13.

Heat Treatment of Metals

13.1 Tempering of Martensite
13.2 Annealing of Metals and Alloys

Annealing of Non-ferrous Metals and Alloys

Annealing of Ferrous Metals and Alloys

13.1 Tempering of Martensite

Tempering:

Tempered
martensite consists
of extremely small
and dispersed
cementite particles
in a ferrite matrix
(much smaller than
those in
spheroidite).

a-

Fe3C a-Ferrite
Martensite

Tempered
Martensite

EFFECTS OF TEMPERING

Tempered martensite has increased ductility and

toughness, while it has reduced the strength and hardness
compared to martensite.

Tempering relieves the internal stresses that were introduced

during quenching (when martensite was formed).

Tempering at a higher temperature

faster carbon diffusion
larger cementite particles grown
less ferrite cementite phase boundary
area per unit volume
weaker and more ductile material

Tempering for a longer tempering time

more time for carbon diffusion
larger cementite particles
less ferrite cementite phase boundary
area per unit volume
weaker and more ductile material

Austempering and Martempering

13.2 Annealing of Metals and Alloys

Purposes:
Increase softness, ductility, and toughness of coldworked materials
Relieve internal stresses
Produce a specific microstructure
Stages of annealing processes:
1. Heat the material to a desired elevated temperature (Tanneal)
2. Hold the elevated temperature (soaking)
3. Cool to room temperature
Types of annealing processes:
For non-ferrous metals and alloys:
Stress relief annealing
Process annealing
For ferrous alloys (steels):
Spheroidizing
Full annealing
Normalizing

13.2.1 Annealing of Non-ferrous Metals

and Alloys

Stress relief annealing

Process annealing

Effects of Reheating of Non-ferrous Metals after

Cold Working

Annealing of
brass alloy
decreases TS
and increases
ductility (%EL).
The effects of
cold work are
reversed!

RECRYSTALLIZATION TEMPERATURE

The recrystallization temperature: the temperature at which

recrystallization just reaches completion in 1 hour

Recrystallization temperature is 1/3 -1/2 of absolute

melting temperature (K) for metals.

Temperature (K) = Temperature (C) + 273

Stress Release Annealing of Non-ferrous

Metals/Alloys)
Carried out at a temperature lower than the recrystallization
temperature (Tanneal < Trecryst).
Aims to eliminate internal stresses caused by:
Plastic deformation processes (machining, grinding, etc.)
Non-uniform cooling after welding or casting
Phase transformations induced during cooling wherein
parent and product phases have different densities, e.g.,
density decreases during Austenite (FCC crystal)
Martensite (BCT crystal).
Involves recovery ONLY.
It can annihilate dislocations, as an
elevated temperature enhances atomic
diffusion, which hence reduces the
dislocation density in the material.
Thus, mechanical properties such as
strength and ductility are partially
recovered to their pre-cold-worked states.

Process Annealing of
Non-ferrous Metals/Alloys)

Carried out after cold-working to:

Allow continuation of deformation without fracture or

excessive energy consumption.
Increase the ductility of strain-hardened metals

Carried out at a temperature higher than the

recrystallization temperature (
).
Involves recovery, recrystallization, and grain
growth.

RECRYSTALLIZATION

Recrystallization occurs at temperature > Trecryst.

In recrystallization, very fine new crystals are formed by
consuming the old cold-worked crystals. The new crystals have
much lower dislocation density than the cold-worked crystals,
thus softening the material.
All cold-worked crystals are finally consumed.
Mechanical properties (strength, ductility) are almost restored
to the pre-cold-worked values.
0.6 mm

33% cold
worked
brass

New crystals
nucleate after
3s. at 580C.

After 4s
at 580C.

GRAIN GROWTH

Grain growth occurs in

all polycrystalline
materials at elevated
temperature.

Grain growth will

decrease in total grain
boundary area and
reduce total grain
surface energy.

The strength decreases

and ductility increases.

After 8s
at 580C.

GRAIN GROWTH (Contd)

0.6 mm

After 8 s,
580C

0.6 mm

After 15 min,
580C

An empirical correlation for grain size calculation:

Initial grain
diameter

grain
diam.
at time t.

coefficient dependent
exponent
on material and T.
typ. n = ~ 2
elapsed time
n
o

d n d Kt

K increases with temperature due to higher atomic diffusion rates.

13.2.2 Annealing of Ferrous metals and

alloys

Spheroidizing
Full annealing
Normalizing

TYPES OF Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Steels (<1.4 wt% C)
Low alloy steels containing plain Fe and C, and in some
cases low levels of other alloying elements.
.
Plain carbon steels: contain only C and some Mn as
the alloying elements.
Other low alloy steels: contain low concentrations of
alloying elements in addition to C/Mn.
High alloy steels containing high concentrations of
alloying elements other than C and Mn. Example:
Stainless Steel, SS 316L: 0.03% C, 17% Cr, 12% Ni, 2.5%
Mo, 2.0% Mn, <1% Si, <0.045% P, <0.03% S.

Cast irons (> 2.5 4.5 wt% C)

SPHEROIDIZING

Carried out by:

Heating to a temperature just below the eutectoid line
(727C)
Maintaining this temperature for more than 15-24 hours to
obtain spheroidite.
Cooling to room temp.
Carried out usually before machining or plastic deformation to
achieve greater ductility.

Spheroidite

FULL ANNEALING

Carried out by:

Heating to a temperature above the eutectoid line (727C) and
for a sufficient time to convert all pearlite to austenite
(austenitizing)
Furnace cooling (slow cooling) to obtain coarse pearlite.
Carried out usually for low- and medium-carbon steels before
machining or extensive plastic deformation to:
Produce coarse pearlite (plus a proeutectoid phase if it was
present before the annealing), and
Increase ductility.

Coarse Pearlite

NORMALIZING

Carried out by:

Heating to a high enough temperature and for a sufficient time
to convert all pearlite and any proeutectoid phases to
austenite (austenitizing)
Cooling in air (fast cooling) to obtain fine pearlite.

Carried out usually after plastic deformation to:

Decrease the average grain size by producing fine pearlite.
Produce a more uniform size distribution of pearlite.

Fine Pearlite