4
- 919.9

0
- 24.43
- 173.6
- 217.3
- 813.1

64.81
10.5
174.9
68.6
148.6

26.4

159.4
0
- 278.5
- 408.6
- 484.9
- 483.1

126.7
0
- 293.3
- 384.4
- 439.0
- 381.1

138.8
29.12
13.4
59.33
42.80
90.0

20.8
24.8
68.6
48.0
49.6

0
- 466.9
- 641.3
- 1096
- 1123
- 601.7
- 924.5
- 346.0
- 1285

0
- 454.8
- 591.8
- 1012
- 1070
- 569.4
- 833.5
- 341.8
- 1171

32.68
- 138.1
89.62
65.7
57.24
26.94
63.18
50.33
91.6

24.9

0
- 220.8
- 520.0
- 541.4

0
- 228.1
- 465.1
- 447.2

32.01
- 73.6
53.05
191.2

26.3
50.0
54.1
- 82.0

H f, kJ mol*1
Lead
Pb(s)
Pb 2+(aq)
PbI2(s)
PbO2(s)
PbSO4(s)

77.4
64.6
103.2

Lithium
Li(g)
Li(s)
Li+1aq2
LiCl(s)
LiOH(s)
LiNO 31s2

Magnesium

Mg(s)
Mg 2+(aq)
MgCl2(s)
MgCO3(s)
MgF2(s)
MgO(s)
Mg(OH)2(s)
MgS(s)
MgSO4(s)

71.4
75.5
61.6
37.2
77.0
45.6
96.5

Manganese
Mn(s)
Mn2+(aq)
MnO2(s)
MnO4 -(aq)
Mercury
Hg(g)
Hg(l)
HgO(s)

61.32
0
- 90.83

31.82
0
- 58.54

175.0
76.02
70.29

20.8
28.0
44.1

472.7
0
- 124.7
- 46.11
- 80.29
- 132.5
- 270.8
- 314.4
- 464.0
- 849.4
- 201.4
- 365.6
- 339.9
- 1181
95.40
50.63
90.25
82.05

455.6
0
- 83.2
- 16.45
- 26.50
- 79.31
- 175.2
- 202.9
- 348.7
- 665.9
- 112.5
- 183.9
- 190.6
- 901.7
159.4
149.3
86.55
104.2

153.3
191.6
260.7
192.5
111.3
113.4
113
94.6
71.96
120.9
117
151.1
259.8
220.1
238.5
121.2
210.8
219.9

20.8
29.1
53.4
35.1

Nitrogen
N(g)
N2(g)
NF3(g)
NH 3(g)
NH3(aq)
NH 4 +(aq)
NH4Br(s)
NH 4Cl(s)
NH4F(s)
NH 4HCO 3(s)
NH4I(s)
NH 4NO3(s)
NH4NO3(aq)
(NH 4)2SO 4(s)
N2H4(g)
N2H 4(l)
NO(g)
N2O(g)

79.9
96.0
84.1
65.3
139.3
- 6.7
187.5
48.4
98.9
29.9
38.6
(continued)

A22

Appendix D

Data Tables

Inorganic Substances

NO2(g)
N2O 4(g)
N2O4(l)
N2O 5(g)
NO3 -(aq)
NOBr(g)
NOCl(g)

H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

33.18
9.16
- 19.50
11.3
- 205.0
82.17
51.71

51.31
97.89
97.54
115.1
- 108.7
82.42
66.08

240.1
304.3
209.2
355.7
146.4
273.7
261.7

37.2
79.2
142.7
95.3
- 86.6
45.5
44.7

249.2
0
142.7
- 230.0
24.7

231.7
0
163.2
- 157.2
41.9

161.1
205.1
238.9
- 10.75
247.4

21.9
29.4
39.2
- 148.5
43.3

0
- 17.6
58.91
- 287.0
- 374.9
5.4
- 2984
- 1277

0
- 12.1
24.44
- 267.8
- 305.0
13.4
- 2698
- 1019

41.09
22.80
280.0
311.8
364.6
210.2
228.9
- 222

89.24
0
- 252.4
- 393.8
- 113.0
- 436.7
- 397.7
- 432.8
- 567.3
- 327.9
- 494.6
- 424.8
- 482.4
- 1438

60.59
0
- 283.3
- 380.7
- 101.9
- 409.1
- 296.3
- 303.1
- 537.8
- 324.9
- 394.9
- 379.1
- 440.5
- 1321

160.3
64.18
102.5
95.90
128.5
82.59
143.1
151.0
66.57
106.3
133.1
78.9
91.6
175.6

20.8
29.6
21.8
52.4
66.3
51.3
100.3
112.4
49.0
52.9
96.4
68.9
- 126.8
131.5

0
34.3
80.3
- 910.9

0
56.9
127.3
- 856.6

18.83
204.6
272.7
41.84

20.0
42.8
80.8
44.4

0
105.6
- 100.4
- 127.1
- 61.84
- 124.4
- 31.05
- 715.9

0
77.11
- 96.90
- 109.8
- 66.19
- 33.41
- 11.20
- 618.4

42.55
72.68
107.1
96.2
115.5
140.9
121.3
200.4

25.4
21.8
52.4
50.8
56.8
93.1
65.9
131.4

Oxygen
O(g)
O2(g)
O3(g)
OH -(aq)
OF2(g)
Phosphorus
P(a white)
P(red)
P4(g)
PCl3(g)
PCl5(g)
PH 3(g)
P4O10(s)
PO4 3-(aq)

23.8
21.2
67.2
71.8
112.8
37.1
211.71

Potassium
K(g)
K(s)
K+(aq)
KBr(s)
KCN(s)
KCl(s)
KClO3(s)
KClO4(s)
KF(s)
KI(s)
KNO3(s)
KOH(s)
KOH(aq)
K 2SO 4(s)
Silicon
Si(s)
SiH 4(g)
Si2H6(g)
SiO2(quartz)
Silver
Ag(s)
Ag +(aq)
AgBr(s)
AgCl(s)
AgI(s)
AgNO 3(s)
Ag2O(s)
Ag2SO 4(s)

D-2

Thermodynamic Properties of Substances at 298.15 K

A23

Inorganic Substances
H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

107.3
0
- 240.1
142.1
- 361.1
- 1131
- 950.8
- 411.2
- 407.3
- 365.8
- 383.3
- 573.6
- 56.28
- 287.8
- 467.9
- 447.5
- 510.9
- 425.6
- 470.1
- 1537
- 1748
- 1917
- 1126
- 1387
- 1390.
- 4327
- 1123

76.76
0
- 261.9
103.9
- 349.0
- 1044
- 851.0
- 384.1
- 393.1
- 262.3
- 254.9
- 543.5
- 33.46
- 286.1
- 367.0
- 373.2
- 447.7
- 379.5
- 419.2
- 1386
- 1608
- 1789
- 992.8
- 1270
- 1268
- 3647
- 1028

153.7
51.21
59.0
230.2
86.82
135.0
101.7
72.13
115.5
123.4
142.3
51.46
40.02
98.53
116.5
205.4
95.0
64.46
48.1
127.5
150.5
173.8
113.0
149.6
138.1
592.0
155

20.8
28.2
46.4
37.6
51.4
112.3
87.6
50.5
- 90.0

278.8
0
102.3
- 18.4
- 1209
- 296.8
- 395.7
- 909.3
- 648.5
- 364.0
- 394.1

238.3
0
49.63
- 31.8
- 1105
- 300.2
- 371.1
- 744.5
- 522.5
- 320.0

167.8
31.80
431.0
331.5
291.8
248.2
256.8
20.1
67
311.9

23.7
22.6
156.06
124.3
97.0
39.9
50.7
- 293.0

0
- 2.09
- 511.3
- 285.8
- 580.7

0
0.13
- 440.1
- 256.9
- 519.6

51.55
44.14
258.6
56.5
52.3

27.0
25.8
165.3
44.3
52.6

0
- 763.2
- 804.2
- 944.7

0
- 726.7
- 737.2
- 889.5

30.63
354.9
252.3
50.33

25.0
95.4
145.2
55.0

Sodium
Na(g)
Na(s)
Na+(aq)
Na 2(g)
NaBr(s)
Na2CO3(s)
NaHCO3(s)
NaCl(s)
NaCl(aq)
NaClO31s2
NaClO41s2
NaF(s)
NaH(s)
NaI(s)
NaNO3(s)
NaNO3(aq)
Na2O2(s)
NaOH(s)
NaOH(aq)
NaH 2PO 4(s)
Na2HPO4(s)
Na 3PO 4(s)
NaHSO4(s)
Na 2SO 4(s)
Na2SO4(aq)
Na 2SO 4 # 10 H 2O(s)
Na2S2O3(s)

111.3
46.9
36.4
52.1
92.9
- 40.2
89.2
59.5
- 102.1
- 116.86
135.3
153.47
128.2
- 201.0

Sulfur
S(g)
S(rhombic)
S8(g)
S 2Cl2(g)
SF6(g)
SO2(g)
SO3(g)
SO4 2-(aq)
S2O3 2-(aq)
SO2Cl2(g)
SO2Cl2(l)

77.0
- 134.0

Tin
Sn(white)
Sn(gray)
SnCl4(l)
SnO(s)
SnO2(s)
Titanium
Ti(s)
TiCl4(g)
TiCl4(l)
TiO2(s)

(continued)

A24

Appendix D

Data Tables

Inorganic Substances
H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

50.21
377.9
227.6
77.03

27.7
129.6
166.8
63.6

41.63
112.1
43.64

25.4
46.0
40.3

Uranium
U(s)
UF61g2
UF61s2
UO21s2

0
- 2147
- 2197
- 1085

0
- 2064
- 2069
- 1032

Zinc

Zn(s)
Zn2+(aq)
ZnO(s)

0
- 153.9
- 138.3

0
- 147.1
- 318.3

Organic Substances
Name
CH 4(g)
C2H 2(g)
C2H 4(g)
C2H 6(g)
C3H 8(g)
C4H 10(g)
C6H 6(g)
C6H 6(l)
C6H 12(g)
C6H 12(l)
C10H 8(g)
C10H 8(s)
CH 2O(g)
CH 3CHO(g)
CH 3CHO(l)
CH 3OH(g)
CH 3OH(l)
CH 3CH 2OH(g)
CH 3CH 2OH(l)
C6H 5OH(s)
(CH 3)2CO(g)
(CH 3)2CO(l)
CH 3COOH(g)
CH 3COOH(l)
CH 3COOH(aq)
C6H 5COOH(s)
CH 3NH 2(g)
C6H 5NH 2(g)
C6H 5NH 2(l)

Methane(g)
Acetylene(g)
Ethylene(g)
Ethane(g)
Propane(g)
Butane(g)
Benzene(g)
Benzene(l)
Cyclohexane(g)
Cyclohexane(l)
Naphthalene(g)
Naphthalene(s)
Formaldehyde(g)
Acetaldehyde(g)
Acetaldehyde(l)
Methanol(g)
Methanol(l)
Ethanol(g)
Ethanol(l)
Phenol(s)
Acetone(g)
Acetone(l)
Acetic acid(g)
Acetic acid(l)
Acetic acid(aq)
Benzoic acid(s)
Methylamine(g)
Aniline(g)
Aniline(l)

H f, kJ mol*1

G *f , kJ mol*1

S*, J mol*1 K*1

Cp, J mol*1 K*1

- 74.81
226.7
52.26
- 84.68
- 103.8
- 125.6
82.6
49.0
- 123.4
- 156.4
150.6
77.9
- 108.6
- 166.2
- 192.3
- 200.7
- 238.7
- 235.1
- 277.7
- 165.1
- 216.6
- 247.6
- 432.3
- 484.5
- 485.8
- 385.2
- 22.97
86.86
31.6

- 50.72
209.2
68.15
- 32.82
- 23.3
- 17.1
129.8
124.5
32.0
26.9
224.2
201.7
- 102.5
- 128.9
- 128.1
- 162.0
- 166.3
- 168.5
- 174.8
- 50.4
- 153.0
- 155.6
- 374.0
- 389.9
- 396.5
- 245.3
32.16
166.8
149.2

186.3
200.9
219.6
229.6
270.3
310.2
269.3
173.4
298.4
204.4
333.2
167.5
218.8
250.3
160.2
239.8
126.8
282.7
160.7
144.0
295.0
200.5
282.5
159.8
178.7
167.6
243.4
319.3
191.3

35.7
44.0
42.9
52.5
73.6
97.5
82.4
136.0
106.3
154.9
131.9
165.7
35.4
55.3
89.0
44.1
81.1
65.6
112.3
127.4
74.5
126.3
63.4
123.3
- 6.3
146.8
50.1
107.9
191.9

D-3

TABLE D.3

Equilibrium Constants

A25

Equilibrium Constants

A. Ionization Constants of Weak Acids at 25 *C

Name of acid

Formula

Ka

Acetic
Acrylic
Arsenic

HC2H 3O2
HC3H 3O2
H 3AsO4
H 2AsO4 HAsO4 2H 3AsO3
HC7H 5O2
HC2H 2BrO2
HC4H 7O2
H 2CO3
HCO3 HC2H 2ClO2
HClO 2
H 3 C6 H 5 O 7
H 2 C6 H 5 O 7 HC6H 5O7 2HOCN
HC2HCl2O2
HC2H 2FO2
HCHO2
HN3
HCN
HF
H 2O 2
H 2Se
HSe H 2S
HS H 2Te
HTe HOBr
HOCl
HOI

1.8
5.5
6.0
1.0
3.2
6.6
6.3
1.3
1.5
4.4
4.7
1.4
1.1
7.4
1.7
4.0
3.5
5.5
2.6
1.8
1.9
6.2
6.6
2.2
1.3
1
1.0
1
2.3
1.6
2.5
2.9
2.3

Arsenous
Benzoic
Bromoacetic
Butyric
Carbonic
Chloroacetic
Chlorous
Citric

Cyanic
Dichloroacetic
Fluoroacetic
Formic
Hydrazoic
Hydrocyanic
Hydrofluoric
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydroselenic
Hydrosulfuric
Hydrotelluric
Hypobromous
Hypochlorous
Hypoiodous

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-5
10-5
10-3
10-7
10-12
10-10
10-5
10-3
10-5
10-7
10-11
10-3
10-2
10-4
10-5
10-7
10-4
10-2
10-3
10-4
10-5
10-10
10-4
10-12
10-4
10-11
10-7
10-19
10-3
10-11
10-9
10-8
10-11

Name of acid

Formula

Ka

Hyponitrous

HON NOH
HON NO HIO3
HC2H 2IO 2
H 2C3H 2O4
HC3H 2O4 HNO2
H 2C2O4
HC2O4 HOC6H 5
HC8H 7O2
H 3PO4
H 2PO4 HPO 4 2H 3PO3
H 2PO3 HC3H 5O2
H 4P2O7
H 3P2O7 H 2P2O7 2HP2O7 3H 2SeO4
HSeO 4 H 2SeO3
HSeO 3 H 2C4H 4O4
HC4H 4O4 H 2SO4
HSO4 H 2SO3
HSO3 HSC6H 5
HC2Cl3O2

8.9 * 10-8
4 * 10-12
1.6 * 10-1
6.7 * 10-4
1.5 * 10-3
2.0 * 10-6
7.2 * 10-4
5.4 * 10-2
5.3 * 10-5
1.0 * 10-10
4.9 * 10-5
7.1 * 10-3
6.3 * 10-8
4.2 * 10-13
3.7 * 10-2
2.1 * 10-7
1.3 * 10-5
3.0 * 10-2
4.4 * 10-3
2.5 * 10-7
5.6 * 10-10
strong acid
2.2 * 10-2
2.3 * 10-3
5.4 * 10-9
6.2 * 10-5
2.3 * 10-6
strong acid
1.1 * 10-2
1.3 * 10-2
6.2 * 10-8
3.2 * 10-7
3.0 * 10-1

Iodic
Iodoacetic
Malonic
Nitrous
Oxalic
Phenol
Phenylacetic
Phosphoric

Phosphorous
Propionic
Pyrophosphoric

Selenic
Selenous
Succinic
Sulfuric
Sulfurous
Thiophenol
Trichloroacetic

B. Ionization Constants of Weak Bases at 25 *C

Name of base

Formula

Kb

Ammonia
Aniline
Codeine
Diethylamine
Dimethylamine
Ethylamine
Hydrazine

NH 3
C6H 5NH 2
C18H 21O3N
(C2H 5)2NH
(CH 3)2NH
C2H 5NH 2
NH 2NH 2
NH 2NH 3 +
NH 2OH

1.8
7.4
8.9
6.9
5.9
4.3
8.5
8.9
9.1

Hydroxylamine

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-5
10-10
10-7
10-4
10-4
10-4
10-7
10-16
10-9

Name of base

Formula

Kb

Isoquinoline
Methylamine
Morphine
Piperdine
Pyridine
Quinoline
Triethanolamine
Triethylamine
Trimethylamine

C9H 7N
CH 3NH 2
C17H 19O3N
C5H 11N
C5H 5N
C9H 7N
C6H 15O3N
(C2H 5)3N
(CH 3)3N

2.5
4.2
7.4
1.3
1.5
6.3
5.8
5.2
6.3

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-9
10-4
10-7
10-3
10-9
10-10
10-7
10-4
10-5

(continued)

A26

Appendix D

Data Tables

C. Solubility Product Constantsa

Name of solute

Formula

Ksp

Aluminum hydroxide
Aluminum phosphate
Barium carbonate
Barium chromate
Barium fluoride
Barium hydroxide
Barium sulfate
Barium sulfite
Barium thiosulfate
Bismuthyl chloride
Bismuthyl hydroxide
Cadmium carbonate
Cadmium hydroxide
Cadmium sulfideb
Calcium carbonate
Calcium chromate
Calcium fluoride
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydrogen
phosphate
Calcium oxalate
Calcium phosphate
Calcium sulfate
Calcium sulfite
Chromium(II) hydroxide
Chromium(III) hydroxide
Cobalt(II) carbonate
Cobalt(II) hydroxide
Cobalt(III) hydroxide
Copper(I) chloride
Copper(I) cyanide
Copper(I) iodide
Copper(II) arsenate
Copper(II) carbonate
Copper(II) chromate
Copper(II) ferrocyanide
Copper(II) hydroxide
Copper(II) sulfideb
Iron(II) carbonate
Iron(II) hydroxide
Iron(II) sulfideb
Iron(III) arsenate
Iron(III) ferrocyanide
Iron(III) hydroxide
Iron(III) phosphate
Lead(II) arsenate
Lead(II) azide
Lead(II) bromide
Lead(II) carbonate
Lead(II) chloride
Lead(II) chromate
Lead(II) fluoride

Al(OH)3
AlPO4
BaCO3
BaCrO4
BaF2
Ba(OH)2
BaSO4
BaSO3
BaS 2O3
BiOCl
BiOOH
CdCO3
Cd(OH)2
CdS
CaCO3
CaCrO4
CaF2
Ca(OH)2
CaHPO4

1.3
6.3
5.1
1.2
1.0
5
1.1
8
1.6
1.8
4
5.2
2.5
8
2.8
7.1
5.3
5.5
1

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-33
10-19
10-9
10-10
10-6
10-3
10-10
10-7
10-5
10-31
10-10
10-12
10-14
10-28
10-9
10-4
10-9
10-6
10-7

CaC2O4
Ca 3(PO 4)2
CaSO4
CaSO3
Cr(OH)2
Cr(OH)3
CoCO 3
Co(OH)2
Co(OH)3
CuCl
CuCN
CuI
Cu 3(AsO 4)2
CuCO3
CuCrO 4
Cu 2[Fe(CN)6]
Cu(OH)2
CuS
FeCO3
Fe(OH)2
FeS
FeAsO4
Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
Fe(OH)3
FePO4
Pb3(AsO 4)2
Pb(N3)2
PbBr2
PbCO 3
PbCl2
PbCrO 4
PbF2

4
2.0
9.1
6.8
2
6.3
1.4
1.6
1.6
1.2
3.2
1.1
7.6
1.4
3.6
1.3
2.2
6
3.2
8.0
6
5.7
3.3
4
1.3
4.0
2.5
4.0
7.4
1.6
2.8
2.7

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-9
10-29
10-6
10-8
10-16
10-31
10-13
10-15
10-44
10-6
10-20
10-12
10-36
10-10
10-6
10-16
10-20
10-37
10-11
10-16
10-19
10-21
10-41
10-38
10-22
10-36
10-9
10-5
10-14
10-5
10-13
10-8

Name of solute

Formula

Ksp

Lead(II) hydroxide
Lead(II) iodide
Lead(II) sulfate
Lead(II) sulfideb
Lithium carbonate
Lithium fluoride
Lithium phosphate
Magnesium
ammonium phosphate
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium fluoride
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium phosphate
Manganese(II) carbonate
Manganese(II) hydroxide
Manganese(II) sulfideb
Mercury(I) bromide
Mercury(I) chloride
Mercury(I) iodide
Mercury(II) sulfideb
Nickel(II) carbonate
Nickel(II) hydroxide
Scandium fluoride
Scandium hydroxide
Silver arsenate
Silver azide
Silver bromide
Silver carbonate
Silver chloride
Silver chromate
Silver cyanide
Silver iodate
Silver iodide
Silver nitrite
Silver sulfate
Silver sulfideb
Silver sulfite
Silver thiocyanate
Strontium carbonate
Strontium chromate
Strontium fluoride
Strontium sulfate
Thallium(I) bromide
Thallium(I) chloride
Thallium(I) iodide
Thallium(III) hydroxide
Tin(II) hydroxide
Tin(II) sulfideb
Zinc carbonate
Zinc hydroxide
Zinc oxalate
Zinc phosphate
Zinc sulfideb

Pb(OH)2
PbI 2
PbSO4
PbS
Li 2CO3
LiF
Li 3PO4
MgNH 4PO4

1.2
7.1
1.6
3
2.5
3.8
3.2
2.5

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-15
10-9
10-8
10-28
10-2
10-3
10-9
10-13

MgCO 3
MgF2
Mg(OH)2
Mg3(PO 4)2
MnCO3
Mn(OH)2
MnS
Hg2Br2
Hg2Cl2
Hg2I 2
HgS
NiCO3
Ni(OH)2
ScF3
Sc(OH)3
Ag3AsO4
AgN3
AgBr
Ag2CO 3
AgCl
Ag2CrO 4
AgCN
AgIO3
AgI
AgNO2
Ag2SO 4
Ag2S
Ag2SO 3
AgSCN
SrCO3
SrCrO4
SrF2
SrSO 4
TlBr
TlCl
TlI
Tl(OH)3
Sn(OH)2
SnS
ZnCO3
Zn(OH)2
ZnC2O4
Zn 3(PO 4)2
ZnS

3.5
3.7
1.8
1
1.8
1.9
3
5.6
1.3
4.5
2
6.6
2.0
4.2
8.0
1.0
2.8
5.0
8.5
1.8
1.1
1.2
3.0
8.5
6.0
1.4
6
1.5
1.0
1.1
2.2
2.5
3.2
3.4
1.7
6.5
6.3
1.4
1
1.4
1.2
2.7
9.0
2

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

10-8
10-8
10-11
10-25
10-11
10-13
10-14
10-23
10-18
10-29
10-53
10-9
10-15
10-18
10-31
10-22
10-9
10-13
10-12
10-10
10-12
10-16
10-8
10-17
10-4
10-5
10-51
10-14
10-12
10-10
10-5
10-9
10-7
10-6
10-4
10-8
10-46
10-28
10-26
10-11
10-17
10-8
10-33
10-25

D-4

Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials at 25 C

A27

D. Complex-Ion Formation Constantsc, d

Formula

Kf

[Ag(CN)2][Ag(EDTA)]3[Ag(en)2]+
[Ag(NH 3)2]+
[Ag(SCN)4]3[Ag(S 2O3)2]3[Al(EDTA)][Al(OH)4][Al(ox)3]3[CdCl4]2[Cd(CN)4]2[Cd(en)3]2+
[Cd(NH 3)4]2+
[Co(EDTA)]2[Co(en)3]2+
[Co(NH 3)6]2+
[Co(ox)3]4[Co(SCN)4]2[Co(EDTA)][Co(en)3]3+
[Co(NH 3)6]3+

5.6
2.1
5.0
1.6
1.2
1.7
1.3
1.1
2
6.3
6.0
1.2
1.3
2.0
8.7
1.3
5
1.0

Formula

1018
107
107
107
1010
1013
1016
1033
1016
102
1018
1012
107
1016
1013
105
109
103
1036
4.9 * 1048
4.5 * 1033
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

[Co(ox)3]3[Cr(EDTA)][Cr(OH)4][CuCl3]2[Cu(CN)4]3[Cu(EDTA)]2[Cu(en)2]2+
[Cu(NH 3)4]2+
[Cu(ox)2]2[Fe(CN)6]4[Fe(EDTA)]2[Fe(en)3]2+
[Fe(ox)3]4[Fe(CN)6]3[Fe(EDTA)][Fe(ox)3]3[Fe(SCN)]2+
[HgCl4]2[Hg(CN)4]2[Hg(EDTA)]2[Hg(en)2]2+

