CHAPTER 1.

0 INTRODUCTION
1

BACKGROUND

Zimbabwe imports all of its petroleum which is then refined to produce various petroleum
products like petrol and diesel oil. Despite governments support for the use of unleaded and
leaded petrol which is a health hazard. The use of petrol without fuel oxygenate poses an
environmental threat, Oxygenates help petrol burn more completely, reducing emissions from
motor vehicles; dilutes or displaces gasoline components such as aromatics (e.g., benzene) and
sulphur; and optimizes the oxidation during combustion and they help raise the oxygen content
of petrol. Our group proposes the use of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) as an alternative
petrol additive/oxygenates to lead and other additives hence the need for a feasibility study on
the production of MTBE production in Zimbabwe. MTBE fuel blends are likely to have
substantial air quality benefits. Use of MTBE decreases gasoline overall cancer potential by
displacing more potent carcinogenic materials in gasoline. MTBE is approximately seven times
less potent than benzene and twenty five times less potent than 1, 3-butadiene, toxic components
found in gasoline and motor vehicle emissions. Releases of petrol containing either MTBE or
lead could have an impact on some drinking water sources, although the impacts associated with
MTBE tend to relate to aesthetics (i.e. Taste and odor), whereas the impacts associated with lead
generally relate to health risk.
2

USES AND IMPORTANCE OF MTBE

MTBE is an octane enhancer that prevents engines from knocking

MTBE is used extensively as a fuel additive in petrol blending

MTBE-petrol blend is eco-friendly so it is better to use it and reduce pollution.

MTBE-Petrol blends are compatible with most cars

MTBE is also used as a chemical intermediate to produce high purity isobutylene

High purity MTBE is being used as a process reaction solvent in the pharmaceuticals
industry

Minor use patterns are use as chromatographic eluent and use as a therapeutic agent for in
vivo dissolution of cholesterol gallstones in humans
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ALTERNATIVES FOR MTBE

ETBE (Ethyl tertiary butyl ether), TAME (Tert amyl methyl ether), DIPE(Di isopropyl
ether. These are all ethers like MTBE. There is no field data available due to limited use

of them.
Alkalytes: these are a mixture of high octane, low vapor pressure compounds that are
produced from crude oil through a catalytic cracking process. They have low solubility in
water and are likely not to pose the same risks to water resources. They also increase

price of reformulated gasoline.

Aromatics; these are high in octane and may cause health risks i.e carcinogens, lower

potency central nervous system and liver toxicants.

Lead ;tetrahedral lead is used to reduce engine knocking, boost octane rating and help
with wear and tear on valve seats within the motor. Lead tends to clog up catalytic
converters making them inoperable. It is poisonous to humans.

PROBLEM STATEMENT

Currently there is no local production of MTBE in Zimbabwe; the country is using lead ,ETBE,
as a fuel additive. Nevertheless, there has been a public outcry rejecting the use of lead with
problems emanating from it being poisonous to human health. We seek to investigate the
technical and economic feasibility of producing MTBE in Zimbabwe.
4

JUSTIFICATION
MTBE production is cheaper since the raw materials are locally available
In Africa there is no production of MTBE, the proposal of a cost effective MTBE
production process will go a long way in alleviating Africas energy challenges.
The country can export excess MTBE to other African countries.
Availability of MTBE can go a long way in solving environmental problems associated
with the widespread use of leaded and unleaded petrol.

RESEARCH FOCUS

This study was conducted to find a technical and economic feasible process for the production of
MTBE in Zimbabwe from locally available raw materials that will account for maximum
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production and better quality. The project aims to find a process that is energy-efficient and
affordable technology in the production of MTBE and increase its market potential.
6

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Is the process cost effective?

Is the process environmentally friendly?

Are the products environmentally friendly?

How can Zimbabweans benefit from MTBE?

How does MTBE production in Zimbabwe affect its economy?

SCOPE

The project will focus on effect of pressure, temperature and catalyst on the production of MTBE
and conversion of isobutylene. The results from the experiments will be used to design the
process and the equipment used for the production process.
8

STUDY HYPOTHESIS

H0-It is feasible to produce MTBE in Zimbabwe

H0-It is technically and economically feasible to produce MTBE
H1-It is not feasible to produce MTBE in Zimbabwe
H1-It is not technically and economically feasible to produce MTBE
9

PROJECT OBJECTIVES
To design a process that is economically and technically feasible.
To make an affordable and cheap fuel additive of which MTBE is cheap.

To make a petrol blend with a long shelf life. MTBE- petrol blend has a shelf life of
several years

To make a petrol blend that is environmentally friendly

CHAPTER 2.0: LITERATURE REVIEW

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Currently there is no local production of MTBE (Methyl tertiary-Butyl ether) in

Zimbabwe.MTBE is being produced in countries such as China, Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and
Singapore. Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is produced by reacting isobutene with methanol
over a catalyst bed in the liquid phase under mild temperature and pressure (Collignon, 1996).
Isobutene can be obtained from stream cracker raffinate or by the dehydrogenation of isobutene
from refineries. Ether in general is a compound containing an oxygen atom bonded to two carbon
atoms. In MTBE one carbon atom is that of a methyl group CH3 and the other is the central
atom of a tertiary butyl group, -C (CH3)). At room temperature, MTBE is a volatile, flammable,
colorless liquid with a distinctive odor. It is miscible with water but at high concentrations it will
form an air-vapor explosive mixture above the water, which can ignite by sparks or contact with
hot surfaces.MTBE has good blending properties and about 95% of its output is used in gasoline
as an octane booster and an oxygenate (providing oxygen for cleaner combustion and reduced
carbon monoxide emissions). It is also used to produce pure isobutene from C4 streams by
reversing its formation reaction. It is a good solvent and extractant. (Casebook#4, Rev 1.Methyl
Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE) Plant. March 1995)
Table 1 Physical properties of MTBE
Chemical formula
Oxygen content
Molecular structure
Physical state (at normal temperature and

C5H12O
18.2 wt.%
(CH3)4CO
Colorless liquid

pressure)
Boiling point
Melting point
Flash point
Auto ignition temperature
Flammable limits in air
Relative density
Vapor pressure
Reactive index
Color

