WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH, VOL. 23, NO.

10, PAGES 1876-1886, OCTOBER

Conditional

1987

Simulations of Fluid Flow in Three-Dimensional

Networks

of Discrete

Fractures

JOHAN ANDERSSON AND BJORN DVERSTORP

HydraulicsEngineering,The Royal Instituteof Technology,Stockholm,Sweden

How to predict flow through a network of discretefracturesin a three-dimensionaldomain is investi-

gated.Fracturesare modeledas circulardiscsof arbitrarysize,orientation,transmissivity,

and location.
A fracturenetworkis characterized
by the statisticaldistributionsof thesequantities.Fracturetraces
observed
on a wall form the basisfor estimates
of meanfractureradius,fractureorientationparameters,
and fracture density.Fracture trace lengthsare estimatedwith the scanlinemethod and from areal
samplingon circular regions.The tracesobservedon the wall can also be usedto condition the network.

This traceconditioning
is achievedby forcingthe networkgeneratorto alwaysreproducethe observed
traces.Conditioningmightbe a meansof decreasing
the variabilityof the fracturenetworks.A numerical
simulationmodel has been developedwhich is capableof generatinga fracturenetwork of desired
statisticalpropertiesand solvingfor the steadystate flow. On each fracture disc the flow is discretized

with the boundaryelementmethod.A seriesof hypothetical

examples
are analyzed.Theseexamples
consistof setsof Monte-Carlosimulationsof flow througha seriesof networksgeneratedfrom the same

statistical
distributions.
Theexamples
leadto thefollowingconclusions.
Largefractures
andhighfracture
densityimpliesgoodconnectivity
in the networks.A highfracturedensityimpliesa smallvariancein the
flow throughthe network.Trace conditioningdecreases
estimationvarianceonly when the fracture
networkconsists
of largefractures.Fracturestatisticscan be estimatedreasonablywell from fracture
traces observed on a wall.

INTRODUCTION

scribe the network

well if the ensemble variation

is small for

Field investigationsof flow in fractured rock have clearly the problem analyzed. Interpretations of stochasticmodel redemonstratedthat modelingthe rock as a homogeneouscon- sults are more difficult if the ensemblevariation is large. Antinuum might be a serioussimplification.For example, the derssonet al. [1984] and Anderssonand Thunvik[1986] investhree-dimensionalflow and tracer test by Neretniekset al. tigated the value of conditioning the network with known
[1985] in the Stripa test site in Sweden shows that the flow in fractures,or known parts of fractures.The objectiveof these
the rock can be very unevenlydistributed.In crystallinerock, studieswas to see if the variability of flow and transport
flow is confined to the fractures, whereas the rock matrix is through a fracture network would decreaseif parts of the
almost impervious.Furthermore, there is growing evidence network were given deterministically,based on observations,
that the hydraulicpropertiesin a singlefracturevary strongly and only the unobservedpart was stochastic.They showed
in the fracture plane "channeling"(see,for example,Abelin that the conditioningdoesdecreasethe predictionuncertainty
[1986]). The uneven flow encounteredin crystalline rock is if the fracturesare long and the fracturedensitylow.
Models of flow in fracture networks must be three dimenprobably causedboth by the discretefracture network and the
channeling within a fracture. This paper only considersthe sional in order to be realistic.For example,as is noted by
discretenetwork; the fracturepropertiesare assumedconstant Long et al. [1985], fractureswhich do not connectin a plane
in each fracture. Channeling,which is to be investigatedin cut might connect in space. Consequently,it is not evident
reality,
future studies, may be viewed as a submodel to a discrete how field data, whichare sampledin three-dimensional
shouldbe interpretedin a plane two-dimensionalmodel. Unnetwork model.
Interest in discrete fracture network flow and transport
modelshas grown in the past few years,although until recently thesemodels have only been investigatedin two dimensions
[Long et. al., 1982; Schwartz et al., 1983; Anderssonet al.,
1984; Robinson, 1984; Smith and Schwartz, 1984; Long and
Witherspoon,1985; Anderssonand Thunvik, 1986]. From these

fortunately, three-dimensionalnetwork models are much more

studies one concludes that whether

recently, three-dimensional flow models have started to

appear [e.g., Long et al., 1985; Shapiro and Andersson,1985;

a fractured

rock behaves

as a continuum or not depends upon fracture size and frequency.

As the measurement

and characterization

of all fractures is

totally impractical, a statistical approach is needed, where

fractures are viewed as realizations

of stochastic models. For

complexthan two-dimensionalones.The geometricaldescription and the methods of calculatingwhether fracturesconnect

can be derived from basic geometrybut are quite intricate. A
solutionfor the flow through the network requiresmuch computer time and storagefor problems of realisticsize.However,

Robinson,1986; Elsworth, 1986], and it appearsleasableto

solve at least limited size three-dimensionalproblems.However, the principal problem of usingdiscretenetwork modelsis
not the complexityof solvingfor the flow through them. It is

given stochastic models of fractures, an ensemble of fracture

rather

network realizationscan be generatedand usedas input in a

from a realisticamount of field data. Only a limited portion of

the rock is open to observation.
In this paper the work of Anderssonet al. [1984] and Anderssonand Thunvik [1986] is extended to three dimensions.

flow or transport problem. The fracture network statisticsdeCopyright 1987 by the American GeophysicalUnion.
Paper number 6W4772.
0043-1397/87/006W-4772505.00

to measure

The fracture

and estimate

network

the fracture

network

is viewed as a realization

statistics

of a stochastic

model in order to provide a possibility of quantifying the

1876

ANDERSSONAND DVERSTORP.'THREE-DIMENSIONALNETWORKS OF FRACTURES

degreeof certainty on the fracture data. Field data in terms of

fracturetraceson cores,tunnel walls, or outcropsprovide data
for statistical estimates of fracture size, orientation, and den-

sity. Furthermore,thesedata contain informationon the specific network investigated,which may allow for conditioning

sary to have a well-defined scheme of estimating the model

parameters from readily available field data. Furthermore,
evaluation of the flow through the discretenetworks requires
computational tools.
ESTIMATING THE FRACTURE MODEL PARAMETERS

of the network model with the observedtraces. The variability

in flow for different

network

realizations

is a measure of the

quality of the field information. In order to evaluatethe fracture network data a computer code has been developedwhich
first generatesfracturesfrom the stochasticmodels and then
solvesfor steady state flow.
FRACTURE