Kf

8
5
2.0
5
1
1.1
3

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

2.1 *
5.0 *
1.7 *
1.7
2
8.9
1.2
3
6.3
2

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

1020
1023
1029
105
1030
1018
1020
1013
108
1037
1014
109
105
1042
1024
1020
102
1015
1041
1021
1023

aData

Formula

Kf

[HgI 4]2[Hg(ox)2]2[Ni(CN)4]2[Ni(EDTA)]2[Ni(en)3]2+
[Ni(NH 3)6]2+
[Ni(ox)3]4[PbCl3][Pb(EDTA)]2[PbI 4]2[Pb(OH)3][Pb(ox)2]2[Pb(S 2O3)3]4[PtCl4]2[Pt(NH 3)6]2+
[Zn(CN)4]2[Zn(EDTA)]2[Zn(en)3]2+
[Zn(NH 3)4]2+
[Zn(OH)4]2[Zn(ox)3]4-

6.8
9.5
2
3.6
2.1
5.5
3
2.4
2
3.0
3.8
3.5
2.2
1
2
1
3
1.3
4.1
4.6
1.4

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

1029
106
1031
1018
1018
108
108
101
1018
104
1014
106
106
1016
1035
1018
1016
1014
108
1017
108

are at various temperatures around room temperature, from 18 to 25 C.

a solubility equilibrium of the type MS(s) + H 2O
M 2+(aq) + HS -(aq) + OH - (aq).
cThe ligands referred to in this table are monodentate: Cl- , CN - , I - , NH , OH - , SCN - , S O 2- ; bidentate: ethylenediamine (en),
3
2 3
oxalate ion (ox); tetradentate: ethylenediaminetetraacetato ion, EDTA4-.
dThe K values are cumulative or overall formation constants (see page 1094).
f
bFor

TABLE D.4

Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials at 25 * C

Reduction half-reaction

E*, V

F2(g) + 2 e- 2 F-(aq)
OF2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 4 e- H2O(l) + 2 F-(aq)
O3(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- O2(g) + H2O(l)
S2O8 2-(aq) + 2 e- 2 SO4 2-(aq)
Ag2+(aq) + e- Ag+(aq)
H2O2(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- 2 H2O(l)
MnO4 -(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 3 e- MnO2(s) + 2 H2O(l)
PbO2(s) + SO4 2-(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e- PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l)
Au3+(aq) + 3 e- Au(s)
MnO4 -(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e- Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
2 BrO3 -(aq) + 12 H+(aq) + 10 e- Br2(l) + 6 H2O(l)
PbO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e- Pb2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
ClO3 -(aq) + 6 H+(aq) + 6 e- Cl-(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
Au3+(aq) + 2 e- Au+(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2 e- 2 Cl-(aq)
Cr2O7 2-(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 e- 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
MnO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e- Mn2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e- 2 H2O(l)

+2.866
+2.1
+2.075
+ 2.01
+ 1.98
+ 1.763
+1.70
+ 1.69
+ 1.52
+ 1.51
+ 1.478
+ 1.455
+1.450
+ 1.36
+ 1.358
+ 1.33
+ 1.23
+ 1.229
(continued)

A28

Appendix D

Data Tables
Reduction half-reaction

E*, V

2 IO3 -(aq) + 12 H+(aq) + 10 e- I2(s) + 6 H2O(l)

ClO4 -(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- ClO3 -(aq) + H2O(l)
ClO3 -(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + e- ClO2(g) + H2O(l)
NO2(g) + H+(aq) + e- HNO2(aq)
Br2(l) + 2 e- 2 Br-(aq)
NO2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- NO(g) + H2O(l)
[AuCl4]-(aq) + 3 e- Au(s) + 4 Cl-(aq)
VO2 +(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + e- VO2+ (aq) + H2O(l)
NO3 -(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 3 e- NO(g) + 2 H2O(l)
Cu2+(aq) + I-(aq) + e- CuI(s)
Hg2+(aq) + 2 e- Hg(l)
Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s)
Fe3+(aq) + e- Fe2+(aq)
O2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H2O2(aq)
2 HgCl2(aq) + 2 e- Hg2Cl2(s) + 2 Cl-(aq)
MnO4 -(aq) + e- MnO4 2- (aq)
I2(s) + 2 e- 2 I-(aq)
Cu+(aq) + e- Cu(s)
H2SO3(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e- S(s) + 3 H2O(l)
C2N2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- 2 HCN(aq)
[Fe(CN)6]3-(aq) + e- [Fe(CN)6]4-(aq)
VO2+(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + e- V3+ (aq) + H2O(l)
Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- Cu(s)
PbO2(s) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- PbO(s) + H2O(l)
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2 e- 2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl-(aq)
HAsO2(aq) + 3 H+(aq) + 3 e- As(s) + 2 H2O(l)
AgCl(s) + e- Ag(s) + Cl-(aq)
SO4 2-(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e- 2 H2O(l) + SO2(g)
Cu2+(aq) + e- Cu+(aq)
Sn4+(aq) + 2 e- Sn2+(aq)
S(s) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H2S(g)
AgBr(s) + e- Ag(s) + Br-(aq)
2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H2(g)
Pb2+(aq) + 2 e- Pb(s)
Sn2+(aq) + 2 e- Sn(s)
AgI(s) + e- Ag(s) + I-(aq)
V3+(aq) + e- V2+(aq)
Ni2+(aq) + 2 e- Ni(s)
H3PO4(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H3PO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Co2+(aq) + 2 e- Co(s)
In3+(aq) + 3 e- In(s)
PbSO4(s) + 2 e- Pb(s) + SO4 2- (aq)
Cd2+(aq) + 2 e- Cd(s)
Cr3+(aq) + e- Cr2+(aq)
Fe2+(aq) + 2 e- Fe(s)
2 CO2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e- H2C2O4(aq)
Zn2+(aq) + 2 e- Zn(s)

+ 1.20
+ 1.189
+ 1.175
+ 1.07
+ 1.065
+ 1.03
+ 1.002
+1.000
+ 0.956
+ 0.86
+ 0.854
+ 0.800
+ 0.771
+ 0.695
+ 0.63
+ 0.56
+ 0.535
+ 0.520
+ 0.449
+0.37
+ 0.361
+ 0.337
+ 0.340
+ 0.28
+0.2676
+0.240
+ 0.2223
+ 0.17
+0.159
+ 0.154
+ 0.144
+ 0.071
0
- 0.125
-0.137
-0.152
- 0.255
- 0.257
- 0.276
- 0.277
- 0.338
-0.356
- 0.403
- 0.424
- 0.440
- 0.49
- 0.763

D-4

Standard Electrode (Reduction) Potentials at 25 C

Reduction half-reaction

E*, V

Cr2+(aq) + 2 e- Cr(s)
Mn2+(aq) + 2 e- Mn(s)
Ti2+(aq) + 2 e- Ti(s)
U3+(aq) + 3 e- U(s)
Al3+(aq) + 3 e- Al(s)
Mg2+(aq) + 2 e- Mg(s)
La3+(aq) + 3 e- La(s)
Na+(aq) + e- Na(s)
Ca2+(aq) + 2 e- Ca(s)
Sr2+(aq) + 2 e- Sr(s)
Ba2+(aq) + 2 e- Ba(s)
Cs+(aq) + e- Cs(s)
K+(aq) + e- K(s)
Rb+(aq) + e- Rb(s)
Li+(aq) + e- Li(s)

-0.90
- 1.18
-1.63
- 1.66
- 1.676
- 2.356
-2.38
-2.713
-2.84
- 2.89
-2.92
-2.923
- 2.924
- 2.924
- 3.040

Basic solution
O3(g) + H2O(l) + 2 e- O2(g) + 2 OH-(aq)
ClO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e- Cl-(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
H2O2(aq) + 2 e- 2 OH-(aq)
BrO-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e- Br-(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
ClO3 -(aq) + 3 H2O(l) + 6 e- Cl-(aq) + 6 OH-(aq)
2 AgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2 e- Ag2O(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
MnO4 -(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 3 e- MnO2(s) + 4 OH-(aq)
BrO3 -(aq) + 3 H2O(l) + 6 e- Br-(aq) + 6 OH-(aq)
2 BrO-(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- Br2(l) + 4 OH-(aq)
2 IO-(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- I2(s) + 4 OH-(aq)
O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e- 4 OH-(aq)
Ag2O(s) + H2O(l) + 2 e- 2 Ag(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
Co(OH)3(s) + e- Co(OH)2(s) + OH-(aq)
2 MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2 e- Mn2O3(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
NO3 -(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e- NO2 -(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
CrO4 2-(aq) + 4 H2O(l) + 3 e- Cr(OH)3(s) + 5 OH-(aq)
S(s) + 2 e- S2-(aq)
HPbO2 -(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e- Pb(s) + 3 OH-(aq)
HCHO(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- CH3OH(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
SO3 2-(aq) + 3 H2O(l) + 4 e- S(s) + 6 OH-(aq)
AsO4 3-(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 2 e- AsO2 -(aq) + 4 OH-(aq)
AsO2 -(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 3 e- As(s) + 4 OH-(aq)
Cd(OH)2(s) + 2 e- Cd(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
2 H2O(l) + 2 e- H2(g) + 2 OH-(aq)
OCN-(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e- CN-(aq) + 2 OH-(aq)
As(s) + 3 H2O(l) + 3 e- AsH3(g) + 3 OH-(aq)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2 e- Zn(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
Sb(s) + 3 H2O(l) + 3 e- SbH3(g) + 3 OH-(aq)
Al(OH)4 -(aq) + 3 e- Al(s) + 4 OH-(aq)
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 e- Mg(s) + 2 OH-(aq)

+1.246
+ 0.890
+0.88
+ 0.766
+ 0.622
+ 0.604
+ 0.60
+ 0.584
+ 0.455
+ 0.42
+ 0.401
+ 0.342
+0.17
+ 0.118
+0.01
- 0.11
- 0.48
- 0.54
- 0.59
-0.66
- 0.67
- 0.68
- 0.824
- 0.828
- 0.97
-1.21
- 1.246
- 1.338
- 2.310
- 2.687

A29

A30

Appendix D

Data Tables

TABLE D.5

Isotopic Masses and Their Abundance*

Name

Symbol

Hydrogen
Deuterium
Tritium
Helium

Lithium

4
5

Beryllium
Boron

Carbon

Nitrogen

Oxygen

9
10

Fluorine
Neon

11
12

Sodium
Magnesium

13
14

Aluminum
Silicon

15
16

Phosphorus
Sulfur

17

Chlorine

18

Argon

19

Potassium

20

Calcium

Mass of Atom, u

% Abundance

H
H
3
H
3
He
4
He
6
Li
7
Li
9
Be
10
B
11
B
12
C
13
C
14
C
14
N
15
N
16
O
17
O
18
O
19
F
20
Ne
21
Ne
22
Ne
23
Na
24
Mg
25
Mg
26
Mg
27
Al
28
Si
29
Si
30
Si
31
P
32
S
33
S
34
S
36
S
35
Cl
37
Cl
36
Ar
38
Ar
40
Ar
39
K
40
K
41
K
40
Ca
42
Ca
43
Ca
44
Ca
46
Ca

1.007825
2.014102
3.016049
3.016029
4.002603
6.015122
7.016004
9.012182
10.012937
11.009305
12.000000
13.003355
14.003242
14.003074
15.000109
15.994915
16.999132
17.999160
18.998403
19.992440
20.993847
21.991386
22.989770
23.985042
24.985837
25.982593
26.981538
27.976927
28.976495
29.973770
30.973762
31.972071
32.971458
33.967867
35.967081
34.968853
36.965903
35.967546
37.962732
39.962383
38.963707
39.963999
40.961826
39.962591
41.958618
42.958767
43.955481
45.953693

99.9885
0.0115

48

47.952534

Ca

0.000137
99.999863
7.59
92.41
100
19.9
80.1
98.93
1.07
99.632
0.368
99.757
0.038
0.205
100
90.48
0.27
9.25
100
78.99
10.00
11.01
100
92.2297
4.6832
3.0872
100
94.93
0.76
4.29
0.02
75.78
24.22
0.3365
0.0632
99.6003
93.2581
0.0117
6.7302
96.941
0.647
0.135
2.086
0.004
0.187

*The isotopic mass data are from G. Audi and A. H. Wapstra, and M. Dedieu, Nuclear Physics A,
volume 565, pages 1-65 (1993) and G. Audi and A. H. Wapstra, Nuclear Physics A, volume 595,
pages 409-480 (1995). The percent natural abundance data are from K.J.R. Rosman and
P.D.P. Taylor, Pure and Applied Chemistry, volume 70, pages 217-235 (1998).

D-5
Z

Name

Symbol

21
22

Scandium
Titanium

45

23

Vanadium

24

Chromium

25
26

Manganese
Iron

27
28

Cobalt
Nickel

29

Copper

30

Zinc

31

Gallium

32

Germanium

33
34

Arsenic
Selenium

35

Bromine

36

Krypton

Sc
Ti
47
Ti
48
Ti
49
Ti
50
Ti
50
V
51
V
50
Cr
52
Cr
53
Cr
54
Cr
55
Mn
54
Fe
56
Fe
57
Fe
58
Fe
59
Co
58
Ni
60
Ni
61
Ni
62
Ni
64
Ni
63
Cu
65
Cu
64
Zn
66
Zn
67
Zn
68
Zn
70
Zn
69
Ga
71
Ga
70
Ge
72
Ge
73
Ge
74
Ge
76
Ge
75
As
74
Se
76
Se
77
Se
78
Se
80
Se
82
Se
79
Br
81
Br
78
Kr
80
Kr
82
Kr
83
Kr
84Kr
86
Kr
46

Mass of Atom, u
44.955910
45.952629
46.951764
47.947947
48.947871
49.944792
49.947163
50.943964
49.946050
51.940512
52.940654
53.938885
54.938050
53.939615
55.934942
56.935399
57.933280
58.933200
57.935348
59.930791
60.931060
61.928349
63.927970
62.929601
64.927794
63.929147
65.926037
66.927131
67.924848
69.925325
68.925581
70.924705
69.924250
71.922076
72.923459
73.921178
75.921403
74.921596
73.922477
75.919214
76.919915
77.917310
79.916522
81.916700
78.918338
80.916291
77.920386
79.916378
81.913485
82.914136
83.911507
85.910610

Isotopic Masses and Their Abundance

% Abundance
100
8.25
7.44
73.72
5.41
5.18
0.250
99.750
4.345
83.789
9.501
2.365
100
5.845
91.754
2.119
0.282
100
68.0769
26.2231
1.1399
3.6345
0.9256
69.17
30.83
48.63
27.90
4.10
18.75
0.62
60.108
39.892
20.84
27.54
7.73
36.28
7.61
100
0.89
9.37
7.63
23.77
49.61
8.73
50.69
49.31
0.35
2.28
11.58
11.49
57.00
17.30
(continued)

A31

A32

Appendix D

Data Tables
Z

Name

Symbol

37

Rubidium

85

38

Strontium

39
40

Yttrium
Zirconium

41
42

Niobium
Molybdenum

43
44

Technetium
Ruthenium

45
46

Rhodium
Palladium

47

Silver

48

Cadmium

49

Indium

50

Tin

Rb
Rb
84
Sr
86
Sr
87
Sr
88
Sr
89
Y
90
Zr
91
Zr
92
Zr
94
Zr
96
Zr
93
Nb
92
Mo
94
Mo
95
Mo
96
Mo
97
Mo
98
Mo
100
Mo
98
Tc
96
Ru
98
Ru
99
Ru
100
Ru
101
Ru
102
Ru
104
Ru
103
Rh
102
Pd
104
Pd
105
Pd
106
Pd
108
Pd
110
Pd
107
Ag
109
Ag
106
Cd
108
Cd
110
Cd
111
Cd
112
Cd
113
Cd
114
Cd
116
Cd
113
In
115
In
112
Sn
114
Sn
115
Sn
87

Mass of Atom, u
84.911789
86.909183
83.913425
85.909262
86.908879
87.905614
88.905848
89.904704
90.905645
91.905040
93.906316
95.908276
92.906378
91.906810
93.905088
94.905841
95.904679
96.906021
97.905408
99.907477
97.907216
95.907598
97.905287
98.905939
99.904220
100.905582
101.904350
103.905430
102.905504
101.905608
103.904035
104.905084
105.903483
107.903894
109.905152
106.905093
108.904756
105.906458
107.904183
109.903006
110.904182
111.902757
112.904401
113.903358
115.904755
112.904061
114.903878
111.904821
113.902782
114.903346

% Abundance
72.17
27.83
0.56
9.86
7.00
82.58
100
51.45
11.22
17.15
17.38
2.80
100
14.84
9.25
15.92
16.68
9.55
24.13
9.63
5.54
1.87
12.76
12.60
17.06
31.55
18.62
100
1.02
11.14
22.33
27.33
26.46
11.72
51.839
48.161
1.25
0.89
12.49
12.80
24.13
12.22
28.73
7.49
4.29
95.71
0.97
0.66
0.34

D-5
Z

Name

Symbol

50

Tin (continued)

116

Sn
Sn
118
Sn
119
Sn
120
Sn
122
Sn
124
Sn
121
Sb
123
Sb
120
Te
122
Te
123
Te
124
Te
125
Te
126
Te
128
Te
130
Te
127
I
124
Xe
126
Xe
128
Xe
129
Xe
130
Xe
131
Xe
132
Xe
134
Xe
136
Xe
133
Cs
130
Ba
132
Ba
134
Ba
135
Ba
136
Ba
137
Ba
138
Ba
138
La
139
La
136
Ce
138
Ce
140
Ce
142
Ce
141
Pr
142
Nd
143
Nd
144
Nd
145
Nd
146
Nd
148
Nd
150
Nd
145
Pm
117

51

Antimony

52

Tellurium

53
54

Iodine
Xenon

55
56

Cesium
Barium

57

Lanthanum

58

Cerium

59
60

Praseodymium
Neodymium

61

Promethium

Isotopic Masses and Their Abundance

Mass of Atom, u

% Abundance

115.901744
116.902954
117.901606
118.903309
119.902197
121.903440
123.905275
120.903818
122.904216
119.904020
121.903047
122.904273
123.902819
124.904425
125.903306
127.904461
129.906223
126.904468
123.905896
125.904269
127.903530
128.904779
129.903508
130.905082
131.904154
133.905395
135.907220
132.905447
129.906310
131.905056
133.904503
134.905683
135.904570
136.905821
137.905241
137.907107
138.906348
135.907144
137.905986
139.905434
141.909240
140.907648
141.907719
142.909810
143.910083
144.912569
145.913112
147.916889
149.920887
144.912744

14.54
7.68
24.22
8.59
32.58
4.63
5.79
57.21
42.79
0.09
2.55
0.89
4.74
7.07
18.84
31.74
34.08
100
0.09
0.09
1.92
26.44
4.08
21.18
26.89
10.44
8.87
100
0.106
0.101
2.417
6.592
7.854
11.232
71.698
0.090
99.910
0.185
0.251
88.450
11.114
100
27.2
12.2
23.8
8.3
17.2
5.7
5.6
(continued)

A33

A34

Appendix D

Data Tables
Z

Name

Symbol

62

Samarium

144

Sm
Sm
148
Sm
149
Sm
150
Sm
152
Sm
154
Sm
151
Eu
153
Eu
152
Gd
154
Gd
155
Gd
156
Gd
157
Gd
158
Gd
160
Gd
159
Tb
156
Dy
158
Dy
160
Dy
161
Dy
162
Dy
163
Dy
164
Dy
165
Ho
162
Er
164
Er
166
Er
167
Er
168
Er
170
Er
169
Tm
168
Yb
170
Yb
171
Yb
172
Yb
173
Yb
174
Yb
176
Yb
175
Lu
176
Lu
174
Hf
176
Hf
177
Hf
178
Hf
179
Hf
180
Hf
180
Ta
181
Ta
147

63

Europium

64

Gadolinium

65
66

Terbium
Dysprosium

67
68

Holmium
Erbium

69
70

Thulium
Ytterbium

71

Lutetium

72

Hafnium

73

Tantalum

Mass of Atom, u

% Abundance

143.911995
146.914893
147.914818
148.917180
149.917271
151.919728
153.922205
150.919846
152.921226
151.919788
153.920862
154.922619
155.922120
156.923957
157.924101
159.927051
158.925343
155.924278
157.924405
159.925194
160.926930
161.926795
162.928728
163.929171
164.930319
161.928775
163.929197
165.930290
166.932045
167.932368
169.935460
168.934211
167.933894
169.934759
170.936322
171.936378
172.938207
173.938858
175.942568
174.940768
175.942682
173.940040
175.941402
176.943220
177.943698
178.945815
179.946549
179.947466
180.947996

3.07
14.99
11.24
13.82
7.38
26.75
22.75
47.81
52.19
0.20
2.18
14.80
20.47
15.65
24.84
21.86
100
0.06
0.10
2.34
18.91
25.51
24.90
28.18
100
0.14
1.61
33.61
22.93
26.78
14.93
100
0.13
3.04
14.28
21.83
16.13
31.83
12.76
97.41
2.59
0.16
5.26
18.60
27.28
13.62
35.08
0.012
99.988

D-5
Z

Name

Symbol

74

Tungsten

180

W
W
183
W
184
W
186
W
185
Re
187
Re
184
Os
186
Os
187
Os
188
Os
189
Os
190
Os
192
Os
191
Ir
193
Ir
190
Pt
192
Pt
194
Pt
195
Pt
196
Pt
198
Pt
197
Au
196
Hg
198
Hg
199
Hg
200
Hg
201
Hg
202
Hg
204
Hg
203
Tl
205
Tl
204
Pb
206
Pb
207
Pb
208
Pb
209
Bi
209
Po
210
At
222
Rn
223
Fr
226
Ra
227
Ac
232
Th
231
Pa
234
U
235
U
238
U
237
Np
244
Pu
243
Am
182

75

Rhenium

76

Osmium

77

Iridium

78

Platinum

79
80

Gold
Mercury

81

Thallium

82

Lead

83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92

Bismuth
Polonium
Astatine
Radon
Francium
Radium
Actinium
Thorium
Protactinium
Uranium

93
94
95

Neptunium
Plutonium
Americium

Isotopic Masses and Their Abundance

Mass of Atom, u

% Abundance

179.946706
181.948206
182.950224
183.950933
185.954362
184.952956
186.955751
183.952491
185.953838
186.955748
187.955836
188.958145
189.958445
191.961479
190.960591
192.962924
189.959930
191.961035
193.962664
194.964774
195.964935
197.967876
196.966552
195.965815
197.966752
198.968262
199.968309
200.970285
201.970626
203.973476
202.972329
204.974412
203.973029
205.974449
206.975881
207.976636
208.980383
208.982416
209.987131
222.017570
223.019731
226.025403
227.027747
232.038050
231.035879
234.040946
235.043923
238.050783
237.048167
244.064198
243.061373

0.12
26.50
14.31
30.64
28.43
37.40
62.60
0.02
1.59
1.96
13.24
16.15
26.26
40.78
37.3
62.7
0.014
0.782
32.967
33.832
25.242
7.163
100
0.15
9.97
16.87
23.10
13.18
29.86
6.87
29.524
70.476
1.4
24.1
22.1
52.4
100

100
100
0.0055
0.7200
99.2745

(continued)

A35

A36

Appendix D

Data Tables
Z

Name

Symbol

96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
114
116
118

Curium
Berkelium
Californium
Einsteinium
Fermium
Mendelevium
Nobelium
Lawrencium
Rutherfordium
Dubnium
Seaborgium
Bohrium
Hassium
Meitnerium
Ununnilium
Unununium
Ununbium
Ununquadium
Ununhexium
Ununoctium

247

Cm
Bk
251
Cf
252
Es
257
Fm
258
Md
259
No
262
Lr
263
Rf
262
Db
266
Sg
264
Bh
269
Hs
268
Mt
272
Uun
272
Uuu
277
Uub
289
Uuq
289
Uuh
293
Uuo
247

Mass of Atom, u
247.070347
247.070299
251.079580
252.082972
257.095099
258.098425
259.101024
262.109692
263.118313
262.011437
266.012238
264.012496
269.001341
268.001388
272.001463
272.001535
(277)
(289)
(289)
(293)

% Abundance

Concept Maps

Appendix

As you study chemistry by reading this book and attending class, you will
encounter many ideas and concepts. The task of linking them together can be
quite daunting. An effective way to accomplish this task is through concept
mapping. A concept map is a visual map presenting the relationships among
a set of connected concepts and ideas. It is a tangible way to display how your
mind perceives a particular topic. By constructing a concept map, you reflect on what you understand and what you do not understand. In a concept
map, each concept, usually represented by a word or two in a box, is connected
to other concept boxes by lines or arrows. A word or brief phrase adjacent to
the line or arrow defines the relationship between the connected concepts.
Each major concept box has lines to and from several other concept boxes,
thereby generating a network, or map.

