Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurisation Notes

Issue 1 - 20 March 2001
Page 1
AIR CONDITIONING AND CABIN PRESSURISATION

Introduction
The atmosphere above10,000ft is too thin and cold for normal breathing.
Passenger carrying aircraft, operating above this height need an air conditioning
and pressurisation system. The temperature of the air passing through the
passenger cabin, flight deck and other compartments must be strictly controlled,
as well as flow rate and level of humidity.
Cabin temperature will normally be maintained between 15 and 30 degrees
Celsius. Additionally, a controlled amount of pressurisation is necessary, so that
the air pressure in the passenger cabin and adjacent areas does not exceed the
equivalent of the ambient air pressure at 8000ft.
Air conditioning is also essential for un-pressurised aircraft types.
A typical air conditioning and pressurisation system comprises eight principle subsystems:
Air Supplies (Pneumatics ATA 36)

Cooling
Heating
Temperature Control
Humidity Control
Mass Flow Control
Distribution
Pressurisation
Air Supply
The source of fresh air supply and arrangement of essential components will vary
between aircraft type and each air conditioning system, but in general one of the
following methods described in the following paragraphs will be adopted:
Engine Bleed Air (compression)
This method is the most common and is installed on the majority of modern
aircraft types. Very hot air is tapped from the main engine compressor stages and
supplied to the cabin, flight deck and other areas. Before the air enters the cabin,
it is passed through a temperature control system, which reduces its temperature
and pressure. Additionally, a means of flow control is utilised and in some aircraft,
humidity control forms part of the system. (See Fig 1)
In pressurised aircraft, the discharge of the conditioned air is regulated to
maintain the cabin pressure at the selected pressure altitude.
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AUXILIARY POWER UNIT
NON RETURN VALVE
SHUT OFF VALVES

FLOW CONTROLLER
ECU
TEMPERATURE CONTROL VALVE
NRV
SECONDARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
PRIMARY HEAT
EXCHANGER
NRV
WATER SEPARATOR
COUPLED COMPRESSOR TURBINE
Typical (Compression) Bleed Air System

Figure 1
Air Compressors or Blowers
This method is used on turbo-prop, piston engine or even turbo-jet aircraft where
main engine compressor bleed is unavailable or unsuitable.
Normally the compressor or blower will be mechanically driven from the
accessory gearbox of the main engine and its air supply routed via a temperature
control system, in a similar manner to the engine bleed method.
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
The APU is a small gas turbine engine, which can be connected into the main air
supply system and provide an independent means of air conditioning and
pressurisation, either on the ground or in flight, when the main engines cannot
supply. It will utilise the engine bleed air principle outlined above.
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Ram Air
This method is normally found as the primary ventilation system on unpressurised aircraft. A ram air scoop placed directly into the airflow, will provide
the means of air supply as the aircraft moves forward.
Since the air at altitude will be cold, the temperature control system through
which it passes before entering the cabin, will normally be a form of heater.
A self-contained combustion type heater will be employed, or the some form of
exhaust gas heater. The air conditioning ducting will be routed around the
combustion heater casing or around engine exhaust duct to obtain convection
heating.
On pressurised aircraft, a ram air system can be used as a means of emergency
ventilation, following a complete loss of the main system.
RAM AIR
COLD
DEMISTER
AIR OUTLETS
WARM
AIR OUTLETS
EXHAUST
COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FLOW CONTROL VALVE
FUEL SOLENOID VALVE
ENGINE DRIVEN AIR BLOWER

