Reinforced concrete elevated service reservoirs in

earthquake prone region

S K Hirde*, Government College of Engineering, India
S S Kulkani, Consultant, India
26th Conference on OUR WORLD IN CONCRETE & STRUCTURES: 27 - 28 August 2001,
Singapore

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26 th Conference on Our World in Concrete & Structures: 27 - 28 August 2001, Singapore

Reinforced concrete elevated service reservoirs in

earthquake prone region
S K Hirde*, Government College of Engineering, India
S S Kulkani, Consultant, India

ABSTRACT

In earthquake prone region besides strength, ductility of the structure is very

important criteria for design of the structure. This paper discusses the requirements
for design of elevated reservoir in earthquake prone region so as to give them
adequate toughness and ductility to resist severe shocks without collapse according
to Indian Standard Codes.
(Key words: elevated service reservoirs, design, detailing, earthquake prone region)
1. Introduction
Earthquakes are one of the greatest hazards of the nature on this planet. Throughout the historic time,
they have caused the destruction of countries, cities, towns and villages on nearly every continent.
Himalayan region, Indo-Gangetic plains, western India are geologically unstable parts of the India and
some devastating earthquakes of the word have occurred there. Earthquake in Deccan plateu of
Maharashtra, specially in Koyana, Killari, Latur, Usmanabad in Marathwada, in 1997 earthquake at
Jabalpur region of Madhya Pradesh is an eye opener subject for scientist, technologist and
earthquake engineering. These are the notable features of the central part of India, which will
drastically alter seismic zones of country. Due to increased seismicity of various parts of the country,
earthquake has become the important force, which must be considered while designing the
structures. The prime object of earthquake resistant design of structure is to withstand it to resist the
dynamic action due to earthquake that might reasonable be expected to occur during the life span of
structure. Most water supply systems in developing countries, like India, depends on elevated service
reservoir. It is very important structure more particularly in earthquake prone region. In case of water
towers in seismic zones, safety is even more important because quite often an earthquake is followed
by fire caused by electric short circuits or due to sparks from kitchen fires. Water tank therefore must
remain functional and water storage must remain intact so as to deal with fire hazards, which may
otherwise cause more damage than an actual earthquake. Thus design of such structures against
earthquake effect is of considerable importance. Reinforced cement concrete is the major material
used in the construction of elevated service reservoirs, chiefly because it is a durable material capable
of giving very long maintenance free period. Elevated service reservoir, which typically consist of a
large mass supported on the top of a staging, are particularly susceptible to earthquake damage.
Attention was first drawn towards such structure is when a large number of failures of elevated water
tanks occurred during the earthquake of March 10,1933 at Long Beach, California. This paper

285

discusses the requirements for design and detailing of various structural elements of elevated service
reservoir structure in earthquake prone region according to the provisions given in various Indian
Standard Codes, so as to give them adequate toughness and ductility to resist severe shocks without
collapse. Besides the design for strength, ductility is also required as an essential element for safety
from sudden collapse during severe shocks. Moreover the defects due to improper design and
detailing may result in unacceptable cracking and hence these defects are easily blamed in case of
failure. It is on this background, the topic needs careful attention. Positive measures to eliminate such
defects are not just desirable but also essential. This paper also discusses main causes of failure of
elevated service reservoirs.

2. Indian Standard Codes of Practice for elevated service reservoir

In India, the general requirement and design criteria for water tank are given in I.S. 3370 part I to IV.
The criteria for seismic design of elevated tower supported tanks are given in I.S. 1893-1984. The
criteria for the design of reinforced concrete staging of elevated tanks are given in I. S. 11682-1985.
Provision for ductile design and detailing of reinforced concrete building frames are given in I.S.
13920-1993. As per I. S. 11682-1985, the provisions of I. S. 13920 are also to be used for detailing of
R. C. tank staging when design horizontal seismic coefficient ah exceeds 0.05. I.S. 456-2000 is used
for design of plain and reinforced concrete structures.