E-1

How to Construct a Concept Map

1. To create a concept map, construct a list of facts, terms, and ideas that you
think are in any way associated with the topic, based on your reading and
class attendance. Start by asking yourself, what was the class or reading
assignment about? The answer to this question will provide the initial
(most general) concepts. The list of concepts will grow as you think further about the answer to this question. You can review the chapter summaries, which emphasize the important points of the chapters, as well as
the key terms of that chapter.
2. Review the concepts in your list, and categorize them from most general to
most specific. Keep in mind that several of the concepts may have the same
level of generality. At other times, it may be difficult to determine the relative importance of two related concepts; to get around this dilemma, try
posing the following question: Which concept can be understood without
reference to the other? The answer is likely the more general concept.
3. Once the categories have been decided, center the most general concept at
the top of the page, and draw a box around it.
4. Arrange the next-most-general rank of concepts below the most general
concept. Draw boxes around these concepts, and draw lines linking them
to the most general concept. The links should have arrowheads to show
the directions in which they should be read.
5. The next step is to label the linkages with short phrases, or even single
words, which properly relate the linked concepts. When you place concept 1,
a linkage phrase, and concept 2 in sequence, a sensible phrase should
result. For example, measurements (concept 1) generate (linkage phrase)
numbers (concept 2) that have (linkage phrase) uncertainty (concept 3).
The inclusion of linkage labels is important. The appropriate linkage
phrase shows that you understand the relationship between the concepts.
6. Proceed down the page, adding rows of ever-more-specific concepts.
The most specific concepts should end up at the bottom of your map.

A37

A38

Appendix E

Concept Maps

7. Throughout the map, search for cross-links between closely related concepts appearing on the same line. Use dashed lines with double arrowheads to indicate the cross-links.
8. As a last step, assess the map and redraw it if necessary to produce a more
logical and neat map.
Once you have constructed the map, check that a concept appears only once
and that you have labeled all linkages. Finally, remember that there is no one
correct concept map for a collection of concepts. However, some concept maps
are much more effective than others at displaying the relationships among a
given set of concepts.
The diagram in this appendix represents a concept map for the scientific
method and measurements. Notice that the concept of SI units could be further
connected to such concepts as fundamental units and derived units.
Experiments

which
may
suggest
new

involve

observations

involve
together

generate

generate

hypotheses

numbers

theories

measurements

need

units

have

usually expressed in

uncertainty

SI units

expressed through

significant figures

generate

reflected by

accuracy

precision

indicating closeness to

indicating closeness to

true value

repeated measurements

Glossary

Appendix

Absolute configuration refers to the

spatial arrangement of the groups
attached to a chiral carbon atom.
The two possibilities are D and L.
Accuracy is the closeness of a
measured value to the true or
accepted value of a quantity.
Acetyl group (See acyl.)
An achiral molecule has a structure
that is superimposable on its mirror
image. (See also chiral.)
An acid is (1) a hydrogen-containing
compound that can produce hydrogen
ions, H+ (Arrhenius theory); (2) a proton
donor (Brnsted Lowry theory); (3) an
atom, ion, or molecule that can accept
a pair of electrons to form a covalent
bond (Lewis theory).
An acid base indicator is a substance
used to measure the pH of a solution
or to signal the equivalence point in
an acid base titration. The nonionized
weak acid form has one color and
the anionic form, a different color.
An acid ionization constant, Ka , is the
equilibrium constant for the ionization
reaction of a weak acid.
An acid salt contains an anion that can
act as an acid (proton donor); examples
are NaHSO4 and NaH2PO4 .
The actinides are a series of
radioactive elements 1Z = 90 - 1032
characterized by partially filled 5f
orbitals in their atoms.
An activated complex is an
intermediate in a chemical reaction
formed through collisions between
energetic molecules. Once formed, it
dissociates either into the products
or back to the reactants.
Activation energy is the minimum
total kinetic energy that molecules
must bring to their collisions for a
chemical reaction to occur.
Active sites are the locations at which
catalysis occurs, whether on the
surface of a heterogeneous catalyst
or an enzyme.
Activity is the effective concentration
of a species. It is obtained as the product

of an activity coefficient and the ratio

of the stoichiometic concentration or
pressure to that of a reference state.
The actual yield is the measured
quantity of a product obtained in a
chemical reaction. (See also theoretical
yield and percent yield.)
O
C R . If R = H,
The acyl group is
this is called the formyl group;
R = CH3 , acetyl; and R = C6H5 ,
benzoyl.
An addition elimination reaction is
the overall reaction that occurs when
compounds are interconverted. It
involves (1) a nucleophilic addition
to the carbonyl carbon to form a
tetrahedral intermediate, followed
by (2) an elimination reaction that
regenerates the carbonyl group.
In an addition reaction, a molecule
adds across a double or triple bond
in another molecule.
An adduct is a compound formed by
joining together two simpler molecules
through a coordinate covalent bond,
such as the adduct of AlCl3 and
(C2H5)2O pictured on page 948.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and
adenosine triphosphate (ATP) are
agents involved in energy transfers
during metabolism. The hydrolysis of
ATP produces ADP, the ion HPO4 2-,
and a release of energy.
Adhesive forces are intermolecular
forces between unlike molecules, such
as molecules of a liquid and of a
surface with which it is in contact.
ADP (See adenosine diphosphate.)
Alcohols contain the functional group
OH and have the general formula
ROH.
Aldehydes have the general formula
O
R

H.

Alicyclic hydrocarbon molecules have

their carbon atom skeletons arranged
in rings and resemble aliphatic (rather
than aromatic) hydrocarbons.

Aliphatic hydrocarbon molecules have

their carbon atom skeletons arranged
in straight or branched chains.
Alkali metals is the family name for
the group 1 elements of the periodic
table.
Alkaline earth metals is the family
name for the group 2 elements of the
periodic table.
Alkane hydrocarbon molecules have
only single covalent bonds between
carbon atoms. In their chain structures
alkanes have the general formula
Cn H2n + 2 .
Alkene hydrocarbons have one or
more carbon-to-carbon double bonds
in their molecules. The simple alkenes
have the general formula CnH2n .
Alkyl groups are alkane hydrocarbon
molecules from which one hydrogen
atom has been extracted. For example,
the group CH3 is the methyl group;
CH2CH3 is the ethyl group.
Alkyne hydrocarbons have one or
more carbon-to-carbon triple bonds in
their molecules. The simple alkynes
have the general formula CnH2n - 2 .
An alloy is a mixture of two or more
metals. Some alloys are solid solutions,
some are heterogeneous mixtures, and
some are intermetallic compounds.
An alpha (A) particle is a combination
of two protons and two neutrons
identical to the helium ion, that is,
4
He2+. Alpha particles are emitted in
some radioactive decay processes.
Alums are sulfates of the general
formula, M(I)M(III)(SO4)2 # 12 H2O.
M(I) is most commonly an alkali metal
or ammonium ion, and M(III) is most
commonly Al3+, Fe3+, or Cr3+.
Amalgams are metal alloys containing
mercury. Depending on their
compositions, some are liquid and
some are solid.
An amide is derived from the
ammonium salt of a carboxylic acid
and has the general formula
O
R

NH2 .

A39

A40

Appendix F

Glossary

An amine is an organic base having

the formula RNH2 (primary), R2NH
(secondary), or R3N (tertiary),
depending on the number of hydrogen
atoms of an NH3 molecule that are
replaced by R groups.
An A-amino acid is a carboxylic acid
that has an amino group ( NH2)
attached to the carbon atom adjacent
to the carboxyl group ( COOH).
Amplitude is the height of the crest of a
wave above the center line of the wave.
Amphiprotic substances can act either
as an acid or as a base.
Amphoteric is the term used to
describe the ability of certain oxides
and hydroxo compounds to act as
either acids or bases.
An angular wave function, Y1u, f2, is
the part of a wave function that
depends on the angles u and f when the
Schrdinger wave equation is expressed
in spherical polar coordinates. (See also
radial wave function.)
Anhydride is a term meaning without
water. An acid anhydride is an
element oxide that reacts with water
to form an acid, and a base anhydride,
to form a base.
An anion is a negatively charged ion.
An anion migrates toward the anode
in an electrochemical cell.
The anode is the electrode in an
electrochemical cell at which an
oxidation half-reaction occurs.
In the anti conformation, the methyl
groups are diagonally opposite each
other.
An antibonding molecular orbital
describes regions in a molecule in which
there is a low electron probability or
charge density between two bonded
atoms.
An aprotic solvent is a solvent whose
molecules do not have a hydrogen atom
bonded to an electronegative element.
An arenium ion is a cationic species
H
*
E
with structural formula
.
An arenium ion is formed when
an electrophile 1E + 2 accepts an
electron pair from the p system of
the benzene ring.
Aromatic hydrocarbons are organic
substances whose carbon atom
skeletons are arranged in hexagonal
rings, based on benzene, C6H6 .
Asymmetric is the term used to
describe a C atom with four different
substituent groups. A molecule with
such a C atom is chiral.
One atmosphere (atm) is the pressure
exerted by a column of mercury exactly

760 mm high when the density of

mercury is 13.5951 g>cm3 and the
acceleration due to gravity is
g = 9.80665 m>s2.
The atom is the basic building block of
matter. The number of different atoms
currently known is 114. A chemical
element consists of a single type of atom,
and a chemical compound consists of
two or more different kinds of atoms.
The atomic mass (weight) of an element
is the average of the isotopic masses
weighted according to the naturally
occurring abundances of the isotopes
of the element and relative to the value
of exactly 12 u for a carbon-12 atom.
An atomic mass unit, u, is used to
express the masses of individual
atoms. One u is 1>12 the mass of a
carbon-12 atom.
The atomic number, Z, is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom. It is
also the number of electrons outside the
nucleus of an electrically neutral atom.
Atomic (line) spectra are produced by
dispersing light emitted by excited
gaseous atoms. Only a discrete set of
wavelength components (seen as colored
lines) is present in a line spectrum.
ATP (See adenosine triphosphate.)
The aufbau process is a method of
writing electron configurations. Each
element is described as differing from
the preceding one in terms of the
orbital to which the one additional
electron is assigned.
An average bond energy is the average
of bond-dissociation energies for a
number of different species containing
a particular covalent bond. (See also
bond dissociation energy.)
The Avogadro constant, NA , has a
value of 6.02214 * 1023 mol-1. It is the
number of elementary units in one mole.
Avogadro s law (hypothesis) states that
at a fixed temperature and pressure,
the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the amount of gas and
that equal volumes of different gases,
compared under identical conditions
of temperature and pressure, contain
equal numbers of molecules.
An azeotrope is a solution that boils at
a constant temperature, producing
vapor of the same composition as the
liquid. In some cases, the azeotrope
boils at a lower temperature than the
solution components, in other cases, at
a higher temperature.
A balanced equation has the same
number of atoms of each type on both
sides. (See also chemical equation.)
Band theory is a form of molecular
orbital theory to describe bonding in
metals and semiconductors.

One bar is equal to 100 kilopascals

11 bar = 100 kPa2.
A barometer is a device used to measure
the pressure of the atmosphere.
Barometric pressure is the prevailing
pressure of the atmosphere as
indicated by a barometer.
A base is (1) a compound that
produces hydroxide ions, OH-, in
water solution (Arrhenius theory);
(2) a proton acceptor (Brnsted Lowry
theory); (3) an atom, ion, or molecule
that can donate a pair of electrons to
form a covalent bond (Lewis theory).
A base ionization constant, Kb , is the
equilibrium constant for the ionization
reaction of a weak base.
Basicity is a measure of the tendency
of an electron pair donor to react with
a proton.
The basic oxygen process is the
principal process used to convert
impure iron (pig iron) into steel.
A battery is a voltaic cell [or a group of
voltaic cells connected in series ( + to - )]
used to produce electricity from
chemical change.
bcc (See body-centered cubic.)
A benzyl group is a methyl group
with one hydrogen atom replaced
by a phenyl group.
A beta ( B *) particle is an electron
emitted as a result of the conversion of a
neutron to a proton in certain atomic
nuclei undergoing radioactive decay.
A bidentate ligand attaches itself to
the central atom of a complex at two
points in the coordination sphere.
A bimolecular process is an
elementary process involving the
collision of two molecules.
Binary compounds are compounds
composed of two elements.
A body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal
structure is one in which the unit cell
has structural units at each corner and
one in the center of the cube.
Boiling is a process in which
vaporization occurs throughout a
liquid. It occurs when the vapor
pressure of a liquid is equal to
barometric pressure.
A bomb calorimeter is a device used
to measure the heat of a combustion
reaction. The quantity measured is the
heat of reaction at constant volume,
qV = U.
A bond angle is the angle between two
covalent bonds. It is the angle between
hypothetical lines joining the nuclei of
two atoms to the nucleus of a third atom
to which they are covalently bonded.
Bond-dissociation energy, D, is the
quantity of energy required to break one
mole of covalent bonds in a gaseous

Appendix F
species, usually expressed in kJ mol-1.
(See also average bond energy.)
Bond length (bond distance) is the
distance between the centers of two
atoms joined by a covalent bond.
Bond order is one-half the difference
between the numbers of electrons in
bonding and in antibonding molecular
orbitals in a covalent bond. A single
bond has a bond order of 1; a double
bond, 2; and a triple bond, 3.
A bond pair is a pair of electrons
involved in covalent bond formation.
A bonding molecular orbital describes
regions of high electron probability or
charge density in the internuclear
region between two bonded atoms.
Boyle s law states that the volume of
a fixed amount of gas at a constant
temperature is inversely proportional
to the gas pressure.
In a bridged halonium ion, a halogen
atom (X) is bonded to (bridges) two
carbon atoms that are bonded to each
X
*
C
C
other:
. The halogen
atom has a complete octet, comprising
two bonding pairs and two lone pairs,
and it bears a formal charge of 1+. If the
halogen atom is chlorine or bromine,
the ion is called a chloronium or
bromonium ion.
Buffer capacity refers to the amount of
acid and/or base that a buffer solution
can neutralize while maintaining an
essentially constant pH.
Buffer range is the range of pH values
over which a buffer solution can
maintain a fairly constant pH.
A buffer solution resists a change in
its pH. It contains components capable
of neutralizing small added amounts
of acids and base.
By-products are substances produced
along with the principal product in a
chemical process, either through the
main reaction or a side reaction.
Calcination refers to the decomposition
of a solid by heating at temperatures
below its melting point, such as the
decomposition of calcium carbonate
to calcium oxide and CO2(g).
The calorie (cal) is the quantity of heat
required to change the temperature of
one gram of water by one degree
Celsius.
A calorimeter is a device (of which
there are numerous types) used to
measure a quantity of heat.
A carbohydrate is a polyhydroxy
aldehyde, a polyhydroxy ketone, a
derivative of these, or a substance

that yields them upon hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates can be viewed as
hydrates of carbon, in the sense that
their general formulas are Cx(H2O)y .
Carbon black is a finely divided
amorphous form of carbon prepared
by the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbons.
The carbonyl group is found in
aldehydes, ketones, and carboxylic
acids

O.
O

C OH .
The carboxyl group is
A carboxylic acid has one or more
carboxyl groups attached to a
hydrocarbon chain or ring structure.
A catalyst provides an alternative
mechanism of lower activation energy
for a chemical reaction. The reaction
is speeded up, and the catalyst is
regenerated.
The cathode is the electrode of an
electrochemical cell where a reduction
half-reaction occurs.
Cathode rays are negatively charged
particles (electrons) emitted at the
negative electrode (cathode) in the
passage of electricity through gases
at very low pressures.
Cathodic protection is a method of
corrosion control in which the metal
to be protected is joined to a more
active metal that corrodes instead.
The protected metal acts as the
cathode of a voltaic cell.
A cation is a positively charged ion. A
cation migrates toward the cathode in
an electrochemical cell.
The cell is the fundamental unit of
living organisms.
A cell diagram is a symbolic
representation of an electrochemical
cell that indicates the substances
entering into the cell reaction, electrode
materials, solution concentrations, etc.
The cell voltage (potential), Ecell , is
the potential difference (voltage)
between the two electrodes of an
electrochemical cell.
The Celsius temperature scale is
based on a value of 0 C for the normal
melting point of ice and 100 C for the
normal boiling point of water.
A central atom in a structure is an
atom that is bonded to two or more
other atoms.
In chain-reaction polymerization, a
reaction is initiated by opening
up a carbon-to-carbon double bond.
Monomer units add to free-radical
intermediates to produce a long-chain
polymer.
The charge density, r, is the charge
per unit volume in a cation.

Glossary

A41

Charles s law states that the volume

of a fixed amount of gas at a constant
pressure is directly proportional to
the Kelvin (absolute) temperature.
A chelate results from the attachment of
polydentate ligands to the central atom
of a complex ion. Chelates are five- or
six-membered rings that include the
central atom and atoms of the ligands.
A chelating agent is a polydentate
ligand. It simultaneously attaches
to two or more positions in the
coordination sphere of the central
atom of a complex ion.
Chelation is the process of chelate
formation.
The chelation effect refers to an
exceptional stability conferred to a
complex ion when polydentate ligands
are present.
Chemical change (See chemical
reaction.)
Chemical energy is the energy
associated with chemical bonds and
intermolecular forces.
A chemical equation is a symbolic
representation of a chemical reaction.
Symbols and formulas are used to
represent reactants and products, and
stoichiometric coefficients are used to
balance the equation. (See also
balanced equation.)
A chemical formula represents the
relative numbers of atoms of each
kind in a substance through symbols
and numerical subscripts.
A chemical property is the ability
(or inability) of a sample of matter to
undergo a particular chemical reaction.
A chemical reaction is a process in
which one set of substances (reactants)
is transformed into a new set of
substances (products).
Chemical symbols are abbreviations of
the names of the elements consisting of
one or two letters (e.g., N = nitrogen
and Ne = neon).
Chiral refers to a molecule with a
structure that is not superimposable on
its mirror image. (See also enantiomers.)
The term cis describes geometric
isomers in which two groups are
attached on the same side of a double
bond in an organic molecule, or along
the same edge of a square in a squareplanar complex, or at two adjacent
vertices of an octahedral complex. (See
also geometric isomerism.)
cis trans isomerism is a type of
stereoisomerism.
A closed system is one that can
exchange energy but not matter
with its surroundings.
Cohesive forces are intermolecular
forces between like molecules, such
as within a drop of liquid.

A42

Appendix F

Glossary

Coke is a relatively pure form of

carbon produced by heating coal
out of contact with air (destructive
distillation).
Colligative properties vapor
pressure lowering, freezing point
depression, boiling point elevation,
osmotic pressure have values that
depend on the number of solute
particles in a solution but not on
their identity.
A colloid is a mixture that contains
particles that are larger than ions
or molecules but are still
submicroscopic.
The common-ion effect describes the
effect on an equilibrium by a substance
that furnishes ions that can participate
in the equilibrium.
A complementary color is a secondary
color that mixes with the opposite
primary color on the color wheel to
produce white light in additive color
mixing or black in subtractive color
mixing.
A complex is a polyatomic cation,
anion, or neutral molecule in which
groups (molecules or ions) called
ligands are bonded to a central metal
atom or ion.
A complex ion is a complex having a
net electrical charge.
Composition refers to the components
and their relative proportions in a
sample of matter.
A compound is a substance made up
of two or more elements. It does not
change its identity in physical changes,
but it can be broken down into its
constituent elements by chemical
changes.
Concentration (1) refers to the
composition of a solution. (2) See
extractive metallurgy.
In a concentration cell identical
electrodes are immersed in solutions of
different concentrations. The voltage
(emf) of the cell is a function simply of the
concentrations of the two solutions.
Condensation is the passage of
molecules from the gaseous state to
the liquid state.
A condensed structural formula is a
simplified representation of a structural
formula.
Conformations refer to the different
spatial arrangements possible in a
molecule. Examples are the boat
and chair forms of cyclohexane.
A conjugate acid is formed when a
Brnsted Lowry base gains a proton.
Every base has a conjugate acid.
A conjugate acid base pair is pair of
molecules or ions for which the chemical
formulas differ by a single proton: H +

(e.g., H3O+ and H2O; H2O and OH-;

NH 4 + and NH3; H3PO4 and H2PO4 - ).
A conjugate base remains after a
Brnsted Lowry acid has lost a proton.
Every acid has a conjugate base.
Consecutive reactions are two or more
reactions carried out in sequence. A
product of each reaction becomes a
reactant in a following reaction until
a final product is formed.
Constitutional isomers have different
bond connectivities, and thus different
skeletal structures.
The contact process is a process for the
manufacture of sulfuric acid having as
its key reaction the oxidation of SO2(g)
to SO3(g) in contact with a catalyst.
Control rods are neutron-absorbing
metal rods (e.g., Cd) that are used to
control the neutron flux in a nuclear
reactor and thereby control the rate
of the fission reaction.
In a coordinate covalent bond,
electrons shared between two atoms
are contributed by just one of the
atoms. As a result, the bonded atoms
exhibit formal charges.
Coordination compounds are neutral
complexes or compounds containing
complex ions.
Coordination number is the number of
positions around a central atom where
ligands can be attached in the formation
of a complex. Applied to a crystalline
solid, coordination number signifies the
number of nearest neighboring atoms
(or ions of opposite charge) to any given
atom (or ion) in a crystal.
Coupled reactions are sets of chemical
reactions that occur together. One (or
more) of the reactions taken alone is
(are) nonspontaneous and other(s),
spontaneous. The overall reaction is
spontaneous.
A covalent bond is formed when
electrons are shared between a pair of
atoms. In valence bond theory, the
sharing of the electrons is said to
occur in the region in which atomic
orbitals overlap.
Covalent radius is one-half the
distance between the centers of two
atoms that are bonded covalently. It is
the atomic radius associated with an
element in its covalent compounds.
The critical point refers to the
temperature and pressure at which a
liquid and its vapor become identical.
It is the highest temperature point on
the vapor pressure curve.
Crystal field theory describes bonding
in complexes in terms of electrostatic
attractions between ligands and the
nucleus of the central metal. Particular
attention is focused on the splitting of
the d energy level of the central metal.

Cubic closest packed is one of the two

ways in which spheres can be packed
to minimize the amount of free space
or voids among them.
Dalton s law of partial pressures
states that in a mixture of gases, the
total pressure is the sum of the partial
pressures of the gases present. (See
also partial pressure.)
The dashed and solid wedge line
notation is a method of conveying a
three-dimensional perspective to a
structure plotted in a plane.
The d block refers to that section of the
periodic table in which the process of
orbital filling (aufbau process) involves
a d subshell.
A decay constant is a first-order rate
constant describing radioactive decay.
Degree of ionization refers to the
extent to which molecules of a weak
acid or weak base ionize. The degree
of ionization increases as the weak
electrolyte solution is diluted. (See also
percent ionization.)
The degree of unsaturation is equal to
the total number of p bonds and ring
structures in a molecule.
Degenerate orbitals are orbitals that
are at the same energy level.
A delocalized molecular orbital
describes a region of high electron
probability or charge density that
extends over three or more atoms.
Denaturation refers to the loss of
biological activity of a protein brought
about by changes in its secondary and
tertiary structures.
Density is a physical property
obtained by dividing the mass of a
material or object by its volume
(i.e., mass per unit volume).
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the
substance that makes up the genes of
the chromosomes in the nuclei of cells.
Deposition is the passage of molecules
from the gaseous to the solid state.
Detergents are cleansing agents that
act by emulsifying oils. Most common
among synthetic detergents are the
salts of organic sulfonic acids,
RSO3 -Na+.
Dextrorotatory means the ability to
rotate the plane of polarized light to
the right, designated 1 +2.
Diagonal relationships refer to
similarities that exist between certain
pairs of elements in different groups
and periods of the periodic table,
such as Li and Mg, Be and Al, and
B and Si.
A diamagnetic substance has all
its electrons paired and is slightly
repelled by a magnetic field.

Appendix F
Diastereomers are optically active
isomers of a compound, but their
structures are not mirror images
(as are enantiomers).
Diffraction is the dispersion of light
into its different components as a
result of the interference produced by
the reflection of light from a grooved
surface.
Diffusion refers to the spreading of
a substance (usually a gas or liquid)
into a region where it is not originally
present as a result of random
molecular motion.
A dimer is a molecule comprised of
two simpler formula units, such as
Al2Cl6 , which is a dimer of AlCl3 .
Dipole moment, m, is a measure of
the extent to which a separation exists
between the centers of positive and
negative charge within a molecule. The
unit used to measure dipole moment is
the debye, 3.34 * 10-30 C m.
Dispersion (London) forces are
intermolecular forces associated with
instantaneous and induced dipoles.
In a disproportionation reaction, the
same substance is both oxidized and
reduced.
In a double covalent bond, two pairs of
electrons are shared between bonded
atoms. The bond is represented by a
double-dash sign ( ).
An E1 reaction is an elimination
reaction in which the rate-determining
step is unimolecular.
An E2 reaction is an elimination
reaction in which the rate-determining
step is bimolecular.
Effective nuclear charge, Zeff , is the
positive charge acting on a particular
electron in an atom. Its value is the
charge on the nucleus, reduced to the
extent that other electrons screen the
particular electron from the nucleus.
Effusion is the escape of a gas through
a tiny hole in its container.
An electrochemical cell is a device in
which the electrons transferred in an
oxidation reduction reaction are made
to pass through an electrical circuit. (See
also electrolytic cell and voltaic cell.)
An electrode is a metal surface
on which an oxidation reduction
equilibrium is established between the
metal and substances in solution.
Electrolysis is the decomposition of a
substance, either in the molten state or
in an electrolyte solution, by means of
electric current.
An electrolyte is a substance that
provides ions when dissolved in water.
An electrolytic cell is an electrochemical
cell in which a nonspontaneous
reaction is carried out by electrolysis.

