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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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employees. Any material contained in this document which is not
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Chapter : Inspection
File Reference: COE10300
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
CONTENTS
PAGES
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Figure 2 shows all of these requirements. The anode is the point at which the metal dissolves
by going into solution. At the anode, metal atoms lose electrons and the resulting positive
ions go into solution. The electrons migrate through the metal to the cathode. At the cathode,
various ion species in solution remove these electrons to complete the corrosion reaction. A
small, but measurable, electric current is produced and flows from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte and then passes through the metal from the cathode to the anode. The
quantity of current that passes through the cell is directly proportional to the amount of metal
that corrodes. A current flow of 1 ampere per year will corrode approximately 20 pounds of
steel.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Typical reactions at the anode and cathode on a piece of steel are defined in the following
equations.
Anode
Fe Fe++ + 2e-
(Oxidation)
2H+ + 2e- H2
(Reduction)
Cathode
Anodes and cathodes can form on a single piece of metal because of either local differences
in the metal or in the environment.
If the hydrogen produced adheres to the cathode and forms an insulating blanket,
polarization results. Polarization introduces a resistance and interferes with current flow so
that corrosion is decreased or stopped. Oxygen, if present, combines with the hydrogen in
this insulating blanket to form water and thus removes the hydrogen film. Current flows
again and corrosion proceeds. This is called cathodic depolarization.
The rate of the destructive attack as a function of time will depend on process or service
conditions such as pressure, temperature, velocity and impingement, pH and corrodent
concentration, and the presence of oxygen or other depolarizers.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
FORMS OF ATTACK
There are many types of corrosion. The most common types include:
Sweet corrosion
Sour corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking
Oxygen corrosion
Concentration cell attack
Galvanic corrosion
Bacterial corrosion
Sweet Corrosion
Sweet corrosion results from CO2 gas or low molecular weight organic acids dissolving in
water.
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
(Carbonic acid)
Fe + H2CO3 FeCO3 + H2
This type of attack is characterized by a general loss of metal over the entire surface or by
shallow areas of localized attack that are free of scale.
Important factors that affect the solubility of CO2 and, therefore, the severity of attack
include:
CO2 concentration
Pressure
Temperature
Water composition
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
The concentration of CO2 is shown by its partial pressure. The partial pressure of CO2 is
obtained by multiplying the total pressure by the percentage of CO2. Corrosivity of a sweet
system is determined by the following criteria:
Increased pressure results in the increased solubility of CO2 in water and, therefore, higher
corrosion rates up to a limit. This action is shown in Figure 3. As temperature increases, the
solubility of CO2 in water decreases. If the pressure is kept constant, an increase in
temperature will cause CO2 to be released from the solution. The accompanying rise in pH
lowers the corrosion rate as shown in Figure 4. Water composition is another factor in sweet
corrosion. Many dissolved minerals tend to buffer or to prevent the reduction of pH in a
water with dissolved CO2, thereby influencing the rate of corrosion.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Sour Corrosion
Sour corrosion results from the reaction of hydrogen sulfide and steel in the presence of
water.
Fe + H2S FeS + 2H
in H2O
This type of attack produces black iron sulfide scale and numerous pits. A galvanic reaction
occurs between the black iron sulfide scale and the steel. The steel acts as an anode and the
iron sulfide scale as a cathode. Additional problems occur with the precipitated iron sulfide.
This insoluble precipitate is preferentially oil-wet and is commonly carried over into storage
tanks, heater treaters, free water knockouts, and other production equipment where scale
problems can occur. Disposal water will then carry significant concentrations of oil-wet iron
sulfide that will plug filters and lines. Iron sulfide changes to iron oxide with time and
exposure to air.
There are four major sources of hydrogen sulfide in the oil field.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Oxygen Corrosion
In oil production, the removal of corrosives is primarily directed at the exclusion of oxygen.
Oxygen is normally absent in oil producing systems or, at most, present in trace amounts.
However, oxygen can enter a supposedly closed system through pumps, nongas-blanketed
storage tanks, systems operating in a vacuum, and so forth. For example, the three most
likely points where oxygen enters oil field water injection systems are at the wells, at the
tanks, and through pump seals.
The annulus of a well must be kept sealed or blanketed to exclude O2. This is particularly
troublesome in water source wells equipped with electrical submersible pumps. Maintaining
an effective seal around electrical cables or rotating shafts is extremely difficult. Gas
blanketing is usually the only effective method of excluding oxygen from wells of this type.
In the case of tanks, gas blanketing with natural gas or nitrogen is best. Oil blankets are not
effective. Pump seals are another point of oxygen entry. If water is leaking from a seal, O2
can enter this site by diffusion against pressure.
The presence of trace amounts (1 ppm or less) of oxygen greatly increases the effects of other
corrodents. Corrosion caused by trace amounts of oxygen typically results in extreme attack
in crevices, behind obstructions in the fluid flow, and in other shielded areas. Accelerated
corrosion of this type takes place where oxygen is either absent or in small amounts. The
removal of hydrogen by oxygen increases the cathodic reaction. Therefore, locations lacking
oxygen tend to become anodic. The more oxygen in the system, the greater the weight loss as
shown in Figure 6.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
The effect of NaCl content on the solubility of oxygen in water at various temperatures is
shown in Figure 6A.
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Bacterial Corrosion
There are three major groups of bacteria in the oil field.
Slime formers
Sulfate-reducing bacteria
Iron bacteria
Plugging
Chemical precipitates
Corrosion
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Tank bottoms
Gauge settings, bull plugs sample connections
Wellbore below perforations
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
Awareness of corrosion as a specific problem has resulted in more care taken in obtaining
corrosion monitoring information and in preserving valuable evidence.
The prevention or control of corrosion commonly uses one of the following methods:
Engineering Encyclopedia
Inspection
Corrosion Basics - A Refresher
GLOSSARY
anode
cathode
corrosion
depolarization
oxidation
polarization
reduction
sour corrosion
sweet corrosion