3. Importance of design for ductility

In earthquake prone region, ductility of the structure is very important criteria for design of the
structure. Because if the structure is not made ductile, it may lead to failure of structure due to lack of
ductility by developing cracks in the structure. The elevated service reservoirs are more susceptible
to horizontal forces due to earthquake. If the earthquake is severe and strong enough to cause
yielding and plastic deformations in the structures, it often induces forces large enough to cause
inelastic deformations in the structure. More energy is now absorbed by the structure, which is
dissipated as heat. If the structure has sufficient plastic deformation capacity or ductility, it will be able
to absorb and dissipate all kinetic energy given to it by the ground motion with some deflection larger
than yield deflection by absorption of the energy. I. S. 1893 -1984 mentions that structures will
normally experience more severe ground motion than which is given in the code for design purpose.
However in view of the energy absorbing capacity available in the inelastic range, ductile structure will
be able to resist such shocks without much damage. Therefore besides the design for strength,
ductility is also required as an essential element for safety from sudden collapse during severe shocks
and to make the structure capable of undergoing extensive inelastic deformations and dissipating
seismic energy in a stable manner. IS 13920-1993 covers the requirements for designing and ductile
detailing of monolithic reinforced concrete structures subjected to seismic forces, so as to give them
adequate toughness and ductility to resist severe shocks without collapse. Provisions of this code are
adopted in all structures located in seismic zone III, IV and V of IS 1893.

4. Seismic Analysis of Elevated Service Reservoir

The dynamic forces developed during an earthquake are important in the design of liquid storage
tanks. Damage surveys of tanks that were subjected to earthquakes have shown various modes of
failure for these tanks. The primary structural problem occurs because of the lateral forces and
combining bending and overturning effect. In seismic zone, earthquake loads are perhaps the most
severe lateral loads on the water tanks. A pre-requisite for safety of tanks against earthquake loads is
that effect of earthquake loading should be properly analysed. In case of water tanks, mainly the
staging resists lateral seismic loads, which is quite flexible, compared to the container. For the seismic
analysis of water tanks I.S. 1893-1984 recommends response spectrum method. For the tanks of
moderate staging height it is expected that first mode of vibration will exite major mass during the
earthquake. Because water towers are top heavy, as per I.S. 1893-1984, an elevated tank may be
modeled by a single degree of freedom system with its mass concentrated at their center of gravity.
Research indicates that the single degree of freedo.m idealization is appropriate for closed tanks,
which are completely filled with water. One third of the weight of the columns and braces are added to
the weight at top and the columns may be treated as weightless spring (Howard 1976). The time
period is calculated on this basis. The damping in the structure depends upon several factors, one
among them being the level of stress to which the structure is subjected during vibrations. At low
stresses, the damping is small and is increased with increase of stresses particularly when inelasticity
is included. As per code the damping in the system is considered as 2 % of the critical for steel
structure and 5 % of critical for concrete structure. The analysis is to be done for tank empty as well
as tank full condition. The horizontal seismic force acting on the tank is given by
P = ah x W

286

Where weight W is calculated as below:

For tank empty: W = Wt. of container + 1/3 Wt. of staging
For tank full
: W = Wt. of container + wt. of water + 113 Wt. of staging
ah is the design seismic coefficient
ah = ~ I Fo Salg
Where,
Fo = seismic zone factor
~ = a coefficient depending upon the soil-foundation system
I = a factor dependant upon the importance of the structure
Above coefficients are given in I.S. 1983 table no. 2, 3, 4 respectively
Salg = the average acceleration coefficient which correspond to the fundamental time period of the
tank.
By treating the tank as a single degree of freedom system the time period is obtained by
T = 2 x 11: v' (81 g ).
Where, 8 = static deflection at the top of the tank under static horizontal force equal to the wt. W
calculated as above acting at C. G. of the tank.
g = Acceleration due to gravity
The lateral seismic force P calculated is to be applied at center of gravity of the tank horizontally in the
plane in which the structure is assumed to oscillate for the purpose of carrying out the lateral load
analysis.
4.1 Importance of 3-D Analysis
In evaluating effect of earthquake loading on water tank staging 3-D analysis must be carried out.
Simplified procedure of analysis is always favored by practicing designers; hence a simple 2-D
analysis is preferred as against a rigorous 3-d analysis. Sometimes this simplification may lead to
highly erroneous results. 2-D analysis underestimate forces in columns and overestimates bending
moment in braces. It was observed that 3-D analysis predicts column axial force for a elevated tank
on four column staging 40% higher and for tank on five column staging 70% higher than the one
obtained from 2-D analysis ( Jaiswal 2001).
5. Design of Elevated Service Reservoir
The design of the structure should be based on the worst possible combination of loads, moments
and shears arising from vertical loads and horizontal loads acting in any 'direction when tank is full as
well as empty. The correct estimation of loads including statistical equilibrium of structure particularly
in regard to overturning of overhanging members shall be made. The structure shall be checked for
stable equilibrium under combination of wind and seismic forces. This is more necessary in case of
inclined members of the tower when longitudinal axis changes direction. The structure needs to be
designed to have lateral resistance against wind or seismic force whichever is critical. It is generally
presumed that wind and earthquake will not occur simultaneously. Each of the two occasional forces
could be considered separately without much risk. It has to be ensured in the design that concrete
dose not crack in its waterside. Imperviousness of concrete is most essential. Whenever required the
effect of wave action of water on the sides of the tank may be considered. The tank walls are to be
designed for hydrodynamic pressure due to impulsive and convective motions of water generated at
the time of earthquake. In number of cases the magnitude of these pressures is a small fraction of the
hydrostatic pressure for which the tank is otherwise designed.
5.1 Junction of Bracing and Column
The water towers are top heavy structures, in the sense that a greater portion of their weight is
concentrated at an elevation above its base. Critical parts of these structures are the columns and
braces through which the loads are transmitted to the foundation. The primary members of staging
such as braces and column are subjected to reversal of stress from earthquake loads. The
earthquake leads to failure of the structure particularly at the junction of brace and column. In absence
of proper ductility detailing at the junction, the junction can not behave to transfer moments between
the members hence cracks may develop at the junction. Hence the reinforcement provided shall cater
to the needs of reversal of moments in braces and columns and at their junction. It is observed that
links to the column reinforcement are generally not provided in the portion where braces meet the
column. This results in weaker jOints, susceptible to open out during earthquake. At the junction
portion of the column the lateral ties must be provided to avoid buckling of longitudinal bars of the
column. They are also required to reinforce the junction against very high shear stress within junction
to which it is subjected under wind or seismic forces ( Fig. 5). In flexural member the positive steel at
the junction face must be at least equal to half the negative steel at that face. In high seismic zone, in

287

an external jOints, anchorage length beyond the inner face of the column shall be equal to the
development length in tension plus 10 times the bar diameter minus the allowance for 90 degree bend
( Fig. 1). In seismic zones where seismic coefficient exceeds 0.05, twin diagonal bracing of steel or
R.C.C. in addition to the horizontal bracing may be provided. These bracings are used in concrete
staging for providing energy absorbing capacity. Observations made on elevated steel water tank at
Conception in Chile showed that all the tied rod s which were 1 %" to 1 ~" diameter elongated by 1
~ " to 2" and still the tower did not collapse (Arya 1970). From this point of view strengthening by
means of suitable designed diagonal braces of steel should be useful for concrete towers as well.

5.2 Provisions in I.S. 13920 for flexural member

The minimum width of the member shall be 200 mm. The member shall preferably have width to
depth ratio of more than 0.3. The depth of the member shall not be more than % of clear span. The
minimum positive or negative steel provided at any section should be % of the maximum negative
steel provided at either joint. In an internal joint, both face bars of the member shall be taken
continuously through the column.
5.2.1 Lap and splice
The lap length shall not be less than bar development length in tension. The maximum spacing of the
hoops over splice length is 150 mm ( Fig. 3). The bars should not be spliced more than 50 % at one
section .. They should not be splices at following locations (a) within a joint (b) within a distance equal
to twice the effective depth from joint face and (c) within a quarter length of the member when flexural
yielding may generally occur under the effect of earthquake force.
5.2.2 Shear reinforcement
The shear reinforcement shall be provided in the form of vertical stirrups as shown in (Fig. 2).
Minimum diameter of stirrup is 6 mm. However 8-mm diameter bars are provided for stirrups if clear
span exceeds 5m. The shear force resisted by the stirrups should be the maximum of (a) Calculated
factored shear force as per analysis and (b) Shear force due to formation of plastic hinges at both
ends of the member plus the factored gravity load on the span. Maximum spacing of stirrups at the
end of the beam over a length 2d is d/4 or 8 times diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar, however it
need not be less than 100 mm. Elsewhere maximum spacing of hoops is d/2, where d effective depth.
The maximum distance of first hoop from joint is 50 mm from joint face ( Fig. 4).
5.3 Provisions in I.S. 13920 for column subjected to axial force and bending
For the columns subjected to bending and axial force the minimum dimension is 200 mm. If the
columns have unsupported length more than 4 m or where beams have c/c span more than 5 m the
minimum dimension of the member is 300 mm. The maximum spacing of the hoops is 150 mm.
Special confining reinforcement shall be provided over a distance" 10 " from each joint face as shown
in Fig. 5. The distance 10 shall not be less than
(a) larger lateral dimension
(b) 1/6 of clear span of column
(c) 450 mm.
The spacing of special confining reinforcement shall not be more than 1/4 of least lateral dimension of
column but need not be less than 75 mm nor more than 100 mm.
The cross section area of bar forming hoop shall not be less than
(a) Circular hoops or spiral:
Ash = 0.09 S Ok Fck/Fy (Ag/Ak-1.0)
(b) Rectangular hoops:
Ash= 0.18 S h fck/fy ( Ag/Ak - 1.0)
Where,
Ash = area of cis of bar
S
= Spacing of hoops or pitch of spiral
Ok
= Diameter of core measured to the outside of the spiral or hoop.
h
= longer dimension of the rectangular confining hoop measured to its outer face, shall not be
greater than 300 mm.