AIR SUPPLY
FUEL SUPPLY
O FF
ON
COMBUSTION HEATING AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM
Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 2
Ground Cart
This will be an independent means of heating or cooling the passenger cabin on
the ground. It can be used on aircraft that do not have an APU. The trolley will be
connected externally to the aircraft, via a purpose built inlet into the air
conditioning system and normally employs a combustion type heater and the
means to control the output of the air temperature from a control panel the cart.
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Cooling
When bleed air is used as the air supply, the air tapped off the engine
compressor can reach a temperature in excess of 300 degrees Celsius.
This is obviously far too hot to be fed directly into the air-conditioned areas, so it
must first be cooled down to around 20 degrees Celsius.
There are two main methods of cooling;
Air Cycle and Vapour Cycle cooling systems.
Air Cycle Cooling
Air cycle cooling relies on three basic principles; surface heat exchange,
expansion and energy conversion.
Surface heat exchange, provides cooling by passing the air tapped from the
engine compressor (charge air) across some form of heat exchanger. The charge
air is subjected to the effect of a colder cross flow, normally ambient air, scooped
by an intake and passed across the heat exchanger as the aircraft moves forward
(ram air). Although 90% of heat is given up in this way, the charge air temperature
can never be reduced below the ram air temperature by this method alone.
Expansion, provides cooling when the pressure of the charge air is reduced by
increasing its velocity and expanding it across the turbine of a so-called Air Cycle
Machine (ACM) or Cold Air Unit (CAU). In this way, the temperature of the charge
air can be rapidly lowered to zero degrees Celsius, irrespective of the ram air
temperature
Energy Conversion, cools by making the hot air do work. This is achieved by
using the charge air to drive a turbine, which is connected by a shaft to the
compressor or fan within the cold air unit, thus converting heat energy into kinetic
energy. This method will also help to reduce the charge air to zero degrees
Celsius.
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HOT AIR INLET

PRIMARY
HEAT
EXCHANGER
SECONDARY HEAT EXCHANGER
RAM AIR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVE
WATER SEPARATOR
TO
CABIN
MIXER UNIT
COMPRESSOR
TURBINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 3
HEAT EXCHANGERS
These are components within the air conditioning system that transfer heat from
one gas stream to another. Ram air is used as the cooling medium to cool the
very hot charge air ducted from the engine compressor or the gearbox mounted
air compressor or blower.
Depending on where they are placed within the air conditioning system, heat
exchangers are often described as;
A Pre-cooler or Primary Heat Exchanger
An Inter-cooler or Secondary Heat Exchanger

The basic construction is a sealed unit containing a series of cooling passages;
through which the charge air flows and over which the ram air is directed.
Between these passages are thin corrugated strips, that also serve to dissipate
heat as the ram air passes over them.
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AIR CYCLE MACHINE (ACM) OR COLD AIR UNIT (CAU)

The ACM/CAU is the primary component in an air cycle cooling system. A number
of different types can be found including;
The turbo-compressor, the brake turbine and the turbo-fan.
All three use the charge air to drive the turbine and the major differences between
each type, relates to the overall weight for a given mass flow, the size and
method of dissipating the power output of the turbine.
TO
DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM
DIFFUSER
FROM
INTERCOOLER
NOZZLE BLADES
BLEED AIR
COMPRESSOR
TO INTERCOOLER
TURBO COMPRESSOR
Turbo Compressor Cold Air Unit

Figure 4
The turbo-compressor type consists of a turbine driving a centrifugal compressor

and operating in conjunction with an inter-cooler connected between the
compressor and turbine stages.
Its basic construction consists of two main casings, the turbine volute and
compressor volute casings. The two casings are connected together and enclose
a bearing housing with two bearing assemblies, supporting a shaft upon which
the turbine and compressor wheels are mounted.
Page 7
The turbine wheel revolves within a nozzle ring and the compressor wheel rotates
within a diffuser ring. The very hot charge air from the engine compressor bleed
and routed via the pre-cooler, enters the eye of the ACM/CAU compressor. It
becomes compressed on passing through the diffuser ring, increasing its
temperature and energy.
From the compressor, the hot air is directed across the inter-cooler matrix over
which ram air passes and is then directed into the turbine volute nozzle ring,
where it drives the turbine. The resultant expansion and energy conversion,
rapidly lowers the air pressure and temperature.
It is then directed towards the passenger cabin. (See Fig 3)
The ACM/CAU compressor and turbine wheels rotate at extremely high speeds,
often in excess of 80,000 rpm, so efficient bearing lubrication is essential to
ensure smooth and trouble-free running.
Two lubrication methods are used; Integral wet sump arrangements, or
pressurised air bearings that need no oil lubrication.
The wet sump type normally has a sump containing oil and a means of metering
it to the bearings usually by the use of integral wicks or with an oil slinger that
pumps an optimum oil/air mix to the bearings. This ensures the correct amount of
oil at the bearings at all times. Oil replenishment is critical however, as too much
oil will lead to the charge air being oil contaminated and too little oil, may result in
a premature seizure of the rotating shaft.
The air bearing type uses a pressurised air supply to support the shaft in a
similar manner to the hovercraft principal. As the rotor floats on a thin layer of
air, it is essential that this type is kept clean and dry and completely free from oil
and grease.
AMBIENT AIR OUTLET
TURBINE
COMPRESSOR
TO
CABIN
AMBIENT AIR INLET
HEAT EXCHANGER
MIXER
UNIT
BLEED
AIR
CONTROL VALVE
RAM AIR
Brake Turbine Cold Air Unit