The fracture network

MODEL

model used here is almost identical

to

1877

Fracture intersectionson drilled cores and exposedsurfaces

suchas tunnel walls and outcropsare the basicsourcesof data
for the geometry in the network model. In this section methods are given for estimatingthe distribution parametersin the
network model. New field investigationtechniques,for example, borehole radar [-seeOlssonet. al., 1985], are potentially
very promising but are not consideredhere.
Experimentsby Snow [1970] support the use of a lognormal distribution for the fracture transmissivity.This distribution will be used in the simulation examples as these basically are designedto investigate the importance of geometry in

the one proposedby Baecherand Lanney [1978] and usedby

Long et al. [1985]. A fracture is modeled as a plane circular
disc with radius r (meters),orientation (0, ), and transmissivity t (m2/s).Thesefracturepropertiesare stochasticand are the fracture networks.
characterizedby a radius distributiongi(r), an orientation distribution hi(O,q), and a transmissivitydistribution ti(t). Fur- Estimation of Fracture Size
thermore,the assumptionis made that differentclassesof fracThe only observablequantity related to the fracture radius r
tures can occur and that each class i has its own distribution
is the trace of length l which the fracture makes on a plane
functions.
observationregion. The trace length has a probability density
The fracture orientation parameters(0, (p) are the spherical functionf(/). In order to estimatethe radius distribution g(r),
coordinatesof the normal to the fracture plane. If thesedirec- one must determine its relation to the trace length distribution
tions are measured relative to a coordinate systemwith the z
direction

in the vertical and the x direction

to the north 0 is

the dip angle and (p the dip direction.The fracture orientation

can be visualizedas a point on the unit hemisphere;hence
fracture orientation is describedby a point distribution hi(O,
rp),for eachfractureclassi, on the surfaceof the sphere.

Eachfracturehasa constanttransmissivity
t (m"/s),so that

f(1). Santalo [1976] shows that the probability for a disc to

intersecta plane is proportionalto the disc radius. This

implies that the population of fractures observedin a plane
cut is a biased representation of g(r). Baecher and Lanney
[1978] and Warburton [1980] show that the radius distribution for thesefracturesis given by

rg(r)
rg(r)
the flow in the fracture is proportional to the head gradient.
g'(r)=
-(2)
Transmissivitiesare used rather than fracture apertures as no
well-defined relation between these quantities is available for
fracturesin the field. Although experimentsin singlefractures
[e.g., Abelin, 1986] indicate that the fracture transmissivity where r is fracture radius, g'(r) is the radius distribution for
may vary considerablywithin the fracture, this extensionis fractures intersecting a plane, and / is the expected fracture
not included in the presentmodel. Spatially varying fracture radius.

org(r)
dr !a

The

properties
couldbeincluded
in futuremodels.
In the model the fracture transmissivityis a stochasticvariable and is characterizedby a distribution function ti(t) for
each fracture

class. Transmissivities

in different

fractures

cut

which

the fracture

are

statisticallyindependent.Furthermore, there is at present no

correlation between fracture radius and transmissivity. However, if desired such correlation can easily be introduced without disturbingthe statisticalanalysisof the other fracturenet-

makes

with

the

observation

plane is a random chord on the fracture disc. Santalo [1976]

showsthat the mean chord length in a circle of radius R is
E(LIR) = R

(3)

The mean chord (and trace) length for circleswith radius distribution given by g'(r) is obtained by integrating (3) over all
radii

work parameters.
Fracture centers for each class i follow a Poisson space

E(L) =

E(LIR)a'(R) dR -

(4)

processwith intensity3.i (m-3). Consequently,

fracturesare
randomlyplacedindependentlyof each other and the prob- whereE(R2)/E(R)is the ratio of the first two momentsof g(r).
abilityof havingN(Vi) fracturecenters
insidea volumeV (m3) Evaluation of (4) requiresan assumedradius distribution g(r).
is [Santalo, 1976]

For example,if g(r) is a negativeexponentialdistribution with

P(N(V), = k) =

e- iqv(iV)k
kl

mean tt, the relationbetweenthis distributionparameterand

(1)

the mean trace length is

u=

The fracture network model defined here includes many

simplificationsand risks being little more than a theoretical

concept.However, its value can only be verified by applying
the model to real field data and evaluating the usefulnessof
model predictionsbasedon it.
In order to apply the model to a field problem it is neces-

When

a distribution

for the fracture

(5)
radius is assumed the

problem of estimatingthe fractureradiusis reducedto that of

estimating the mean trace length. Priest and Hudson [1981]
and Panek [1985], among others,describedistribution dependent estimatesof E(L) for the scanlinemethod. In general, the

1878

ANDERSSON
AND DVERSTORP'THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORKSOF FRACTURES

sampled trace length distribution h(1) is a biased representation off(/) as the full extensionof long fracturescannot
be observedand as long traces have a higher probability of
intersecting the scanline e.g., Baecher and Lanney, 1978;
Priest and Hudson, 1981]. Again, these biases must be dealt
with separatelyfor different distributions.
Estimatesof E(L) by the scanlinemethods require a narrow
classificationwith respectto the angle betweenthe trace and
the scanline;thus only a portion of the sampledpopulation
can be usedin the individual estimates.If the trace intensityis
low and obvioussetswith preferredorientation are absent,the
usefulnessof these methods are severely reduced. Fur-

thermore,the restricteddimensionsof the observationregion,

e.g., the tunnel wall, only allows one to sample a tail of the
uncensoredtrace lengthdistribution.Consequently,the fitting
of a theoretical distribution for h(/) can lead to erroneous
resultseventhough h(/) is correctedfor the samplingbiases.
As the observationregion is often restrictedin deep rock
formations,as many of the mapped tracesas possibleshould
be usedin the estimatorsin order to increasethe quality of the
statistical estimates.For this purpose, estimators based on
areal samplescan be useful.However, analyticalformulasonly
existfor rather simplegeometricforms of the samplingregion.
If the samplingregion is chosenas a circle in the planar cut,
the following distribution free estimators for the mean trace
length has been derived by the method of moments [Laslett,

in (7)-(9) yieldsa basisfor a singletrace length estimatevalid

for the whole observationregion.The estimatordefinedby (6)
then becomes
Nc

2Di
'" __
El
-- Nc i=1 Nc
2 ni + mi
i=1

(10)

i=1

and analogouslyfor (7) and (8}. Nc is the number of sampling

circles.

