2-7

Communications

While VDL Mode 3 greatly expands the number of voice channels possible, the costs of replacing all
VF radios, both airborne and ground, reduced support for this technique. This issue, along with other
technical issues, caused this solution to be removed from further consideration.
The long-term possibility that broadband network connectivity to the aircraft may provide acceptable
quality voice communication deserves some consideration for the far term. Meanwhile, DSB AM voice
will remain the primary method of ATC voice communications for the foreseeable future.

2.3 Data Communications

2.3.1 ACARS Overview
Today, ACARS provides worldwide data link coverage. Five distinct airground subnetworks are available
for suitably equipped aircraft: original VHF, Inmarsat satcom, HFDL, VDL Mode 2, and Iridium satellite.
In order to understand the function of the avionics for ACARS, it is necessary to see the larger network
picture. Figure 2.3 shows an overview of the ACARS network showing the aircraft, the four airground
subnetworks, the central message processor, and the ground message delivery network.
The ACARS message-passing network is an implementation of a star topology with the central
message processor as the hub. The ground message network carries messages to and from the hub,
and the airground subnetworks all radiate from the hub. There are a number of ACARS network
service providers, and their implementations differ in some details, but all have the same star topology.

Inmarsat

Airground
subnetworks

Satcom
VHFL*

HFDL
VDL M2
Central message
processor

Ground message network

Ground user

FIGURE 2.3

ACARS network overview. *VHFL, VHF data link; either ACARS or VDLM2.

2-8

Evolution of Avionics: Safety and Certification

Two data link service providers provide worldwide ACARS coverage, with several others providing
regional coverage. Any given ACARS message can be carried over any of the airground subnetworks,
a choice configured by the aircraft operator. It should be noted that ACARS is a character-oriented network, which means that only valid ASCII characters are recognized and that certain control characters
are used to frame a valid message.

2.3.2 ACARS Avionics

The ACARS avionics architecture is centered on the management unit (MU), communications management unit (CMU), or communications management function (CMF), which acts as an onboard router.
All airground radios connect to the MU or CMU/CMF to send and receive messages. The CMU/CMF
is connected to all of the various radios that communicate to the ground. Figure 2.4 illustrates the
avionics architecture.

2.3.3 ACARS Management Unit

The MU or CMU/CMF acts as the ACARS router onboard the aircraft. All messages to or from the
aircraft, over any of the airground subnetworks, pass through the MU or CMU/CMF. Although the
MU or CMU/CMF handles all ACARS message blocks, it does not perform a message-switching function
because it does not recombine multiple message blocks into a message prior to passing it along. It passes
each message block in accordance with its label identifier, and it is up to the receiving end system (ES)
to recombine message blocks into a complete message. The original OOOI messages were formatted and
sent to the MU from an avionics unit that sensed various sensors placed around the aircraft and determined the associated changes of state. In the modern transport aircraft, many other avionics units send
and receive routine ACARS messages.
The multifunction control and data unit (MCDU), along with the printer, is the primary ACARS
interface to the flight crew. Other units, such as the FMS or the air traffic services unit (ATSU), will also
interact with the crew for FANS messages. The vast majority of data link messages today are downlinks
automatically generated by various systems on the airplane. The MU/CMU/CMF identifies each uplink
message block and routes it to the appropriate device. Similarly, it takes each downlink, adds associated

an
ten
na

Satellite signals
HF signals

HF

Low-gain High-gain
antenna antenna
RFU/Amp
MCDU

ACARS
MU or CMU
Other message
sources

HF radio

Satcom
data unit
HF data unit

VHF transceiver

VHF antenna
VHF signals

FIGURE 2.4

Ant coupler

Printer

ACARS avionics architecture.

Communications avionics
Other avionics

Communications

2-9

aircraft information such as the tail number, and sends it to one of the airground subnetworks. The latest
avionics for each of the four subnetworks accepts an ACARS block as a data message over a data bus,
typically ARINC 429. The subnetwork avionics will then transform the message block into the signals
needed to communicate with the ground radio. Each subnetwork has its own protocols for link layer and
physical layer exchange of a data block.

