1.

ThefalloftheRomanEmpireinthe5thcenturycreatedatimeofinstability
andinsecurityinWesternEurope.ExplainhowGermanicculture,the
MedievalRomanchurch,andBenedictinemonasticismeachsteppedinto
thatvoidandcontributedtowhatwouldbecomemedievalculture.(Besure
tousespecificdetailsfromlectures,Spielvogel,andtheCWCreading
packet.)
AfterthefalloftheRomanEmpireinthe5thcentury,therewasatimeofgreatinstability
andinsecurityinWesternEurope.Fortunately,therewerethreekeycontributionsthathelpedto
fillthatvoid,includingGermanicculture,theMedievalRomanchurch,andBenedictine
monasticism.AfterthefalloftheRomanEmpire,manyGermanictribesmigratedtoRomeand
otherpartsofWesternEurope,fillingtheensuingpowervacuum.FromtheVandals,tothe
Goths,totheHuns,totheVisigoths,thesetribescontributedmuchtoculture.Primarily,they
enforcedsuchvaluesasloyalty(especiallytoasuccessfulwarchief),courage,bravery,and
chivalry.OneexampleistheGermanicmythologicalselectionofSirGawainandtheGreen
Knight,asGawainrevealsthesevaluesinhisbattlewiththeGreenKnight.Germanicculture
alsocontributedtothehierarchicalpoliticalsystemofFeudalism,aswellastheeconomic
systemofManorialism.FeudalismwasasysteminwhichtheKinggavelandandresourcesto
nobility,knights,andvassalsaslongastheyagreedtogivetheirrightfulserviceandresources
back.ManorialismwasasysteminwhichLordscouldprovidefoodandsecurityto90%ofthe
people.Inatimeofinstability,thesesystemsprovidedmanywithsuppliesandasenseofhaving
everythingandeveryoneinitsplace.
DuringthetimeoftheHolyRomanEmpire,theMedievalRomanchurchemergedand
beganasuccessfulpathforthechurchandstate.Charlemagne,KingoftheRomans,had
particularlygreatinfluenceinthisareaduringhisreigninthe9 thcenturyA.D.Notonlydidhe
risetoanemperorlikefigure,healsoestablishedunitybetweenthePopeandtheKing.This
sparkedtheidealofChristendom,athoroughlyChristiansocietywherechurchandstatehad
similargoals.Thishelpedstabilizesocietyandprovideauniversalreligionandsenseofdirection
forindividuals.ThechurchalsoprovidedaccesstoGodsgracethroughthegivingof
sacraments,suchasEucharistandConfirmation.Thisprovidedpeoplewithapromiseofhopein
theafterlifeamidstchaosonearth.
Lastly,BenedictineMonasticismdidmuchtostabilizeculture.ContrarytoSt.Anthonys
idealofMonasticism,BenedictineMonasticismwasmuchlesssevere,focusingonthevaluesof
chastity,generosity,modesty,work,obedience,andservice.Benedictinemonksespecially
focusedonservice,astheybelievedthatityieldedinwardspiritualdevelopmentthroughregular
acts.Thiswasnotonlybeneficialtothem,butthecommunity,aswell.Thesemonasteriesaided
agriculturalandeconomicdevelopment,oftenprovidingresourcesthroughthegivingawayof
excess.Theyalsopracticedhospitality,providinghomesfortravelingguestsorthesick.
Benedictinemonasteriesevenurgedspiritualformationthroughtheirevangelism.Someoftheir
mostimportantaccomplishmentsincludedprovidingeducationandpreservingkeytextsand
scripturesforfutureages.Allthesethingsandmorecreatedmuchstabilityforsocietyatthis
time.

2. Whatdoesscholasticismmeanandhowwasitaformofpietyforsome
medievalChristiansandMuslims?Usingspecificexamplesfromthe
reading,describehowAquinasandAverroesviewtherelationshipbetween
faithandreasoninthepursuitofknowledge.ExplainwhymostChristians
andMuslimsduringtheMiddleAgeswouldnothavebeenscholastics.What
wouldtheprimarysourceoftruthhavebeenforthemajorityofpersons
livingduringtheMiddleAges?
Inmedievaltimes,scholasticism,thesynthesisofphilosophyandtheology,wasa
prevalentideausedinthepursuitofknowledge.Itwasespeciallyaformofpietyforsome
medievalChristiansandMuslims,astheyconsidereditessentialtofullyunderstandingtruth.