Figure 5
Page 8
The brake-turbine type of ACM/CAU, has its charge air routed directly from the
pre-cooler to drive the turbine. The air expands across the turbine as before,
resulting in a large temperature and pressure drop. Since this layout dispenses
with the need for an inter-cooler, it results in a greater efficiency due to weight
saving. To safeguard against the turbine rotating too fast, it is coupled with a
compressor, which rotates in ambient air and consequently acts as a braking
medium. Additionally, the slower rotation of the shaft further improves turbine
output efficiency. (See Fig 5)
BLEED AIR
RAM AIR OUTLET

TURBINE
RAM
AIR
TO CABIN
MIXER UNIT
LARGE FAN
HEAT
EXCHANGER
CONTROL VALVE
TURBO FAN COLD AIR UNIT

Turbo Fan Cold Air Unit
Figure 6
The turbo-fan type is mechanically similar to the brake-turbine arrangement. In
this case however, the turbine drives a large centrifugal fan instead of a normal
compressor. The fan is draws a large quantity of ambient air over the pre-cooler,
which cools the incoming charge air.
The major advantage of this type over the other two, is that with the fan-induced
airflow over the pre-cooler, it can be used with the aircraft stationary on the
ground with the aircraft engines running. It does not need to rely solely on ram air
as the cooling medium for the pre-cooler.
Page 9
Vapour Cycle Cooling

The vapour cycle cooling system can be used as an alternative to the air cycle
cooling system. Although not commonly used these days for air conditioning
systems, the system may be used as the means to remove heat from electrical
and electronic equipment.
The system relies on the principle of the ability of a refrigerant to absorb heat
when changing from a liquid to a gas, through the process of vaporisation or
expansion.
For example, if you were to put a drop of a highly volatile liquid such as
methylated spirits or petrol on the back of you hand, it will feel cold. This is
because the liquid starts to evaporate and draws the heat necessary for
evaporation from your hand. Liquids with a low boiling point have a stronger
tendency to evaporate at normal temperatures than those with a high boiling
point.
Furthermore, the amount of pressure acting on a liquid substance will affect its
state. A sufficient reduction in pressure will cause any liquid to change state into a
vapour or a gas. Conversely, a corresponding increase in pressure will reverse
the process.
CONDENSER
RAM AIR
RECIEVER DRYER
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
AIR SUPPLY
CAPILLARY TUBE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
EVAPORATOR
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
TEMPERATURE
CONTROL VALVES
AIR DISTRIBUTION
Schematic Vapour Cycle System

Figure 7
Page 10
The major components of a typical system are a liquid receiver, a thermostatic