55.2Oc
-108.6oC
30oC
425oC
1.5 8.5%
0.7405g/ml at 20oC
245 mm Hg at 25oC
1.3690
Colorless

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Figure 1: MTBE structure

2.1 METHODS USED FOR THE PRODUCTION OF MTBE
There are nine methods of producing MTBE implemented under license as the following:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

UOP-Oleflex Process
Phillips Etherification Process
ABB Lummus Catofin Process
Snamprogetti Process.
Standard (Huls) process
ETHERMAX process (by Huls AG and UOP)
Refinery or Petrochemical plants
Merchant plants
Tertiary Butyl Alcohol

2.1.1 UOP-Oleflex Process

The UOP-Oleflex process uses multiple side-by-side, radial flow, and moving-bed reactors
connected in series. Preheated feed and interstage heaters supply the heat of reaction. The
reaction is carried out over platinum supported on alumina, under near isothermal Conditions.
The catalyst system employs UOP's Continuous Catalyst Regeneration (CCR) technology. The
bed of catalyst slowly flows concurrently with the reactants and is removed from the last reactor
and regenerated in a separate section. The reconditioned catalyst is then returned to the top of the
first reactor. The typical processes involved are the deisobutenization, the isomerization and the
dehydrogenation process that has been commercial in Malaysia. (Quintain,2013)
2.1.2 Phillips Etherification process (by Philips Petroleum Co.)
This process uses olefins (i.e. isoamylene and isobutylene) to react with methanol over
acidicIon-exchange resin. Mixed olefins from a fluid catalytic cracking unit (FCCU) or steam
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Cracker, along with fresh alcohol are fed to the reactor section. The reactor operation is liquid
phase at mild temperature and pressure. In case of MTBE, high purity MTBE is removed as a
bottom product from the fractionator and all the unreacted methanol is taken overhead. The
overhead product is then stripped of methanol in an extractor using water. The extract is sent to
the fractionator, while the denuded water is returned to the methanol extractor. (Quintain,2013)
2.1.3 ABB Lammus Catofin Process
The ABB Lummus Catofin Process uses a relatively inexpensive and durable Chromium oxide
alumina as catalyst for the dehydrogenation process. This catalyst can be easily and rapidly
regenerated under severe conditions without loss in activity. Dehydrogenation is carried out in
the gas phase over fixed beds. Because the catalyst cokes up rapidly, five reactors are typically
used. Two are on stream, while two are being regenerated and one is being purged. The reactors
are cycled between the reaction and the reheat/regeneration modes, and the thermal inertia of the
catalyst controls the cycle time, which is typically less than 10 minutes. The chromium catalyst is
reduced from Cr6+ to Cr3+ during the dehydrogenation cycle. The raw materials used to produce
MTBE by using this method are butanes, hydrogen and as well as recycled isobutene
from the system itself. In this process, there is an isostripper column, which separates the
heavies, and the light ends from which then could produce MTBE.(Hutchings,1992)
2.1.4 Snamprogetti Process
Similar to Philips Etherification Process, ethers are produced by the addition of alcohol to
reactive olefins in the presence of an ion exchange resin at mild temperature and pressure.
The feed passes through two reactors in series an isothermal tubular reactor and an adiabatic
drum reactor. The second reactor effluent goes to the product fractionation tower where the ether
product leaves the bottom stream and hydrocarbon is recovered overhead. In the MTBE process,
methanol in the overhead stream is extracted with water in the water removal tower. The extract
from the bottom enters the methanol-water fractionator, while the water overhead is recycled to
reactor feed. (Quintain,2013)
2.1.5 Standard (Huls) Process
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The key feature of this process is the fixed bed MTBE reactor used prior to the azeotropic
distillation column .Conversions of isobutylene to MTBE are in the range 85-95%.In many
plants two reactors are used in tandem, along with recycle in order to increase the overall
conversion closer to 99%.(Quintain,2013)
2.1.6 ETHERMAX Process
This process which uses reactive distillation technology is developed by combined expertise
of Huls AG and UOP. The feed consists of methanol and hydrocarbon streams containing
reactive tertiary olefins such as isoamylene and isobutylene. Reaction takes place over an acidic
ion exchange resin at mild temperature and moderate pressure. In the MTBE case, feed first
passes through an optional water wash system to remove the resin contaminants. The majority of
the reaction is carried out in a simple fixed-bed reactor. The reactor effluent feeds the reactive
distillation column containing a proprietary packing where simultaneous reaction of the
remaining isobutylene and distillation occur. Overhead from the reactive distillation column is
routed to methanol recovery, a simple counter current extraction column using water, and a
methanol-water distillation column. The recovered methanol is recycled to the reactor section.
Hydrocarbon raffinate is typically sent to a downstream alkylation or oligomerization unit.
(Quintain,2013)
Refinery or Petrochemical
Isobutylene produced is a by product in refinery catalytic crackers and in petrochemical ethylene
plants, is reacted with methanol to produce MTBE.
Merchant plants
Normal butane is isomerized to isobutene, the isobutene is dehydrogenated to isobutylene and
then combined with methanol to produce MTBE.
TBA Plants
Tertiary butyl alcohol is a byproduct of propylene oxide production process. The TBA is reacted
with methanol to produce MTBE.

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2.2 PROCESS SELECTION

Suitable process, which is gives a lot of profit and less problem is an important in order to
determine the feasibility of the project. This section will briefly discuss the best process selected
based on a few criteria. It covers general consideration, detailed consideration for process
selection and conclusion on the process selection.
Phillips Etherification process (by Philips Petroleum Co.) process will be chosen as the method
to produce MTBE.
2.2.1 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
MTBE is manufactured by catalytically reacting methanol and isobutylene in a fixed bed reactor
at a moderator pressure and temperature. The reaction is reversible and exothermic, and is
carried out in the liquid phase over a fixed bed of sulphonated ion-exchange resin-type catalyst.
It is highly selective since methanol reacts prefentially with the isobutylene in the mixed butenes
(Quintain, 2013).In this MTBE process, an isobutylene-rich mixed C4 stream is mixed with fresh
methanol and a small amount of recycle methanol and fed to the reactor section. The reactor is
cooled to prolong catalyst life and to minimize the undesirable side reactions such as the
dimerization of isobutylene (Hutchings,1992). Temperatures below 94 oC are recommended. The
reactor is adiabatic, and the reaction is exothermic. Therefore, the heat generated by the reaction
raises the temperature of the exit stream. The exit temperature is a function of the conversion.
The reaction must be run at a pressure and temperature to ensure that all components remain in
the liquid phase in the reactor. Methanol must be present in the reactor feed at a minimum 200%
excess

to

suppress

undesired

side

reactions

that

produce

undesired

products.