5.3.1 When the braces are framing into all vertical faces of column at the joint and where width of
brace is at least % of the width of column, the special confining reinforcement may be provided equal
to half the special confining reinforcement required at the end of the column and the maximum
spacing of the hoops should be 150 mm.

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5.4 Shaft type staging

In case of many small capacity elevated tanks it is observed that a 100 mm thick shaft type staging
having reinforcement at center only is provided. But due to imperfection, circular bending due to wind
force, difference of temperature on inside and outside face, the reinforcement is required on both the
faces of shaft. Proper quality of load bearing concrete can not be done in 100 mm thickness due to
which water tank may collapse hence for shaft type staging minimum thickness of concrete shall not
be less than 150 mm.
5.5 Foundation
When the column terminates into a footing or mat, special confining reinforcement shall extend at
least 300 mm into the footing or mat ( Fig. 6).For all towers situated in seismic zones where seismic
coefficient is above 0.05, at base of the tower all columns shall be tied together above foundation
level and within ground by a structural member such as braces or ring beam. Alternately continuous
strip or annular strip foundation, mat or raft foundation shall be provided. The foundation shall be so
proportioned that under vertical loads of tower ( with tank full as well as empty ) and effect of
horizontal forces, the pressure on the soil is within the safe bearing capacity and in the critical
direction the footing does not lift up at any point. Loss of contact in the soil under footing should not be
allowed. If the soil is soft, the raft might rest on piles to avoid unequal settlement under the column.
6. Main causes of deterioration and failure of structure
Chlorine is mixed in tank water for purification. It is an acidic material. Concrete subjected to acids
becomes brittle and deteriorates faster.
In India, In rural areas, it is observed that in many elevated tanks of 10 to 15 years age, the
concrete of roof above full supply level in tank is corroded. This is due to chlorination done by
bleaching powder solution poured into the elevated tanks from the manhole in the roof of the tank.
Excess powder gets accumulated on base and portions of the wall nearby gets a very thick
coating. Excess chlorine vapour reacts with soffit of roof slab. The concrete in entire roof of tank
gets weaker and aggregates get dislodged. Thus the concrete cover is corroded away and the
reinforcement of roof is exposed. This exposed reinforcement gets corroded very fast. Hence it
needs some protective treatment right from the construction stage. The concrete around the
manhole gets damaged and steel ladder inside the tank gets heavily corroded in top portion.
Hence container should be cleaned at regular interval to prevent accumulation of excess
bleaching powder on base slab. For part of the tank in contact with water, lightweight or porous
aggregate shall not be used.
The common problem with container portion is the leakage, which may be noticed immediately
after construction when the tank is tested. At this stage leakage can be stopped by grouting and
other means, thereby making up the deficiencies of the concrete of container.
When the sections thicker than 450 mm are used in water tank container, special attention shall
be given to temperature and moisture variations during the early Age of concrete. Extra
reinforcement to avoid cracks due to temperature and shrinkage and the use of low heat cement
may be considered.
If substandard material is used and compaction is not done properly, the cover concrete below
bottom bars of flexural member is either honeycombed or this concrete remains loose. Because
of this cracks are developed in bottom cover zone of flexural member.
Common defects generally observed in construction are columns going out of plumb, insufficient
cover to the reinforcement, little curing (or no curing at all) of the finished part of the concrete, no
proper ramming in absence of vibrator etc.
Insufficient cover over lateral ties of column lead to development of horizontal cracks at the
positions of lateral ties due to plastic settlement.
Sometime cracks are developed due to corrosion of longitudinal reinforcement. The cracks are
also developed due to insufficient cover and high permeability of concrete due to high watercement ratio and movement of bars during setting of concrete. Once the concrete is cracked, the
cracks are the source of corrosion of reinforcement. Once the corrosion begins, the volume of the
corroded reinforcement increases followed by the spalling of the cover due to which the concrete
surrounding further disintegrate and the process of a natural decay of concrete is accelerated.
Many R.C.C. elevated service reservoir have failed due to inadequate information about subsurface ground details such as safe bearing capacity of soil, position of ground water table, type
and strength of rock, chemical properties of sub-soil water etc. Hence adequate sub-surface
ground investigation is very important to avoid catastrophic failure of R.C.C. reservoirs to give
safe and economical foundation for such structure.