2.3.4 VHF Subnetwork

The original VHF subnetwork that was pioneered in 1978 uses the same 25 kHz VHF channels used by
ATC and aeronautical operational communication (AOC) voice; the signal in space is sometimes called
plain old ACARS (POA) for reasons that will become clearer when we discuss VDL Mode 2. The VHF
subnetwork uses a form of frequency shift keying (FSK) called minimum shift keying (MSK) wherein
the carrier is modulated with either a 1200 or 2400 Hz tone. Each signaling interval represents one bit
of information, so the 2400 baud (i.e., rate of change of the signal) equals the bit rate of 2400 bps. After
initial synchronization, the receiver then can determine whether a given bit is a one or a zero.
VHF ACARS uses the carrier-sensed multiple access (CSMA) protocol to reduce the effects of two
transmitters sending a data block at the same or overlapping times. CSMA is nothing more than the
automated version of voice radio protocols wherein the speaker first listens to the channel before initiating
a call. Once a transmitter has begun sending a block, no other transmitter will step on that transmission.
The VHF ACARS subnetwork is an example of a connectionless link layer protocol in that the aircraft
does not log in to each ground station along its route of flight. The aircraft does initiate a contact with
the central message processor, and it does transmit administrative message as it changes subnetworks.
Amore complete description of the POA signal and an ACARS message block as it is transmitted over a
VHF channel can be found in ARINC 618, Appendix B.
In congested airspace, such as the northeastern United States or Europe, multiple VHF ACARS
channels are needed to carry the message traffic load. For example, in the Chicago area, 10 channels are
needed and a sophisticated frequency management scheme has been put in place, which automatically
changes the frequency used by individual aircraft to balance the loads.
Initial ACARS MUs worked with VHF radios that were little modified from their voice-only cousins.
The ACARS modulation signal was created as two-tone audio by the MU (e.g., ARINC 724 MU) and sent
to the radio (e.g., ARINC 716 VHF radio), where it modulated the RF, just as voice did from a microphone.
Later evolutions of the ACARS interface between the CMU (e.g., ARINC 758 CMU) and the latest radio
(e.g., ARINC 750 VDR [VHF data radio]) sent ACARS message blocks between the CMU and the radio
over a serial data bus (i.e., ARINC 429 Digital Information Transfer System [DITS]), and the radio modulated the RF directly from the data.

2.3.5 Satcom
The first satellite ACARS subnetwork uses the Inmarsat constellations. In the I-3 constellation, four satellites in geosynchronous orbit provide global beam and spot beam coverage of the majority of the globe
(up to about 82 latitude) with spot beam coverage over the continents. In the I-4 constellation, three
satellites in geosynchronous orbit provide global beam and spot beam of the major landmasses and
northern oceans. The Inmarsat constellation provides telephone circuits as well as data link, so it uses a
complex set of protocols over several different types of channels using different signals in space. In the
aeroclassic services, a packet channel is used to send and receive ACARS or cabin packet data messages.
The packet channel is established when the avionics satellite data unit (SDU) logs on to a satellite ground
earth station (GES). Each frame is acknowledged between the SDU and GES at the data link layer. Any
ACARS data link message block generated by the C/MU for transfer over the satcom subnetwork is sent
to the SDU for transfer over this channel to the GES, where it is then forwarded to the ACARS central
message processor. The message forwarding function requires advance coordination for appropriate

2-10

Evolution of Avionics: Safety and Certification

routing and billing to take place. In the SwiftBroadband data service, which is a 432 kbps packet data
service over the I-4 constellation, the ACARS or cabin packet data messages will be sent on available IP
bandwidth as connectionless datagrams. The Inmarsat satellite access nodes (SANs) route the message
on the ground to appropriate gateway services.
The Inmarsat aeroclassic services operate in the L-band, around 1 GHz on frequencies reserved for
aeronautical mobile satellite (route) services, or AMS(R)S, which are protected for safety and regularity
of flight. Satcom avionics have been purpose built, meaning that they did not evolve from the previous
use of L-band radios for voice as VHF ACARS and (as we shall see) HFDL radios evolved from voice
radios. In the Aero classic services, the RF unit (RFU), along with high-gain and low-noise amplifiers and
the diplexer, sends and receives signals over the various L-band channels defined for Inmarsat services.
In 1995, the use of ACARS messages over satcom was certified for use in the south Pacific for long-range
ATC communications with the FAA (Oakland Center), Fiji, New Zealand (Auckland Center), and Australia
(Brisbane Center). The message set used was called the FANS-1 message set and mirrored HF voice messaging in oceanic airspace. Boeing 747-400 aircraft were the first to implement FANS-1, but long-range Airbus
aircraft soon followed with the FANS-A implementation. Since that time, FANS-1/A has been implemented
by many CAAs around the world where the message set supports local ATC procedures.