(Collignon,1996).The Philips Etherification process uses three distillator but for our process
design we will employ two fractional distillators due to the replacement of mixed butenes with
just isobutylene in the process, thus saving money. In the original etherification process,
methanol is recycled to the reactor feed whilst butenes and the unreacted methanol are treated as
waste.In our process design we recycle both the unreacted methanol and isobutylene, thus
maximizing on raw materials and profits.
Chemical Reaction
The reaction is facilitated by a sulphonated ion-exchange resin catalyst. The reaction is:

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CH 3OH (CH 3 ) 2 C CH 2 (CH 3 ) 3 C O CH 3

2.2.2 ADVANTAGES OF THE PROCESS

More detailed reasons for the selection of this process are:

High conversion (greater than 98 %) with few by-products compared to other process
The process operates under low pressure and has a low pressure drop and this means that

the fluidized bed is physically not harmful to anyone.

As the Temperature is not high; this means that the process is not as dangerous as other

high temperature-operated process.

Higher per pass conversion and at least 1-2% higher catalyst selectivity as a result of

lowest operating pressure and temperature.

No catalyst losses.

2.2.3 PROCESS EQUIPMENT

1

Reactor

Several reactor types may be considered for use in this process such as:

An adiabatic, packed bed reactor

An isothermal, packed bed reactor
A packed bed reactor with heat exchange

For our process we are going to use an adiabatic packed bed reactor:
A packed bed reactor consists of a vessel containing one or several tubes of packed catalyst
particles in a fixed, non-mobile bed (Rase, 1990). Packed bed reactors are an economical choice
in large scale production. This is due to the fact that they can operate nearly continuously due to
the long catalyst life; which leads to savings in annual costs and shutdown costs. Reactors with a
single adiabatic bed are traditionally used in either exothermic or endothermic reactions.
However, they are primarily used for exothermic reactions in industrial practice (Satterfield,
1996). This type of adiabatic reactor is the least expensive to produce and is used as often as is
practical. Maintaining an adiabatic state conserves energy and can result in large savings for a
company. A packed bed reactor with adiabatic beds in series is used for high conversion
reactions with no heat transfer to the environment. Other advantages for using an adiabatic
packed bed reactor are Higher conversion per unit mass of catalyst than other catalytic reactors,
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Low operating cost, Continuous operation, No moving parts to wear out, Catalyst stays in the
reactor, Reaction mixture/catalyst separation is easy.

Distillation Columns

Batch Columns
In batch operation, the feed to the column is introduced batch-wise. That is, the column is
charged with a 'batch' and then the distillation process is carried out. When the desired task is
achieved, a next batch of feed is introduced.

Continuous Columns
In contrast, continuous columns process a continuous feed stream. No interruptions occur
unless there is a problem with the column or surrounding process units. They are capable of
handling high throughputs.
Our process will use a continuous tray type column where trays of various designs are used to
hold up the liquid to provide better contact between vapor and liquid, hence better separation.
The process will therefore use a fractional distillater which is the most common form of
separation technology used in petroleum refineries, petrochemical and chemical plants, natural
gas processing and cryogenic air separation plants. In most cases, the distillation is operated at
a continuous steady state. New feed is always being added to the distillation column and
products are always being removed. Unless the process is disturbed due to changes in feed,
heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added and the amount of
product being removed are normally equal. This is known as continuous, steady-state fractional
distillation. The advantages of using a plate column are: Most cost efficient distillation column
for diameters greater than 0.6 m,the liquid/vapor contact in the cross-flow of plate columns is
more effective than the countercurrent-flow in packed columns, Cooling coils can easily be
added to the plate column(cryogenic applications),Can handle high liquid flow rates costeffectively.
(encyclopedia.che.engin.umich.edu/Pages/SeparationsChemical/DistillationColumns/Distillatio
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nColumns.html)
3

Heat Exchangers
There are 3 types of heat exchangers namely:
Shell and tube heat exchanger
Plate heat exchanger
Adiabatic wheel heat exchanger

The process will use a shell and tube heat exchanger, Shell and tube heat exchangers are
comprised of multiple tubes through which liquid flows. The tubes are divided into two sets:
the first set contains the liquid to be heated or cooled. The second set contains the liquid
responsible for triggering the heat exchange, and either removes heat from the first set of tubes
by absorbing and transmitting heat awayin essence, cooling the liquidor warms the set by
transmitting its own heat to the liquid inside. When designing this type of exchanger, care must
be taken in determining the correct tube wall thickness as well as tube diameter, to allow
optimum heat exchange. (R. Shankar Subramanian. Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers)
Advantages
Here are the main advantages of shell-and-tube heat exchanger:

The pressures and pressure drops can be varied over a wide range.
Thermal stresses can be accommodated inexpensively.
There is substantial flexibility regarding materials of construction to accommodate
corrosion and other concerns. The shell and the tubes can be made of different

materials.
Extended heat transfer surfaces (fins) can be used to enhance heat transfer.

Cleaning and repair are relatively straightforward, because the equipment can be
dismantled for this purpose.( http://www.thomasnet.com/articles/processequipment/heat-exchanger-types)

Pumps
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Classification of Pumps
Pumps used in process industries may be broadly classified in two main types:

Dynamic (Kinetic), and

Positive-displacement.

Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic (kinetic) pumps such as centrifugal pumps are pumps in which energy is imparted
to the pumped liquid by means of a moving Impeller or Propeller rotating on a shaft. The
kinetic energy imparted to the fluid in terms of velocity by the moving impeller is converted
to pressure as the liquid leaves the Impeller and moves through a stationary volute or diffuser
casing. (http://www.pumpscout.com/all-pump-types)
Positive-displacement Pumps
Positive-displacement pumps are those pumps in which energy is imparted to liquid in a
fixed displacement volume such as a casing or cylinder by the rotating motion of gears,
screws or vanes, by reciprocating pistons or by plunger.( http://www.pumpscout.com/allpump-types)
The process will use centrifugal pumps, which are often the best choice for low viscosity
(thin) liquids (MTBE and isobutylene) and high flow rates. The pump uses one or more
impellers that attach to and rotates with the shaft. The rotation of the impeller creates energy
that moves liquid through the pump and pressurizes the liquid to move it through the piping
system.
(http://www.energymanagertraining.com/Journal/24092005/SelectionofPumpsforProcessIndu
stries.pdf)

For experimental design in research methodology the mixed butanes stream is replaced by a
stream of pure isobutylene to react with the methanol. The feed components have been altered
therefore the Philips etherification process has to be modified in the process design chapter in
order for it to align with our experimental design and results in the following two chapters.

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CHAPTER 3.0: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 DATA COLLECTING METHODS AND SOURCES

Internet
Experimental results
Consultation of expert engineers
Chemical engineering journals
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Relevant chemical engineering textbooks

Interviews

3.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

To find a way to minimize MTBE production costs in Zimbabwe

Information on problems encountered during MTBE production
How to increase the conversion of the process
To find out the amounts of the reactants needed
To find out limitations of the process using a single reactor
To find out limitations of the process using a non-reactive fractional distillator
To find out the standards required for the methanol quality and compare to our local
methanol quality

3.3 INTERVIEWS
We visited some industries in the petrochemicals sector and carried out interviews to find out
information about;

Amount of methanol produced per day

Amount of isobutylene and mixed butenes available and how much can be imported

3.4 EXPERIMENTAL PLAN

Several experiments were carried out in order to determine the quality or purity of methanol
obtained from NCP Distillers, the amount of MTBE obtained per kilogram of methanol and
isobutylene, the composition of the product obtained from the reaction of methanol and
isobutylene and also the conditions under which a high yield of MTBE is produced. Furthermore,
finding a rough estimate of the cost for producing MTBE at a low scale then scaling it up to
industrial level. The experiments carried out were:

Experiment to determine the amount of MTBE produced from one kilogram of methanol
and one kilogram of isobutylene.

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How the yield of MTBE changes with change in temperature, amount of catalyst and

change in pressure.
Experiment to determine the purity of methanol

After obtaining the product from the reaction of methanol and isobutylene the following tests
were to be done

Jones oxidation test for alcohols

Iodine test for ethers

3.4.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

I

Catalytic reaction: Methanol was obtained from NCP distillers and isobutylene from
Masasa chemical suppliers. 0. 5 grams of sulphonated ion exchange resin catalyst was
incorporated into the fixed bed. 50 grams of methanol feed and 25 grams (42.5 cm 3) of
isobutylene feed were put into the reaction vessel using a syringe pump and sealed. The
experiment was carried out in a stainless steel fixed bed reactor containing a magnetic
stirrer at 30 bars and 90oC over a period of 2 hrs. Note density of isobutylene =
0.5879g/cm3
Fractional distillation: The product stream from the catalytic reaction was put into a

II

fractional distillatory to separate MTBE and the unreacted methanol. The boiling point
for MTBE is 55.2oC.The boiling point for methanol is 64.7oC and the boiling point of
isobutylene is -6.9oC.So as the MTBE reached its boiling point it turned into vapor and
condensed in the condenser and then collected as product. Hence what remained in the
distillation column was collected.
3.4.2 TESTING FOR THE PURITY OF METHANOL
Aim
Determining the purity of methanol
Apparatus
Beaker, methanol and hydrometer
Procedure

250ml of methanol were placed in a beaker

A hydrometer was placed inside the beaker such that it floated on the methanol

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3.4.3 JONES OXIDATION TEST FOR ALCOHOLS

Aim
To test for the presence of methanol in the product
Reagents
Chromium trioxide, condensate
Conditions
Temperature of 25oC
Apparatus
Test tube, dropper
Procedure

A small sample of the condensate was put into the test tube
two drops of chromium trioxide were added
The tube was observed for an immediate (2-5 sec) color change

3.4.4 EXPERIMENT: IODINE TEST FOR ETHERS

Aim
To test for the presence of MTBE in the product
Reagents
Potassium iodide, condensate
Conditions
Temperature of 25oC
Apparatus
Test tube, dropper
Procedure

Aqueous Potassium iodide solution was added into the test tube containing a sample of
the product and observed
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CHAPTER 4.0: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

4.1

RESULTS

FOR

THE

CATALYTIC

AND

FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

EXPERIMENT
Table 2 Results for the catalytic and fractional distillation experiment
Experiment

Pressure(bars)

Temperature(oC)

Mass

Mass

1
2
3
4
5
6

20
20
20
20
20
20

50
70
90
100
110
150

collected(g)
47.78
49.17
51.73
50.45
46.89
40.75

distillation flask
22.56
21.75
20.94
22.10
21.36
20.67

left

in

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20

200

35.98

19.55

Table 3 % conversion of isobutylene

Temperature(oC)
50
70
90
100
110
150
200

% conversion
81.36
83.68
90.68
90.20
73.00
45.68
22.12

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Figure 2 graph of % isobutylene conversion against temperature

4.2 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Using experiment number 3 with the highest % conversion for isobutylene 51.73g of product
was condensed and collected, 20.94g was left in the fractional distillatory. Hence composition of
collected product and the remainder must be determined and the percentage conversion of
isobutylene the limiting reactant.
MTBE was condensed and collected.
Expected amount of product in fractional distillatory = mass of feed - mass of collected product
= 75g-51.73g=23.27g
It was expected that 23.27g would remain in the fractional distillatory but only 20.94 g was
obta3ined.
Amount of product that evaporated = mass of expected product in fractional distillatory actual mass of product that remained in fractional distillatory
=23.27g-20.94g=2.33g
Since isobutylene has a boiling point of -6.9oC it was concluded that 2.33g of isobutylene
evaporated.
Mass of isobutylene that reacted = mass of isobutylene feed - mass of evaporated product
= 25g 2.33g = 22.67g
% conversion of isobutylene = (mass of reacted isobutylene/mass of isobutylene feed)*100
= (22.67/25.00)*100 = 90.68%
CONDENSATE ANALYSIS
If 22.67g of isobutylene reacted then 22.67g of methanol reacted to produce 45.34g of MTBE.
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% composition of MTBE in condensate = (mass of mtbe produced/mass of condensate)*100