expansion valve, an evaporator, a turbo-compressor, a condenser and a
condenser fan. Often these components are mounted close together to form a
line-replaceable refrigeration pack or vapour cycle cooling pack.
The liquid receiver acts as a reservoir and provides storage for the refrigerant,
normally a highly volatile chemical such as Freon. The refrigerant will pass from
the liquid receiver to a thermostatic expansion valve where it is metered and
released into the evaporator. The very hot charge air from the main engine bleed
flows across the evaporator, releases heat that vaporises the liquid refrigerant
and passes into the passenger cabin at a much lower temperature.
Meanwhile, the now vaporised refrigerant gas is directed towards the turbocompressor. It is drawn into the compressor wheel, the coupled turbine of which
is driven by the main engine bleed air. (Note: In some cases, an independent
means instead of a turbo-compressor may be used to compress the refrigerant
gas, such as an electric motor, as in a domestic refrigerator).
The refrigerant gas leaves the compressor at a high pressure and temperature
and passes across the matrix of the condenser. The gas is cooled by the ram air,
flowing across the matrix and so condenses back into a liquid once again. It then
returns to the liquid receiver to repeat the refrigeration cycle once again.
The condenser fan is used to induce air across the condenser matrix when the
aircraft is stationary on the ground and no ram air is available.
RECEIVER DRIER
GROUND SERVICE
POINT
FILTER
COMPRESSOR
COOLANT OUT
THERMAL EXPANSION
VALVE
COOLANT IN
TEMPERATURE BULB
EVAPORATOR
QUICK RELEASE
PANEL
RAM AIR
CONDENSER
VAPOUR CYCLE COOLING SYSTEM
Typical Vapour Cycle System

Figure 8
Page 11
Heating
Un-pressurised aircraft use a ram-air system for ventilation. At altitude, the ramair passing through the cabin would be very cold, so a heating system is required.
Heating systems can be generally divided into two types:
Exhaust heating systems
Combustion heating systems
Exhaust Heating Systems
In its simplest form, this type of heating system employs a heater muff that
surrounds the exhaust pipes coming from a piston engine, or the jet pipe of a
turbo-jet. A ram air scoop at the forward end of the heater muff allows some of the
cold air to go to directly to a mixing valve.
The remainder, enters the muff and surrounds the exhaust/jet pipes. Heat from
the pipes is transferred into the ram air and carried to the mixing valve. The
heated air joins the cold air at the mixing valve and the combined flow is directed
into the passenger cabin.
Some form of control lever, operated from within the aircraft and connected to the
mixing valve, allows the proportion of hot and cold air to be modulated in order to
suit the cabin heating requirements.
To cater for the possibility of the ventilation air becoming contaminated from the
exhaust pipes, some aircraft will be fitted with carbon monoxide detectors within
the cabin area. These are indicators filled with brightly coloured crystals, which
turn black if exposed to dangerous levels of carbon monoxide.
CONTROL VALVE
EXHAUST MANIFOLD
FLAP
TO CABIN
OPEN
RAM
AIR
CLOSED
HEATER MUFF
CONTROL
LEVER
OVERBOARD DUMP
SIMPLE EXHAUST SYSTEM HEATER
Exhaust System Heater

Figure 9
Page 12
Combustion Heating Systems

This system uses a purpose built combustion chamber heater assembly to
provide the heat source, rather than the previously described exhaust heating
method. Fuel is directed from the aircraft fuel system, through a pressure
regulating and shut off valve that ensures the fuel is at the correct pressure for
atomisation. Other components include a fuel filter, a fuel pump and spray nozzle,
where it is atomised and ignited with an igniter plug. The combustion chamber
assembly heats up the ram air that passes around it.
Typical Combustion Heater System

Figure 10
Temperature Control
In order to operate the aircraft in an infinite number of climatic and operating
conditions, the temperature in the passenger cabin, flight compartment and other
areas needs to be regulated for comfort.
Temperature regulation for the majority of aircraft that employ the engine bleed air
method is usually accomplished by controlling the proportion of hot and cold air
coming from the air supply system. An electric motor driving a double butterfly
type air mixing valve, regulates the cabin temperature, by allowing a controlled
amount of hot air to by-pass the air cycle system. This air is then recombined in
proper proportions with the cold air that has been directed through the air cycle
system at a down stream mix chamber. The position of the air-mixing valve is
determined by signals from the temperature control system.
The temperature control system is normally operated automatically or as a
manual system, if the automatic temperature controller should fail.
Page 13
During automatic operation, the temperature controller continually monitors cabin