Theybelievedthatthisbalancingoffaithandreasonwasabsolutelyvitaltotheirreligion.In
otherwords,whatwastrueinonesreligionwasbelievedtobetrueinphilosophy,aswell.Two
ofthemostinfluential,yetdifferingscholasticswereAverroesandThomasAquinas,representing
MuslimandChristianity,respectively.
BothAverroesandAquinasweretheologiansandphilosophersthatgreatlyinfluencedthe
processofpursuingtruthbycombiningfaithandreason.Averroes,ononehand,wasaMuslim
scholastic,theologian,andphilosopherinthe12thcenturyA.D.Notonlythis,buthewasalsoa
chiefjudgeandphysician,andoftencommentatedontheworksofAristotle.Averroesattempted
toreconcilefaithandphilosophy,claimingthattheLawcommandsonetostudyancient
philosophyjustlikereligioninordertofindtruth,understandcreation,andpursuejustice.He
objectedthatpreventingsomeonefromreadingtheseworkscouldlikelyblocktheircomingto
knowofGod.Heclaimedthatphilosophyisnotdangerousinitself,butrather,howoneusesit.
Theseviewseventuallygainedsomuchcontroversy,thatAverroeswaskickedoutofCordobafor
atimeandhadhisbooksburned.Despitethecontroversy,Averroessucceededinpursuingtruth
withcombinedfaithandreason,andencouragedotherstodothesame.
Aquinas,ontheotherhand,wasaChristianscholasticthatattemptedtoreconcile
AristotelianphilosophyandtheBible.Borninthe13thcentury,Aquinaswasperhapsthemost
significantWesternmedievalphilosopherwhoappliedscholasticinquirytoeverysingleareaof
study.Heconsideredscholasticismavitalmethodtothepursuitoftruthandwentaboutitvery
logically.First,hewouldposeaquestion,thencitetheviewsofauthoritiesoftradition,and
finallygivehisownanswer.AquinasalsotheorizedmultiplewaysthatGodstruthisrevealedin
theworld,bothnaturallyandsupernaturallythroughgeneralandspecialrevelations,respectively.
Hebelievedthatallmaycometosomepartoftruth,butonlyChristiansmayknowthefulltruth,
sincetheymayhavespecialrevelations.Healsoexemplifiedthefourtypesoflaw:Eternal,
Divine,Natural,andHuman.Hisexplanationsoftheselawsallowedonetobetterconnect
philosophyandtheology.Throughtheseideas,AquinasreunitedfaithandreasoninChristianity.
MostChristiansandMuslimsduringtheMiddleAgeswouldnothavebeenscholastics,
aseducationwaslimitedtoaselectfew,andmanywereilliterate.Scholasticismwasprimarily
limitedtothosewhohadstudiedforlongperiodsoftimeandcouldreadandwrite.Thus,the
majorityofsocietyintheMiddleAgesreliedontheseknowledgeablescholastics,theologians,
andphilosophersastheirultimateauthority.Ifonewasindoubtorhadquestions,thesepeopleof
authoritywouldbeconsulted,andtheiranswerswouldbetakenastheultimatetruth.

3. Describehowhierarchycanbeseen(a)inthepoliticalandeconomic
structuresoftheMiddleAgesand(b)inthescholasticphilosopherThomas
Aquinasunderstandingoflaw.Whywouldsuchhierarchicalstructuresbe
attractivetopeoplelivingintheMiddleAges?Besuretousespecificdetails
fromlectures,SpielvogelandtheCWCReadingpacket.
HierarchywasamajorthemeoftheMiddleAges,acommonsystemofpowerthat
allowedformorestabilityinsociety.Oneofthemostprevalentwaysthiswasexemplified
duringthistimewasthroughtheeconomicandpoliticalsystemsoftheday.Forexample,the
economicsystemofManorialismwasbasedonahierarchyofpowerfulfiguresthatprovidedfood
andsecurityforapproximately90%ofindividuals.Inthissystem,theLordoftheManorwould
providelandforthepeasants.Inreturn,thepeasantswouldgivebacklaborandaportionoftheir
crops.ThepoliticalsystemofFeudalismwasalsobasedonhierarchy,actingasasystemin
whichtheKinggavelandandresourcestonobility,knights,andvassals.Inturn,thesefigures
agreedtogivetheirrightfulserviceandresourcesbacktotheirrightfulauthority,ultimatelythe
king.Boththesesystemsallowedindividualstohaveasenseofbelongingandstabilityin
society.Manyfeltthattheyallowedforeveryoneandeverythingtohaveaspecificplacein
society.