*
*

*
*

*
*
*
*

289

*
*

In practice, PCC is the neglected part of the substructure. In reality, PCC plays an important role
in transferring stresses from foundation to sub-surface soil-rock stratum below it. Improper PCC
may allow rotation of foundation. When foundation is on black cotton soil, it is necessary to rest
the foundation at a depth where ground movement due to change in moisture is negligible.
The elevated service reservoir may fail due to differential settlement of foundation. To avoid
possibility of differential settlement, solid raft foundation or annular raft foundation shall be
preferred.

7. Conclusion
In earthquake prone region the structure must behave ductile to avoid the sudden failure of the
structure. Hence besides design for strength, the structure should also be designed for ductility;
otherwise the defects due to improper design and detailing may easily cause the failure of the
structure during earthquake.
8. Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Prof. M. N. Hedaoo, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Govt. College of
Engineering, Amravati, for his help in preparing the manuscript.

9. References
1.
2.

I. S. 3370 (part I,ll and IV), Code of Practice for concrete structures for storage of the liquids.
I. S. 13920-1993, Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures subjected to seismic forces -

code of practice
I. S. 1893-1984, Criteria for earthquake resistant design of structures
I. S. 456-2000, Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete.
I. S. 11682-1985, Criteria for design of R.C.C. staging for overhead water tank.
Howard I. Epstein, " Seismic design of liquid storage tanks", ASCE September 1976, pp 16591673
7. Arya A. S. , "Analysis and behaviour of reinforced concrete water tower under earthquake loads",
Journal of Cement and Concrete, Jul-Sept 1969, pp 118-131
8. Garud G. N. ,Kulkarni S. S. " Elevated service reservoir in Marathwada region", Proceedings of
National seminar on ' Earthquake in Marathwada - An Eye Opener " College of Engineering
Badnera, Amravati, February 1994
9. Hirde S. K., Kulkarni S. S., "Cracks in Elevated Service reservoirs", Proceedings of All India
Seminar on Cracks in Concrete - CONCRACK'99, organised by Indian Concrete Institute, Nagpur
Centre and Institution of Engineers (India), Nagpur Local Centre, 15-16 Jan. 1999, pp. 48-53
10. Jaiswal O. R. "Importance of 3-dimensional analysis in evaluating effect of earthquake loading on
water tank staging", Journal of Indian Water Works Association, January-March 2001
11. Arya A. S. ," Dynamic behaviour of reinforced concrete water tower" , Journal of Cement and
Concrete, April-June 1970, pp 10-40

3.
4.
5.
6.

290

LcII+

so

fIG. 2
STIRRUPS IN BRACES
AND BEAMS

~~AGE Dr BARS AT
EXTERNAL JOINT

FIG. 3
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IN FLEXURAL MEMBER

r--

MIN 2 BARS FTR FW. LENliTH

AL.LlNi TOP AND IDTTDM

r 6 . _ .. MI

~SD ... MX

1-1- t!iii
r

1'.

"'SPACING (

2d

( til.

...~

tII~

aI EFT. DEPTH

FIG. 1:
DETAILS Of BRACE

291

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SPECIM.. c&:WJNJNG. ~
AS PER !.3

.hel

FIG. 5
DETAILS AT COLUHN-BRACES JUNCTION

FIG. 6
SPECIAL CONFINING REINFORCEMENT
IN FOOTING

292