temperatures and repositions the air mixing valve if necessary to keep the
temperature at the selected level.
In order to achieve this, the controller receives signals from temperature selector
on the flight deck (the temperature requested) and from temperature sensors in
the passenger cabin, flight compartment and supply ducts (the actual
temperature). If a difference between the requested and actual temperatures
occurs, the controller will send an output signal, to re-position the air mixing valve
until parity exists once more.
During manual operation, the temperature control circuit bypasses the controller
and connects the temperature selector on the flight deck, directly to the air-mixing
valve. Other sensors in the system transmit compartment temperatures to
indicators on the flight deck overhead panel, so that the actual temperatures and
the position of the air-mixing valve can be monitored.
Temperature Control
Figure 11
Page 14
Humidity Control
Humidity control is the means to ensure that the correct amount of water moisture
content is in the air conditioning air within the aircraft cabin. This is necessary to
ensure occupants do not suffer from low humidity levels that are experienced with
high altitude flight.
Humidity control can be achieved two ways;
Water Separation
Water Infiltration
Water separation is the removal of excessive moisture from the charge air,
normally by a water extractor or separator.
Water infiltration is the addition of moisture into the conditioned air as it enters the
cabin using a water pump and spray nozzle.
Water Separation Water Extractor
Water can be introduced into the air conditioning system due to the compression
and expansion of the air in the ACM/CAU and other areas of the air cycle
process.
There are three types of water separator in general use; the coalescer/diffuser
type, the coalescer/bag type and the swirl vane type.
COALESCER/DIFFUSER TYPE
This type consists of a coalescer constructed from layers of monel metal gauze
and glass fibre cloth sandwiched between layers of stainless steel gauze. It is
supported by the diffuser cone and held in place by a relief valve housing. As the
air leaves the diffuser and passes over the coalescer, moisture in the air is
converted into water droplets. The droplets enter the collector shell and are
deposited into collector tubes where they drain down to a collector box from
where the water is ejected overboard.
COALESCER
COLLECTOR SHELL
DIFFUSER
PRESSURE RELIEF
VALVE
CONDENSER
TUBES
DRAIN
COALESCER WATER EXTRACTOR

FIGURE 12
Page 15
COALESCER/BAG TYPE
A porous bag, supported by a shell is fitted within the extractor to convert
moisture into water droplets. A swirl is imparted into the conditioned air and the
centrifugal effect forces the droplets to the outlet shell where it collects and drains
from the component. A bag visual indicator operated by back pressure, will show
when the coalescer bag becomes dirty or blocked. In this case, a relief valve will
open to ensure flow is still available.
BLOCKAGE INDICATOR
OUTLET SHELL
BAG
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE

WATER DRAIN
Bag Type Water Extractor

Figure 13
Page 16
SWIRL VANE TYPE

This type uses centrifugal force to spin the moisture-laden air outwards against
the exit shell. The swirl vane, either fixed or rotating imparts the swirl by rotating
the airflow at high speed. The action, separates the heavier water droplets in the
moisture and collects them in a sump, to be drained away.
SEPARATOR SHELL
SWIRL VANE
WATER SUMP
DRAIN
Swirl Vane Type Water Separator

Figure 14
Page 17
Water Infiltration
Humidity control can also include the addition of water into the air conditioning
system. As an aircraft climbs to high altitude, the moisture level in the air reduces
to a much lower amount than at lower levels of altitude. The reduction in moisture
may cause discomfort to the aircraft occupants. To counteract this, moisture is
added into the conditioned air, by pumping water from a tank to a spray nozzle
positioned at the cabin air inlet. Humidity sensors will detect low humidity
conditions and automatically turn on the controller water pump to restore the
humidity to acceptable levels.
WATER SEPARATOR
DRAIN
COLLECTOR TANK
CABIN HUMIDITY SENSOR
SPRAY NOZZLE
OVERFILL DRAIN
WATER PUMP AND