Electromagnetic radiation is a form

of energy propagated as mutually
perpendicular electric and magnetic
fields. It includes visible light, infrared,
ultraviolet, X ray, and radio waves.
Electromotive force (emf) is the
potential difference between two
electrodes in a voltaic cell, expressed
in volts.
Electron affinity (EA) is the energy
change associated with the gain of an
electron by a neutral gaseous atom.
Electron capture (EC) is a form of
radioactive decay in which an electron
from an inner electronic shell is absorbed
by a nucleus. In the nucleus the electron
is used to convert a proton to a neutron.
An electron configuration is a
designation of how electrons are
distributed among various orbitals
in an atom.
Electronegativity (EN) is a measure
of the electron-attracting power of a
bonded atom; metals have low
electronegativities, and nonmetals
have high electronegativities.
The electronegativity difference
between two atoms that are bonded
together is used to assess the degree
of polarity in the bond.
Electron-group geometry refers to
the geometrical distribution about a
central atom of the electron pairs in
its valence shell.
Electron spin is a characteristic of
electrons giving rise to the magnetic
properties of atoms. The two
possibilities for electron spin
are + 12 and - 12 .
Electrons are particles carrying the
fundamental unit of negative electric
charge. They are found outside the
nuclei of all atoms.
Electron-withdrawing substituents
are atoms or groups of atoms that
draw electron density toward
themselves. Highly electronegative
atoms, such as F, O, N, and Cl, are
examples.
An electrophile contains an electronattracting region of positive charge (an
electrophilic center) and is a reagent
that forms a bond to its reaction
partner (the nucleophile) by accepting
both bonding electrons from that
reaction partner.
An electrophilic center in a molecule
is an electron-attracting region of
positive charge.
In an electrophilic substitution
reaction, an electrophile replaces
another atom or group in a molecule.
An example of an electrophilic
substitution reaction is the replacement
of an H atom in benzene with a nitro
1NO22 group.

Glossary

A43

An electrostatic potential map depicts

the electron charge distribution in a
molecule. The color red is used to
represent the region with the most
negative charge, and blue represents
the most positive charge.
An element is a substance composed
of a single type of atom. It cannot be
broken down into simpler substances
by chemical reactions.
An elementary process is an event
that significantly alters a molecule s
energy or geometry or produces a
new molecule(s). It represents a single
step in a reaction mechanism.
In an elimination reaction, atoms or
groups that are bonded to adjacent
atoms are eliminated as a small
molecule (e.g., H2O) and an additional
bond is formed between carbon atoms.
An empirical formula is the simplest
chemical formula that can be written
for a compound, that is, having the
smallest integral subscripts possible.
Enantiomers (optical isomers) are
molecules whose structures are
nonsuperimposable mirror images.
The molecules are optically active,
that is, able to rotate the plane of
polarized light.
An endothermic reaction results in
a lowering of the temperature of an
isolated system or the absorption of
heat by a system that interacts with
its surroundings.
The end point is the point in a titration
where the indicator used changes color.
A properly chosen indicator has its end
point coming as closely as possible to
the equivalence point of the titration.
Energy is the capacity to do work.
(See also work.)
An energy-level diagram is a
representation of the allowed energy
states for the electrons in atoms. The
simplest energy-level diagram is that
of the hydrogen atom.
The English system of measurement
has the yard as its unit of length, the
pound as its unit of mass, and the
second as its unit of time.
Enthalpy, H, is a thermodynamic
function used to describe constantpressure processes: H = U + PV, and at
constant pressure, H = U + P V.
Enthalpy change, H, is the difference
in enthalpy between two states of a
system. For a chemical reaction carried
out at constant temperature and
pressure and with work limited to
pressure volume work, the enthalpy
change is called the heat of reaction at
constant pressure.
An enthalpy diagram is a
diagrammatic representation of
the enthalpy changes in a process.

A44

Appendix F

Glossary

Enthalpy (heat) of formation (See

standard enthalpy of formation.)
Entropy, S, is a thermodynamic
property related to the number of
energy levels among which the energy
of a system is spread. The greater the
number of energy levels for a given
total energy, the greater the entropy.
Entropy change, S, is the difference in
entropy between two states of a system.
An enzyme is a high molar mass protein
that catalyzes biological reactions.
An equation of state is a mathematical
expression relating the amount,
volume, temperature, and pressure of
a substance (usually applied to gases).
Equilibrium refers to a condition where
forward and reverse processes proceed
at equal rates and no further net change
occurs. For example, amounts of
reactants and products in a reversible
reaction remain constant over time.
The equilibrium constant is the
numerical value of the equilibrium
constant expression.
An equilibrium constant expression
describes the relationship among the
concentrations (or partial pressures)
of the substances present in a system
at equilibrium.
The equivalence point of a titration is
the condition in which the reactants
are in stoichiometric proportions. They
consume each other, and neither
reactant is in excess.
An ester is the product of the elimination
of H2O from between an acid and an
alcohol molecule. Esters have the
O
general formula R C O R*.
An ether has the general formula
R O R.
Eutrophication is the deterioration of a
freshwater body caused by nutrients
such as nitrates and phosphates, which
stimulate the growth of algae, oxygen
depletion, and fish kills.
Evaporation is the physical process of
a liquid changing to a vapor. (See also
vaporization.)
In an excited state of an atom, one or
more electrons are promoted to a
higher energy level than in the ground
state. (See also ground state.)
An exothermic reaction produces an
increase in temperature in an isolated
system or, for a system that interacts
with its surroundings, the evolution
of heat.
Expanded valence shell is a term used
to describe Lewis structures in which
certain atoms in the third or higher
period of the periodic table appear
to require 10 or 12 electrons in their
valence shells.

An extensive property is one, like

mass or volume, whose value depends
on the quantity of matter observed.
Extractive metallurgy refers to the
process of extracting a metal from its
ores. Generally this occurs in four
steps. Concentration separates the ore
from waste rock (gangue). Roasting
converts the ore to the metal oxide.
Reduction (usually with carbon)
converts the oxide to the metal.
Refining removes impurities from the
metal.
The E, Z system is a system of
nomenclature used to describe the
manner in which substituent groups
are attached at a carbon-to-carbon
double bond.
A face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal
structure is one in which the unit cell
has structural units at the eight corners
and in the center of each face of the
unit cell. It is derived from the cubic
closest packed arrangement of spheres.
The Fahrenheit temperature scale
is based on a value of 32 F as the
melting point of ice and 212 F
as the boiling point of water.
A family of elements is a numbered
group from the periodic table, sometimes
carrying a distinctive name. For example,
group 17 is the halogen family.
The Faraday constant, F, is the charge
associated with one mole of electrons,
96,485 C>mol e-.
Fats are triglycerides in which saturated
fatty acid components predominate.
The f block is that portion of the
periodic table where the process of
filling of electron orbitals (aufbau
process) involves f subshells. These
are the lanthanide and actinide
elements.
fcc (See face-centered cubic.)
Ferromagnetism is a property that
permits certain materials (notably Fe,
Co, and Ni) to be made into permanent
magnets. The magnetic moments of
individual atoms are aligned into
domains. In the presence of a magnetic
field, these domains orient themselves to
produce a permanent magnetic moment.
A Fischer projection formula is
a two-dimensional representation of a
three-dimensional structural formula.
It shows how the stereochemistry at
a chiral carbon atom is represented
in two dimensions, and how the
carbon-chain backbone is arranged
on the page.
The first law of thermodynamics,
expressed as U = q + w, is an
alternative statement of the law of
conservation of energy. (See also law
of conservation of energy.)

A first-order reaction is one for which

the sum of the concentration-term
exponents in the rate equation is 1.
Fission (See nuclear fission.)
A flow battery is a battery in which
materials (reactants, products,
electrolytes) pass continuously through
the battery. The battery is simply a
converter of chemical to electrical energy.
Formal charge is the number of outershell (valence) electrons in an isolated
atom minus the number of electrons
assigned to that atom in a Lewis
structure.
The formation constant, Kf , describes
equilibrium among a complex ion, the
free metal ion, and ligands.
Formula mass is the mass of a formula
unit of a compound, relative to a mass
of exactly 12 u for carbon-12.
A formula unit is the smallest
collection of atoms or ions from which
the empirical formula of a compound
can be established.
Fractional crystallization
(recrystallization) is a method of
purifying a substance by crystallizing
the pure solid from a saturated solution
while impurities remain in solution.
Fractional distillation (See distillation.)
Fractional precipitation is a technique
in which two or more ions in solution,
each capable of being precipitated by
the same reagent, are separated by the
use of that reagent.
The Frasch process is a method of
extracting sulfur from underwater
deposits. It is based on the use of
superheated water to melt the sulfur.
Free radicals are highly reactive
molecular fragments containing
unpaired electrons.
Freezing is the conversion of a liquid to
a solid that occurs at a fixed temperature
known as the freezing point.
The frequency of a wave motion is the
number of wave crests or troughs that
pass through a given point in a unit of
time. It is expressed by the unit time-1
(e.g., s-1, also called a hertz, Hz).
A fuel cell is a voltaic cell in which the
cell reaction is the equivalent of the
combustion of a fuel. Chemical energy
of the fuel is converted to electricity.
A function of state (state function) is a
property that assumes a unique value
when the state or present condition of a
system is defined. This value is
independent of how the state is attained.
A functional group is an atom or
grouping of atoms attached to a
hydrocarbon residue, R. The functional
group often confers specific properties
to an organic molecule.
Fusion (See nuclear fusion.)

Appendix F
Galvanic cell (See voltaic cell.)
Gamma (G) rays are a form of
electromagnetic radiation of high
penetrating power emitted by certain
radioactive nuclei.
In a gas, atoms or molecules are
generally much more widely separated
than in liquids and solids. A gas
assumes the shape of its container and
expands to fill the container, thus having
neither definite shape nor volume.
The gas constant, R, is the numerical
constant appearing in the ideal gas
equation 1PV = nRT2 and in several
other equations as well.
In the gauche conformation, the
methyl groups are to the left and
right of each other.
In a geminal dihalide, a halogen adds
across the double bond of an alkene,
and the two halogen atoms are bonded
to the same carbon.
The general gas equation is an
expression based on the ideal gas
equation and written in the form
P1 V1>n1T1 = P2 V2>n2T2 .
Geometric isomerism in organic
compounds refers to the existence
of nonequivalent structures (cis and
trans) that differ in the positioning of
substituent groups relative to a double
bond. In complexes, the nonequivalent
structures are based on the positions at
which ligands are attached to the
metal center.
Gibbs energy, G, is a thermodynamic
function designed to produce a
criterion for spontaneous change.
It is defined through the equation
G = H - TS.
Gibbs energy change, G, is the change
in Gibbs energy that accompanies a
process and can be used to indicate the
direction of spontaneous change. For a
spontaneous process at constant
temperature and pressure, G 6 0. (See
also standard Gibbs energy change.)
Glass is a transparent, amorphous solid
consisting of Na+ and Ca2+ ions in a
network of SiO4 4- anions. It is made by
fusing together a mixture of sodium
and calcium carbonates with sand.
Global warming refers to the
warming of Earth that results from
an accumulation in the atmosphere
of gases such as CO2 that absorb
infrared radiation radiated from
Earth s surface.
Graham s law states that the rates of
effusion or diffusion of two different
gases are inversely proportional to the
square roots of their molar masses.
The ground state is the lowest energy
state for the electrons in an atom or
molecule.

A group is a vertical column of

elements in the periodic table. Members
of a group have similar properties.
A half-cell is a combination of an
electrode and a solution. An oxidation
reduction equilibrium is established on
the electrode. An electrochemical cell is
a combination of two half-cells.
The half-life 1t1/22 of a reaction is the
time required for one-half of a reactant
to be consumed. In a nuclear decay
process, it is the time required for onehalf of the atoms present in a sample to
undergo radioactive decay.
A half-reaction describes one portion
of an overall oxidation reduction
reaction, either the oxidation or the
reduction.
Halogens (group 17) are the most
reactive nonmetals, having the electron
configuration ns2np5 in the electronic
shell of highest principal quantum
number.
Hard water contains dissolved
minerals in significant concentrations.
If the hardness is primarily due to
HCO3 - and associated cations, the
water has temporary hardness. If the
hardness is due to anions other than
HCO3 - (e.g., SO4 2-), the water has
permanent hardness.
hcp (See hexagonal closest packed.)
Heat is a transfer of thermal energy as
a result of a temperature difference.
Heat capacity is the quantity of heat
required to change the temperature of
an object or substance by one degree,
usually expressed as J C-1 or cal C-1.
Specific heat capacity is the heat capacity
per gram of substance, i.e., J C-1 g-1,
and molar heat capacity is the heat
capacity per mole, i.e., J C-1 mol-1.
A heat of reaction is energy converted
from chemical to thermal (or vice
versa) in a reaction. In an isolated
system, this energy conversion causes
a temperature change, and in a system
that interacts with its surroundings,
heat (q) is either evolved to or
absorbed from the surroundings.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle
states that, when measuring the position
and momentum of fundamental
particles of matter, uncertainties
in measurement are inevitable.
The Henderson Hasselbalch equation
has the form, pH = pKa + log
[conjugate base]/[acid], in which
stoichiometric concentrations of the
weak acid and its conjugate base
are used in place of the equilibrium
concentrations. There are limitations
on its validity.
Henry s law relates the solubility of a
gas to the gas pressure maintained
above a solution of the gaseous solute.

Glossary

A45

The solubility is directly proportional

to the pressure of the gas above the
solution.
The hertz (Hz) is the SI unit of
frequency, equal to s-1.
Hess s law states that the enthalpy
change for an overall or net process
is the sum of enthalpy changes for
individual steps in the process.
Heterocyclic compounds are based on
hydrocarbon ring structures in which
one or more C atoms are replaced by
atoms such as N, O, or S.
Heterogeneous catalysis is catalytic
action that takes place on a surface
separating two phases.
In a heterogeneous mixture,
components separate into physically
distinct regions of differing properties
and often differing composition.
Hexagonal closest packed is one of
the two ways in which spheres can be
packed to minimize the amount of
free space or voids among them. The
crystal structure based on this type
of packing is referred to as hcp.
In a high-spin complex, weak crystal
field splitting leads to a maximum
number of unpaired electrons in the d
subshell of the central metal atom or ion.
Homogeneous catalysis refers to a
catalytic reaction taking place in a
single phase.
A homogeneous mixture (solution) is a
mixture of elements and/or compounds
that has a uniform composition and
properties within a given sample.
However, the composition and
properties may vary from one
sample to another.
A homologous series is a group of
compounds that differ in composition
by some constant unit ( CH2 in the
case of alkanes).
Hund s rule (rule of maximum
multiplicity) states that whenever
orbitals of equal energy are available,
electrons occupy these orbitals singly
before any pairing of electrons
occurs.
A hybrid orbital is one of a set of
identical orbitals reformulated from
pure atomic orbitals and used to
describe certain covalent bonds.
Hybridization refers to combining
pure atomic orbitals to generate hybrid
orbitals in the valence bond approach
to covalent bonding.
A hydrate is a compound in which a
fixed number of water molecules is
associated with each formula unit,
such as CuSO4 # 5 H2O.
Hydrides are compounds of hydrogen,
usually divided into the categories of
covalent (e.g., H2O and HCl), ionic

A46

Appendix F

Glossary

(e.g., LiH and CaH2), and metallic

(mostly nonstoichiometric compounds
with the transition metals).
A hydrocarbon is a compound
containing the two elements carbon
and hydrogen. The C atoms are
arranged in straight or branched
chains or ring structures.
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular
force of attraction in which an H atom
covalently bonded to one atom is
attracted simultaneously to another
highly nonmetallic atom of the same
or a nearby molecule.
In a hydrogenation reaction, H atoms
are added to multiple bonds between
carbon atoms, converting carbon-tocarbon double bonds to single bonds
and carbon-to-carbon triple bonds to
double or single bonds. It is a reaction,
for example, that converts an
unsaturated to a saturated fatty acid.
Hydrolysis is a special name given
to acid base reactions in which ions
act as acids or bases. As a result of
hydrolysis, many salt solutions
are not pH neutral, that is, pH Z 7.
Hydrometallurgy refers to
metallurgical procedures where water
and aqueous solutions are used to
extract metals from their ores. In the
first step, leaching, the target metal is
obtained in soluble form in aqueous
solution. Other steps include purifying
the leached solution and depositing
the metal from solution.
Hydronium ion, H3O*, is the form in
which protons are found in aqueous
solution. The terms hydrogen ion
and hydronium ion are often used
synonymously.
The hydroxyl group is OH and is
usually found attached to a straight
or branched hydrocarbon chain (an
alcohol) or a ring structure (a phenol).
A hypothesis is a tentative explanation
of a series of observations or of a
natural law.
An ICE table is a format for organizing
the data in an equilibrium calculation.
It is based on the initial concentrations
of reactants and products, changes in
concentrations to attain equilibrium,
and equilibrium concentrations.
An ideal (perfect) gas is one whose
behavior can be predicted by the ideal
gas equation.
Ideal gas constant (See gas constant.)
The ideal gas equation relates the
pressure, volume, temperature, and
number of moles of ideal gas (n)
through the expression PV = nRT.
An ideal solution has Hsoln = 0
and certain properties (notably vapor
pressure) that are predictable from the
properties of the solution components.

An indicator is an added substance

that changes color at the equivalence
point in a titration.
The inductive effect refers to the
shifting of electron density from one
atom toward another through the
chain of s bonds that connects them.
Industrial smog is air pollution in
which the chief pollutants are SO2(g),
SO3(g), H2SO4 mist, and smoke.
Inert complex is the term used to
describe a complex ion in which the
exchange of ligands occurs very slowly.
The inert pair effect refers to the
effects on the properties of certain
post-transition elements that result
from the presence of a pair of electrons
in the s orbital of the valence shells of
their atoms.
The initial rate of a reaction is the rate
of a reaction immediately after the
reactants are brought together.
An inorganic compound is any
combination of elements that does not
fit the category of organic compound.
(See also organic compound.)
An instantaneous rate of reaction is
the exact rate of a reaction at some
precise point in the reaction. It is
obtained from the slope of a tangent
line to a concentration time graph.
An integrated rate law (equation) is
derived from a rate law (equation) by
the calculus technique of integration. It
relates the concentration of a reactant
(or product) to elapsed time from the
start of a reaction. The equation has
different forms depending on the order
of the reaction.
An intensive property is independent of
the quantity of matter involved in the
observation. Density and temperature
are examples of intensive properties.
An interhalogen compound is a
covalent compound between two or
more halogen elements, such as ICl
and BrF3 .
An intermediate is the product of
one reaction that is consumed in a
following reaction in a process that
proceeds through several steps.
The internal energy, U, of a system
is the total energy attributed to the
particles of matter and their
interactions within a system.
An ion is a charged species consisting
of a single atom or a group of atoms.
It is formed when a neutral atom or a
covalently bonded group of atoms
either gains or loses electrons.
Ion exchange is a process in which ions
held to the surface of an ion exchange
material are exchanged for other ions
in solution. For example, Na+ may
be exchanged for Ca2+ and Mg2+, or
OH- may be exchanged for SO4 2-.

An ion pair is an association of a

cation and an anion in solution. Such
combinations, when they occur, can
have a significant effect on solution
equilibria.
An ion product, Qsp , is formulated in
the same manner as a solubility product
constant, Ksp , but with nonequilibrium
concentration terms. A comparison of
Qsp and Ksp provides a criterion for
precipitation from solution.
The ion product of water, Kw , is the
product of [H3O+] and [OH-] in pure
water or in an aqueous solution. This
product has a unique value that
depends only on temperature. At
25 C, Kw = 1.0 * 10-14.
An ionic bond results from the
transfer of electrons between metal
and nonmetal atoms. Positive and
negative ions are formed and held
together by electrostatic attractions.
An ionic compound is a compound
consisting of positive and negative
ions that are held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction.
Ionic radius is the radius of a spherical
ion. It is the atomic radius associated
with an element in its ionic compounds.
The first ionization energy, I, is the
energy required to remove the most
loosely held electron from a gaseous
atom. The second ionization energy, I2 ,
is the energy required to remove an
electron from a gaseous unipositive
ion, and so on.
An irreversible process takes place in
one or several finite steps such that the
system is not in equilibrium with its
surroundings.
The isoelectric point, pI, of an amino
acid is the pH at which the dipolar
structure or zwitterion predominates.
Isoelectronic species have the same
number of electrons (usually in the
same configuration). Na+ and Ne
are isoelectronic, as are CO and N2 .
An isolated system is one that
exchanges neither energy nor
matter with its surroundings.
Isomers are two or more compounds
having the same formula but different
structures and therefore different
properties.
Isotopes of an element are atoms with
different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei. That is, isotopes of an element
have the same atomic numbers but
different mass numbers.
Isotopic mass (See nuclidic mass.)
IUPAC (or IUC) refers to the
International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry.
Kc is the relationship among the
concentrations of the reactants and

Appendix F
products in a reversible reaction at
equilibrium. Concentrations are
expressed as molarities.
Kp , the partial pressure equilibrium
constant, is the relationship that exists
among the partial pressures of gaseous
reactants and products in a reversible
reaction at equilibrium. Partial
pressures are expressed in atm.
The Kelvin temperature is an absolute
temperature. That is, the lowest
attainable temperature is 0 K =
- 273.15 C (the temperature at which
molecular motion ceases). Kelvin and
Celsius temperatures are related through
the expression T (K) = t(C) + 273.15.
A ketone has the general formula
O
R C R*.
A kilopascal (kPa) is a unit of pressure
equal to 1000 pascals (Pa) or
1000 N>m-2. The standard atmosphere
of pressure is 101.325 kPa.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.
The kinetic energy of an object with
mass m and velocity u is K.E. = 12 mu2.
The kinetic-molecular theory of gases
is a model for describing gas behavior.
It is based on a set of assumptions and
yields equations from which various
properties of gases can be deduced.

Labile complex is the term used to

describe a complex ion in which a
rapid exchange of ligands occurs.
The lanthanide contraction refers to
the decrease in atomic size in a series of
elements in which an f subshell fills with
electrons (an inner transition series). It
results from the ineffectiveness of f
electrons in shielding outer-shell electrons
from the nuclear charge of an atom.
The lanthanides are the elements
1Z = 58 - 712 characterized by a
partially filled 4f subshell in their
atoms. Because lanthanum resembles
them, La 1Z = 572 is generally
considered together with them.
Lattice energy is the quantity of
energy released in the formation
of one mole of a crystalline ionic solid
from its separated gaseous ions.
Gay-Lussac s law of combining
volumes states that, when compared at
the same temperature and pressure, the
volumes of gases involved in a reaction
are in the ratio of small whole numbers.
The law of conservation of energy
states that energy can neither be created
nor destroyed in ordinary processes.
The law of conservation of mass states
that the total mass of the products of
a chemical reaction is the same as the
total mass of the reactants entering
into the reaction.

The law of constant composition

(definite proportions) states that all
samples of a compound have the
same composition, that is, the same
proportions by mass of the constituent
elements.
The law of multiple proportions
states that if two elements form two
or more compounds, the masses of
one element combined with a fixed
mass of the second are in the ratio
of small whole numbers when the
different compounds are compared.
The leaving group is the species
expelled from an electrophilic molecule
following attack by a nucleophile.
Le Chtelier s principle states that
an action that tends to change the
temperature, pressure, or concentrations
of reactants in a system at equilibrium
stimulates a response that partially
offsets the change while a new
equilibrium condition is established.
Levorotatory means the ability to
rotate the plane of polarized light
to the left, designated 1 -2.
Lewis acid (See acid.)
Lewis base (See base.)
A Lewis structure is a combination of
Lewis symbols that depicts the transfer
or sharing of electrons in a chemical
bond.
In the Lewis symbol of an element,
valence electrons are represented by
dots placed around the chemical
symbol of the element.
The Lewis theory refers to a description
of chemical bonding through Lewis
symbols and Lewis structures in
accordance with a particular set of rules.
Ligands are the groups that are
coordinated (bonded) to the central
atom in a complex.
The limiting reactant (reagent)
in a reaction is the reactant that is
consumed completely. The quantity
of product(s) formed depends on the
quantity of the limiting reactant.
Line-angle formulas are shorthand
representations of organic molecules in
which bond lines are drawn, but
chemical symbols are written only for
elements other than carbon and
hydrogen.
A line spectrum is produced from the
emission of light produced from excited
atom or ions. The spectrum contains
lines at discrete wavelengths which
arise from the transition of an electron
from one energy level to another.
Lipids include a variety of naturally
occurring substances (e.g., fats and
oils) sharing the property of solubility
in solvents of low polarity [such as in
CHCl3 , CCl4 , C6H6 , and (C2H5)2O].