HierarchywasnotonlyexemplifiedintheeconomicandpoliticalsystemsoftheMiddle
Ages,butinthescholasticworksofThomasAquinas,aChristianscholastic.Aquinasexplored
manycontroversialideasduringhisday,attemptingtolinkChristianityandphilosophyina
commonpursuitoftruth.Perhapshismostinfluentialtheorywasthatofahierarchicalsystemof
laws.Aquinasbelievedinseveraltypesoflaws:EternalLaw,DivineLaw,NaturalLaw,and
HumanLaw.First,hebelievedthatEternalLawwasGodslawthatgovernedtheentire
universe.Aquinasstatedthatthereisalimitedexplanationforthislaw,andhumansonlyseea
glimpse,thereforenotfullyunderstandingit.HewentontosaythatGodrevealshislawintwo
ways:DivineandNaturalLaw.Ononehand,GodrevealsDivineLawspecialtothoseoffaith.
Forexample,herevealedtheTenCommandmentstoMoses.Ontheotherhand,Godrevealshis
truththroughNaturalLawinhowtheorderofnatureinformshumanactionsandmorality.For
example,acommonthemeamonghumansandanimalsisthatofselfpreservation.Animalsand
plantsalwayscompetefortheirsurvival.Onecanconclude,then,thatsuicide,contraception,and
homosexualityarewrongbecausetheydisruptselfpreservationandnaturallaw.Aquinas
mentionedthatHumanLawisspecifictotimeandcontext.Forexample,speedlimitsarejust
andgoodforoursocietybecausetheyfocusonselfpreservation.ThisisconsistentwithDivine
andNaturalLaw,andalsoMartinLutherKingsviewsthatHumanLawshouldsquarewith
DivineLaw.
HierarchicalstructureswerehighlyappealingtothoseintheMiddleAges,primarily
becausetheyprovidedstructureandstabilitytoasocietythathadrecentlyfallingapart.Afterthe
falloftheEmpire,fighting,powervacuums,chaos,andaweakeconomyalltookitstollon
society.However,becauseofgrowingpowerfulhierarchies,everyoneknewtheirplacein
society.Forexample,becauseofwidespreadilliteracy,hierarchiesallowedmanyindividualsto
gaininformationfromknowledgeableauthoritieslikescholars.Manyindividualsrespondedwell
totheadditionalorderandstructuretothings.

4. Whywouldmostmedievalpeoplehaveviewedthegoodlifeasthelifeto
come?Whatroledidthemedievalchurchplayinhelpingpeopleofthetime
toachievethisgoal?Compareandcontrastthisviewofthegoodlifewiththe
viewsheldbyeithermedievalmonasticsormystics.
Themajorityofmedievalpeopleviewedthegoodlifeasthelifetocomeforafewkey
reasons.Themedievalpeoplepossessedaviewofhumanityinwhichhumanswereportrayedas
sinful,weak,shamefulcreatures.Thiswasespeciallydepictedthroughmanyartpiecesofthe
day,suchasMichelangelosTheLastJudgment.Medievalpeoplealsoconsiderednaturetobe
evil,oftenshiftingtheirfocusonotheraspects.Thisisalsoapparentinart,especiallythroughthe
pieceAdamandEveReproachedbytheLord.Withtheseviewpointsinmind,themedieval
peoplechosetonotfocusontheworld,butrather,focusontheafterlife.Forthisreason,akey
medievalgoalwastoaccessGodsgracetothefullestextentwhilestillonearth.Itwasbelieved
thatthemoregraceoneaccessed,thelesstimeonespentinPurgatory,andthequickeronemade
ittoHeaven.Thismindsetoverwhelmedsocietyinthemedievaltimes,anditbecameanall
consumingpracticeformanypeople.
Themedievalchurchplayedavitalroleinassistingpeopleofmedievaltimestoachieve
thisgoal.ThemedievalpeoplebelievedthechurchtobeavehiclethroughwhichGodsgrace
wouldbeadministered.Thus,thechurchofferedmanywaystoenhanceGodsgrace.Perhaps
thechurchsgreatestformofassistanceduringthistimewastheofferingofsacraments.The
sevensacraments,suchasEucharistandconfirmation,wereofferedonlybythechurchand
thoughttobevitalstepstoaccessingGodsgraceandlesseningtimeinpurgatory.Othertimes,
individualsweresentonpilgrimagestovisitsightsofthesaintsandfindrelics.Thechurchalso
offeredindulgencesasasortofcoupontolessentimeinPurgatory.Withoutthechurch,the
medievalsocietywouldnothaveachannelthroughwhichtoachievetheirgoal.