CONTROLLER
TO CABIN
Typical Humidity Control System

Figure 15
Page 18
Mass Flow Control

Legislation requires that a minimum amount of fresh air be supplied to
passengers and crew. In addition stale air must be removed and odours
eliminated. Most pressurisation systems rely on the fact that air is delivered at a
constant rate under all conditions of flight in order to function correctly.
Mass flow control systems constantly monitor the velocity and density of the air
supply by either increasing or decreasing the demand upon the source of supply,
or by spilling excess supply air overboard.
The mass of air must be controlled at a constant value regardless of aircraft
altitude or cabin pressure. It must also adjust for changes in main engine
compressor speed in bleed air systems, or changes in rotor speed when a
separate air supply from an accessory gearbox driven blower is incorporated.
Mass Flow Controller
This type automatically caters for changes in air density, cabin back pressure and
engine compressor supply pressure. At ground level and during take off and the
early stages of flight, the pressure available from the main engine compressor
outlet is high. As altitude increases or when the engines are set to cruising
speeds, the supply pressure drops.
The amount of pressure from the engine compressor bleed acting on an altitudecompensated piston valve, determines the position the valve will adopt when
opposed by a spring and back pressure from the cabin. The pressure drop across
the valve, will vary the size of outlet ports and will thus determine the valves
degree of opening and closing. This will result in a constant mass flow
downstream of the valve at all times.
Page 19
Mass Flow Control

Figure 16
Distribution Systems
The air distribution system on most aircraft takes cold air from the air conditioning
packs and hot air bleed from the engines and mixes the 2 in a mixer unit to the
required temperature. The air is then distributed to side wall and overhead cabin
vents. On some aircraft the cabin air is then drawn back into the mixing unit by recirculating fans where it is mixed with new air and then re-distributed.
All major components are usually located together in a designated bay for ease of
maintenance. ( Figure 14).
A gasper fan provides cold air to the individual overhead air outlets for the aircrew
and passengers. This air can be drawn direct from outside or from the cooling
packs. Each passenger or crew can control the amount of air received by
controlling the position of the air outlet. This outlet could be a rotary nozzle or a
louvre.
Page 20
TO SIDEWALL DUCTS
TO GASPER
OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
MIXER VALVES
MANIFOLD RELIEF VALVE
TO COCKPIT
TO SIDEWALL
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVES
WATER SEPARATOR
TO OVERHEAD
DUCTS
CONTROL VALVE
SELECTOR LINKAGE
Air Conditioning Distribution Manifold

Figure 18
Conditioned air systems dispense temperature controlled air evenly throughout
the cabin and crew areas. One duct system supplies the cockpit (Figure 17) while
another supplies the cabin. The cabin ducting is then divided into 2 systems, the
overhead (Figure 15) and the sidewall systems (Figure 16). The overhead system
releases air into the cabin from outlets in ducting running fore and aft in the cabin
ceiling. The sidewall duct system takes air through ducting between the sidewall
and cabin interior linings and releases it through cove light grills and louvres.
Page 21
A cockpit controlled selector valve located on the main distribution manifold

allows all overhead, side wall or any combination of the two systems to be used
and varies the flow between the two.
DUCTING
FLOOR EXHAUST DUCT
ADJUSTABLE AIR OUTLETS
GASPER FAN
Overhead Panel
Figure 19
Duct sections throughout both the cabin and cockpit are joined together with
clamps or clips. Means of equalising the duct pressures and balancing the air
flows are designed into each system. The systems are protected from excess
pressures by use of a spring loaded pressure relief valve usually located in the
main distribution manifold. The main manifold is located immediately downstream
from the mixing units in the air conditioning bay.
On large aircraft a cockpit controlled dual selector valves divides the air between
cockpit and cabin areas. These butterfly valves are interlinked. When one is fully
open the other is fully closed and vice versa.
Air is exhausted from the passenger cabin through grills and outflow valves in the
sidewalls above the floor. This air can then be directed around the cargo
compartment walls where it assists in compartment temperature control. Some air
then flows to the cargo heat distribution duct under the compartment floor and is
then discharged overboard through the outflow valves.
Page 22
DISTRIBUTION BOXES
WALL FEEDER DUCTS
WINDOW DEMISTER
FLOOR EXHAUST VENTS
DISTRIBUTION DUCT
Sidewall Ducting
Figure 20
Below each floor air exhaust outlet is a flotation check valve. This valve is a
plastic ball held in a cage. If the cargo compartments become flooded the balls
float up the cage and seals off the floor to help prevent water from entering the
cabin.
CABIN TEMPERATURE SENSOR
AIR VENT
FLIGHT DECK
TEMPERATURE SENSOR
SILENCER
FAN ASSY
COOLING FANS
FAN ASSY PRESSURE SWITCH
Cockpit Air Distribution