Glossary

A47

In a liquid, atoms or molecules are in

close proximity (although generally
not as close as in a solid). A liquid
occupies a definite volume, but has
the ability to flow and assume the
shape of its container.
London forces (See dispersion forces.)
A lone pair is a pair of electrons found
in the valence shell of an atom and not
involved in bond formation.
In a low-spin complex, strong crystal
field splitting leads to a minimum
number of unpaired electrons in the d
subshell of the central metal atom or ion.
Magic numbers is a term used to
describe numbers of protons and
neutrons that confer a special stability
to an atomic nucleus.
The main-group elements are those in
which s or p subshells are being filled
in the aufbau process. They are also
referred to as the s-block and p-block
elements. They are found in groups
1, 2, and 13 18 in the periodic table
(the A groups).
A manometer is a device used to
measure the pressure of a gas, usually
by comparing the gas pressure with
barometric pressure.
Mass describes the quantity of matter
in an object.
The mass number, A, is the total of the
number of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of an atom.
A mass spectrometer (mass
spectrograph) is a device used to
separate and to measure the quantities
and masses of different ions in a beam
of positively charged gaseous ions.
Matter is anything that occupies space,
has the property known as mass, and
displays inertia.
Melting is the transition of a solid to a
liquid and occurs at the melting point.
The melting point and freezing point
of a substance are identical.
A meta (m-) isomer has two
substituents on a benzene ring
separated by one C atom.
Metabolism refers to the totality of the
chemical reactions occurring in living
organisms.
A metal is an element whose atoms
have small numbers of electrons in the
outermost electronic shell. Removal of
an electron(s) from a metal atom occurs
without great difficulty, producing a
positive ion (cation). Metals generally
have a lustrous appearance, are
malleable and ductile, and are able to
conduct heat and electricity.
Metal carbonyls are complexes with
d-block metals as central atoms and
CO molecules as ligands, e.g., Ni(CO)4 .

A48

Appendix F

Glossary

Metallic radius is one-half the distance

between the centers of adjacent atoms
in a solid metal.
A metalloid is an element that may
display both metallic and nonmetallic
properties under the appropriate
conditions.
A millimeter of mercury (mmHg)
is a unit of pressure, usually applied
to gases. For example, standard
atmospheric pressure is equal to
the pressure exerted by a 760-mm
column of mercury.
A millimole (mmol) is one-thousandth
of a mole (0.001 mol). It is especially
useful in titration calculations.
A mixture is any sample of matter that
is not pure, that is, not an element or
compound. The composition of a
mixture, unlike that of a substance, can
be varied. Mixtures are either
homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Moderator control slows down
energetic neutrons from a fission
process so that they are able to induce
additional fission.
Molality, m, is a solution concentration
expressed as the amount of solute, in
moles, divided by the mass of solvent,
in kg.
Molar mass, M, is the mass of one
mole of atoms, formula units, or
molecules of a substance.
A mole is an amount of substance
containing Avogadro s number
16.02214 * 10232 of atoms, formula
units, or molecules.
Mole fraction describes a mixture
in terms of the fraction of all the
molecules that are of a particular type.
It is the amount of one component, in
moles, divided by the total amount of
all the substances in the mixture.
A mole percent is a mole fraction
expressed on a percentage basis,
that is, mole fraction * 100%.
A molecular compound is a compound
comprised of discrete molecules.
A molecular formula denotes the
numbers of the different atoms present
in a molecule. In some cases the
molecular formula is the same as the
empirical formula; in others it is an
integral multiple of that formula.
Molecular geometry refers to the
geometric shape of a molecule or
polyatomic ion. In a species in which
all electron pairs are bond pairs, the
molecular geometry is the same as
the electron-group geometry. In other
cases, the two properties are related
but not the same.
Molecular mass is the mass of a
molecule relative to a mass of exactly
12 u for carbon-12.

Molecular orbital theory describes

the covalent bonds in a molecule by
replacing atomic orbitals of the
component atoms by molecular
orbitals belonging to the molecule as a
whole. A set of rules is used to assign
electrons to these molecular orbitals,
thereby yielding the electronic
structure of the molecule.
A molecule is a group of bonded
atoms held together by covalent bonds
and existing as a separate entity. A
molecule is the smallest entity having
the characteristic proportions of the
constituent atoms present in a
substance.
A monodentate ligand is a ligand that
is able to attach to a metal center in a
complex at only one position and
using just one lone pair of electrons.
A monosaccharide is a single, simple
molecule having the structural features
of a carbohydrate. It can also be called
a simple sugar.
A multiple covalent bond is a bond
in which more than two electrons are
shared between the bonded atoms.
A natural law is a concise statement,
often in mathematical terms, that
summarizes observations of certain
natural phenomena.
The Nernst equation is used to relate
and the activites of the
Ecell , Ecell
reactants and products in a cell reaction.
A net ionic equation represents a
reaction between ions in solution in
such a way that all nonparticipant
(spectator) ions are eliminated from
the equation. The equation must be
balanced both atomically and for net
electric charge.
A network covalent solid is a substance
in which covalent bonds extend
throughout the crystal, making the
covalent bond both an intramolecular
and an intermolecular force.
In a neutralization reaction, an acid
and a base react in stoichiometric
proportions, so that there is no excess of
either acid or base in the final solution.
The products are water and a salt.
Neutrons are electrically neutral
fundamental particles of matter found
in all atomic nuclei except that of the
simple hydrogen atom, protium, 1H.
The neutron number is the number of
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It
is equal to the mass number (A) minus
the atomic number (Z).
Noble gases are elements whose
atoms have the electron configuration
ns2np6 in the electronic shell of highest
principal quantum number. (The
noble gas helium has the
configuration 1s2.)

A nonelectrolyte is a substance that

is essentially non-ionized, both in the
pure state and in solution.
A nonmetal is an element whose atoms
tend to gain small numbers of electrons
to form negative ions (anions) with the
electron configuration of a noble gas.
Nonmetal atoms may also alter their
electron configurations by sharing
electrons. Nonmetals are mostly gases,
liquid (bromine), or low melting point
solids and are very poor conductors of
heat and electricity.
A nonspontaneous process is
one that will not occur naturally.
A nonspontaneous process can be
brought about only by intervention
from outside the system, as in the use
of electricity to decompose a chemical
compound (electrolysis).
The normal boiling point is the
temperature at which the vapor
pressure of a liquid is 1 atm. It is the
temperature at which the liquid boils
in a container open to the atmosphere
at a pressure of 1 atm.
A nuclear equation represents the
changes that occur during a nuclear
process. The target nucleus and
bombarding particle are represented
on the left side of the equation, and the
product nucleus and ejected particle
on the right side.
Nuclear fission is a radioactive decay
process in which a heavy nucleus
breaks up into two lighter nuclei
and several neutrons, accompanied
by the release of energy.
In nuclear fusion small atomic nuclei
are fused into larger ones, with some of
their mass being converted to energy.
Nucleic acids are cell components
comprised of purine and pyrimidine
bases, pentose sugars, and phosphoric
acid.
A nucleophile is a reactant that seeks
out a center of positive charge as a
point of attack in a chemical reaction.
A nucleophilic substitution reaction
is a reaction between a nucleophile
and an electrophile. The nucleophile
attacks at a positive center on the
electrophile, and the leaving group is
ejected from another point.
Nucleophilicity is a measure of how
readily (how fast) a nucleophile attacks
an electrophilic carbon atom bearing a
leaving group.
Nuclide is a term used to designate an
atom with a specific atomic number
and mass number. It is represented by
the symbolism A
Z E.
An octet refers to eight electrons in the
outermost (valence) electronic shell of
an atom in a Lewis structure.

Appendix F
The octet rule states that the number
of electrons associated with bond pairs
and lone pairs of electrons for each of
the Lewis symbols (except H) in a
Lewis structure will be eight (an octet).
Oils are triglycerides in which
unsaturated fatty acid components
predominate.
Olefins are organic compounds that
contain one or more carbon-to-carbon
double bonds.
Oligosaccharides are carbohydrates
consisting of two to ten monosaccharide
units. (See also sugar.)
An open system is one that can
exchange both matter and energy
with its surroundings.
Optical isomerism results from
the presence of a chiral atom in a
structure, leading to a pair of optical
isomers that differ only in the direction
that they rotate the plane of polarized
light. (See also enantiomers.)
Optical isomers, also called
enantiomers (nonsuperimposable
mirror images), are isomers that differ
only in the direction they rotate the
plane of polarized light.
An orbital is a mathematical function
used to describe regions in an atom
where the electron charge density or
the probability of finding an electron is
high. The several kinds of orbitals (s, p,
d, f, ) differ from one another in the
shapes of the regions of high electron
charge density they describe.
An orbital diagram is a representation
of an electron configuration in which
the most probable orbital designation
and spin of each electron in the atom
are indicated.
The order of a reaction relates to the
exponents of the concentration terms
in the rate law for a chemical reaction.
The order can be stated with respect to
a particular reactant (first order in A,
second order in B, ) or, more
commonly, as the overall order. The
overall order is the sum of the
concentration-term exponents.
An organic compound is made up
of carbon and hydrogen or carbon,
hydrogen and a small number of other
elements, such as oxygen, nitrogen,
and sulfur.
An ortho (o-) isomer has two
substituents attached to adjacent C
atoms in a benzene ring.
Osmosis is the net flow of solvent
molecules through a semipermeable
membrane, from a more dilute
solution (or from the pure solvent)
into a more concentrated solution.
Osmotic pressure is the pressure that
would have to be applied to a solution
to stop the passage through a

semipermeable membrane of solvent

molecules from the pure solvent.
An overall reaction or overall
equation is the overall or net change
that occurs when a process is carried
out in more than one step.
An overpotential is the voltage in
excess of the theoretical value required
to produce a particular electrode
reaction in electrolysis.
Oxidation is a process in which
electrons are lost and the oxidation
state of some atom increases.
(Oxidation can occur only in
combination with reduction.)
In an oxidation reduction (redox)
reaction certain atoms undergo
changes in oxidation state. The
substance containing atoms whose
oxidation states increase is oxidized.
The substance containing atoms whose
oxidation states decrease is reduced.
An oxidation state relates to the
number of electrons an atom loses,
gains, or shares in combining with
other atoms to form molecules or
polyatomic ions.
An oxidizing agent (oxidant) makes
possible an oxidation process by itself
being reduced.
An oxoacid is an acid in which an
ionizable hydrogen atom(s) is bonded
through an oxygen atom to a central
atom, that is, E O H. Other groups
bonded to the central atom are either
additional OH groups or O atoms
(or in a few cases H atoms).
An oxoanion is a polyatomic anion
containing a nonmetal, such as Cl, N,
P, or S, in combination with some
number of oxygen atoms.
Pairing energy is the energy
requirement to force an electron
into an orbital that is already occupied
by one electron.
A para 1p-2 isomer has two
substituents located opposite to
one another on a benzene ring.
A paramagnetic substance has one or
more unpaired electrons in its atoms or
molecules. It is attracted into a
magnetic field.
A partial pressure is the pressure
exerted by an individual gas in a
mixture, independently of other gases.
Each gas in the mixture expands to fill
the container and exerts its own partial
pressure.
A pascal (pa) is a pressure of one
N>m2.
The Pauli exclusion principle states
that no two electrons may have all four
quantum numbers alike. This limits
occupancy of an orbital to two
electrons with opposing spins.

Glossary

A49

The p block is that portion of the

periodic table in which the filling of
electron orbitals (aufbau process)
involves p subshells.
A peptide bond is formed by the
elimination of a water molecule from
between two amino acid molecules.
The H atom comes from the NH2
group of one amino acid and the
OH group, from the COOH
group of the other acid.
The percent ionization of a weak acid or
a weak base is the percent of its molecules
that ionize in an aqueous solution.
Percent natural abundances refer to
the relative proportions, expressed as
percentages by number, in which the
isotopes of an element are found in
natural sources.
Percent yield is the percent of the
theoretical yield of product that is
actually obtained in a chemical
reaction. (See also actual yield and
theoretical yield.)
A perfect gas is one whose behavior
can be predicted by the ideal gas
equation. It is also used to describe
a gas whose molecules are point
masses that do not interact with
one another. (See also ideal gas.)
A period is a horizontal row of the
periodic table. All members of a period
have atoms with the same highest
principal quantum number.
The periodic law refers to the periodic
recurrence of certain physical and
chemical properties when the elements
are considered in terms of increasing
atomic number.
The periodic table is an arrangement
of the elements, by atomic number, in
which elements with similar physical
and chemical properties are grouped
together in vertical columns.
Permanent hard water (See hard water.)
The peroxide ion has the structure
O

2*

.
pH is a shorthand designation for
[H3O+] in a solution. It is defined
as pH = -log[H3O+].
A phase diagram is a graphical
representation of the conditions of
temperature and pressure at which
solids, liquids, and gases (vapors)
exist, either as single phases or states
of matter or as two or more phases in
equilibrium.
A phenol has the functional group
OH as part of an aromatic
hydrocarbon structure.
A phenyl group is a benzene ring from
which one H atom has been removed:
C6H5 .
The photoelectric effect is the
emission of electrons by certain

A50

Appendix F

Glossary

materials when their surfaces are

struck by electromagnetic radiation
of the appropriate frequency.
A photon is a particle of light.
The energy of a beam of light is
concentrated into these photons.
In a physical change, one or more
physical properties of a sample of
matter change, but the composition
remains unchanged.
A physical property is a characteristic
that a substance can display without
undergoing a change in its
composition.
A pi ( P ) bond results from the sideto-side overlap of p orbitals, producing
a high electron charge density above
and below the line joining the bonded
atoms.
Pig iron is an impure form of iron
(about 95% Fe and 3 4% C, together
with small quantities of Mn, Si, and P)
produced in a blast furnace.
pK is a shorthand designation for an
ionization constant: pK = -logK. pK
values are useful when comparing the
relative strengths of acids or bases.
Planck s constant, h, is the
proportionality constant that relates
the energy of a photon of light to its
frequency. Its value is 6.626 * 10-34 J s.
1
Plaster of Paris, CaSO4 # H2O, is a
2
hemihydrate of calcium sulfate
obtained by heating gypsum,
CaSO4 # 2 H2O. It is a widely used
material in the construction industry.
pOH is a shorthand designation for
[OH-] in a solution: pOH =
- log[OH -].
In a polar covalent bond a separation
exists between the centers of positive
and negative charge in the bond.
In a polar molecule, the presence of
one or more polar covalent bonds
leads to a separation of the positive
and negative charge centers for the
molecule as a whole. A polar molecule
has a resultant dipole moment.
Polarizability describes the ease with
which the electron cloud in an atom or
molecule can be distorted in an electric
field, that is, the ease with which a
dipole can be induced.
A polyatomic ion is a combination of
two or more covalently bonded atoms
that exists as an ion.
A polydentate ligand is capable of
donating more than a single electron
pair to the metal center of a complex,
from different atoms in the ligand and to
different sites in the geometric structure.
In a polyhalide ion two or more
halogen atoms are covalently bonded
into a polyatomic anion, e.g., I3 -.

Polymorphism refers to the existence

of a solid substance in more than one
crystalline form.
In a polypeptide, a large number of
amino acid units join together through
peptide bonds.
A polyprotic acid is capable of
losing more than a single proton per
molecule in acid base reactions.
Protons are lost in a stepwise fashion,
with the first proton being the most
readily lost.
A polysaccharide is a carbohydrate
(such as starch or cellulose) consisting
of more than ten monosaccharide units.
Positional isomers differ in the position
on a hydrocarbon chain or ring where a
functional group(s) is attached.
A positron ( B *) is a positive electron
emitted as a result of the conversion of
a proton to a neutron in a radioactive
nucleus.
Potential energy is energy due to
position or arrangement. It is the energy
associated with forces of attraction and
repulsion between objects.
The term ppb (parts per billion) refers
to the number of parts of a component
to one billion parts of the medium in
which it is found.
The term ppm (parts per million)
refers to the number of parts of a
component to one million parts of
the medium in which it is found.
The term ppt (parts per trillion) refers
to the number of parts of a component
to one trillion parts of the medium in
which it is found.
A precipitate is an insoluble solid that
deposits from a solution as a result of a
chemical reaction.
Precision is the degree of
reproducibility of a measured
quantity the closeness of agreement
among repeated measurements.
Pressure is a force per unit area.
Applied to gases, pressure is most
easily understood in terms of the
height of a liquid column that can
be maintained by the gas.
Pressure volume work is work
associated with the expansion or
compression of gases.
A primary carbon is attached to one
other carbon atom.
A primary battery produces electricity
from a chemical reaction that cannot
be reversed. As a result the battery
cannot be recharged.
A primary color is one of a set of
colors that when added together as
light produce white light. Subtractive
mixing leads to an absence of color
(black). Red, yellow, and blue are a
set of primary colors.

Hydrogen atoms attached to a primary

carbon atom are called primary
hydrogen atoms.
Primary structure refers to the sequence
of amino acids in the polypeptide chains
that make up a protein.
A principal electronic shell (level)
refers to the collection of all orbitals
having the same value of the principal
quantum number, n. For example, the
3s, 3p, and 3d orbitals comprise the
third principal shell 1n = 32.
The products are the substances
formed in a chemical reaction.
Properties are qualities or attributes
that can be used to distinguish one
sample of matter from others.
A protein is a large polypeptide, that
is, having a molecular mass of 10,000 u
or more.
In a protic solvent the molecules
have hydrogen atoms bonded to
electronegative atoms, such as oxygen
or nitrogen.
A proton acceptor is a base in the
Brnsted Lowry acid base theory.
A proton donor is an acid in the
Brnsted Lowry acid base theory.
Proton number (See atomic number.)
Protons are fundamental particles
carrying the basic unit of positive
electric charge and found in the
nuclei of all atoms.
Pyrometallurgy is the traditional
approach to extractive metallurgy that
uses dry solid materials heated to high
temperatures. (See also extractive
metallurgy and hydrometallurgy.)
Qualitative cation analysis is a
laboratory method, based on a variety
of solution equilibrium concepts, for
determining the presence or absence
of certain cations in a sample.
A quantum refers to a discrete unit of
energy that is the smallest quantity by
which the energy of a system can
change.
Quantum numbers are integral
numbers whose values must be
specified in order to solve the
equations of wave mechanics. Three
different quantum numbers are
required: the principal quantum number,
n; the orbital angular momentum
quantum number, l; and the magnetic
quantum number, ml . The permitted
values of these numbers are
interrelated.
A quaternary carbon is attached to
four carbon atoms.
Quaternary structure is the highest
order structure that is found in some
proteins. It describes how separate
polypeptide chains may be assembled
into a larger, more complex structure.

Appendix F
Quicklime is a common name for
calcium oxide, CaO.
A racemic mixture is a mixture
containing equal amounts of the
enantiomers of an optically active
substance.
A rad is a quantity of radiation able
to deposit 1 * 10-2 J of energy per
kilogram of matter.
A radial wave function, R(r), is the part
of a wave function that depends only
on the distance r when the Schrdinger
wave equation is expressed in spherical
polar coordinates. (See also angular
wave function.)
Radical (See free radical.)
The radioactive decay law states that
the rate of decay of a radioactive
material the activity, A is directly
proportional to the number of atoms
present.
A radioactive decay series is a
succession of individual steps whereby
an initial radioactive isotope (e.g., 238U)
is ultimately converted to a stable
isotope (e.g., 206Pb).
Radioactivity is a phenomenon in
which small particles of matter (a or b
particles) and/or electromagnetic
radiation (g rays) are emitted by
unstable atomic nuclei.
A random error is an error made
by the experimenter in performing
an experimental technique or
measurement, such as the error in
estimating a temperature reading
on a thermometer.
Raoult s law states that the vapor
pressure of a solution component is
equal to the product of the vapor
pressure of the pure liquid and its
mole fraction in solution: PA = xA PoA .
The rate constant, k, is the
proportionality constant in a rate law
that permits the rate of a reaction to
be related to the concentrations of the
reactants.
A rate-determining step in a reaction
mechanism is an elementary process
that is instrumental in establishing
the rate of the overall reaction, usually
because it is the slowest step in the
mechanism.
The rate law (rate equation) for a
reaction relates the reaction rate to
the concentrations of the reactants. It
has the form: rate = k[A]m [B]n .
The rate of reaction describes how fast
reactants are consumed and products
are formed, usually expressed as
change of concentration per unit time.
Reactants are the substances that enter
into a chemical reaction. This term is
often applied to all the substances
involved in a reversible reaction, but it

can also be limited to the substances

that appear on the left side of a chemical
equation the starting substances.
(Substances on the right side of the
equation are usually called products.)
A reaction intermediate is a species
formed in one elementary reaction
in a reaction mechanism and consumed
in a subsequent one. As a result, the
species does not appear in the
equation for the overall reaction.
A reaction mechanism is a set of
elementary steps or processes by
which a reaction is proposed to occur.
The mechanism must be consistent
with the stoichiometry and rate law
of the overall reaction.
A reaction profile is a graphical
representation of a chemical reaction
in terms of the energies of the reactants,
activated complex(es), and products.
The reaction quotient, Q, is a ratio
of concentration terms (or partial
pressures) having the same form as an
equilibrium constant expression, but
usually applied to nonequilibrium
conditions.
In a rearrangement reaction, a
molecule is converted into another
of its isomeric forms.
Recrystallization (See fractional
crystallization.)
A reducing agent (reductant) makes
possible a reduction process by itself
becoming oxidized.
A reducing sugar is one that is able
to reduce Cu2+(aq) to red, insoluble
Cu2O. The sugar must have available
an aldehyde group, which is oxidized
to an acid.
A reduction process is one in which
electrons are gained and the
oxidation state of some atom
decreases. (Reduction can only occur
in combination with oxidation.) (See
also extractive metallurgy.)
Refining (See extractive metallurgy.)
A rem is a unit of radiation related to the
rad, but taking into account the varying
effects on biological matter of different
types of radiation of the same energy.
Representative elements (See
main-group elements.)
Resonance occurs when two or more
plausible Lewis structures can be
written for a species. The true structure
is a composite or hybrid of these
different contributing structures.
Reverse osmosis is the passage
through a semipermeable membrane
of solvent molecules from a solution into
a pure solvent. It can be achieved by
applying to the solution a pressure
in excess of its osmotic pressure.
A reversible process is one that can be
made to reverse direction by just an

Glossary

A51

infinitesimal change in a system

property.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), through its
messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer
RNA (tRNA) forms, is involved in the
synthesis of proteins.
Roasting (See extractive metallurgy.)
The root-mean-square speed is the
square root of the average of the
squares of the speeds of all the gas
molecules in a gaseous sample.
The R, S system is used to indicate
the arrangement of the four groups
bonded to a chiral center and to
provide names that distinguish
between optical isomers.
A salt bridge is a device (a U-tube
filled with a salt solution) used to join
two half-cells in an electrochemical
cell. The salt bridge permits the flow
of ions between the two half-cells.
The salt effect is that of ions different
from those directly involved in a
solution equilibrium. The salt effect
is also known as the diverse or
uncommon ion effect.
Salts are ionic compounds in which
hydrogen atoms of acids are replaced
by metal ions. Salts are produced by
the neutralization of acids with bases.
Saponification is the hydrolysis of
a triglyceride by a strong base. The
products are glycerol and a soap.
Saturated hydrocarbon molecules
contain only single bonds between
carbon atoms.
A saturated solution is one that
contains the maximum quantity of
solute that is normally possible at the
given temperature.
The s block refers to the portion of the
periodic table in which the filling of
electron orbitals (aufbau process)
involves the s subshell of the electronic
shell of highest principal quantum
number.
The Schrdinger equation describes
the electron in a hydrogen atom
as a matter wave. Solutions to the
Schrdinger equation are called
wave functions.
The scientific method refers to the
general sequence of activities
observation, experimentation, and
the formulation of hypotheses, laws,
and theories that lead to the
advancement of scientific knowledge.
The second law of thermodynamics
relates to the direction of spontaneous
change. One statement of the law is that
all spontaneous processes produce an
increase in the entropy of the universe.
A secondary battery produces
electricity from a reversible chemical
reaction. When electricity is passed