Themedievalviewofthegoodlifewasmuchdifferentthanthatofmedievalmonastics.
Ononehand,theeverydaymedievalindividualsbelievedthatsacramentsandspiritualactswere
onlynecessaryonoccasion.Themedievalmonastics,ontheotherhand,structuredtheirentire
livesaroundspiritualacts.Theydidnotsimplyperformritualsoccasionally,butrather,they
considereditawayoflife.Theywerestrictlydisciplinedinholinessandobedience,inaddition
towhattheregularmedievalindividualsaccomplished.Themedievalmonasticswerealso
differentinthattheywereremovedfromsocietyandlivedwithacommunitywithsimilar
spiritualgoals.Theywereextremeexamplesofholinessandobediencethroughoutthemedieval
times.

5. Imaginethatyoubuiltaverylimitedtimemachinethatwouldallowyouto
traveltowesternEuropeineitherthe13thor14thcentury.Explainwhyit
wouldbebettertochoosealifeinthe13thcenturybydescribingatleasttwo
distinctandspecificreasonswhythatcenturywouldbeabettertimetolive
thanthe14thcenturyandatleasttwodistinctandspecificreasonswhythe
14thcenturywouldbeaworsetimetolivethanthe13thcentury.Besureto
usespecificdetailsfromlecturesandSpielvogel.
The13thcenturywouldbeabettertimetoliveformanyreasons,primarilybecause
Europewasfullydevelopedandthriving,especiallyinliteracy.Universitiesthrivedduringthis
time,allowingstudentstoobtainarespectableeducation.Notonlydidtheseuniversitiesprepare
studentstobecometeachers,lawyers,doctors,orministers,theyalsoeducatedstudentsinthe
sevenliberalarts.CurriculumoftenincludedtheTrivium(grammar,rhetoric,andlogic)andthe
Quadrivium(arithmetic,geometry,music,andastronomy).Peoplewhocouldnotgotoa
universityhadtheopportunitytogotoatradeschoolorcompleteanapprenticeship.Here,they
couldlearnsuchcraftsascarpentryorshoemaking.Bothuniversitiesandopportunitiesfor
apprenticeshipwerekeyinraisingtheliteracyrateinEuropeandallowingmorecareeroptions.
Thesethingsledtoabettereducatedsocietyandarisingmiddleclass.
Anotherreasonthatthe13thcenturywouldbeabettertimetoliveisbecauseeveryone
heldaplaceinthechurchandhadadistinctsenseofspiritualdirection.Societywasimmersedin
theideaofChristendom,wherethechurchandstatehadthesamegoalsofachievingChrists
kingdomonEarth.Therewasadistinctformofchurchhierarchythatallowedonetofitina
givenroleandfulfillspecificfunctions.Thus,manyreliedonthechurchastheirultimate
authority,consultingwithdoctorsofthechurchorcouncilstointerpretandteachtheBible.
ManyalsoreliedonthechurchasthevehiclethroughwhichtoobtainGodsgracethrough
sacraments.Overall,everyaspectofEuropeansocietywasChristianinthe13 thcentury,and
manypeopleplacedtheirtrustinthisspiritualstability.
The14thcenturywouldhavebeenamuchworsetimeperiodinwhichtoliveforafew
keyreasons.Throughoutthe14thcentury,therebeganavastdownfalloftheeconomyand
overallsociety.PerhapsthelargestcontributiontothisdownfallwastheBlackDeath.This
disease,alsoknownastheBubonicPlague,killedapproximatelyhalfofEuropespopulation.
Peoplewerecoveredinbuboesandoftendroppeddeadinthestreets.Thisravagingdisease
causedincreasedlaborshortage,aswellasantiSemitism.MostofEuropeansocietywasina
panicatthispoint,verypreoccupiedwiththevastdeathandcollapseofaoncethrivingnation.