A slight bias is introducedin this method as a trace might

extend through severalsampling circlesand thus be recorded
as censoredor semicensored
(seeequations(6)-(9)), althoughit
might be uncensored.The effect of this bias can, however, be
neglected unless a major portion of the longer traces are
parallel with the observationregion.
Fracture

Orientation

If a fracture plane is representedby its unit normal it can be

visualizedas a point on the unit hemisphere;hencefracture
orientation is described by a point distribution on the surface
of the sphere.At present, only a handful of practically applicable distributionson the sphereare available, e.g., the Fisher
and Bingham distributions.In addition, sampling biasescom-

plicate the estimationas, for example,the probabilityfor a

1982]:

fracture to intersectthe observation region is a function of the

2D

f, -

(6)

2n+m

fracture

orientation.

The analysisin this paper utilizes the Fisher distribution as

a model

(7)

for fracture

orientation.

direction

coin-

cides with the pole of the unit sphere, the Fisher distribution
becomes[Mardia, 1972]

tsD

L3--(n+ m+p)s-2D

If the mean

teeKoso sin 0

(8)

f(O, (.p)=

4t sinh c

(11)

where

where cis the dispersionparameter about the mean direction.

The first step in the analysis of the fracture orientation data
D=
xi + E Y+ E z
(9) involves a classificationinto setswith preferred orientation if
i=1
j=l
k=l
these can be readily determined. The classificationis based on
and n is the number of uncensoredtraces(both ends are ob- a projection of the measured orientations on the Schmidt net.
served);m is the number if semicensoredtraces(only one trace Obvious clusters on the Schmidt net define the sets (classes).
end is observed);p is the number of censoredtraces(no end In the following analysis of the orientation data each set is
are observedas the trace extendsthrough the entire sampling treated separately.
The next step is to calculate the mean fracture direction and
region); x is the length of an uncensoredtrace; y is the length
of a semicensoredtrace, z is the length of a censoredtrace; s is to determine the fracture orientations relative to the mean
the radius of the sampling circle; and N is the number of system with z axes in the mean direction. The c can then be
observed "associatedpoints." An associatedpoint to a line determined by the maximum likelihood estimator [Mardia,
segmentis a predefinedpoint on the segment(e.g.,its southern 1972]:
end point).
coth - 1/ = R/N
(12)
For a large data base the three estimatorsdefined by (6)-(8)
should give the same result. In reality, the results will differ. where
This eventual differencecan actually be usedas a quality meaR-- ((Z li)2 -[-(E mi)2 -[-(E rti)2
0'5;

sure of the estimates; i.e., in a field situation all these esti-

mators should be applied and the resultscompared.

(I, mi, ni) directioncosinesfor fracture i;

N

number of data points.

Thecircular
sampling
region
isnotsuitable
if theheight
h is
small relative to the length of the observationregion as only a
small portion of the trace population contributes to the individual estimates.For this case a better estimate is achieved by
sampling from the maximum number of circles with diameter
h that can be placed in the observation region without one
overlapping another. The sumsfrom each circle of D, n, and m

Fracture Density

The fracture density can be estimated from the number of

observedfractures nob
s once the radius distribution g(r) and
the orientation distribution h(O,q) are known. Jensen [1985]
has shown that the number

of discs that intersect the observa-

ANDERSSON
ANDDVERSTORP.'
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORKS
OFFRnCTURES
tion areas follows a Poisson distribution with mean

1879

ends are visible),the orientation of the fracture (0, (p) (which

(13)

we somewhat unrealistically assumecould be measured exactly), and the position of the trace. Furthermore, the fracture

where VE is the mean volume of the body made up of the

observationregion and the set of fracturesthat possiblycan
intersectthe observationregion.Ve canbe interpretedas

intersectsa givenplane,and its radiusis r > 1/2.Equation(2)

providesthe expressionfor the biasedradius distributiong'(r)
of the fracturesthat intersecta plane.The fact that r _>1/2 can

E(noo
s)= ,gVE

Vr = lim (Po,s(V)
V)

(14)

be expressedas

g(rll)-

where po,s(V)is the probability of observinga fracture if the

g'(r)
1 - G'(I/2)

r > 1/2

g'(r)-

rg(r)

(17a)

fracture center is known to be inside the volume V.

The following estimate for the fracture density can be

g(rll) = 0

derived from (13):

f= noos/V

vationregion.An estimateof Veis thusgivenby

V

(16)

whereV is the volumeof the regionR. In this manner Ve can

be calculatedwith arbitrary accuracyby selectinga proper
THE FRACTURE NETWORK WITH

Once the radius r and the orientation (0, (p) are known, the
remaining step is to determine the position of the fracture
center. If the trace is uncensoredthe fracture could only be
locatedat two positions,insideor outsidethe wall, with equal
probability. If the trace is semicensored
the center is placed
somewhereon an arc in the fracture plane, with radius r and
censoredthe center is placed anywhere in the intersection of
the two circular domains in the fracture plane, with radius r
and origins in the two trace ends.
SOLVER

Generation of Fractures

Not only are the observed fracture traces useful in esti-

mating the stochasticnetwork model parameters, as is describedin the previoussection,they also contain information
on specificfractures in the network investigated.A fracture
network model is conditioned by the observedtraces by requiring that all realizationsof this model reproducethe observedtraces and only those. This means of geometrical conditioning used by Anderssonet. al. [1984] and Anderssonand
Thunvik [1986] for networksin two dimensionsis readily exto three-dimensional

(17b)

obtained.