A52

Appendix F

Glossary

through the battery in the reverse

direction the battery is recharged.
A secondary carbon is attached to two
other carbon atoms.
A secondary color is the complement
of a primary color. When light of a
primary color and its complement
(secondary) color are added, the result is
white light. When they are subtracted,
the result is an absence of color (black).
The secondary structure of a protein
describes the structure or shape of a
polypeptide chain, for example, a
coiled helix.
A second-order reaction is one for
which the sum of the concentrationterm exponents in the rate equation is 2.
Self-ionization is an acid base
reaction in which one molecule acts
as an acid and donates a proton to
another molecule of the same kind
acting as a base.
The shielding effect refers to the effect
of inner-shell electrons in shielding or
screening outer-shell electrons from
the full effects of the nuclear charge.
In effect the inner electrons partially
reduce the nuclear charge. (See also
effective nuclear charge.)
A side reaction is a reaction that
produces an undesired or unexpected
product and accompanies a reaction
intended to produce something else.
A sigma (S) bond results from the
end-to-end overlap of simple or
hybridized atomic orbitals along the
straight line joining the nuclei of the
bonded atoms.
Significant figures are those digits in
an experimentally measured quantity
that establish the precision with which
the quantity is known.
A silicone is an organosilicon polymer
containing O Si O bonds.
Simultaneous reactions are two or more
reactions that occur at the same time.
A single covalent bond results from
the sharing of one pair of electrons
between bonded atoms. It is
represented by a single dash sign ( ).
A skeletal structure is an arrangement
of atoms in a Lewis structure to
correspond to the actual arrangement
found by experiment.
Slaked lime is a common name for
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 .
Smog is the general term used to refer
to a condition in which polluted air
reduces visibility, causes stinging eyes
and breathing difficulties, and
produces additional minor and major
health problems. (See also industrial
smog and photochemical smog.)
SN1 is the designation for a
nucleophilic substitution reaction in

which the rate-determining step is

unimolecular.
SN2 is the designation for a nucleophilic
substitution reaction in which the ratedetermining step is bimolecular.
Soaps are the salts of fatty acids, e.g.,
RCOO-Na+, where the R group is a
hydrocarbon chain containing from 3
to 21 C atoms. Sodium and potassium
soaps are the common soaps used as
cleansing agents.
Solders are low-melting alloys used
for joining wires or pieces of metal.
They usually contain metals such as
Sn, Pb, Bi, and Cd.
In a solid, atoms or molecules are
in close contact, often in a highly
organized arrangement. A solid has a
definite shape and occupies a definite
volume. (See also crystal.)
The solubility of a substance is the
concentration of its saturated solution.
The solubility product constant, Ksp ,
is the equilibrium constant that
describes the formation of a saturated
solution of a slightly soluble ionic
compound. It is the product of ionic
concentration terms, with each term
raised to an appropriate power.
A solute is a solution component that
is dissolved in a solvent. A solution
may have several solutes, with the
solutes generally present in lesser
amounts than is the solvent.
Solution (See homogeneous mixture.)
The solvent is the solution component
in which one or more solutes are
dissolved. Usually the solvent is
present in greater amount than are
the solutes and determines the state of
matter in which the solution exists.
An sp hybrid orbital is one of the pair
of orbitals formed by the hybridization
of one s and one p orbital. The angle
between the two orbitals is 180.
An sp2 hybrid orbital is one of the
three orbitals formed by the
hybridization of one s and two p
orbitals. The angle between any
two of the orbitals is 120.
An sp3 hybrid orbital is one of the
four orbitals formed by the
hybridization of one s and three p
orbitals. The angle between any
two of the orbitals is the tetrahedral
angle 109.5.
An sp3d hybrid orbital is one
of the five orbitals formed by the
hybridization of one s, three p, and one
d orbital. The five orbitals are directed
to the corners of a trigonal bipyramid.
An sp3d2 hybrid orbital is one of the six
orbitals formed by the hybridization of
one s, three p, and two d orbitals. The
six orbitals are directed to the corners
of a regular octahedron.

spdf notation is a method of

describing electron configurations
in which the numbers of electrons
assigned to each orbital are denoted as
superscripts. For example, the electron
configuration of Cl is 1s22s22p63s23p5.
The specific heat of a substance is the
quantity of heat required to change
the temperature of one gram of the
substance by one degree Celsius.
Spectator ions are ionic species that are
present in a reaction mixture but do
not take part in the reaction. They are
usually eliminated from a chemical
equation.
The spectrochemical series is a
ranking of ligand abilities to produce
a splitting of the d energy level of a
central metal ion in a complex ion.
Speed of light, c, has a value of
2.99792458 * 108 m s-1.
A spontaneous (natural) process is
one that is able to take place in a
system left to itself. No external action
is required to make the process go,
although in some cases the process
may take a very long time.
Stalactites and stalagmites are
limestone (CaCO3) formations in
limestone caves produced by the slow
decomposition of Ca(HCO3)2(aq).
A standard cell potential, E, is the
voltage of an electrochemical cell in
which all species are in their standard
states. (See also cell potential.)
Standard conditions of temperature
and pressure (STP) refers to a gas
maintained at a temperature of exactly
0 C (273.15 K) and 760 mmHg (1 atm).
A standard electrode potential, E,
is the electric potential that develops
on an electrode when the oxidized
and reduced forms of some substance
are in their standard states. Tabulated
data are expressed in terms of the
reduction process, that is, standard
electrode potentials are standard
reduction potentials.
The standard enthalpy of formation,
Hf , of a substance is the enthalpy
change that occurs in the formation of
1 mol of the substance in its standard
state from the reference forms of its
elements in their standard states. The
reference forms of the elements are
their most stable forms at the given
temperature and 1 bar pressure.
The standard enthalpy of reaction,
H, is the enthalpy change of a
reaction in which all reactants and
products are in their standard states.
Standard Gibbs energy change, G,
is the Gibbs energy change of a process
when the reactants and products
are all in their standard states. The
equation relating standard free energy

Appendix F
change to the equilibrium constant is
G = - RT ln K.
The standard Gibbs energy of
formation, Gf , is the standard free
energy change associated with the
formation of 1 mol of compound from
its elements in their most stable forms
at 1 bar pressure.
The standard hydrogen electrode
(SHE) is an electrode at which
equilibrium is established between
H3O+ (a = 1) and H2 (g, 1 bar) on
an inert (Pt) surface. The standard
hydrogen electrode is arbitrarily
assigned an electrode potential of
exactly 0 V.
The standard molar entropy 1S2 is
the absolute entropy evaluated when
one mole of a substance is in its
standard state at a particular
temperature.
The standard state of a substance
refers to that substance when it is
maintained at 1 bar pressure and at the
temperature of interest. For a gas it is
the (hypothetical) pure gas behaving
as an ideal gas at 1 bar pressure and
the temperature of interest.
Standardization of a solution refers to
establishing the exact concentration of
the solution, usually through a titration.
A standing wave is a wave motion that
reflects back on itself in such a way that
the wave contains a certain number of
points (nodes) that undergo no motion.
A common example is the vibration of
a plucked guitar string, and a related
example is the description of electrons
as matter waves.
Steel is a term used to describe iron
alloys containing from 0 to 1.5% C
together with other key elements, such
as V, Cr, Mn, Ni, W, and Mo.
Step-reaction polymerization is a type
of polymerization reaction in which
monomers are joined together by the
elimination of small molecules between
them. For example, a H2O molecule
might be eliminated by the reaction of
a H atom from one monomer with an
OH group from another.
A stereocenter is an asymmetric
carbon atom.
In stereoisomers, the number and
types of atoms and bonds in molecules
are the same, but certain atoms are
oriented differently in space. Cis
and trans isomerism is one type of
stereoisomerism; optical isomerism
is another.
Stoichiometric coefficients are
the coefficients used to balance an
equation.
A stoichiometric factor is a conversion
factor relating molar amounts of two
species in a chemical reaction (i.e., a

reactant to a product, one reactant to

another, etc.). The numbers used in
formulating the factor are
stoichiometric coefficients.
Stoichiometric proportions refer to
relative amounts of reactants that are
in the same mole ratio as implied by
the balanced equation for a chemical
reaction. For example, a mixture of
2 mol H2 and 1 mol O2 is in stoichiometric proportions, and a mixture of
1 mol H2 and 1 mol O2 is not, for the
reaction 2 H2 + O2 2 H2O.
Stoichiometry refers to quantitative
measurements and relationships
involving substances and mixtures
of chemical interest.
A strong acid is an acid that is
completely ionized in aqueous solution.
A strong base is a base that is
completely ionized in aqueous solution.
A strong electrolyte is a substance that
is completely ionized in solution.
A structural formula for a compound
indicates which atoms in a molecule
are bonded together, and whether by
single, double, or triple bonds.
Structural isomers have the same
number and kinds of atoms, but they
differ in their structural formulas.
Sublimation is the passage of molecules
from the solid to the gaseous state.
A subshell refers to a collection of
orbitals of the same type. For example,
the three 2p orbitals constitute the 2p
subshell.
A substance has a constant
composition and properties
throughout a given sample and from
one sample to another. All substances
are either elements or compounds.
In a substitution reaction, an atom, an
ion, or a group in one molecule is
replaced by (substituted with) another.
A substrate is the substance that
is acted upon by an enzyme in an
enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The
substrate is converted to products,
and the enzyme is regenerated.
A sugar is a monosaccharide
(simple sugar), a disaccharide,
or an oligosaccharide containing
up to ten monosaccharide units.
The superoxide ion has the structure
O

.
Superphosphate is a mixture of
Ca(H2PO4)2 and CaSO4 produced by
the action of H2SO4 on phosphate rock.
A supersaturated solution contains
more solute than normally expected
for a saturated solution, usually
prepared from a solution that is
saturated at one temperature by
changing its temperature to one
where supersaturation can occur.

Glossary

A53

Surface tension is the energy or work

required to extend the surface of a
liquid.
The surroundings represent that
portion of the universe with which
a system interacts.
A suspension is a heterogeneous fluid
containing solid particles that are
sufficiently large for sedimentation
and, unlike colloids, will settle.
Synthesis gas is a mixture of CO(g)
and H2(g), generally made from coal
or natural gas, that can be used as a
fuel or in the synthesis of organic
compounds.
A system is the portion of the universe
selected for a thermodynamic study.
(See also open, closed, and isolated
systems.)
A systematic error is one that recurs
regularly in a series of measurements
because of an inherent error in the
measuring system (e.g., through faulty
calibration of a measuring device).
Temporary hard water (See hard water.)
A terminal atom is any atom that is
bonded to only one other atom in a
molecule or polyatomic ion.
A termolecular process is an
elementary process in a reaction
mechanism in which three atoms or
molecules must collide simultaneously.
A ternary compound is comprised of
three elements.
A tertiary carbon is attached to three
other carbon atoms.
The tertiary structure of a protein
refers to its three-dimensional
structure for example, the twisting
and folding of coils.
The theoretical yield is the quantity
of product calculated to result from a
chemical reaction. (See also actual
yield and percent yield.)
A theory is a model or conceptual
framework with which one is able to
explain and make further predictions
about natural phenomena.
Thermal energy is energy associated
with random molecular motion.
The thermite reaction is an
oxidation reduction reaction that
uses powdered aluminum metal as a
reducing agent to reduce a metal
oxide, such as Fe2O3 , to the free metal.
The thermodynamic equilibrium
constant, K , is an equilibrium constant
expression based on activities. In dilute
solutions activities can be replaced by
molarities and in ideal gases, by partial
pressures in atm. The activities of pure
solids and liquids are 1.
The third law of thermodynamics
states that the entropy of a pure perfect

A54

Appendix F

Glossary

crystal is zero at the absolute zero of

temperature, 0 K.
The titrant is the solution that is added
in a controlled fashion through a buret in
a titration reaction. (See also titration.)
Titration is a procedure for carrying
out a chemical reaction between two
solutions by the controlled addition
(from a buret) of one solution to the
other. In a titration a means must be
found, as by the use of an indicator,
to locate the equivalence point.
A titration curve is a graph of solution
pH versus volume of titrant. It outlines
how pH changes during an acid base
titration, and it can be used to establish
such features as the equivalence point
of the titration.
A torr is a unit of pressure equal to the
unit millimeter of mercury.
The torsional energy is the energy
difference between the eclipsed and
staggered forms of ethane.
The term trans is used to describe
geometric isomers in which two groups
are attached on opposite sides of a
double bond in an organic molecule,
or at opposite corners of a square in a
square-planar complex, or at positions
above and below the central plane of
an octahedral complex. (See also
geometric isomerism.)
Transition elements or transition
metals are those elements whose
atoms feature the filling of a d or f
subshell of an inner electronic shell. If
the filling of an f subshell occurs, the
elements are sometimes referred to as
inner transition elements.
The transition state in a chemical
reaction is an intermediate state
between the reactants and products.
(See also activated complex and
reaction profile.)
Triglycerides are esters of glycerol
(1,2,3-propanetriol) with long-chain
monocarboxylic (fatty) acids.
In a triple covalent bond, three pairs
of electrons are shared between the
bonded atoms. It is represented by
a triple-dash sign ( ).
A triple point is a condition of
temperature and pressure at which three
phases of a substance (usually solid,
liquid, and vapor) coexist at equilibrium.
Trouton s rule states that at their
normal boiling points the entropies of
vaporization of many liquids have
about the same value: 87 J mol-1 K-1.
A unimolecular process is an
elementary process in a reaction
mechanism in which a single molecule,
when sufficiently energetic, dissociates.
A unit cell is a small collection of atoms,
ions, or molecules occupying positions

in a crystalline lattice. An entire crystal

can be generated by straight-line
displacements of the unit cell in the
three perpendicular directions.
Unsaturated hydrocarbon molecules
contain one or more carbon-to-carbon
multiple bonds.
An unsaturated solution contains less
solute than the solvent is capable of
dissolving under the given conditions.
The valence bond method treats a
covalent bond in terms of the overlap
of pure or hybridized atomic orbitals.
Electron probability (or electron charge
density) is concentrated in the region
of overlap.
Valence electrons are electrons in the
electronic shell of highest principal
quantum number, that is, electrons in
the outermost shell.
The valence-shell electron-pair
repulsion (VSEPR) theory is a theory
used to predict probable shapes of
molecules and polyatomic ions based
on the mutual repulsions of electron
pairs found in the valence shell of the
central atom in the structure.
The van der Waals equation is an
equation of state for nonideal gases. It
includes correction terms to account
for intermolecular forces of attraction
and for the volume occupied by the
gas molecules themselves.
The term van der Waals forces is used
to describe, collectively, intermolecular
forces of the London type and
interactions between permanent dipoles.
One type of measure of an atomic size
are van der Waals radii. van der Waals
radii are strictly hard sphere radii
measured using atomic distances in
closest packed crystals.
Vaporization is the passage of
molecules from the liquid to the
gaseous state.
Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted
by a vapor when it is in dynamic
equilibrium with its liquid at a fixed
temperature.
A vapor-pressure curve is a graph
of vapor pressure as a function of
temperature.
In a vicinal dihalide, a halogen adds
across the double bond of an alkene,
and the halogen atoms are bonded to
adjacent carbons.
Viscosity refers to a liquid s resistance
to flow. Its magnitude depends on
intermolecular forces of attraction and
in some cases, on molecular sizes and
shapes.
A volt (V) is the SI unit for cell voltage.
It is defined as 1 joule per coulomb.
A voltaic (galvanic) cell is an
electrochemical cell in which a

spontaneous chemical reaction

produces electricity.
Water gas is a mixture of CO(g) and
H2(g), together with some of the
noncombustible gases CO2 and N2 ,
produced by passing steam [H2O(g)]
over heated coke.
A wave is a disturbance that transmits
energy through a medium.
The wavelength is the distance
between successive crests or troughs of
a wave motion.
Wave mechanics is a form of quantum
theory based on the concepts of
wave particle duality, the Heisenberg
uncertainty principle, and the
treatment of electrons as matter
waves. Mathematical solutions of the
equations of wave mechanics are
known as wave functions 1c2.
Wave particle duality was postulated
by de Broglie and states that at times
particles of matter have wave-like
properties and vice versa. This was
demonstrated in the diffraction pattern
observed when electrons were directed
at a nickel crystal.
A weak acid is an acid that is only
partially ionized in aqueous solution
in a reversible reaction.
A weak base is a base that it only
partially ionized in aqueous solution
in a reversible reaction.
A weak electrolyte is a substance that
is only partially ionized in solution in
a reversible reaction.
Work is a form of energy transfer
between a system and its surroundings
that can be expressed as a force acting
through a distance.
A zero-order reaction proceeds at a
rate that is independent of reactant
concentrations. The sum of the
concentration-term exponent(s) in
the rate equation is equal to zero.
The zero-point energy is the lowest
possible energy in a quantum
mechanical system, such as the
particle-in-a-box energy
corresponding to n = 1 (page 318).
Zone refining is a purification process
in which a rod of material is subjected
to successive melting and freezing
cycles. Impurities are swept by a
moving molten zone to the end of the
rod, which is cut off.
A zwitterion is a compound
(for example, an amino acid or
polypeptide) containing both acid
and base groups. Zwitterions,
at neutral pH, typically have
simultaneously positively charged
groups (cations) and negatively
charge groups (anions).

G
Appendix

Answers to Concept
Assessment Questions

Note: Your answers may differ slightly from

those given here, depending on the number of
steps used to solve a problem and whether any
intermediate results were rounded off.

CHAPTER 1
Concept Assessment 1-1. No, an experimental
result contrary to that predicted by a hypothesis is reason to reject a hypothesis, not its
proof. 1-2. The product (mg) is the same for the
unknown and the weights of known mass,
regardless of the value of g. The measured
mass with a two-pan balance is the same on the
moon as on Earth. The single pan electronic
balance measures weight, which is converted to
a mass reading. With such a balance calibrated on Earth, the mass will appear less when
measured on the moon. 1-3. To find the one
temperature, substitute t1C2 = t1F2 into the
9
equation t1F2 = t1C2 + 32. Solve for t(F)
5
to obtain the value - 40 F; thus -40 F =
-40 C. 1-4. The volume of wood is
1000 g>10.68 g cm-32 = 1470 cm3. The wood
displaces its own mass of water 1000 g,
which has a volume of 1000 cm3. The fraction
of wood under water is 1000>1470 = 0.68.
1-5. Yes to both questions. A measuring instrument might yield precise readings but be incorrectly calibrated measurements might
agree with one another but their average
might not agree with the actual value. Measurements with an imprecise instrument might differ widely from the actual value, yet their
average might, by chance, agree with the actual
value. 1-6. The relationship 1 in = 2.54 cm is a
definition an exact quantity. A more precise relationship between meters and inches is 1 m =
100 cm * 11 in>2.54 cm2 = 39.370079 in.

CHAPTER 2

Concept Assessment 2-1. Helmont assumed,

incorrectly, that the tree interacted with its
surroundings only through the soil, sunlight,
and watering. The tree also interacted with
the atmosphere, that is, with carbon dioxide
gas (see photosynthesis, page 273).
2-2. The final mass, magnesium bromide plus
unreacted bromine, equals the initial mass:
4.15 g + 82.6 g = 86.8 g, but without knowing
the mass of unreacted bromine we cannot
deduce the mass of magnesium bromide.
2-3. The discovery of cathode rays (electrons)
refuted the idea that atoms are indivisible.

The discovery of isotopes refuted the idea that

all atoms of an element are alike in mass. The
idea that atoms combine in simple numerical
ratios remains valid. 2-4. The exception is the
protium atom, 11H, the most abundant isotope
of hydrogen. It consists of a lone proton as the
atomic nucleus. 2-5. The weighted average
atomic mass of 51.9961 u, almost exactly 52 u,
suggests that chromium might exist exclusively
as 52
24Cr atoms. Another possibility (which,
in fact, is the case) is that chromium exists as
a mixture of isotopes whose weighted average
atomic mass is 51.9961 u. For zinc, we should
conclude two or more isotopes. The weighted
average atomic mass, 65.409 u, is too far from
65 u to suggest a single isotopic mass. 2-6. If
all naturally occurring Au atoms have the
mass 196.967g Au>NA , they must all be 197
79Au,
with no isotopes. If no Ag atom has the mass
107.868g Ag>NA , there must be two or more
naturally occurring isotopes. (In fact there are
109
two: 107
47Ag and 47Ag.)

CHAPTER 3
Concept Assessment 3-1. For the molecular formula count the atoms in the condensed structural formula given: C4H 6O 2 . The empirical
formula has the same ratio but with the smallest possible integers: C2H 3O 2 . Visualize the
structural formula in terms of that of butane in
Figure 3-2(a). Replace the CH 3 groups at the
two ends of the butane structure with COOH
groups (see structural formula of acetic acid in
Figure 3-1). For the simplest line-angle formula,
draw a line to represent H 2C CH 2 and at an
angle at each end of the line attach a COOH
group. 3-2. Compare the other four quantities
to (d) the 20.000g brass weight.
(a) 0.50 mol O2 = 16.00 g; this might be the
smallest mass but cannot be the largest.
(b) 2.0 * 1023 Cu atoms = 1>3 mol Cu L 21 g;
this is now the largest mass. (c) 1.0 * 1024 H 2O
molecules is more than 1.5 mol H 2O 7 27 g;
this is now the largest mass. (e) the mass of
1.0 mol Ne = 20. g. Conclusion: greatest mass,
(c); smallest mass, (a). 3-3. C contributes the
greatest number of atoms 13 and Cl contributes the greatest mass. A Cl atom, of which
there are six, has nearly three times the mass of
a C atom. 3-4. Obtain relative numbers of
atoms in the formula by multiplying the molar
mass by the mass fractions of the elements. In
Example 3-5, for example, mol C = 0.6258 *
230 g * 11 mol C>12.011 g2 = 11.98 mol C.

Similarly, obtain 21.97 mol H and 3.995 mol H.

Thus, the molecular formula is C12H 22O 4 and
the empirical formula is C6H 11O2 . 3-5 In each
combustion, 1 mol CO 2 forms for every mole C
and 1 mol H 2O for every 2 mol H. Determine
these amounts for each combustion:
(a) 5 mol CO2 and 2 mol H 2O; (b) 1.25 mol CO2
and 2.5 mol H 2O; (c) 1 mol CO 2 and
1.5 mol H 2O; (d) 6 mol CO2 and 3 mol H 2O.
Thus, C6H 5OH [response (d)] produces a greatest number of moles (and thus mass) of both
CO2 and H 2O. 3-6. The O.S. of N in NH 3 is - 3.
The O.S. of N is higher in H 2NNH 2 ; it is -2.
Note also that the molar mass of N2H 4 is
32 g>mol. 3-7. No. The greatest mass ratio of
H 2O to CO2 is found in CH 4 , which has the
highest percent H of all hydrocarbons; and its
combustion produces only 2 mol H 2O (36 g) to
1 mol CO 2 (44 g).

CHAPTER 4

Concept Assessment 4-1. (a) The product is

O21g2, not O(g). (b) The product is O21g2
exclusively, not a mixture of O(g) and O 21g2.
(c) The product is KCl(s), not KClO(s). 4-2 (a)
incorrect (3 mol S per 2 mol H 2S) (b) incorrect
(stoichiometric coefficients refer to moles, not
grams) (c) correct (1 mol H 2O>1 mol H 2S is the
same as 2 mol H 2O>2 mol H 2S) (d) correct (2 of
every 3 mole of S on the left are in 2 mol H 2S,
yielding 3 mol S on the right) (e) incorrect
(3 moles of reactants yield 5 moles of product)
(f) correct (no atoms can be created or destroyed in the reaction) 4-3. The reaction
producing the greatest mass of O21g2 per gram
of reactant is the one having the reactant of
lowest molar mass. Clearly that reactant is
NH 4NO 31s2 in reaction (a). 4-4 (a) Tripling the
solution volume reduces the molarity to 1/3 of
its initial value: 0.050 M NaCl. (b) Reducing the
volume from 250.0 mL to 200.0 mL increases
the molarity by 5/4, that is, to 1.000 M
C12H 22O 11 . (c) The molarity of the first
solution is reduced to 1/3, to 0.0900 M KCl;
that of the second is reduced to 2/3, to
0.0900 M KCl. The total molarity of the final
solution is 0.180 M KCl. 4-5. The balanced
equation is 4 NH 31g2 + 5 O21g2
4 NO1g2 + 6 H 2O1l2. Starting with 1.0 mol
each of NH 3 and O2 , the limiting reactant is
O2 . The amounts of products are 0.8 mol NO
and 1.2 mol H 2O. The only true statement is
(d) all the O21g2 is consumed. 4-6. The answer
must be consistent with the following facts.

A55

A56

Appendix G

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

(1) The factor 0.90 must appear twice in the

setup (which can include 0.90 * 0.90 = 0.81);
(2) CH 3Cl is an intermediate and does not
enter in; (3) the only molar masses needed are
those of CH 4 (16 g/mol) and CH 2Cl2
(85 g>mol2. The correct response is (a).