The14thcenturywouldhavebeenamuchworsetimeperiodinwhichtolivebecauseof
thevastclimatechange,aswell.Beginninginthe14thcentury,Europeexperiencedamuch
colderclimateknownastheLittleIceAge.Duringthistime,therewasmuchprecipitationand
lowtemperatures,causingmucheconomicandsocialdisaster.Notonlydidthishindercropsand
harvest,itcausedashortergrowingseason.Sincefarmingwasaprevalentoccupationintheday,
manyindividualswereputoutofajob.Thisledtonotonlyfamine,butthedisintegrationofthe
oncethrivingmanorialsystem,aswell.Thecolderweatheralsocausedademandformorefurs
andwoolens,changingcommerce,aswell.Oftentimes,however,manypeoplehadtogowithout
resourcesandultimatelydiedfromthecoldorstarvation.Overall,theLittleIceAgecaused
mucheconomicandcommercialstrugglinginthe14thcentury.

6.ThephraseAdFontesbecameoneoftheguidingprinciplesforthinkersand
artistsduringtheRenaissance.Whatdoesthephrasemean?Howcanitbeseenin
(a)theworksofatleasttwoRenaissanceartistsand(b)thewritingsofboth
ErasmusandMartinLuther?BesuretousespecificdetailsfromtheCWC
MedievalandRenaissanceArtMuseumandtheCWCReadingpacket.
ThephraseAdFonteswasextremelysignificantduringtheRenaissance,guiding
thinkersandartists,alike.AdFonteswastheideaofreturningbacktothesources.These
sourcesincludeGrecoRomanvaluesandphilosophy.Forexample,Greekphilosophywasre
examinedatthistime,especiallysuchphilosophersasPlatoandAristotle.AdFontesalso
includedideasfromclassicalcultureandearlychurchwritings.Forexample,theNewTestament
wasoftenreferredtoduringthistimeinitsearliestGreekform.TheconceptofAdFonteswas
exemplifiedinbothRenaissanceartistsandthehistoricalfiguresofErasmusandLuther.
AdFonteswasclearlyexemplifiedthroughouttheRenaissance,particularlythrough
Renaissanceart.OneexampleofAdFonteswasthroughDonatellosstatueofErasmodaNarni.
ThiswasoneofthefirstsculpturesmadeintheRenaissance.This,initself,exemplifieshow
DonatellousedAdFontestorefertoanolderartformnotyetmadepopularintheRenaissance.
DonatelloalsoexemplifiedAdFontesthroughthesculpturesdepictionoftheGrecoRoman
valuesofheroismandbravery.ThewayinwhichDonatellodepicteddaNarnisstanceandfacial
expressionclearlyshowsareturntoclassicalvalues.AnotherRenaissanceworkthatclearly
exemplifiesthethemeofAdFontesisBotticellisAnnunciation.ThispaintingshowsAdFontes,
inthatitrepresentstheChristianstoryofGabrieltellingMaryofherpregnancywithJesus.This
showsareturntoNewTestamentstoriesandarenewedfocusonChristianideas.Italso
incorporatesclassicalthemesthroughhishumanistic,naturalstyleanddepictionofthecharacters.
Theseworks,aswellascountlessothers,exemplifytheideaofAdFontesthroughoutthe
Renaissance.
AdFonteswasalsorevealedthroughtheideasofbothErasmusandMartinLuther,key
figuresduringthisera.ErasmuswasaRenaissancehumanistandchurchreformerwhousedAd
FontesinhisstudyofGreekphilosophy,aswellastheBible.Forexample,inhisWeaponsfor
aChristianWarrior,ErasmusstatedthatprayerandknowledgearekeyweaponsforaChristian.
HestatedthatknowledgeisgainedthroughbothscriptureandpaganauthorslikePlatoand
Aristotle.ErasmusquotedmuchscripturefromtheGreekNewTestamentthroughoutthis

writing,simultaneouslyencouraginghisreaderstogobackandreadpaganworkstogain
knowledge.TheseaspectsshowAdFontesintheirfocusonscripturesandGrecoRoman
philosophicalideas.LutheralsoshowedAdFontesinhisreverttotheGreekNewTestament.
Lutherbelievedthatscripturewastheultimatespiritualauthority.Thisideaofsolascriptura,
itself,wasanAdFontesidea,inthatitcontrastedtheRomanCatholicchurchsideaoffinding
spiritualauthorityinthePope.InLuthersPrefacetoRomans,thisisespeciallyclear,as
LutherusestheideaofAdFontestoreturnbacktothescripturesandcreatehisowntheology.
ThisisespeciallyapparentwhenLuthergoesbackandanalyzestheBiblicalmeaningofwords
likeLaw,diggingdeeperintooriginaltexts.