= (45.34g/51.73g)*100 = 88%
Therefore % composition of methanol in condensate = 12%
DISTILLATORY PRODUCT ANALYSIS
If methanol fed is 94% pure then the remaining 6% is water
Amount of water in methanol feed = 0.06*50g = 3g
Amount of methanol in feed = 47g
Therefore amount of methanol that remained in the fractional distillatory = mass of distillatory
product mass of water in feed = 20.94 3 = 17.94g
% composition of methanol = (mass of methanol/mass of product)*100
= (17.94/20.94)*100 = 86%
% composition of water = 14%
4.3 RESULTS FOR LABORATORY TESTS CARRIED OUT
4.3.1 Test for methanol purity
Results
The specific gravity of methanol was found to be 0.8038
Therefore methanol purity=1-specific gravity of sample/1-specific gravity of pure methanol
Methanol purity=1-0.8038/1-0.7913
=0.1962/0.2087=0.94
=0.94*100%
Methanol purity=94%
The sample of therefore contains 94% methanol and 6% water, this water should be accounted
for in mass and energy balance in the following chapter
4.3.2 Test for alcohol
Results

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Formation of an opaque suspension with a green to blue after two drops of chromium trioxide
was observed color was observed. This implies that a primary alcohol is present in our product.
Hence we can conclude that methanol is present in our product since it was fed in excess.
4.3.3 Test for ether
Results
Formation of a tan solution after 3 drops of potassium iodide was observed. This implies that
ether is present in our product. Hence we can conclude that MTBE which is a major constituent
of our product is present in the product obtained

CHAPTER 5.0 PROCESS DESIGN

5.1 PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
Figure 3: Process Flow Diagram

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PROCESS INFORMATION
E-1 Methanol storage tank
E-3 MTBE reactor
E-4 distillation column for separation of methanol, isobutylene and methanol
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E-5 distillation column for separation of methanol, isobutylene and water

E-2 Isobutylene storage tank
E-10 MTBE storage tank
Stream 1 Methanol-isobutylene feed stream
Stream 3 Stream contains MTBE, excess methanol and unreacted isobutylene
Stream 7 Stream contains 88%wt MTBE and 12%wt methanol
Stream 4 Stream contains 77%wt methanol, 13%wt water and 10%wt isobutylene
Stream 6 Methanol and isobutylene recycle stream
Stream 5 Waste water stream
5.2 PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Methanol and isobutylene are fed into the MTBE reactor, MTBE is produced and excess
methanol and isobutylene remains. The excess reactants and the product are separated in the
distillation column E-4 and a stream which contains 88%wt MTBE and 12%wt methanol is
collected as product. The overhead stream from column E-4 which contains 77%wt methanol,
13%wt water and 10%wt isobutylene is fed into distillation column E-5 were methanol and
isobutylene are recycled while the water is collected as waste.

5.3 MASS BALANCE

5.3.1 MTBE REACTOR
Basis: 100Kmol/hr. Combined feed to the reactor

23 | P a g e

0.598 C5H12O
100Kmol/hr
.

0.349 CH3OH

0.67 CH3OH

0.031 C4H8
0.022 H2O
Figure 5: MTBE reactor material balance
5.3.2 DISTILLATOR E-3

2.22kmol/hr. H2O
3.08kmol/hr. C4H8
26.69kmo/hr.
CH3OH

59.84kmol/hr. C5H12O
34.86kmol/hr. CH3OH
3.08kmol/hr. C4H8
2.22kmol/hr. H2O

24 | P a g e

59.84kmol/hr. C5H12O
8.16kmol/hr. CH3OH

Figure 6: E-4 material balance

5.3.3 DISTILLATOR E-5

26.69kmo/hr.CH3OH
3.08kmol/hr.C4H8

2.22kmol/hr. H2O
3.08kmol/hr.C4H8
26.69kmol/hr.CH3

H2O
Figure 7: E-5 material balance

2.22kmo/hr.

25 | P a g e

CALCULATIONS
MTBE Reactor
From experimental results isobutylene overall conversion is 90.68% therefore number of moles
of isobutylene that reacted are: 0.9068*0.33*100 = 29.92kmol/hr.
Table 4: MTBE reactor stoichiometric balances
CH3OH (kmol/hr.)
67
1
2
29.92
37.08

Moles
Stoichiometric moles
Actual moles
Reacted moles
Unreacted moles

C4H8(kmol/hr.)
33
1
1
29.92
3.08

Moles of MTBE produced = 100kmol/hr. (37.08+ 3.08) kmol/hr.

= 59.84kmol/hr.
INPUT = OUTPUT
%MTBE = 59.84/100*100 = 59.8%
%CH3OH + H2O = 37.08/100*100 = 37.1%
%C4H8 = 3.08/100*100 = 3.1%
%Water in product stream = 0.06*37.08 = 2.22/100*100 = 2.2%
Therefore mass of methanol in product = 37.08 2.22 = 34.86kmol/hr.
Distillatory E-4
Methanol balance
From experimental results If Stream 7 composition is 88%wt MTBE and 12%wt CH3OH then
If 88%wt = 59.84kmol/hr. C5H12O then 12% CH3OH = x
By simple proportion, moles of CH3OH in Stream 7 = 12/88*59.84 = 8.16kmol/hr.
Moles of methanol in Stream 4 = 34.85 8.16 = 26.69kmol/hr.
26 | P a g e

5.4 ENERGY BALANCE

The equation that we used to calculate the power Q or W at each equipment is:
Q W = HR+ (-Hin) + (Hout) + (KE) + (PE)
To calculate H, first we need to find the Cp values for every component in each of the Stream.
To find the Cp values, we need to use this equation to find the values of Cp
Cp = a + bT + cT2 + dT3
The values of a, b, c and d are taken from Appendix D, Coulson and Richardson Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6. If the temperature and pressure is more than the critical temperature and
pressure of the component, we need to find the (Cp Cp o) for that specific component. But as for
all of our temperatures and pressures none of them exceed the critical temperature and pressure;
we need not to find the (Cp Cpo)
To find the value of H, we use this equation:
H =