CHAPTER 5
Concept Assessment 5-1 (1). (e) 0.025 M
RbNO3, the only strong electrolyte of the
group. (2). (a) a strong electrolyte with a total
ion concentration of 0.024 M. 5-2. Predicted as
soluble based on guidelines in Table 5.1:
(a), (c), (g). Predicted as insoluble based on
Table 5.1: (b), (e), (h), (i). Inconclusive based
on Table 5.1: (d) Li 2CO3 might be soluble (Li +
is a group 1 cation), but also might be one of
the exceptions referred to in Table 5.1. (f) No
data are available in Table 5.1 concerning permanagnates, so the solubility of Mg1MnO422
is uncertain. 5-3. H 2O1l2 is suitable for
K 2CO 31s2 and ZnSO41s2, and HCl(aq) is suitable for CaO(s) and BaCO31s2. H 2SO 41aq2
would not be suitable for CaO(s) and
BaCO31s2 because CaSO41s2 and BaSO 41s2
might precipitate. 5-4. No reaction would
occur in (a). Two reduction half-reactions and
no oxidation half-reaction. Reaction could
occur under appropriate conditions in (b) because Cl21g2 undergoes both oxidation and
reduction. 5-5. This can occur as seen, for example, in the reverse of the disproportionation
reaction directly above on this page. 5-6. An
inaccurate statement. An oxidizing agent is
necessary to oxidize Cl-1aq2 to Cl21g2, but
neither HCl(aq) or NaOH(aq) is an oxidizing
agent. 5-7. An exactly neutral NaCl(aq)
formed when 3.11 * 10-3 mol each of H +
and OH - ions neutralize one another.

CHAPTER 6
Concept Assessment 6-1. A water siphon
passes over a hump from a pool of water at
a higher level to a receiver at a lower level.
After the siphon is initially filled with water,
the pressure of the atmosphere pushes water
over the hump, beyond which the water flows
freely. In a suction pump, air pressure pushes
water up a partially evacuated pipe. 6-2. (b)
6-3. (a) 6-4. The direct proportionality of V
and T must be based on an absolute temperature scale. While a change from 100 K to 200 K
produces a doubling of V, a change from
100 C to 200 C produces only a 27% increase:
31200 + 2732>1100 + 27324 = 1.27. 6-5. Consider these facts. (1) V is directly proportional
to the number of moles of O21g2, and this must
be 60.0 g O2>32.00 g O 2 mol -1. Only responses
(c) and (d) meet this requirement. (2) The effect
of changing P and T on the STP-volume
must be expressed through the product
[1760 mmHg>825 mmHg2 * 1303 K>273 K2].
The only correct response is (d). 6-6. (a) 0.667 L
SO21g2>1.00 L O 21g2, because the actual P and
T are immaterial as long as the two gases are
compared at the same t and P. (b) The 0.667 L
SO21g2 has to be adjusted for the an increase
in T (by the factor 298 K>273 K) and a decrease
in P (by the factor 760 mmHg>745 mmHg),
leading to V = 0.743 L SO 21g2. 6-7. The correct

responses (b) and (e) follow from basic

ideas. Dalton s law of partial pressures dictates
that PHe is not affected by any other gases present, and addition of 0.50 mol H 2 (1.0 g) will
increase the total mass of gas by 1.0 g, independent of anything else that may happen. By
simple estimates the other three statements
can be shown to be false. 6-8. He(g) at 1000 K
has twice the urms as at 250 K (change T to 4T
in equation 6.20). At 250 K, urms of H 21g2 exceeds that of He(g) by the factor 12 (change
M to 1*2 M in equation 6.20). The two-fold increase in the first case exceeds the 12-fold increase in the second. He(g) at 1000 K has a
greater urms than H 21g2 at 250 K. 6-9. The
correct responses are (a) and (c). The average
kinetic energy of gas molecules depends only
on T, and to two significant figures the mass of
0.50 mol He is the same as that of 1.0 mol H 2 .
6-10. Rearrange equation (6.14) to the form
R = MP>dT. Substitute molar masses,
P = 1 atm (exactly), T = 293.2 K, and the
density data. Solve for three values of R and
see how closely they conform to the ideal
gas constant R = 0.08206 L atm mol -1 K -1.
Increasing adherence to ideal gas behavior:
OF21R = 0.07242 6 NO1R = 0.081942 6
O21R = 0.082002.

CHAPTER 7

Concept Assessment 7-1. Dynamite exploding in an underground cavern is a close approximation to an isolated system. Titration
of an acid with a base is an open system.
A steam-filled cylinder in a steam engine with
all valves closed constitutes a closed system.
7-2. Basic principle: law of conservation of energy. Assumptions: no heat loss to surroundings,
d and sp. ht. of H 2O1l2 independent of T. Because the mass of hot water is twice that of the
colder water, the initial temperature difference
of 60.00 C is divided into a 40.00 C warming
of the cold water and a 20.00 C cooling of the
hot water; final T = 50.00 C. 7-3. The T of a
fixed mass of substance is inversely proportional to its specific heat; thus the object with
the smaller T has the greater specific heat.
The second question requires us to recognize
the difference in enthalpy of transition for the
solid and liquid form of water. The enthalpy of
fusion for ice is less than the enthalpy of vaporization for the liquid, meaning that the
amount of heat required to vaporize water is
greater than that for ice. 7-4. This is accomplished by adding a measured amount of a
substance in which the heat of reaction is
known. 7-5. This is a closed system. Since the
pressure dropped while the volume remained
constant then the temperature must have decreased. The internal energy of the system decreased. Therefore the energy transferred
across the boundary was in the form of heat.
The direction of energy transfer was from the
system to the surroundings. 7-6. The balloon
feels warm because the dissolution of NH 31g2
in H 2O1l2 is exothermic, q 6 0. The balloon
shrinks because the atmosphere (surroundings) does work on the system, w 7 0. 7-7. In
the bottom row T is uniform throughout the
object while in the top row the object is hotter

at the edges than in its interior. Heating in the

top row is irreversible; the process is far from
equilibrium. The bottom row represents reversible heating; removal of just a tiny
amount of heat can change heating to cooling.
7-8. Enthalpy is a function of state. When a
process returns a system to its initial state H returns to its initial value, meaning that H = 0.
7-9. The enthalpy change in forming 1 mol
C2H 21g2 from its elements is represented by
the top line; that for forming 1 mol C2H 41g2 is
the next line down. Both of these lines are
above the broken line representing H = 0.
The formation of 1 mol C2H 6 has H 6 0 and
is the first line below the broken line. H for
the reaction of interest is represented by the
distance between the first and third lines.
7-10. Yes, this can be done. The additional data
needed are heat capacities as a function of T.
The procedure is outlined in Figure 7-16.

CHAPTER 8
Concept Assessment 8-1. The wavelength of
red light is about 700 nm (see Fig. 8-3). Since
frequency and wavelength are reciprocally
related, doubling n halves l. The frequencydoubled light will have a wavelength about
350 nm light in the near ultraviolet not visible to the human eye. 8-2. By studying emission spectra from the collision, scientists hope
to identify the elements present in the comet
and also on Jupiter s surface. 8-3. The threshold wavelength is 91.2 nm. Using 70.0 nm light
as compared to 80.0 nm light produces more
energetic electrons. Each photon produces one
electron, and the number of electrons produced depends on the intensity (number of
photons) of the light, provided its wavelength
is less than the threshold wavelength. 8-4. The
transition n = 1 to n = 4 corresponds to the
greatest E, but it involves absorption of a photon not emission. Photons are emitted in the
other two transitions, with the transition
n = 4 n = 2 corresponding to the
greater E and hence shortest wavelength.
8-5. If the wavelengths are the same then the
momenta are the same (equation 8.10). The
speed of the proton will have to be 1/2000th of
the speed of the electron (that is, mp * up =
me * ue , and up = ue * me>mp = ue * 1>2000).
8-6. The state n = 2 has a peak 1*4 of the length
from either end of the box, corresponding to
the greatest probability of the particle being at
those points. 8-7. An orbital with three angular nodes has / = 3; it is an f orbital. One
radial node makes for a total of four nodes,
and since the total number of nodes is n - 1,
n must be 5. The orbital is a 5f. 8-8. The
compound is arsenic. The ground state is
4s 23d104p3 with all three arrows pointing in the
same direction, one in each box. The anion is
adding one more arrow to one of the 4p boxes
pointing in the opposite direction.

CHAPTER 9
Concept Assessment 9-1. (a) Ne (b) N 3- or P3(c) Zn2+, Cd 2+ , or Hg 2+ 9-2. Zeff increases and
atomic radius decreases with increasing Z. The
blue axis represents Zeff and the blue line, Zeff
as a function of Z. The red axis represents

Appendix G
atomic radius and the red line, atomic radius as
a function of Z. 9-3. (a) B (at the top of group
13) (b) Cl (at the right end of the third period)
(c) P3- in period 3, group 15 (strong electron repulsions in an anion of high negative charge)
(d) Tl (at the bottom of group 13) 9-4. (a) C
(smallest group-14 atom, at the top of the
group) (b) Kr (noble gas element in group 18)
(c) Se (lower ionization energy than Br based
on the expected trend; lower than As for the
same reason as in the P/S comparison on
page 377) 9-5. (a) group 17 (the smallest atoms
in their periods) (b) group 2 (a filled ns subshell
and essentially no affinity for an additional
electron) (c) group 18 (noble gases have all
shells and subshells closed) 9-6 (a) scandium
(Sc 3+ has noble gas electron configuration) (b)
tellurium (Te 2- has a noble gas electron configuration) (c) manganese (Mn2+ has the electron
configuration [Ar]3d5) 9-7 (a) thallium (b) nitrogen (c) rubidium (d) iodine (e) aluminum

CHAPTER 10
Concept Assessment 10-1. The first and last
symbols are acceptable; each has six dots with
two unpaired. The unacceptable symbols have
seven and five dots. 10-2. The bonds are all
covalent, with one being coordinate
covalent. 10-3. groups 14, 15, and 16 (for example, the elements C, N, O, P, and S) 10-4. (a) Br
(b) Be (c) P 10-5. If covalent bonds between
atoms involve equal contributions from all the
bonded atoms, there are no formal charges.
Where coordinate covalent bonds are formed
there will be formal charges. A polyatomic ion
must have at least one atom with a formal
charge, consistent with the charge on the
ion. 10-6. We can draw two possible Lewis
structures. One structure has no formal charges.
In the other structure, one of the O atoms (the
one bonded to H) has a formal charge of +1
and the other has a formal charge of - 1. The
structure with formal charges is considered to
be unimportant and so we never represent the
structure of CH 3CO 2H as a resonance hybrid.
10-7. The structure of the SO 2 molecule is
best represented as

O , and

so the sulfur oxygen bonds are best thought of

as double bonds. 10-8. ICl2 - is a linear anion
with five electrons pairs around the I atom
1AX2E 32. ICl2 + is a bent cation with four electron pairs around the I atom 1AX2E 22. The difference of one pair of electrons produces a
completely different electron-group geometry
and geometric shape. 10-9.

H3C

Most satisfactory
H3C

*1

H3C

+1

+1

Least satisfactory

10-10. In NH 3 the lone pair of electrons on the

N atom pulls electron density away from the
H atoms, creating a large resultant dipole
moment. In NF3 the highly electronegative F
atoms pull electron density away from the N
atom, producing highly polar N F bonds
that counteract the effect of the nitrogen lone
pair and a greatly reduced resultant dipole
moment. 10-11. Both the linear NO 2 + cation
and bent NO2 - anion exhibit resonance that
involves double bond character in the N O
bonds. However, electrons in the NO2 + cation
will be more tightly held by the center of positive charge, leading to shorter N-to-O bond
lengths in NO2 + than in NO 2 -.

CHAPTER 11
Concept Assessment 11-1. The cation CH 3 + is
isoelectronic with BH 3 and has three pairs of
electrons around the C atom; we expect sp2 hybridization. In the anion CH 3 - there are four
electron pairs suggesting sp3 hybridization, as
in CH 4 . 11-2. The sp3 d2 hybridization scheme
corresponds to six electron pairs around a central atom. Similar to PF5 in the period above it,
we expect the compound AsF5 . Now imagine
adding F - to AsF5 to create [AsF6]-, which has
6 electron pairs around the As atom and requires sp3 d 2 hybridization. 11-3. Five bonding
electron groups can be accommodated by sp3 d
hybridization, but the distribution would be
trigonal bipyramidal. What is needed is sp 3 d 2
hybridization in the species AX5E. The lonepair electrons are directed to a corner of an
octahedron, and the remaining five positions
determine the molecular geometry square
pyramidal. 11-4. To complete the octets of the
N atoms, they must retain a lone pair of electrons, form a double bond between themselves, and a single bond to a H atom. The
hybridization of the N atoms is sp2. 11-5. The
H 2 + ion is formed by removal of one electron
from H 2 a larger energy requirement than
promoting a s1s electron to the s1s * MO in the
excited state of H 2 . On the other hand, the
bond order in H 2 + is 0.5 and 0 in the excited
state of H 2 . H 2 + is a stable species and the excited state of H 2 is not. 11-6. No. For example,
the double bond in C2 is made up of two p
bonds and no s bond (see Figure 11-26).
11-7. The molecule NeO is isoelectronic with F2
and should have a bond order of 1. We expect
it to be stable, but it has never been observed.
11-8. In HCO 2 - three atoms provide p orbitals
for p bonding, just as in ozone. In the NO3 anion four atoms provide p orbitals. The delocalized p bonding in HCO2 - is different than
in NO3 -.11-9. GaN, a combination of group 13
and group 15 elements, is a semiconductor;
this combination is equivalent to a group 14
semicondictor like Si or Ge.

CHAPTER 12
O

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

O
*1

Concept Assessment 12-1. The intermolecular

interactions are both London dispersion forces
and hydrogen bonds. In substances with small
molecules, hydrogen bonding usually dominates. 12-2. Because the ball drops faster
through it, the 10W oil is less viscous than the
40W oil. Viscosity is inversely proportional to

A57

T, and the lower weight oil (10W) is preferred

for low-temperature use (where higher weight
oils might solidify). In hot desert regions higher
weight oils (40W) are preferred because lightweight oils might become so mobile as to lose
their lubricating properties. The strengths of
intermolecular forces are directly related to
viscosity, and hence the higher viscosity 40W
oil has the stronger intermolecular forces.
12-3. Because of the different elevation (and
barometric pressure) between landlocked,
mountainous Switzerland and sea-level Manhattan Island, the lower boiling temperature
results in a longer cooking time. 12-4. Hydrogen bonding occurs in NH 3 but not in N2 ,
resulting in stronger intermolecular attractions
and consequently lower vapor pressures, a
higher boiling point, and a higher critical temperature in NH 3 than in N2 . 12-5. The greater
number of electrons (much larger molar mass)
in CCl4 causes the intermolecular attractions
(London dispersion forces) to outweigh the
effect of the polar bonds in CH 3Cl. 12-6. Dew
forms in the condensation of H 2O1g2 to H 2O1l2
and frost from the deposition of H 2O1g2 as
H 2O1s2. Both processes are exothermic and
give off heat to the surroundings more heat in
frost formation, because H1deposition2 =
H1condensation2 + H1freezing2. 12-7. Wet
books are placed in a cold, evacuated chamber.
Moisture in the books freezes and the ice that is
formed sublimes to H 2O1g2. This process
avoids heating and involves a minimum of handling of the damaged books. 12-8. According to
the Bragg equation, nl = 2d sin u, if the extra
distance traveled by the diffracted wave
12d sin u2 is to remain the same when n is doubled, the wavelength of the wave must be
halved, so that 2n1l>22 = nl. The required
multiple is 1*2. 12-9. The fcc unit cell contains
four C60 molecules. The unit cell has four octahedral and eight tetrahedral holes occupied by
12 K atoms. The formula based on the unit cell
is K 121C6024 , and the molecular formula is
K 31C602.

CHAPTER 13

Concept Assessment 13-1. 3.011 * 1023.

13-2. Concentrations are independent of temperature if based solely on mass or temperatureindependent properties related to mass,
specifically, mass percent, molality, mole fraction, and mole percent. Concentrations based on
volumes volume percent and molarity are
temperature dependent. 13-3. HCl is undissociated in C6H 61l2, and the concentration of
HCl in C6H 61l2 should closely follow PHCl(g)
above the solution. On the other hand, HCl(g)
reacts with H 2O1l2 to produce H 3O +1aq2 and
Cl -1aq2. The relationship between PHCl(g) and
the aqueous concentrations of ions is more
complex. 13-4. Start with 1PA - PA2>PA = xB .
Note that 1PA - PA2>PA = 1 - 1PA>PA2. According to Raoult s law, PA = xAPA , which
means that PA>PA = xA . Thus, we arrive
at the true statement that 1 - xA = xB .
13-5. This will happen if both components in
an ideal solution have the same vapor pressure. The vapor pressure of the solution will be
independent of the solution composition and

A58

Appendix G

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

the line will be parallel to the composition

axis. The likelihood of this happening is not
very great, although it might be found at one
particular temperature where the vapor pressure curves of two liquids cross. 13-6. The similarities are that two different solutions are
involved, water is transported from the more
dilute to the more concentrated solution, and
the process continues until the two solutions
have the same concentration. The chief difference is that water is transported via the vapor
phase in Figure 13-16a and through a semipermeable membrane in Figure 13-17. 13-7. If
Figure 13-19 were based on water rather than
some other solvent, the two fusion curves
would have negative rather than positive
slopes. However, there would still be a
freezing-point depression and a boiling-point
elevation. 13-8. When enough NaCl is present
to depress the freezing point to - 21 C, the
NaCl(aq) is saturated. Any solute added
beyond this point remains as undissolved
NaCl(s) and can have no further effect on
the freezing point of the solution.

CHAPTER 14

Concept Assessment 14-1. In the reaction

N21g2 + 3 H 21g2 2 NH 31g2, compared
to the rate of disappearance of N2 , the rate of
disappearance of H 2 is three times as great
and the rate of formation of NH 3 is twice as
great. 14-2. If the initial and instantaneous
rates of reaction are initially equal and remain
so throughout a reaction, the concentrationtime graph must be a straight line with a negative slope, as seen in Figure 14-3. 14-3. If the
reaction were first order the initial rate would
double and if second order, quadruple, thus
1 6 order 1m2 6 2. More precisely, 2m = 2.83
and m = 1.50 (solve this equation for m:
m log 2 = log 2.83). 14-4. All four graphs can
be plotted on the same sheet of paper. For
example, take [A]0 = 3.0 M and k = 0.20 s -1
as the larger of two rate constants and
k = 0.10 s -1 as the smaller. Both concentration
vs. time graphs will resemble Figure 14-5, but
after starting at the same point, [A]0 = 3.0 M,
the one with the larger k has a shorter half-life
and falls off more rapidly than the other. The
two plots of ln k vs. t are straight lines, both
starting at ln [A]0 = ln 3.0 = 1.10, and having
negative slopes, the steeper slope for the larger
value of k. 14-5. (a) If the plot was linear, the
reaction would be zero order; (b) Look at successive half-lives. If t1>2 is constant, the reaction is first order; (c) Look at successive
half-lives. If t1>2 doubles each time, the reaction is second-order. 14-6 (a) This condition
can exist. The reaction is exothermic (similar
to Figure 14-10). (b) This condition can exist,
and the reaction is endothermic (imagine flipping the reaction profile in Figure 14-10 from
left to right). (c) This condition cannot exist;
Ea for an exothermic cannot be less than H.
(d) This condition can exist; its only distinction
is that there is no heat of reaction. (e) This condition cannot exist; Ea cannot be negative.
14-7. Consider this equation from Figure 14-12:
Ea = R * 1 -slope of ln k vs. 1>T2. The greater

the value of Ea , the greater the slope of the

graph and the more rapidly the rate of reaction changes with temperature. 14-8. The
means are not the same. The increase in reaction rate caused by the presence of a catalyst
is most likely because of a different reaction
mechanism that lowers the reaction barrier.
The increase in the rate of reaction caused by
an increase in temperature is due to more
molecules with kinetic energy greater than the
barrier; more collisions occur per unit time.

CHAPTER 15
Concept Assessment 15-1. (a) represents solubility-phase equilibrium; (b) phase equilibrium;
(c) chemical equilibrium.
aCu+1aq2aH21g2
C Cu2+ D PH2
15-2. Q =
=
.
aCu1s2a2H+1aq2
C H+ D 2
15-3. Into the expression K = [B]>[A],
substitute [B] = 54 - [A] and the given value
of K; solve for [A] and [B]. If K = 0.02, [A]
1open circles2 = 53 and [B] 1filled circles2 = 1.
If K = 0.5, [A] = 36 and [B] = 18. If
K = 1, [A] = [B] = 27. 15.4. If K 7 1 for the
2nd reaction, K for the 1st reaction will be the
larger of the two, but if K 6 1 for the 2nd reaction, K for the 1st reaction will be the smaller
of the two. 15-5. Reverse given equation
(invert its K value). To that equation add
CH 41g2 + H 2O1g2
CO1g2 + 3 H 21g2;
CO(g) cancels and the overall equation is the
one we seek; its K is the ratio of the other
two K values. 15-6. The balanced equation is
sufficient to determine the outcome of a reaction that goes to completion. If the reaction
is reversible and reaches a state of equilibrium, the value of K is required as well.
15-7. (a) incorrect: would require that CO(g)
and H 2O1g2 be completely consumed
impossible with Kp = 10.0. (b) incorrect:
would be violation of the law of conservation
of mass. (c) incorrect; would require the consumption of some CO21g2, but the direction
of net change must be in the forward reaction.
(d) correct: an outcome that would result
from a net change in the forward direction.
(e) incorrect: sufficient data are given to calculate the composition of the equilibrium
mixture. 15-8. Even though the pressure increases because of the addition of an inert
gas, the reaction will shift to the right since
the volume of the reaction vessel decreased.
15-9. (a) True more H 21g2 will form at the
expense of the H 2S1g2 and CH 41g2. (b) False
an inert gas has no effect on a constantvolume equilibrium condition. (c) True K
changes with T and so does the composition
of the equilibrium mixture. (d) Uncertain
the partial pressures of H 2S1g2 and CH 41g2
will rise because a net reaction occurs to the
left, but the increase in partial pressures of
CS 21g2 and H 21g2 caused by forcing these
two gases into a smaller volume will be at
least partly offset by the equilibrium shift
to the left. 15-10. Equilibrium shifts in the
forward direction, the endothermic reaction.
Student B, by holding the beaker, stimulates
heat flow into the reaction mixture, probably
achieving a higher yield of product.

CHAPTER 16
Concept Assessment 16-1. (a) is a conjugate
acid/base pair; HCO 3 - can transfer a proton to
a base (e.g., OH -) yielding CO 3 2- , and CO 3 2can react with an acid (e.g., H 3O +) to reform
HCO 3 -. (b) is not a conjugate acid/base pair;
SO 4 2- can be produced from HSO3 - only
through an oxidation process not in an acid
base reaction. (c) is not a conjugate acid/base
pair; it is a pair of unrelated acids. (d) yes;
(e) no. 16-2. With pH = log[H 3O +], the vast
majority of solutions would have negative pH
values. It is more convenient to incorporate the
negative sign in the definition than to carry it in
individual pH values. With pH = - ln[H 3O +]
the close relationship between pH and the powers of ten used in scientific notation would be
completely lost. (The desire to establish this
relationship was why the pH concept was
devised in the first case.) 16-3. A concentrated
solution of a weak acid may often have a
lower pH than a dilute solution of a strong one.
For example, the pH of 0.10 M HC2H 3O 2
calculated as pH = 2.89 in Example 16-6 is
lower than the pH of 0.0010 M HCl. 16-4. The
bottle labeled Ka = 7.2 * 10-4 contains the
more acidic solution. The bottle labeled
Ka = 1.9 * 10-5 has the acid with the
larger pKa. The relevant equations are
+
NH 3CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 + H 2O1l2
H 3O +1aq2 + NH 2CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 pK1 =
6.85 and NH 2CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 + H 2O1l2
H 2O1l2
H 3O +1aq2 +
NH 2CH 2CH 2NH 21aq2 pK2 = 9.92. From
equation (16.18), the values of the base
ionization constants are pKb1 = 14.00 9.92 =
4.08 and pKb2 = 14.00 6.85 = 7.15.
The base ionization reactions are
NH 2CH 2CH 2NH 21aq2 + H 2O1l2
NH2CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 + OH -1aq2 pKb1 = 4.08
and NH 2CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 + H 2O1l2
+
NH 3CH 2CH 2NH 3 +1aq2 + OH -1aq2 pKb2 =
7.15 +NH 3CH1CH 32COOH + H 2O
NH 3CH1CH 32COO - + H 3O + pKa = 2.34
+
NH 3CH1CH 32COO - + H 2O
NH 2CH1CH 32COO - + H 3O + pKa = 9.87
pKb1 = 14.00 2.63 = 11.37
pKb2 = 14.00 9.87 = 4.13
NH 2CH1CH 32COO - + H 2O
+
NH 2CH1CH 32COO - + OH - pKb1 = 4.13
+
NH 3CH1CH 32COO - + H 2O
+
NH 3CH1CH 32COOH + OH - pKb1 = 11.37.
16-6. Consider HPO4 2-, which can act as an acid:
HPO4 2-1aq2 + H 2O1l2
H 3O +1aq2 +
PO4 3-1aq2, Ka = 4.2 * 10-13 or as a base:
HPO4 2-1aq2 + H 2O1l2
H 2PO 4 -1aq2 +
OH -1aq2 Kb = Kw>Ka = 1.00 * 10-14>
4.2 * 10-13 = 2.4 * 10-2. Because Kb is much
greater than Ka , HPO 4 2-1aq2 is basic. In a similar way, H 2PO 4 -1aq2 is seen to be acidic.
Thus, depending on K values, ions in aqueous
solutions may have pH values ranging from
acidic to neutral to basic. 16-7. We should expect pKa for ortho-chlorophenol to be smaller
than for phenol because of the electron-withdrawing effect of the Cl atom. (Its pKa is 8.55
compared with 10.00 for phenol.) 16-8. Picture
three Br atoms joined by single bonds to a
Fe(III) atom on which there is also a lone pair

Appendix G
of electrons: Br3Fe: Now imagine that a Br2
molecule dissociates into Br + and Br - ions. The
electron-deficient Br +, a Lewis acid, attaches to the
lone-pair electrons of Fe(III), a Lewis base, forming
[FeBr4]+. The final product is [FeBr4]+Br -.