Figure 21
Aircraft may be separated into zones each with its own air conditioning system
and controls for that zone located in a distribution bay. Some areas may have a
remote heat exchanger and fan assembly in the vapour cycle system, to allow
cooling to specific areas such as avionics bays, fed from one of the zone packs.
Page 23
Re-circulation Air System

To improve cabin ventilation and supplement airflow the cabin air is recirculated
back to the main distribution manifold where it is mixed with conditioned air form
the cooling packs. The use of re-circulated air improves airflow and offloads the
air supply system. This off loading of the air conditioning packs is converted into a
fuel saving.
The re-circulation fan will draw air from the cabin area, through a check valve and
filter assembly to remove any smoke and noxious odours before passing it to the
mixer unit for re-distribution. The check valve prevents any reverse flow through
the fan and ducting when the fan is not in use.
Pressurisation Systems
As aircraft became capable of obtaining altitudes above that at which flight crews
could operate efficiently, a need developed for complete environmental systems
to allow these aircraft to carry passengers. Air conditioning could provide the
proper temperature and supplemental oxygen could provide sufficient breathable
air.
The problem was that not enough atmospheric pressure exists at high altitude to
aid breathing in and even at lower altitudes the body must work harder to absorb
sufficient oxygen, through the lungs, to operate at the same level of efficiency as
at sea level. This problem is overcome by pressurising the cockpit/ cabin area.
Cabin pressurisation is a means of adding pressure to the cabin of an aircraft to
create an artificial atmosphere that when flying at high altitudes it provides gives
an environment equivalent to that below 10000 feet. The minimum quantity of
fresh air supplied to each person on board must be at least 0.5lb/ minute.
Aircraft are pressurised by sealing off a strengthened portion of the fuselage. This
is usually called the pressure vessel and will normally include cabin, cockpit and
possibly cargo areas. Air is pumped into this pressure vessel and is controlled by
an outflow valve located at the rear of the vessel.
Sealing of the pressure vessel is accomplished by the use of seals around tubing,
ducting, bolts, rivets, and other hardware that pass through or pierce the pressure
tight area. All panels and large structural components are assembled with sealing
compounds. Access and removable doors and hatches have integral seals. Some
have inflatable seals.
Pressurisation systems do not have to move large volume of air. Their function is
to raise the pressure inside the vessel. Small reciprocating engine powered
aircraft receive their pressurisation air from the compressor of a coupled
turbocharger. Larger reciprocating engine powered aircraft receive air from
engine driven compressors and turbine powered aircraft use compressor bleed
air
Page 24
Small Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft

Turbochargers are driven by the engine exhaust gases flowing through a turbine.
A centrifugal compressor is coupled to the turbine. The compressors output is fed
to the engine inlet manifold to increase manifold pressure which allows the
engine to develop its power at altitude. Part of this compressed air is tapped off
after the compressor and is used to pressurise the cabin. The air passes through
a flow limiter (or sonic venturi) and then through an inter-cooler before being fed
into the cabin. A typical system is shown at Figure 22.
Sonic Venturi
A sonic venturi is fitted in line between the engine and the pressurisation system.
When the air flowing across the venturi reaches the speed of sound a shock
wave is formed which limits the flow of air to the pressurisation system
RAM AIR
HEATING AIR
PRESSURISED AIR
RAM AIR SHUT

OFF VALVE
EXHAUST GASES
COUPLED TURBO
COMPRESSOR
COMBUSTION HEATER
SONIC VENTURI
INTERCOOLER
OUTFLOW VALVE
SAFETY VALVE
Small Reciprocating Engine Aircraft Pressurisation System