2.3.6 HFDL
The HFDL ACARS subnetwork uses channels in the HF voice band. The HFDL radio can be a slightly
modified HF voice radio connected to the HF data unit (HFDU). Alternatively, an HF data radio
(HFDR) can contain both voice radio and data link functions. In either case, the HF communication
system must be capable of independent voice or data operation.
HFDL uses phase-shift modulation (PSK) and time-division multiple access (TDMA). A 32 s frame
is divided into 13 slots, each of which can communicate with a different aircraft at a different data rate.
Four data rates (1800, 1200, 600, and 300 bps) use three different PSK methods (8PSK, 4PSK, and 2PSK).
The slowest data rate is affected by doubling the power of the forward error-correcting code. All of these
techniques (i.e., multiple data rates, forward error correction, TDMA) are used to maximize the long-range
properties of HF signals while mitigating the fade and noise inherent in the medium. Twelve HFDL ground
stations provide worldwide coverage, including good coverage over the North Pole but excluding the south
polar region. More details on HFDL may be found in ARINC 753: HF Data Link System.
The need for a large antenna, plus the fact that even a quarter-wavelength antenna is problematic,
necessitates an antenna coupler that matches the impedance of the feed line to the antenna. The RFU,
whether it is a separate unit or incorporated in the HFDR, combines the audio signal representing the
data modulation with the carrier frequency, suppresses the carrier and lower sidebands with appropriate
filtering, and amplifies the resultant signal.

2.3.7 VDL Mode 2

VDL Mode 2 operates in the same VHF band as POA. Four channels have been reserved worldwide
for VDL Mode 2 services. Currently, the only operating frequency is 136.975 MHz. VDL Mode 2 uses
differential 8-level phase-shift keying (D8PSK) at a signaling rate of 10.5 kbaud to modulate the carrier.
Since each phase change represents one of eight discernible phase shifts, three bits of information are
conveyed by each baud or signal change; therefore, the data rate is 31.5 kbps. With about 10 times the
capacity of a POA channel, VDL Mode 2 has the potential to significantly reduce channel congestion
for ACARS. CSMA is used for media access, but a connection-oriented link layer protocol called the
aviation VHF link control (AVLC) is established between the VDR and the ground station. ACARS over
AVLC (AOA) is the term used to distinguish ACARS message blocks from other data packets that can
also be passed over AVLC. By using AOA, an aircraft equipped with VDL Mode 2 may take advantage
of a higher-speed VHF link without any changes to the AOC messages passed to or from the aircraft.

Communications

2-11

It should be noted that VDL Mode 2 has been implemented in accordance with the ICAO SARPs as a
subnetwork of the ATN. The ARINC 750 radio is capable of supporting 25 and 8.33 kHz voice, POA, and
AOA. It may only be used for one of these functions at any given time.

2.3.8 Iridium
The Iridium system is capable of connecting telephone calls and data messages to and from aircraft in
flight anywhere on earth. ACARS uses the short burst data (SBD) capability of the Iridium system to
carry ACARS blocks between the MU or CMU and the central processor of the airline-selected ACARS
service provider.
The Iridium constellation consists of 66 satellites in low earth orbits (LEO) at about 485 miles
altitude, in six polar orbital planes. LEO satellites travel rapidly across the sky relative to a ground
or airborne subscriber. The connection from the aircraft for telephone calls and the point-to-point
protocol (PPP) connection for data are maintained by cross-linking between satellites and then
downlinking to the Iridium gateway in Arizona. LEO satellites require less transmit power from the
avionics than geosynchronous satellite data links.

2.3.9 ATN
2.3.9.1 ATN History and Overview
In the 1980s, the ICAO Air Navigation Commission (ANC) recognized the need to assure commonality
among future data links used for air traffic communications. In 1989, the ANC tasked the secondary
surveillance radar (SSR) improvement and collision avoidance panel (SICASP) to develop material to
assure that commonality. By 1991, the automatic dependent surveillance panel (ADSP) had produced the
Manual of Data Link Applications, defining message sets for use by ANSPs. In 1997, the ANC approved
SARPs for the ATN as the framework for all future ATC data communications.
2.3.9.2 ATN Architecture
The ATN architecture is based on the OSI model for data communications that was published by the
ISO. This architecture, as shown in the following figure, identifies seven layers that provide flexibility
in implementation while maintaining an orderly flow of message traffic to and from the ES. Other basic
characteristics of the ATN include bit-oriented messaging and packet-switched routing.
The ATN is based on multiple airground subnetworks, to facilitate communication to a wide variety
of aircraft in widely varying airspace, and multiple groundground networks to allow for independent
domains for air navigation and other service providers.
The structure of the ATN includes ESs, which originate and receive ATN messages with each having a
seven-layer ISO stack, and intermediate systems (IS) also called routers, which assure that message packets
get to the proper destination ES within the domain. If a message is directed to an ES outside the domain,
itis directed to a boundary intermediate system (BIS) for transmission to the proper domain.
The aforementioned architecture applies to all ground and airborne ESs. For aircraft in flight, the
ATN connection is maintained by one or more of the ATN subnetworks. For ground ESs, normal
telecommunications infrastructure may be used.
2.3.9.3 ATN Subnetworks
At the data link layer (layer 2) and the physical layer (layer 1), the ATN includes SARPs for the following
airground data links:

VDL
Geosynchronous satellite (satcom)
HF data link (HFDL)
Iridium satellite

2-12

Evolution of Avionics: Safety and Certification

ATN messages

ATN aircraft
FMS
or ATSU

CMU

Radio

ACARS aircraft
MU
FMS
or ATSU or CMU

ATN G/G network

Radio

Air/ground
router
Ground
station

ATN
router

VDL Mode 2
subnetwork

Message
processor

ATN ATC
end system

AOC G/G network

ACARS messages
AOC
end system

FIGURE 2.5

VDL Mode 2 Subnetwork supports both ACARS and ATN.

Each of these subnetworks is implemented with a unique RF modulation and protocol. VDL operates
line of sight and therefore requires multiple ground stations to assure continuous coverage. The other
three subnetworks may be used in remote and oceanic airspace, but each has its unique advantages and
disadvantages.
2.3.9.4 VDL Subnetwork
As of this writing, the VDL Mode 2 is in operation and is the only ATN airground subnetwork
being used for ATN message traffic. In Europe, VDL Mode 2 is being used for operational ATC data
link messages, while in the United States, ATC data link trials are underway providing departure
clearances.
Figure 2.5 shows how the VDL Mode 2 subnetwork has been designed to carry both ACARS
messages and ATN messages. VDL Mode 2 is a bit-oriented data link layer protocol, which, in the case
of AOA, happens to be carrying ACARS message blocks. ACARS message blocks are directed to the
message processor for forwarding over the AOC groundground network. ATN packets are directed
to an air/ground router that forwards them to an ATN router for delivery via the ATN groundground
network.

2.3.10 Data Communications Developments

The implementation of broadband Internet connections in the aircraft while in flight has the potential to
provide versatile, fast, and cheap connectivity between the aircraft and the ground. Since the earliest voice
radio links, through all of the ACARS airground subnetworks, airground communications has been so
specialized that the equipment has been specially designed and built at great cost. If broadband Internet
(meaning TCP/IP) connectivity can be made reliable and secure, there is no reason this medium could
not be made usable for airground data link communication. The definition of the IPS for the ATN has
the potential to add near-universal connectivity for ATC communications.

2-13

Communications

ATN
aircraft

Voice
aircraft

HF
voice

FANS 1/ACARS
aircraft

Air/ground
voice network

HF

VHF
voice

HF

ACARS
data link
network
VHF
Flight plan data
radar data

VHF
voice
HF
voice

Voice report
transcription

ATC facility

FIGURE 2.6

ATN
data link
network
VHF

CNS/ATM
gateway

Situation
display

Controller
pilot
communications

Local area
network (LAN)

National ATC facility supporting multiple voice and data networks.

The trend in the telecommunications industry is toward high-speed, high-capacity, general-purpose

connectivity. For example, fiber optic links installed to carry cable TV are being used, without significant
change, as Internet connections or telephone lines. Sophisticated high-capacity RF modulation techniques
are permitting the broadcast of digital signals for high-definition TV and radio. Mobile telephone technology carries digital voice and data messages over the same network. The Internet itself carries far more than
the text and graphics information it was originally designed to carry.
Figure 2.6 shows a notional ATC facility of the future, which is able to use voice, ATN data link, and
FANS-1/A data links to communicate with suitably equipped aircraft traversing its airspace. The transfer
of the majority of routine communications to data link, often with automatic exchanges between the
ground and the aircraft, will reduce workload for aircrews and controllers. This will increase the number
of aircraft participating in air traffic management (ATM) that will allow benefits for all involved: airlines,
aircrews, controllers, and airspace managers.

2.4 Summary
The airlines will continue to increase their dependence on airground data link to send and receive
information necessary to efficiently operate their fleets. ATC will increase its dependence on airground
communications, even as the number of voice transactions is reduced. Looking 1020 years ahead, data
link will increasingly be used for ATC communications. If the concept of ATM is to become the rule
instead of the exception, the ground automation systems and the FMSs will no doubt be in regular contact,
exchanging projected trajectory, weather, traffic, and other information. Voice intervention will be minimal and likely still be over DSB AM in the VHF band.
The modern transport aircraft is becoming a flying network node that will inevitably be connected
to the ground for seamless data communications. Its only a matter of time and ingenuity. When
that happens, presuming there is sufficient bandwidth, availability, and reliability for each use, many
applications will migrate to that link.

2-14

Evolution of Avionics: Safety and Certification

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