CHAPTER 17
Concept Assessment 17-1. (a) no; NH 4Cl lowers the pH through the common-ion effect
(b) yes, but only slightly. Diethylamine is a
somewhat stronger base than NH 3 , but only a
rather small amount is being added. (c) no;
HCl is a strong acid that will neutralize
some of the NH 3 , producing an aqueous
solution of NH 3 and NH 4Cl. (d) no; since
the added NH 31aq2 is more dilute than the
0.10 M NH 31aq2 the overall solution will be
0.075 M NH 31aq2. (e) yes; Ca1OH221s2 is a
strong base. 17-2. benzoic acid/benzoate with
a 1:2 ratio. 17-3. (a) yellow; a low pH (b) yellow; a CH 3COOH>CH 3COO - buffer solution
is formed but its pH is about 5 (c) yellow; the
buffer completely neutralizes the small
amount of added OH - (d) red; the buffer
capacity is exceeded and the solution becomes
basic. 17-4. Choice (c) is the correct one; 0.60
mol NaCH 3COO , converts all the HCl to
CH 3COOH, producing a CH 3COOH/
NaCH 3COO buffer solution of pH L 4. Choices
(a) and (b) have essentially no effect on the pH,
and while choice (d) would neutralize 80% of
the acid, the amount of strong acid remaining
would still produce a pH L 1. 17-5. This is the
titration of a weak base that ionizes in two
stages. The titration curve would begin at a
moderately high pH; the pH would drop during
the titration, and there would be two equivalence points. In general, the curve would resemble that in Figure 17-13, but flipped from bottom
to top. The two buffer regions and pH = pKb
values would be in segments of the curve between the two equivalence points. 17-6. (a) six
species: K +, H 3O +, I -,CH 3COO -, OH -,
CH 3COOH (b) most abundant, K + (the spectator ion in highest concentration); 2nd most
abundant, CH3COO - (produced in the neutralization of 3/4 of the CH 3COOH) (c) least
abundant, OH - (the final solution is acidic, so
[OH -] 6 10-7 M); 2nd least abundant, H 3O +
(final solution a buffer with pH L 5)

CHAPTER 18

Concept Assessment 18-1. Because of the large

excess of MgF21s2 the solution would remain
saturated even when the volume of solution
is doubled; [Mg 2+ ] remains constant.
18-2. CaF2 and AgCl are insoluble with
Ksp = 5.3 * 10-9 and Ksp = 1.8 * 10-10, respectively. Since Ksp values for CaCl2 and AgF
are not found in tables, they can be assumed to
be soluble compounds. 18-3. It is largely
immaterial. The only requirement is that the
AgNO31aq2 be concentrated enough to bring
about the precipitation without unduly diluting the solution from which the precipitation
occurs. 18-4. It will affect the solubility of CaF2
more. The formation of F - is derived from the
weak acid HF, and so it will undergo hydrolysis whose equilibrium can be changed on the
addition of an acid or base. 18-5. (a) At

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

pH = 10.00, [OH -] = 1.0 * 10-4 M and

[Mg 2+] = 1.8 * 10-3 M, an entirely plausible
result. (b) At pH = 5.00, [OH -] = 1 * 10-9 M
and [Mg 2+] = 1.8 * 107 M, an impossible
result. The situation here is that at pH = 5.00
the solution is not one of Mg(OH)2 . It is
MgCl21aq2, and [Mg 2+] in this solution depends on the solubility of MgCl2 . 18-6. As
expected, with [Cl-] = 0.0039 M, the molar
solubility of AgCl(s) is less than in pure water
because of the common-ion effect. At higher
concentrations of Cl -1aq2, AgCl(s) becomes
more soluble because of complex ion formation: AgCl(s) + Cl-1aq2 [AgCl2]-1aq2.
18-7. Pb2+ 1aq2 is present because of the formation of the yellow PbCrO 41s2; Hg 2 2+1aq2 is absent because of the negative test for that ion;
the presence of Ag +1aq2 is uncertain because it
really wasn t tested for. 18-8. We must consider
the formation of Pb1OH23 -, Kf = 3.8 * 1014, in
the solution. 18-9. Will not work because both
ions would precipitate: 1NH 422CO3 , H 2S(aq),
and NaOH(aq); will not work because neither
ion would precipitate: HNO 31aq2 and
NH 31aq2. HCl(aq) will work because
CuCl2 is water soluble and AgCl is not.

CHAPTER 19
Concept Assessment 19-1. No, spontaneous
and nonspontaneous refer to the thermodynamics of a process, not the kinetics. A nonspontaneous process will not occur without
external intervention, and a spontaneous reaction is not necessarily fast; it can occur very
slowly. 19-2. Doubling the volume available to
the gas in Figure 19-1. is equivalent to doubling the length of the box from L to 2L in
Figure 19-3a. The expansion of the gas in
Figure 19-1 seems driven by a tendency to fill
all the available volume. The gas expansion can
also be explained, however, as the tendency
of the system energy to be distributed among
the greater number of available energy levels
in the 2L box compared to the L box.
19-3. H as a function of T is a straight line with
only a slight slope (positive or negative), in the
negative energy region. The TS line, in the
same energy region, has a steep negative slope
and intersects the H line. The distance between
the two lines 1H - T S2 represents G. At
the point of intersection, G = 0, at T below the
intersection G 6 0, and at T above the intersection G 7 0. 19-4. G = 326.4 kJ mol -1
means that the Gibbs energy change for the
system is 326.4 kJ when 3 mol O2 is converted
into 2 mol O3. If 1.75 mol O 2 reacts, then
the Gibbs energy change for the system is
1326.4 kJ>3 mol O22 * 11.75 mol O22 =
190.4 kJ. 19-5. H 2O1l, 1 atm2
H 2O1g, 1 atm2, is a process in which H 7 0
and S 7 0, as represented by Figure 19-9.
Below 100 C, condensation of H 2O(g, 1 atm)
is favored and at 100 C (the normal boiling
point) condensation and vaporization are at
equilibrium and G = 0. At 120 C, vaporization predominates, G 6 0, and T S 7 H.

CHAPTER 20

Concept Assessment 20-1. At the anode, Zn(s)

is oxidized to Zn2+ 1aq2 and, to preserve

A59

charge balance, NO3 -1aq2 migrates in from the

salt bridge. At the cathode, Cu2+1aq2 is reduced
to Cu(s) and, to preserve charge balance,
K +1aq2 migrates in from the salt bridge.
20-2. No changes in mass at the inert Pt(s)
electrodes; a gain in mass at the Cu(s) electrode
through the half reaction Cu2+1aq2 + 2 e -
Cu1s2; and a loss in mass at the Zn(s)
electrode through the half reaction Zn1s2
Zn2+ 1aq2 + 2 e -. 20-3. Standard-state conditions for ClO4 -1aq2 and H +1aq2 are a L 1 M;
for Cl21g2, a = 1 bar L 1 atm; for
H 2O1l2, a = 1. 20-4. The cell with E 7 0 proceeds toward the formation of more products.
A net reaction also occurs in the case where
E 6 0, but in the reverse direction; the concentrations on the left side of the equation increase and those on the right decrease, until
equilibrium is reached. 20-5. Ecell = E cell if all
reactants and products are in their standard
states, but also for any set of concentrations
where Q = 1 in equation (20.18). 20-6. The
precipitate is PbSO41s2, thereby reducing
[Pb2+] in the anode compartment and increasing the value of Ecell , so that Ecell 7 Ecell .
20-7. The cell diagram Pt1s2 Cl21g, 1 atm2
Cl-10.50 M2 Cl-10.10 M2 Cl21g, 1 atm2 Pt1s2
has the net cell reaction: 0.50 M Cl -1aq2
0.10 M Cl-1aq2 and Ecell = -0.0592 V *
log(0.10>0.50) = 0.041 V. 20-8. In a calomel
electrode, reduction potential depends on the
chloride potential. Therefore, the standard reduction potential for a calomel electrode has a
different chloride concentration from the saturated calomel electrode. 20-9. Dry cells and
lead-acid cells run down as the concentrations of reactants and products eventually
reach their equilibrium values, where G and
Ecell both become 0. This does not happen in a
fuel cell because fuel is continuously added.
20-10. Both Al and Zn can be used because
they are more active than Fe; Ni and Cu are
less active and cannot be used.

CHAPTER 21
Concept Assessment 21-1. AlF3 will have the
higher melting point. 21-2. The Na + , K + , Rb +
and Cs + ions have relatively low charge densities and are better able to stabilize large, polyatomic anions such as NO 2 -. Because the Li +
ion has a very high charge density and high polarizing power, it may kinetically assist the decomposition of polyatomic anions, such as N3 and N2 -, to smaller anions such as O2-. Balanced
chemical equations for the reactions are:
MNO31s2 MNO 21s2 + 1*2 O 21g2 1M =

Na, K, Rb, Cs2; 2 LiNO31s2 Li 2O1s2 +

2 NO21g2 + 1*2 O 21g2. 21-3. The hybridization
of Be changes from sp to sp2 to sp3 on going
from BeCl2 to 1BeCl222 and 1BeCl22n and the
geometry around the Be atom changes from
linear to trigonal planar to tetrahedral.
21-4. A plausible reaction is that Mg(s) is oxidized to MgO(s) and CO21g2 is reduced to
C(s), that is, 2 Mg1s2 + CO 21g2
2 MgO1s2 + C1s2. 21-5. For all but beryllium,
heating the group 2 carbonates (MCO3) yields
the corresponding oxide (MCO); see equation
(21.11). One method for preparing BeO is to

A60

Appendix G

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

burn Be(s) in O2. 21-6. The small size of Be 2+

precludes the possibility of six H 2O molecules
coordinating to the central Be 2+ ion, whereas
this happens readily with the Mg 2+ ion.
21-7. Lithium and magnesium form ions, Li +
and Mg 2 + that have high charge densities and
are strongly polarizing. Presumably, when
these ions are formed, their charge densities are
large enough to stabilize the N 3- anion.
Balanced chemical equations for the reactions
are: 3 Li1s2 + 1*2 N21g2 : Li 3N1s2;
3 Mg1s2 + N21g2 : Mg 3N21s2. 21-8. The
structure of B2H 21CH 324 is analogous to diborane (Fig. 21-11a) with two bridging H atoms
and four methyl groups 1 CH 32 in the terminal positions. 21-9. AlF3 is an electron-deficient
compound and forms [AlF4]- in the presence of
F - from KF. BF3 is a stronger Lewis acid than
AlF3 and abstracts a F - ion from [AlF4]-. The
result: [AlF4]- + BF3 AlF31s2 + [BF4]-.
21-10. Determine H for each reaction using
equation (7.21), the only difference is replacing
1 mol CO2 in equation (21.29) by 1 mol CO in
equation (21.30). The difference in the heat of
reaction is - 110.5 kJ> mol CO1g2 3 - 393.5 kJ>mol CO21g24 = 283 kJ. Reaction
(21.30) liberates 238 kJ less heat than reaction
(21.29). 21-11. Refer to pages 958 and 959 and
imagine a chain of tetrahedra starting with
SiO4 4- and increasing in increments of SiO 3 2-,
yielding SiO4 4- , Si 2O7 6- , Si 3O 10 8- Si 4O13 10-,
Si 5O16 12-, Si 6O 19 14-. Now bend the six-unit
silicate chain into a hexagonal ring (similar
to that in the third structure on page 958)
by eliminating one O 2- between the ends of
the chain. The result is the anion Si 6O 18 12-.
In beryl, 3 Be 2+ and 2 Al3+ provide the
necessary 12 units of positive charge.
21-12. Dissolved O2 (g) in Sn2+1aq2 is able to
oxidize Sn2+ to Sn4+. The following
spontaneous reaction reduces tin (IV) to tin (II):
Sn4+1aq2 + Sn1s2 2 Sn2+1aq2;
Ecell = 0.154 V - 1 - 0.137 V2 = 0.017 V. Thus,
as long as an excess of Sn(s) is present, the
Sn2+1aq2 can be maintained with little or no
Sn4+1aq2 present.

CHAPTER 22

Concept Assessment 22-1. The larger EN difference and shorter bond length between Xe
and F, compared to Xe and Cl, makes XeF2 a
more stable molecule than XeCl2 . 22-2. The
ions do not have the same shape. ICl2 +
(VSEPR notation, AX2E 2) has a tetrahedral
electron-group geometry and a bent molecular
shape. ICl2 - (VSEPR notation, AX2E 3) has a
trigonal-bipyramidal electron-group geometry,
and a linear molecular shape. 22-3. CuSO 41aq2
yields Cu(s) at the Pt cathode and O 21g2 at the
Pt anode, and NaI(aq) yields I 2 at the anode
and H 21g2 at the cathode. The other three
solutions H 2SO 41aq2, NaOH(aq), and
KNO31aq2 all yield H 21g2 at the cathode and
O 21g2 at the anode. 22-4. O3 and O 3 - are both
V shaped. The Lewis structures for these
species suggest that the central O atom is sp2
hybridized in O3 and sp3 hybridized in O 3 -;
thus, the ideal bond angles are 120 for O 3
and 109 in O 3 -. Experiment shows that
the O O O bond angles in these two

molecular species are much closer: 117 in

O31g2 and 114 in KO 31s2. The experimental
results suggest that valence bond theory not
entirely satisfactory for describing the bonding
O3 and O 3 -, and a molecular orbital approach
is more appropriate. (According to molecular
orbital theory, the extra electron in O 3 - occupies an antibonding orbital. As a result, the
oxygen oxygen bonds in O3 - are slightly
longer than in O3, but the bond angle is not
significantly affected. 22-5. The Cl in OCl2
shows more positive character (blue color)
than does F in OF2 because the electronegativity of Cl is considerably less than that of F.
22-6. The condensed structural formulas for
phosphoric acid and phosphorous acid are
OP1OH23 and HPO1OH22, respectively.
22-7. The Br atom is larger than the Cl atom.
A central P atom can accommodate only four
Br atoms, as in the tetrahedral PBr4 + ion. But
the central P atom can accommodate either
four Cl atoms, as in the tetrahedral PCl4 + ion,
or six, as in the octahedral PCl6 - ion.

CHAPTER 23

Concept Assessment 23-1. The electron

configuration of Fe is 3Ar43d6 4s 2 and for
Fe 3+, 3Ar43d5. The 3d5 subshell is half-filled
and especially stable. Cobalt 13Ar43d 7 4s 22 and
nickel 13Ar43d8 4s 22 must lose four and five
electrons, respectively, to achieve a half-filled
3d subshell. They simply lose the two 4s electrons instead. 23-2. Both involve reducing
metallic compounds to the free metal, often
from the same ores. Pyrometallurgy employs
high temperatures, yields impure metals that
must be refined, and generates gaseous emissions and solid wastes. Hydrometallurgy involves leaching desired metal ions into an
aqueous solution, followed by chemical or
electrolytic reduction to the metal. Lower temperatures are used, gaseous emissions are
largely eliminated, but liquid waste solutions
are generated. 23-3. Fe2O 31s2 + 3 H 21g2
"
2 Fe1s2 + 3 H 2O1g2 23-4. The
3Cr3O1042- anion consists of three tetrahedral
structures arranged around the backbone
Cr O Cr O Cr. The central Cr atom of
the backbone is bonded to two additional O
atoms and the Cr atoms at the ends to three
other O atoms for a total of 10 O atoms. The O.
S. of Cr is + 6 and that of O is - 2 (accounting
for the 2 - charge on the anion). Similar anions
are polysilicate (Fig. 21-31) and polyphosphate
(Fig. 22-22). 23-5. The CO groups in Fe1CO25
are neutral molecules; the sum of the O.S. of
the C and O is 0, and the O.S. of Fe is also 0.
23-6. Au ( Z = 79, group 11) has the electron
configuration [Xe]4f 14 5d 10 6s 1; the electrons
lost in forming Au3+ are the 6s and two of the
5d, resulting in [Xe]4f 14 5d8. 23-7. The five
pairs of electrons around the Cd 2+ central ion
in [CdCl5]3- is consistent with trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry (see Table 10-1).

CHAPTER 24

Concept Assessment 24-1. Only one possibility

for a six-coordinate complex 3AlCl31H 2O234
a non-electrolyte that does not conduct

electricity and yields no precipitate with

AgNO31aq2. Three possible four-coordinate
complexes: [AlCl1H 2O23]Cl2 ,
[AlCl21H 2O22]Cl # H 2O, and
[AlCl31H 2O2] # 2 H 2O. The first two of these
three can be differentiated by conductivity
measurements; the first is the better conductor.
The third cannot be distinguished from the
six-coordinate complex by Werner s method.
24-2. Three N atoms can donate an electron
pair, so the ligand is tridentate. 24-3. The
formula of the coordination compound is
K 33FeBr2Cl21OH224 and the name is potassium
dibromodichlorodihydroxoferrate(III).
24-4. As seen from the models in the margin,
substitution of a fourth Cl - in the mer-isomer
leads to all four Cl - ligands in the same plane,
but this same isomer cannot be obtained by
substituting a fourth Cl - in the fac-isomer.
24-5. Structures (a) and (d) are identical and
are geometric isomers of (b), (c), and (e). Structures (e) and (c) are enantiomers, and (b) and
(e) are identical. 24-6 (i) 4 (ii) 3 (iii) 5 (iv) 2
(v) 1 24-7. Both ligands form chelates, but
3Cr1EDTA24- does so in a single step, while
3Cr1en2343+ requires a succession of three
steps. The b 1 for 3Cr1EDTA24- is much larger
than b 1 or b 2 of 3Cr1en2343+ , but the cumulative formation constant, b 3 (or Kf), of
3Cr1en2343+ should be similar to b 1 (or Kf)
of 3Cr1EDTA24-.

CHAPTER 25

Concept Assessment 25-1. Radioactive decay

that changes Z produces a different element.
This includes a, b -, b + emissions and electron
capture. If there is no change in Z (emission of
g rays) the element remains the same.
25-2. Francium, a radioactive element, is produced in the decay schemes of heavier elements and found only in conjunction with
other decay products, not in natural sources of
the alkali metals that Fr resembles.
25-3. Radioactive nuclides with very long halflives have a very low activity; those with very
short half-lives have a high activity but they
do not persist long. Those with intermediate
half-lives may persist in the environment for a
significant period of time at a high activity,
making them potentially the most hazardous.
25-4. Refer to Table 25.2 and Figure 25-7 and
focus on magic numbers and the relative thickness and width of the belt of stability for a
fixed proton number and a fixed neutron number. The greatest thickness comes at the magic
number, Z = 50. (Tin has 10 stable isotopes.)
The greatest width comes at the magic number, N = 82. (There are 7 stable nuclides with
82 n.) 25-5. Refer to Figure 25-7. The point
representing 44Ca falls in the belt of stability;
44
Ca is a stable nuclide. 57Cu falls below the
N = Z line and in the region of b + emission,
while 100Zr falls above the belt of stability and
decays by b - emission. 235U falls above and
beyond the belt of stability and decays by
a-particle emission.

CHAPTER 26
Concept Assessment 26-1. All structures
based on F atoms at two of the vertices of a

Appendix G
tetrahedron and H atoms at the remaining two
are superimposable. Only one molecule has
the formula CH 2F2 . Two possibilities exist for
four atoms at the corners of a square two F
atoms on one side (cis) or on opposite corners
(trans). 26-2. No. A quaternary carbon atom is
bonded to four other carbon atoms.
26-3. 2-pentanol. 26-4. The generic formula of
an alkane is CnH 2n + 2 , and for an alkyl halide
where an X atom replaces one H atom,
CnH 2n + 1X. If we limit the series to straightchain alkanes with X as a terminal atom, we
have H1CH 22nX. That is, n = 1, HCH 2X or
CH 3X; n = 2, HCH 2CH 2X or CH 3CH 2X;
n = 3, HCH 2CH 2CH 2X or CH 3CH 2CH 2X;
and so on. 26-5. Yes. 26-6.

Cl

Cl

CH3

C C* C* C; in both cases the molecule is

the same and there is only one s-butyl alcohol.
In pentyl alcohol, OH attaches to one of the
indicated C atoms in C C* C# C* C.
Here, the two structures are the same if attachment is at a C* atom, but a different molecule
results if attachment is to the C# atom. The
name s-pentyl alcohol is inadequate. 26-12.

OH

CH3
CH3

H
H
F

The larger group, - CH 3, is in the equatorial

position. 26-9. There are two chiral centers, at
the 2nd and 3rd C atoms (to which Br atoms
are attached), and four stereoisomers. To show
this, sketch a dashed line-wedge structure
with the two Br atoms on the same side of the
molecule; next to it sketch its nonsuperimposable mirror image. Sketch another structure
with the two Br atoms on opposite sides of the
molecule and its mirror image, making a total
of four stereoisomers. 26-10.

Cl
H3CHC

CH3
C

CH2

HBr

Br

H
H

27-4.

H3C

C
H

*
O

(E)-3-methylpent
-2-ene

or
3-bromo-3methylpentane
(major)

CHCH3
Cl

Br
2-bromo-3methylpentane
(minor)

27-5. A mixture of enantiomers would be obtained because hydration proceeds through a

carbocation. The carbocation can be attacked
from above or below by a water molecule,
and so both the (R) and (S) configurations of
2-butanol will be produced. 27-6. The product
will be trans-1,2-dibromocyclopentane. If the
bromonium ion is formed with the Br atom
situated above the plane of the ring, then Br will attack from below the plane of the ring
because it must attack from the backside.
Therefore, the trans isomer is obtained:

26-11. In butyl acohol OH attaches to either

of the indicated C atoms in the skeleton

Br

Br

26-13. No, because C3H 6O2 has only one element of unsaturation. A dialdehyde has two p
bonds, and thus two elements of unsaturation.

*
I

26-7. The conformer with the methyl group in

the axial position has higher energy, and so it
would release more energy, as heat, if burned.
26-8. The lower energy conformation is:

Br

which is
equivalent to

CHAPTER 27

Cl

Br2
Br
Br

A61

Br

27-1. CH 3CN is aprotic; NH 3 is protic;

1CH 323N is aprotic; HCONH 2 is protic;
CH 3COCH 3 is aprotic. 27-2. The minor
product is the substitution product,
1CH 323C OCH 2CH 3, an ether.
Because the substrate is a 3 haloalkane (which
disfavors backside attack) and the solvent is
polar protic (and stabilizes a carbocation), the
ether is formed by the S N1 mechanism.
27-3.
CH

CH3

Cl

Answers to Concept Assessment Questions

Br
Br
trans isomer .

27-7. Once formed, CH 3Cl can react with a Cl

to form a H2ClC radical. A H2ClC radical
can then react with a H3C radical to form
ClCH 2CH 3. 27-8. 1CH 322CBrCH 2CH 3.

CHAPTER 28

Concept Assessment 28-1. The products are

1 mol glycerol and 1 mol each of sodium
palmitate, sodium oleate, and sodium linoleate.
28-2. The mirror image of a 1+ 2 enantiomer is
the 1-2 enantiomer, so the mirror image of
D-1+2-glucose is L-1-2-glucose. There can be
no D-1 -2-glucose. 28-3. This polypeptide
structure is shown in Example 28-1. Ionization
occurs only at the N-terminal and C-terminal
ends of the chain and nowhere else along the
chain. Since the N-terminal and C-terminal
amino acids are at a pH more than one unit
above their isoelectric points, the only significant
ionization is at the C-terminal amino acid, which
would be present as a 1 - anion, making the net
charge on the tripeptide also 1 - . 28-4. Helix
formation in a protein (Fig. 28-12) requires
close proximity of carbonyl and amide
groups and formation of hydrogen bonds
between them, occurring regularly over an
entire macromolecule. In the polysaccharides
(Fig. 28-9), O atoms and OH groups could
conceivably form hydrogen bonds between
them, but more randomly and not in the very
tight helical fashion seen in proteins.