Figure 22
Large Reciprocating Engine Powered Aircraft
Page 25
These aircraft use engine driven compressors driven through an accessory drive
or by an electric or hydraulic motor. Multi engine aircraft have more than one air
compressor. These are interconnected through ducting but each have a check
valve or isolation valve to prevent pressure loss when one system is out of action.
Turbine Powered Aircraft
The air supplied from a gas turbine engine compressor is contamination free and
can be suitably used for cabin pressurisation (Figure 23). Some aircraft use an
independent compressor driven by the engine bleed air. The bleed air drives the
coupled compressor which pressurises the air and feeds it into the cabin
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
TURBO COMPRESSOR
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Turbo Compressor
Figure 23
Some aircraft use a jet pump to increase the amount of air taken into the cabin
(Figure 24). The jet pump is a venturi nozzle located in the flush air intake
ducting. High velocity air from the engine flows through this nozzle. This produces
a low pressure area around the venturi which sucks in outside air. This outside air
is mixed with the high velocity air and is then passed into the cabin
Page 26
FLUSH AIR INTAKE
PRESSURE VESSEL
(CABIN/COCKPIT)
JET PUMP
BLEED AIR
OUTFLOW VALVE
ENGINE
Jet Pump
Figure 24
Control And Indication
There are 3 modes of pressurisation, un-pressurised, the isobaric mode and the
constantdifferential pressure mode. In the un-pressurised mode the cabin
altitude remains the same as the flight altitude. In the isobaric mode the cabin
altitude remains constant as the flight altitude changes and in the constantdifferential pressure mode, the cabin pressure is maintained at a constant amount
above the outside ambient air pressure.
The amount of differential pressure is determined by the structural strength of the
aircraft. The stronger the aircraft structure the higher the differential pressure and
the higher is the aircrafts operating ceiling.
The Un-Pressurised Mode
In this mode the outflow valve remains open and the cabin pressure is the same
as the outside ambient air pressure. This mode is usually from sea level up to
5000` but does vary from aircraft to aircraft.
Page 27
The Isobaric Mode

In this mode the cabin pressure is maintained at a specific cabin altitude as flight
altitude changes. The cabin pressure controller begins to close the outflow valve
as the aircraft climbs to a chosen cabin altitude. The outflow valve then opens or
closes (modulates) to maintain the selected cabin altitude as the flight altitude
changes up or down. The controller will then maintain the selected cabin altitude
up to the flight altitude that produces the maximum differential pressure for which
the aircraft structure is rated. At this point the constant differential mode takes
control.
The Constant-Differential Pressure Mode
Cabin pressurisation puts the aircraft structure under a tensile stress as the cabin
pressure expands the pressure vessel. The cabin differential pressure is the ratio
between the internal and external air pressures. At maximum constant-differential
pressure as the aircraft increases in altitude the cabin altitude will increase but
the internal/external pressure ratio will be maintained. There will be a maximum
cabin altitude allowed and this will determine the ceiling at which the aircraft can
operate.
Cabin Pressure Indication
Most pressurisation systems have three basic cockpit indicators cabin altitude,
cabin rate of climb and the pressure differential indicator. The cabin altitude
gauge measures the actual cabin altitude.
0
10
CABIN
ALTITUDE
4
7
Cabin Altitude Gauge

Figure 32
Page 28
The cabin rate of climb indicator tells the pilot the rate that the cabin is either
climbing or descending. (I.e. the rate at which the cabin loses or gains pressure)
A typical maximum climb rate is 500ft per minute and the maximum descent rate
is 300ft per minute. The control can be automatic or manual depending on aircraft
type.
.5
UP
1
CLIMB
1.5
1000 FT PER MIN
2
2
DOWN
.5
1
1.5
Cabin Rate of Climb

Figure 33
The differential pressure gauge (Figure 34) reads the difference between the
cabin and the outside air pressures. This differential pressure is normally
controlled and maintained to a structural limitation around 7psid. This depends on
the aircraft type and the operating ceiling of the aircraft. The differential pressure
gauge may be combined with the cabin altitude (Figure 35).
0
10
F
DIF
PX
P SI
10
DIFF PX PSI
4
7
Differential Pressure Gauge

Figure 34
9
8
CABIN 1
10 ALTITUDE
2
4
7
3
4
Dual Gauge
Figure 35
Page 29

Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurisation Notes

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Air Conditioning and Cabin Pressurisation Notes

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Issue 1 - 20 March 2001