DISCRETE NETWORK

OBSERVED FRACTURE TRACES

tendable

g'(r) dr

ditioned by the fact that a trace of length I was observed.A

convenient way of generating a radius from the distribution
definedby (17) is to generateradii from g'(r) until an r > 1/2is

value for M.

CONDITIONING

t'

originat the uncensored

traceend.Finally,if the traceis fully

N
M

G'(r) =

(15) where g(rll) is the radius distribution for the fracture con-

Equation (15) showsthat estimating2 essentiallycomesdown

to evaluatingVe. For specialcasesVe can be evaluatedanalytically.In general,useof the numericalevaluationsuggested
by Anderssonet. al. [1984] is easier.
In a region R, big enough so that fractures with centers
outsideit cannotreachthe observationregion,M fracturesare
generatedwith radius and orientation accordingto g(r) and
h(O,q). Of the generatedfractures,N will intersect the obser-

Ve =

r< 0

domains.

The fractureradius,orientation,and transmissivityare generated from the distributionsof thesequantitiesin a standard

way. Fracturecentersare generatedin a box with sidesx a, Ya,
and za. This box is chosento be so much larger than the flow
domain

that a fracture with center outside ctnnot reach the

flow domain. The coordinates (x, y, z) of the fracture center

are generatedfrom uniform distributions in the intervals [0,
x], [O, Ya], and [0, za].
The number of fractures N generated in the box is

from a Poissondistributionwith mean 2xayaza. Each fracture

is checked

whether

it intersects

or is included

in the flow

The generationof the fracturesis split into two parts. First, domain. Only those fracturesthat do so are kept for further
the fractures that produce the observedtraces are generated analysis.
one by one. In this generation the distributions for fracture
Conditioning with observedtraces as describedin the preradii, orientation, and fracture centerposition are conditioned vious section is optional. For the generatednetwork one can
by the information from the observed traces. This is done as also calculate the traces on specifiedobservationareas. Such
follows.In a seconastep the unobservablefracturesare gener- computed trace maps makes it possibleto analyze a synthetated. From the number of observedfracturesnob
s, a fracture ically generated network with the estimation technique decenter density is estimated with (17). From this fracture den- scribed earlier.
sity the total number of fracture centersN in the generation
volume is generated using (1). Of the total of N fractures Forming Fractures Into Flow Network
The lines of intersection with the flow domain boundaries
N-nob
s fracturesare generatedso that they do not intersectthe
observation areas. This generation step is simply based on are calculated for each fracture as well as their intersection
trial and error. First a fracture is generated from the un- lines with the other fractures.Figure 1 is a perspectiveplot of
conditioned

distribution.

It is then checked to see whether

this

fracture intersects any of the observation areas. If not, the

fracture is accepted.This procedureis repeateduntil N-noo

s
fracturesare accepted.
An observedtrace is characterizedby the trace length l, the
degree of censoring(i.e., whether all ends, only one end or no

how such a network of fractures could look. Fracture radii in

Figure ! follow a negativeexponentialdistribution.A special

search algorithm [Robinson,1984] removes fractures that do
not connect with prescribedhead boundaries or wells. Its use
increasesthe numerical efficiencyand it is also necessaryin
solving for the steadystate flow. Furthermore, this algorithm

1880

ANDERSSON AND DVERSTORP: THREE-DIMENSIONAL NETWORKS OF FRACTURES

sum of the incoming fluxes is zero, i.e.,

tnn +tnn++ t2n

n +t2nn+
2
where 1 and 2 representthe two fractures and (Oh/On)_and
(Oh/On)
+ are the normal derivatives of the hydraulic head on
the two sides of the intersection

line.

The flow is calculated by means of the boundary element

method (see, for example, Brebbia [1978]). Equation (18) is
transformedinto an integral over the outer and inner region
boundaries [Shapiro and Andersson,1985]

cmh(xm,
Ym)=
-- m +h n] aS

(20)

whereCm= 1/2 if (Xm,Ym)is a point on the outer boundaryand

1, otherwise,
Fig. 1. Perspective plot of fractures generated from the fracture
model investigated.

makes it possibleto determine whether two fractures are connectedwithout solvingfor the actual flow.

m= In[(x--Xm)
2+ (V--V/)2]
and q is the flux vector out from the boundary, i.e.,
h

q = -t

on an outer boundary

Solution of Flow Problem

Presently, the flow domain is a right-angled box. Boundary

conditions in terms of specifiedhead or no flow are given at
the box faces.A typical fracture disc is depicted in Figure 2.

Theouterboundary
of thediscis composed
of circular
arcs,
which define the end of the fracture, and straight lines, which
are the intersection with the box boundaries. The straight lines
inside the disc are the intersections

on an interior line

(22a)

(22b)

The boundary is approximatedwith line segmentelements

for which h and q are assumedto be constantson each element. If this approximation is introducedinto (20) one gets

with the other fractures.