T2

T1

CpdT x (n)

Should there is any reaction in the process; we need also to find the values of HR which takes
place in the equipment. The equation, which we used to find HR is:
HR= (F product- F reactant) x n
5.4.1 MTBE REACTOR

27 | P a g e

T = 94oC,

T = 101oC,

P = 2000kPa

P = 2000kPa

Figure 10: MTBE reactor energy balance

Table 5: Stream 2
Substance

Flow

rates Hf

CH3OH
C4H8

(kmol/hr.)
67
33

To

kJ/kmol
-238600
-16830

K
298
298

K
367
367

kJ/hr.
609400
343480
H =95288 0

Table 6: Stream 3
Substance

Hf

To

CH3OH
C4H8
C5H12
H2O

kmol/hr.
34.90
3.10
59.84
2.20

kJ/kmol.
-238600
-16830
-277250
-242000

K
298
298
298
298

K
374
374
374
374

kJ/hr.
351200
35670
670390
6.10
H
=1063360

Stream 2
Hr = 67*(-238600) + 33*(-16830) =-4286.34kW
Stream 3
Hr = 34.9*(-238600) + 3.10*(-16830) + 59.84*(-277250) +2.20*(-242000) = -7083.99kW

28 | P a g e

Energy balance
Q - W = Hr + Hout - Hin + KE +PE
KE = 0
PE = 0
H = Hr + Hout - Hin
Hr. = Hr. (products) - Hr. (reactants)
Hr. = -7083.99-(-4286.34) = - 2797.65kW
H = (-2797.65) + 295.38-(264.69)
H = -2766.96kW
H = Q = -2766.96kW
5.4.2 DISTILLATOR E-4
T = 53.3oC
P = 305kPa

T = 64.5oC
P = 450kPa

29 | P a g e

P = 400KPa
T = 103.3oC
Figure 11: E-4 energy balance

Table 7: Stream 3
Substance

Hf

To

Tf

C5H12O

kmol/hr.
59.84

kJ/kmol
-277250

K
298

K
337.5

kJ/hr.
333170

CH3OH

34.90

-238600

298

337.5

178300

C4H8

3.10

-16830

298

337.5

28160

H2O

2.20

-285840

298

337.5

3150
H = 542780

Table 8: Stream 7
Substance

Hf

To

C5H12O
CH3OH

kmol/hr.
59.84
8.16

kJ/kmol.
-277250
-238600

K
298
298

K
376.3
376.3

kJ/hr.
692550
84720
H =777270

Hf

To

Table 9: Stream 4
Substance

30 | P a g e

CH3OH
C4H8
H2O

kmol/hr.
26.69
3.08
2.22

kJ/kmol
-238600
-16830
-285840

K
298
298
298

K
326.3
326.3
326.3

kJ/hr.
96980
12807
2280
H = 112130

Energy balance
Q - W = Hr + Hout - Hin + KE +PE
W=0
Hr=0
PE=0
KE=0
Q = Hout - Hin
Q = (215.91 + 31.15)-(150.77)
Q = 96.29kW
5.4.3 DISTILLATOR E-5
T = 53.3oC
P = 100kPa

31 | P a g e

T = 40oC
P = 100kPa

T = 30oC
P = 100kPa

Figure 12: E-5 energy balance

Table 10: Stream 4
Substance

Hf

To

CH3OH
C4H8
H2O

kmol/Hr.
26.69
3.08
2.22

kJ/kmol
-238600
-16830
-283840

K
298
298
298

K
313
313
313

kJ/hr.
50950
6770
2850
H = 60170

Table 11: Stream 6

Substance

Hf

To

C4H8
CH3OH

kmol/hr.
3.08
26.69

kJ/kmol
-16830
-238600

K
298
298

K
326
326

kJ/hr.
6770
95930
H = 102700
32 | P a g e

Table 13: Stream 5

Substance

Hf

To

Tf

H2O

kmol/hr.
2.22

kJ/kmol
-238840

K
298

K
303

kJ/hr.
400

Energy balance
Q - W = Hr + Hout - Hin + KE +PE
W=0
Hr=0
PE=0
KE=0
Q = Hout - Hin
Q = (1.88 + 26.65+0.11)-16.71
Q = 11.93kW
5.5.4 Energy balance around preheater E-6
Stream 1

Stream 2

Table 14: Stream 1

Substance

Flow

rates Hf

CH3OH
C4H8

(kmol/hr.)
67
33

kJ/kmol
-238600
-16830

To

K
298
298

K
298
398

kJ/hr.
0
0
H = 0

Table 15: Stream 2

33 | P a g e

Substance

Flow

rates Hf

CH3OH
C4H8

(kmol/hr.)
67
33

kJ/kmol
-238600
-16830

To

K
298
298

K
367
367

kJ/hr.
609400
343480
H =95288 0

Q = Hout - Hin
Q = 246.69 0
Q = 246.69 kW

5.5 SAFETY HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ANALYSIS

For years, those employed in the chemical industry have known that the safe operation of
Chemical plant is essential to the industrys continued ability to survive. The human, Political
and financial costs of having accidents are just too high for the chemical industry to not exhibit
excellence in their efforts to operate plants in safe and environmentally responsible ways.
The chemical industry has an outstanding record in both transportation safety and the safe
operations of its processes. That effort has resulted in a dramatic and steady decline in releases
and waste produced at chemical sites.
Actions that should be taken to avoid serious chemical plant accidents are as follows:
1. In most cases involving large volumes of highly hazardous chemicals, excess flow valves
are in place that would stop a rapid flow of the chemicals.
2. When highly hazardous chemicals are involved, processes have fixed protection, as well
as trained emergency response teams that could handle the incident.
3. Appropriate reaction control or inhibiting systems are in place to interrupt runaway
reactions if cooling, heating and pressure relief are not considered adequate.
4. Control systems are designed to detect heat or pressure of a chemical reaction and to
control that reaction.
5. Work more closely with local and state law enforcement groups.
34 | P a g e

5.5.1 ISOBUTYLENE
- Colorless liquefied gas, odorless.
- Flammable gas. May cause flash fire
- Contents under pressure
- Detection of leak via sense of smell may not be possible if odorant has degraded
- Contact with liquefied gas can cause frostbite
- Liquid can cause eye and skin injury
- Reduces oxygen available for breathing
Physical and Chemical Properties
Appearance and odor:

colorless liquefied gas, odorless.