As the disc has a uniform transmissivitythe flow inside the

disc is determined by the Laplace equation

V:h =0

(21)

(18)

cmhm
=-j
'=

m
dS
+hj dS (23)
Sj

whereN is the numberof elements,

ASdenoteselementj
andhpandqarethevaluesof h andq at clement
j.

where h (meters) is the hydraulic head. At the outer boundThe locations of elementson the straight lines arc chosenso
aries of the disc, the boundary conditions are given specified that there arc at least one clement between linc intersections
head (someof the straight lines)and no flow (the arcs and the in the fracture plane. The distance between two linc intersecrest of the straight lines). At the interior lines the hydraulic tions is divided into a large enough number of clementsso
head is the same in both of the intersectingfractures, and the that no element exceedsa specifiedmaximum size. The circular arcs arc approximated with line segmentswhere the segment angledoesnot exceeda presetmaximum angle.
At boundaries with prescribedhead the outward flux is unknown. However, when performing the elimination of nonglobal nodesdescribedin the following sectionit is easierto work
with only heads as unknowns. Voss [1984], and others, have

proposeda suitabletechnique.At the boundary a flux qB is

formally introduced:

qB= -- V(hB-- )

(24)

where hB iS the prescribedhead, h the head at the clementin

question,and v (m/s)a connectivity

chosensothat his nearly
equal to hB.The unknown flux q in (23) is replacedby the
right handsidein (24).This substitutionmakeshthe unknown
insteadof q. Once h is determined(from equation(23)),(24)
usedto calculatethe flux
The boundary element formulation (equation (23)) can bc
written in a matrix form relating flux and head at all elements
Fig. 2. Fracture disc intersected by other fractures and cut by
external boundaries. Fracture intersections appear as the internal
straight lines.

From this equation nodes of specifiedno flux arc readily clim-

ANDERSSONAND DVERSTORP.'THREE-DIMENSIONAL NETWORKS OF FRACTURES

inated. The remaining equation is

1881

TABLE 1. Definition of Fracture Orientation ClassesUsed

[Q']{q'} = [H']{h'} + {f}

(26)

Class

where{h'} and {q'} are the vectorsof h and q both for the
nodescommonto two fracturesand the nodesat the prescribedheadboundaries.
From (26),{q'} canbe obtainedfrom

{q'} = [Q']- [H']{h'} + [Q']- {f}

n/2

0.0

20.0

n/2

n/2

20.0

0.0

0.0

20.0

(27)

Thesedistributionsare the samefor all setsof input parameters. Fracture radii follow a negativeexponentialdistribution.
Six different combinations(cases)of fracture mean radius t
and fracturedensity; are used(Table 2). The fracturedensity
boundaries.
The resultingsystemof linearequationsis sparse. is chosen(by usingequation (15)) so that the mean number of
No algorithmsfor effectivenumberingis used. Instead the fractures that intersect the face at z = -5 is the same, in this
equationis solvedwith the NAG F01BRF/F04AXF sparse instance 20, for the first three cases and half of that number in
Finally, (27) introducedinto (19) makespossiblethe formation of a global systemof linear equationsin terms of the
hydraulicheadat fractureintersections
and at prescribedhead

direct solver. The condensation of nodes described here can be

the three other. The fracture transmissivityfollows a lognor-

usedwith any type of flow solutionscheme.In particular,it

mal distribution

can also be used when the fracture is discretized with finite

1.0 in log scale.

elements[Robinson,1986].

In order to evaluatethe fracture parameter estimationand

conditioningdevelopedin this paper, a "reference"network
was generatedfor eachof the six casesof input data. Figures

SIMULATION EXAMPLES

The methodologyoutlinedcan be readily illustratedby a

few hypotheticalexamples.Hypotheticalexamplesare chosen
simply becausethey are easy to handle. With hypothetical
examplesit is also possibleto make qualitativecomparisons
of fracture networks in three-dimensional

domains and net-

works in two-dimensionaldomains.However,a true judgement of the practical value of discrete fracture networks

modelsdependsupon if they can be successfully

appliedto
field problems.

The hypothetical examples are an analysis of the flow

through a box containingdifferent discretefracture networks.
This box canfor examplebe viewedas a portion of a fractured
rock abovea tunnel or a (very)large rock block in a laboratory. The box, whichis shownin Figure3, is right angledwith
sides 10mx20mx

10m. On the faces at z = - 5 m and at

z = 5 m constantheadsof 0.0 and 10.0 m, respectively,are

imposed.The otherfacesare impervious.
The unknownquantity is Q the flow throughthe box. We feel that the sizeof the

with mean -7.0

and a standard deviation of

4a-4f show the traces of the fractures from these reference

networks that intersect the box face at z -

-5.

This box face

will be the observationregion.When tt = 4 (meters)(cases1

and 4) 38% of the fracturesin the network intersectthis face,
for/ = 2 (meters)(cases2 and 5) 23% of the fracturesintersectsthis faceand tt = 1 (m) (cases3 and 6) the percentageof
intersectingfracturesis 15%.
The stochasticdata are prescribed in the first two sets of

simulationexamplesand are equalto the data usedto generate the six referencenetworks.The reasonfor prescribingthe
data in this manneris that we want to explorehow well the
fracturestatistics,if they are known, describethe hydraulic
properties of a fracture network. However, in an additional
example the stochastic data are estimated from the observed

fracturetracesand then usedwhen generatingthe fracture

networks.Flow simulationsare necessary
in order to evaluate
the quality of the estimateddata. It is not sufficientjust to
compare the estimated and real value of a fracture network

box is sufficientto illustratethe theoryin this paper.Larger

flow domainsare of greatinterestin field applications.How-

parameter.Of more interestis how the quality of the estimate

influencethe ability to model the flow (or other important

ever, at presentour rather limited computer resourcesrestrict

physicalprocesses)
in the network.

the feasable size of the flow domain.

In the simulation examples,the fracture network statistics

fall into six different cases. Fracture orientations follow a

Fisherdistributionand subdivideinto threeclasses

(Table 1).

SpecifiedStatisticalData, No Conditioning

A first set of simulations

is designedto explorethe importanceof fracturemeanradiusand densityon the flow through
a fracturenetwork.In this set the statisticaldata specifiedin
Tables1 and 2 are used.No conditioningwith observedtraces
are performed.
For each case defined in Table 2, 50 Monte-Carlo simula-

TABLE 2. Data Used for Fracture Radii (AssumedExponentially

Distributed) and Fracture Density
Class 1

Case It, m

Fig. 3.

Flow domain investigated.Origin is placed in the center of

the box.

1
2
3
4
5
6

4.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
1.0

Class 2

, m-3
3.0
7.5
1.7
1.5
3.8
8.2

x
x
x
x
x
x

10- 3
10- 3
10- 2
10 -3
10 -3
10 -3

It, m
4.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
1.0

Class 3

, m-3
3.0
7.5
1.7
1.5
3.8
8.2

x
x
x
x
x
x

10- 3
10- 3
10- 2
10 -3
10 -3
10 -3

It, m
4.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
1.0

, m-3
1.5 x
3.5 x
8.3 x
7.5 x
1.8 x
4.1 x

10- 3
10- 3
10- 3
10 -'
10 -3
10 -3

1882

ANDERSSONAND DVERSTORP'THREE-DIMENSIONALNETWORKS OF FRACTURES

-5.00

- 1 0.00

1 0.00

-5.00

- 1 0.00

1 0.00

-10.00

10

-10.00

10,00

O0

-10.00

10.00

-lO.OO

lO.OO

-5.00

-5.00

Fig. 4.

Fracture traces observedon the box face at z = -5 m for (a) case 1, (b) case2, (c) case3, (d) case4, (e) case5, and
(f) case 6.

tions were performed. Table 3 contains the resulting ensemble

mean flow (Q) and the ratio between the standard deviation
and the mean flow a/(Q) for the conducting networks. Table
3 also containsthe fraction of nonconductingnetworks. From
Table 3 the following can be noted. The mean flow (Q) is
larger for longer fractures and a higher fracture density. In
contrast to the ratio a/(Q) appears to be more or less independent on fracture size when the areal fracture density (i.e.,
the number of fracture tracesper area) is constant.A constant

areal density implies that the volume fracture density ; is

larger for the smaller fractures.If the areal fracture density is
small (cases4-6) the ratio a/(Q) is larger than if the areal
fracture density is large (cases 1-3). Finally, the fraction of
nonconducting networks is larger for short fractures of low
density. In fact, there is a rather sharp threshold value (in
TABLE 4. Flow in Real Network QreaEstimatedEnsembleMean
of flow (Q) Ratio Between Standard Deviation and Mean Flow
o/(Q) and Fraction of NonconductingNetworks P.oWhen the
Networks

are Conditioned

TABLE 3. Estimated Ensemble Mean of Flow {Q) Ratio Between

Standard Deviation and Mean Flow a/{Q) and Fraction of

NonconductingNetworksPnofor the CasesWith Specified

Fracture Statistics,No Conditioning
{Q),

Case
1
2
3
4
5
6

#, m
4.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
1.0

m3/s
1.0
4.2
5.8
5.0
2.0
1.0

x
X
x
x
x
x

10- 2
10 -3
10 -
10 -3
10 -3
10- 3

a/(Q)
0.64
0.60
0.69
0.9
1.1

P.o
0.0
0.0
0.57
0.05
0.14
0.98

With

the Traces Observed

Face at z =

Case
1
2
2
2
3
4
5
6

m
4.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
2.0
1.0

m3/s
2.0
3.6
2.4
4.4
2.8
6.1
5.0
0.0

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

10- 2
10-3
10- 3
10 -3
10 -
10- 3
10 -4

on the

--5 m

m3/s
1.3
1.0
6.6
4.7
1.9
5.5
9.0
8.5

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

10- 2
10-2
10- 3
10 -3
10 -3
10- 3
10 -'
10 -4

0.46
0.42
0.93
0.58
0.69
0.78
0.94
0.74

0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.25
0.04
0.40
0.56

Apart from trace conditioning,specifiedfracturestatisticsis used.

ANDERSSON
AND DVERSTORP.'
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORKSOF FRACTURES

1883

iN

[i!

IE

Fig. 5. Schmidtpolar plotsof the tracesobservedat the box facez = - 5 m for (a) case1, (b) case2, (c) case3, (d) case4,
(e) case5, and (f) case6.

terms of/ and .) above which almost all networks conduct

the mean flow a/(Q), and the fraction of nonconductingnet-

and below

works.

which

sults are similar

almost

no networks

conduct.

All these re-

to what have been noted on two-dimensional

networks [e.g., Robinson,1984; Long and Witherspoon,1985;

Anderssonand Thunvik, 1986].

One

additional

reference

network

for case 1 and one

for case2 were analyzedin order to checkthe generalityof the

results of the conditioning. The results from these runs also
appear in Table 4.
The ensemble mean flow is within

two standard

deviations

SpecifiedStatistical Data, Conditioning

from the flow in the correspondingreferencenetwork for all

For the casesstudied the ensemblevariance is large and the six casesof input data statistics.This implies that the constatisticaldescriptionalone is insufficientwhen describingthe ditioning at any rate doesnot introduce any unacceptablebias
network. A secondset of simulationsis designedto investigate in the flow estimate.However, it is only for the fractureswith
if conditioning with observedtraces may reduce the ensemble radius mean/ = 4 m (i.e., the large fracturescorrespondingto
variance. The fracture traces observed from the six reference
cases 1 and 4) that the ratio a/(Q) is substantially smaller
networks definedearlier are usedfor this purpose.All fracture when conditioning is used.The reduction of the standard devistatisticsapart from the transmissivitydata can be estimated ation is very similar for the two simulations in case 1. For
from these trace maps. However, in order to reduce the cases 2 and 3 no reduction of the standard deviation result. In
fact, for case 2 one of the conditioning runs resultsin a subsources of uncertainties the fracture statistics specified in
Tables 1 and 2 are still used in this set of simulations.
stantially larger standard deviation than if no conditioning is
For

each reference

network

50 Monte-Carlo

simulations

were made usingconditioningwith the observedtraces.Table

used.