Ph.:

Na

Vapor pressure:

72 psia @ 37.8 c

Vapor density (air=1):

2.1

Boiling point:

-12c (10.4f)

Solubility:

negligible

Percent volatile:

100 % volume

Specific gravity:

0.564 @ 15.6 c

Evaporation rate:

>1

Immediate Health Effects:

Eye: Because the liquid product evaporates quickly, it can have a severe chilling effect on eyes
and can cause local freezing of tissues (frostbite). Symptoms may include pain, tearing,
reddening, swelling and impaired vision.
Skin: Because the liquid product evaporates quickly, it can have a severe chilling effect on skin
and can cause local freezing of tissues (frostbite). Symptoms may include pain, itching,
discoloration, swelling, and blistering. Not expected to be harmful to internal organs if absorbed
through the skin.
Ingestion: Material is a gas and cannot usually be swallowed.
35 | P a g e

Inhalation: This material can act as a simple asphyxiate by displacement of air.

Symptoms of asphyxiation may include rapid breathing, in coordination, rapid fatigue, excessive
salivation, disorientation, headache, nausea, and vomiting. Convulsions, loss of consciousness,
coma, and/or death may occur if exposure to high concentrations continues.
First Aid Measures
Eye: Flush eyes with water immediately while holding the eyelids open. Remove contact
lenses, if worn, after initial flushing, and continue flushing for at least 15 minutes. Get
immediate medical attention.
Skin: Skin contact with the liquid may result in frostbite and burns. Soak contact area in tepid
water to alleviate the immediate effects and get medical attention.
Ingestion: No specific first aid measures are required because this material is a gas and cannot
usually be swallowed.
Inhalation: For emergencies, wear a nose approved air-supplying respirator. Move the exposed
person to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult, give
oxygen. Get immediate medical attention.
5.5.2 METHANOL
Methanol synonyms with Methyl alcohol and in chemical family alcohol with the formula
CH3OH. Methanol is a clear, colorless, mobile, volatile, flammable liquid and its soluble in
water, alcohol and ether.
Physical and Chemical properties
Physical state:

liquid

Boiling Point:

64.7oC

Vapor Pressure

(20oC): 128 mb

Vapor Density (air=1):

1.11

Solubility in water, %wt:

full

Specific Gravity:

0.792 g/cm3

Appearance and odor:

liquid-colorless-odor specific

36 | P a g e

Fire and Explosion Hazard data:

Flash point: closed cup:

12oC

Flammable limits, % vol:

Lel: 6, Uel: 36.5

Extinguishing media:

Foam CO2 halogenated agents

Special firefighting:

Avoid contact with oxidizing materials

Unusual fire and explosion:

Moderate

Reactivity Data
Stability:

Medium

Conditions to avoid:

Oxidizing materials

Incompatibility:

Sulfo-chromic mixtures

Special Precautions
Precaution to be taken in handling and storing Methanol: store in iron or steel Containers
or tanks. Small quantities can be stored in reinforced glass containers.
5.5.3 MTBE
MTBE is chemically stable; it does not polymerize, nor will decompose under normal conditions
of temperature and pressure. Unlike most ether, MTBE does not tend to form peroxides (autooxidize). The physical state of MTBE is that MTBE is in the form of liquid at room temperature
(25oC). It is a colorless liquid with the billing point at 55.2 oC. The freezing point of MTBE is
108.6oC 163.5oC. The density of MTBE at 25oC is 735g/cm3.
Physical dangers
MTBE is non-reactive. It does not react with air, water, or common materials of
construction. The reactivity of MTBE with oxidizing materials is probably low. However,
without definitive information, it should be assumed that MTBE reacts with strong oxidizers,
including peroxides.
Chemical dangers
MTBE is highly flammable and combustible when exposed to heat or flame or spark, and it is a
moderate fire risk. Vapors may form explosive mixtures with air. It is unstable in acid solutions.
37 | P a g e

Fire may produce irritating, corrosive or toxic gases. Runoff from fire control may contain
MTBE and its combustion products.
Inhalation risk
Like other ethers, inhalation of high levels of MTBE by animals or humans results in the
depression of the central nervous system. Symptoms observe red in rats exposed to 4000 or 8000
ppm in air included labored respiration, ataxia, decreased muscle tone, abnormal gait, impaired
treadmill performance, and decreased grip strength. These symptoms were no longer evident 6
hours after exposure ceased. A lower level of MTBE, 800ppm did not produce apparent effects
(Daughtrey et al., 1997). A number of investigations have been conducted to examine the selfreported acute MTBE in gasoline vapors during use by consumers. This research includes both
epidemiological studies and studies involving controlled exposure of volunteers to MTBE
at concentrations similar to those encountered in refueling an automobile (Reviewed in
USEPA, 1997, and California EPA, 1998). In general, the studies involving controlled
human exposures in chambers to levels of MTBE similar to those experienced during refueling
and driving an automobile have not shown effects of MTBE on physical symptoms (e.g.
irritation), mood, or performance based tests of neurobehavioral function.
.
5.5.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSDIDERATIONS
Nowadays, environmental issues become very important. Besides this, a good waste treatment
system is also important in order to reduce and minimize environmental pollutants. The
chemical waste in the form of solid, liquid and gases must be treated before being discharged
into sewage, drain and atmospheres.
Any chemical plant to be set up in Zimbabwe must follow the rules and regulations
under the Environmental Management Act (Chap 20:27) Section 140 as read with Statutory
Instrument 10 of 2007 (Hazardous Waste Management), is the legislation that regulates handling
of hazardous waste, and are the legal instrument used to manage hazardous waste in the country.
Under these regulations, no person shall generate, store, sell, transport, use, recycle, discharge or
dispose of hazardous waste to the environment except under a licence from the Environmental
Management Agency (EMA).
38 | P a g e

The plant owner or waste generator must ensure that waste generated is disposed
appropriately to prevent environmental pollution. The proper and suitable methods should be
implemented in dealing with the waste disposal. MTBE plant is not excluded from these
regulations. As our plant produces MTBE which is not hazardous to the environment and
humans if safety measures are taken into consideration. These environmental considerations
depend on the location of our plant.