Apparently, trace conditioning can reduce the ensemble

4 contains the flow in the reference network, the ensemble

variance

mean flow (Q), the ratio betweenthe standard deviation and

large. A reason for conditioning being more effectivefor large

in fracture

networks

if the mean

fracture

radius

is

1884

ANDERSSON
AND DVERSTORP:
THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORKSOF FRACTURES

TABLE 5. Results of Estimates When Assuming That All Traces

Belong to One Class
Circular

Case

Scanline

#max

#min

#max

#min

(/9

K
2.42

4.12

3.75

4.26

2.16

1.39

5.67

1.61

1.31

2.29

1.27

1.53

5.37

1.85

1.34

1.11

1.53

1.07

1.57

0.94

3.32

4
5
6

7.50
3.50
1.98

5.97
0.82
1.49

4.28
1.31
1.81

1.43
1.08
1.24

1.32
1.49
1.47

5.42
4.41
5.00

1.92
4.95
2.23

TABLE

7.

Mean

Fracture

000

Radius Used, Number

of Observed

Traces, and Estimated Fracture Density

Case

#, m

Hob
s

1
2
3

3.93
1.46
1.22

20
17
16

2, m3
6.94 x 10-3
2.26 x 10 -2
2.50 x 10-2

Only one orientation classis used.

the trace angle to the scanline [see Priest and Hudson, 1981].
A pooled estimate of E(L) was then obtained by weighting

Maximum #maxand minimum #minmean radius were estimated with the number of traces in each interval.
with the circular sampling region and with the scanline method.
If the fracture density is high the estimates of the mean
Mean orientation (0, o)and in Fisher distribution.

fractures is that the percentageof observedfractures (in the

simulation examples 38, 23, and 15%) increasewith increased
mean fracture radius. On the other hand, even if as a large
number

as 23% of the fractures

intersect

the observation

area

all ensemblevariance remains. In practice, it is clear that conditioning of fracture networks cannot only be based on pure
geometricalinformation. Hydraulic test and tracer test have to

fracture radius lie relatively close to the real values, but when
the fracture density is low the reliability of the estimatescould
be questioned. At any rate, a large difference between the
different estimatorsindicatesif the radius estimate is poor. A
low value is estimatedfor the cparameter in the Fisher distribution. This low value indicates almost random directions,

be utilized.

which seems to be in agreement with the assumption of a

singleclassfor fractureorientations.
Table 6 lists the estimatesof the mean orientation (0, 6o)and

Estimating the Fracture Model Parameters of the Reference

three different

Networks

In a final set of examplesit is investigated how well distribution parameters for fracture radius, orientation, and density

classification was made manually by observing Figure 5.

Except for class 3, where the number of observed traces are
too few, the estimated parameters lie relatively close to the

can be estimated

real values.

c in the Fisher
From the Observed Fracture

from the observed

Traces

fracture

traces. For field

applications it is, of course,necessaryto be able to make such

estimates

as little other information

on real fractures

is avail-

distribution
orientation

if it is assumed that there exist

classes. The definition

of the trace

The fracture density 9was estimated from (14) by introducing the estimated fracture statistics and the number of observed traces. The mean of the three different # estimatesfrom
the circular sampling method was chosento be the estimate of
the radius mean. Table 7 provides the chosen values of # and
the resultingfracture densities.A singleclassof fracture orientations was assumed.Table 8 showsthe resulting fracture den-

able. When making the estimatesit is assumedthat the distributional forms for these properties are known. This is, of
course, still an idealized situation. However, no a priori assumptionson the number of classesare made.
Figures 5a-5f show a Schmidt plot (i.e., the normals of the
sities if three classes of orientation were assumed. The first two
fractures plotted on stereographicprojection) of the observed
of these classesare the ones given in Table 6, whereas the
traces from the six different reference networks.
Orientation
class 1 and class2 but not class 3 (fractures almost parallel to third classis the one specifiedin Table 2. The estimateddenthe observation area) in Table 1 are readily identified from sitiesagreerelatively well with the real valueslisted in Table 2.
theseplots.
In Table 5 appears several estimates of the fracture mean
radius # and estimatesof the mean orientation (0, 6o)and cin
the

Fisher

distribution.

There

it is assumed

that

all

traces

belong to a single class.The # estimatesare obtained through

(5) from estimatesof the mean trace length E(L) based on the
scanlinemethod [e.g., Priest and Hudson, 1981] and the circular sampling region method (equation (6)-(9)). The span of #
from the scanline method was obtained from eight different
scanlinelocations in the observation region. In the individual
estimatesof E(L) the trace data were classifiedwith respectto

TABLE

6.

Estimated
Fracture
Orientation
Statistics
Traces are Classified Into Three Classes
Class 1

Class 2

When

the

Flow Simulations Using Estimated Fracture Statistics

It is not sufficientjust to compare the estimated and real

value of a fracture network parameter. Of more interestis how
the quality of the estimateinfluencethe ability to model the
flow (or other important physical processes)in the network.
For this reason flow simulations were also performed using
the estimated

1
2

1.44
1.56

6.21
6.13

28.3
14.0

1.44
1.54

4.76
4.84

24.2
19.0

1.52

0.08

13.7

1.57

1.54

17.9

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

statistics. The simulations

were confined

to cases1-3 as the estimatesfor the low fracture density cases

were so unreliable.

Table 9 and 10 list the estimated mean flow (Q), the ratio

TABLE 8. Estimated Fracture Density When it is Assumed That

the Traces Belong to Three Different Orientation Classes
Class 1

Class 3

Case

fracture

Class 2

Class 3

Case

nob
s

nob
s

nob
s

1
2
3

10
8
8

2.8 x 10 -3
8.8 x 10 -3
1.2 x 10 -2

9
8
8

3.3 x 10 -3
9.8 x 10 -3
1.1 x 10 -2

1
1
0

1.3 x 10 -3
4.0 x 10 -3
0.0

ANDERSSON
AND DVERSTORP:THREE-DIMENSIONAL
NETWORKSOF FRACTURES

1885

TABLE 9. Estimated Ensemble Mean Flow (Q), Ratio Between

Standard Deviation and Mea n Flow a/(Q), and Fraction of

TABLE 11. Flowin RealNetworkQreal,

Estimated
Ensemble
Mean

NonconductingNetworksPnofor EstimatedFractureStatistics
AssumingThat All FracturesBelongto One Class,No Conditioning

a/(Q), and Fractionof NonconductingNetworksPnoWhen the

Flow (Q),

Ratio Between Standard Deviation and Mean Flow

Simulated Networks are Conditioned With the Traces Observed

on the Box Face at z = --5 m

Case

m3/s

1
2
3

a/(Q)

8.4 x 10 -3
1.2 x 10- 3
1.0 x 10- 3

Pno

0.66
0.51
0.81

0.0
0.28
0.59

a/(Q), and the fraction of nonconductingnetworkswith the

statisticaldata basedon Table 6 (one class)and Table 7 (three
classes)respectively.The resultsin Table 9 and 10 are remarkably similar. Thus a true descriptionof the fracture orientations are of a minor importancefor the examplesstudied.
The agreementbetweenthe flow simulationsbased upon
the estimated and the specifieddata (Table 3) is satisfactory
for case 1 and case3 but not for case2. The bad agreementfor
case2 is due to the rather poor estimate of the fracture mean
radius (1.56 insteadof 2 m). As fracture mean radius is a key
parameterin determiningthe hydraulic propertiesof a fracture network good quality estimatesof it are needed.This fact
is a severeproblem as observationareas in the field (e.g., a
tunnel roof) often are even more restrictedin size than the one
usedin this paper.
Simulations with conditioning with the traces observed

Qreal,

(Q),

Case

m3/s

m3/s

o-/(Q)

1
2
3

2.0 x 10- 2
2.4 X 10 -3
2.8 x 10 -4

1.2 x 10- 2
3.4 X 10 -3
2.1 x 10 -3

0.56
0.63
1.10

Pno
0.0
0.05
0.18

water than a network with large fractures even if the fracture

density in the first network is so much larger than in the
second that the mean number of fractures per area is the same
in both networks. Long and Witherspoon[1985] made similar
conclusions for two-dimensional

fracture networks.

Trace conditioningwill decreasethe estimation uncertainty

if the fractures in the network are large. For networks with
small fractures there appear to be no reduction of the estimation uncertainty if trace conditioning is used. This result
supportsthe importanceof making a good characterizationof
the major fracturezonesin the rock mass.On the other hand,

the conditionalsimulationsshow that a large percentageof

the fractures must be observed in order to reduce the ensemble

variance.In practice,conditioningof fracturenetworkscannot

onlybe basedon puregeometrical
information.Hydraulicand

wereperformed
assuming
a singleclassOffractureorienta- tracer

tests have to be utilized.

tions. The results are listed in Table 11. From the table can be

It is possibleto get reasonableestimatesof fracture radii,

seen that there is no reduction in the standard deviation, not

orientation,and densityif the fracturedensityis high and the

even for case 1.

obser,ation region is large enough.The quality of an estimate

can only be judged in relation to its importance for the flow
simulations. For example, it is not crucial to use very good
estimates of fracture orientations in the simulation examples
studied.In comparison,the flow simulationsare very sensitive
to the fracture mean radius; good estimatesare neededthere.

Estimatingthe fracturemodel parametersfrom tracedata is

possiblebut the estimationvariance(and error) can be severe.
No estimatesare possibleif the number of observedfracture
tracesis too low. Furthermore,the quality of an estimatecan
only be judged in relation to its importancefor the flow simulations. For example,it is not crucial to use very good esti-

Thus the estimation

variance and error for fracture radii will

mates of fracture orientations in the simulation examplesstud-

probably often limit the possibilitiesto reveal the hydraulic

ied. In comparison,the flow simulationsare very sensitiveto

the fracturemean radius; good estimatesare neededthere.

characters

CONCLUSIONS

of the rock mass.

In conclusion, flow in fracture networks can be estimated

from a realistic amount of data, although severe problems
remain to be solved.In view of this, we definitely feel that it is

Qualitatively, there are many similaritiesbetweendiscrete worthwhile to continue research on three-dimensional discrete
network models. However, in a continued investigation it
domains. It is
the combined effect of the fracture radii and fracture density would be necessaryto start to interpret real field data.
One of the moreimportantdirections
of futureresearch
is
that will determine the uncertaintyin flow through a discrete
to
explore
the
validity
of
the
model
assumptions
and
preferfracture network. Large fractures implies good connectivity
(and high conductivity).A high fracturedensityimpliesgood ably subsitutethem with more realisticones.Of the more
it is probablythe onesconcerningspaconnectivity and a small variance in the estimated flow. A important assumptions
fracture networks in two- and three-dimensional

network

with

smaller

fractures

will

more

seldom

conduct

TABLE 10. Estimated Ensemble Mean Flow (Q), Ratio Between

StandardDeviation and Mean Flow a/(Q), and Fraction of

Nonconducting
NetworksPofor EstimatedFractureStatistics
AssumingThat The FracturesBelongto Three Different
Orientation Classes,No Conditioning
(Q),

Case

m3/s

a/(Q)

1
2
3

1.1 x 10 -2
1.5 x 10- 3
9.8 x 10 -4

0.61
0.54
1.01

Pno
0.0
0.23
0.41

tial aperturevariationon the fractureplane,individualfractureformsandif fractures

appearindependently
that will deserve the closest attention. For example, there is mounting
evidence that fracture transmissivities are far from constant in

the plane [e.g.,Abelin,1986]. It appearsto be more likely that

only a small portion of the fractureplane("channels")actually
conductswater. Including new models for the fracture transmissivity, form, and location in the fracture network model
will most likely changeits propertiessubstantially.
Acknowledgment.This work is sponsoredby the SwedishNuclear
Power Inspectorate.

1886

ANDERSSON AND DVERSTORP' THREE-DIMENSIONAL NETWORKS OF FRACTURES

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J. Anderssonand B. Dverstorp,HydraulicsEngineering,The Royal

Institute of Technology,S-100 44, Stockholm,Sweden.
(ReceivedDecember 11, 1986;
revised May 26, 1987;
acceptedMay 28, 1987.)