CHAPTER 6.0 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

6.1 Pricing and distribution
Over the period 2000-2010 the price of MTBE fluctuated between $0.39 - $0.50/kg.The price
has remained essentially stable over the last few years, the price of MTBE in the USA market is
USD0.34/kg whilst in the European market the price is USD0.31/kg. The price fluctuations are
mainly caused by crude oil prices. We are projecting a selling price of USD0.50/kg.
6.2 Plant capacity
Commercial production of MTBE started in Europe in 1973 and in the US in 1979. Total
Worldwide production capacity in 1998 was 23.5 million tones and the actual production was 18
million tones. The expected production capacity for the project is 60 000 tons per annum based
on 330 working days. 670 kg and 330 kg of feed will produce 598 kg of MTBE.
6.3 Outline of the production schedule
During the first two years of production, full capacity utilization may not be utilized. This is due
to lack of manufacturing and marketing experiences. Thus in the first and second year of
production only 60%-80% of the plant capacity will be utilized. Then afterwards full capacity
can be utilized.
6.4 Raw materials

39 | P a g e

Zimbabwe has the largest known reserves of methane in Southern Africa; our project intends to
utilize this abundant natural resource which is lying dormant for the benefit of the nation. This
means both methanol and isobutylene can be produced locally from the methane. At full capacity
the actual raw material requirement is 67 000 tons methanol and 33 000 tons isobutylene at an
estimated cost of USD 24 990 000.
6.5 Land and buildings
The cost of land and buildings is estimated to be USD 300 000.
6.6 Location and site
The best location is the source of the raw materials to minimize transport costs, therefor the plant
can be set up in proximity to the methane reserves.
Table 13: Fixed assets and fixed costs

FIXED ASSETS
Land and Buildings
Vehicles
Installation labor
MTBE reactor
Distillation column x2
Storage tanks x3
Piping
Plant maintenance
Total

COST
(X$1000)
300
50
100
200
120
45
5
5
825

FIXED COSTS

AMOUNT

Depreciation
Interest
Taxes
Insurance

(X$1000)
480
240
180
120

Total

1020

Table 14: Raw material cost and factory overheads

RAW MATERIALS

COST

Methanol
Isobutylene
Catalyst
Total

(X$1000)
16080
8910
800
25790

FACTORY OVERHEADS

COST

Security
Employee benefits
Medical allowance
Total

(X$1000)
120
60
60
240

Table 15: General expenses

GENERAL EXPENSES

COST (X$1000)
40 | P a g e

Administrative
Research and Development
Employees
Marketing
Total

240
60
120
60
480

6.6 Financial analysis

The financial analysis of this project is based on the data presented in the previous chapters and
the following assumptions:Construction

1 year

Source of finance

50% equity and 50% bank loan

Bank interest

10% per annum

Accounts receivables

30 days

Raw materials

30 days

Work in progress

1 day

Cash in hand

5 days

Accounts payable

30 days

6.7 Financial evaluation

6.7.1 Profitability
According to projected income statement, the project will start generating profit in the first year
of operation. Important ratios such as profit to total sales, net profit to equity and net profit plus
interest on total investment (return on investment) show an increasing trend during the lifetime
of the project.
6.7.2 Break Even Analysis
The break-even point of the project including cost of finance when it starts to operate at full
capacity (year 3) is estimated by using income statement projection.
Sales = 60 000 000 kg X $0.50/kg
= $30 000 000
41 | P a g e

Total Variable Cost = $25 790 000

Total Fixed Cost = $1 740 000

Total Cost = Total Variable Cost + Total Fixed Cost

= $25 790 000 + $1 740 000
= $25 964 000
Break-even point = Fixed cost X 100%
Sales-Variable Cost
= $1 740 000 X 100%
$30 000 000-$25 790 000
= 41.3%
BREAK EVEN PLOT
Assuming a linear relationship between variable costs and production rate the following is
realized.

42 | P a g e

30
$(mill)

Sales income
Total costs
Variable costs
Fixed costs

1,74

41.3

50

100

% CAPACITY
Figure 13: Break even plot

6.7.3 Return on Investment

Return on Investment of the project =( Profit/total investment capital) X 100%
Profit = Sales cost of production
= $30 000 - $25 790 000
= $4 210 000
ROI = ($4 210 000/$28 000 000) X 100%
= 15%
6.7.4 Payback period
The investment cost and income statement projections are used to project the payback period.
43 | P a g e

Payback = Fixed Capital Investment/ (Annual Profit + Depreciation)

Payback period = $28 000 000/ ($4 210 000 + $480 000) = 6 years
6.7.5 Economic benefits
The project can create employment, improve infrastructure in Zimbabwe, supply the national
needs and generate huge amounts of tax revenue for the government. The project creates an
opportunity to put Zimbabwe on the world market.

CHAPTER 7.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 CONCLUSION
MTBE production could the countys answer to the high dependence of using leaded and
unleaded petrol. The production of MTBE using our proposed process is an efficient technology
with 90.68% conversion of isobutylene, the process produces water, an environmentally friendly
waste product.
7.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
From our analysis it is clear that use of petrol without fuel oxygenate results in emission of flue
gasses that pose a danger to the environment. However, the implementation of MTBE as a fuel
additive will involve the following benefits:
44 | P a g e

Significant reduction in air pollution due to the reduction in flue gas emission.
Improvement of competiveness as MTBE has a lower cost as compared to other
additives.
Job creation

Likewise implementation of this project will provide for the ever sought for clean solutions. The
production of this product also promises huge exports that will turn over the current economic
situation in Zimbabwe.

APPENDIX

45 | P a g e

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Methyltert-Butyl Ether. Catalysis Today. 15: p. 23-49.
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3. Collignon F, Londers R, Martens JA, Jacobs PA, Poncelet G. 1996. Liquid Phase
Synthesis of MTBE from Methanol and Isobutene Over Acid Zeolites and Amberlyst-15.
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