LIQUEFACTION POTENTIAL OF COHESIONLESS

SOILS IN SOUTH MUMBAI

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE DEGREE OF
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
BY
ABHIJEET ASHOK LONDHE (ROLL NO. 1110223)
MANAVENDRA NIRANJAN MULYE (ROLL NO. 1110234)
MURTAZA ABDULKADER KHANDWAWALA (ROLL NO. 1110220)
PARAS PAWAN KHAITAN (ROLL NO. 1110216)

SUPERVISOR:
Prof. Dr. GANESH S. KAME

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Anjuman-i-Islams
MOHAMMED HAJI SABOO SIDDIK COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AFFILIATED TO UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
2014-2015

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled Liquefaction Potential of
Cohesionless Soils in South Mumbai is a bonafide work of
Abhijeet Ashok Londhe (Roll No. 1110223)
Manavendra Niranjan Mulye (Roll No. 1110234)
Murtaza Abdulkader Khandwawala (Roll No. 1110220)
Paras Pawan Khaitan (Roll No. 1110216)

submitted to the University of Mumbai in partial fulfillment of the

requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering
in Civil Engineering.

Prof. Dr. Ganesh S. Kame

Project Guide

Prof. Zaheer Khan

Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmed

Head of Department
Vice Principal

Principal

Project Report Approval for Bachelor of Engineering

This project report entitled Liquefaction Potential of Cohesionless

Soils in South Mumbai by

Abhijeet Ashok Londhe (Roll No. 1110223)

Manavendra Niranjan Mulye (Roll No. 1110234)
Murtaza Abdulkader Khandwawala (Roll No. 1110220)
Paras Pawan Khaitan (Roll No. 1110216)

is approved for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil

Engineering.

Examiners

1.----------------------------------------

2.---------------------------------------Date:
Place:
ii

Declaration
I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words and where others'
ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. I
also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not
misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand
that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and can also
evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been properly cited or from whom
proper permission has not been taken when needed.

Abhijeet Ashok Londhe

(Roll No. 1110223)

Manavendra Niranjan Mulye

(Roll No. 1110234)

Murtaza Abdulkader Khandwawala

(Roll No. 1110220)

Paras Pawan Khaitan

(Roll No. 1110216)
Date:

iii

Acknowledgement
We are grateful to present our project. Apart from our efforts, the success of this project largely
depends upon the encouragement and motivation of numerous professors and professionals who
have assisted and guided us with their erudite judgements and opinions, and their well wishes.
We are greatly indebted to our guide Prof. Dr. Ganesh S. Kame for his immense support, driving
force and inspiration. Without his excellent acumen, this project would not have been what it is.
He has provided us with his experience and deep knowledge to the subject.
We would also express our gratitude to our principal Dr. Mohiuddin Ahmed and our respected
Head of the Department Prof. Zaheer Khan for the convenience and facilities which we received
in the college.
Lastly, we would like to thank all the staff of Civil Engineering Department for their direct or
indirect contribution in making this project so successful.
Last but not list we are obliged to Head of Department, Principal and Management to avail us
financial support for successful development of the experimental set up.
We are also highly obliged to the University of Mumbai for availing us minor research grant for
further development of the experimental model on Soil Liquefaction.

Abhijeet Ashok Londhe

Manavendra Niranjan Mulye

Murtaza Abdulkader Khandwawala

Paras Pawan Khaitan
iv

Abstract
The use of quicksand as a convenient plot device in television and movies often leads to
misconceptions, even among students taking introductory geotechnical engineering courses.
Because quicksand is a familiar natural phenomenon, exploring the underlying mechanisms
provides an exceptional opportunity for student learning.
Liquefaction is a state of saturated cohesionless soil when its shear strength is reduced to zero
due to increase in pore water pressure. It occurs due to the vibrations and horizontal accelerations
during an earthquake which raises the water table and even settles the sand grains in voids (if
present). Thus the soil starts behaving like a liquid. The same output is achieved when these
pores are filled by water externally (in the form of rainfall particularly). The output in either case
is termed quick sand in common language and liquefied soil technically.
Now during an earthquake, the upward propagation of shear waves through the ground generates
shear stresses and strains that are cyclic in nature. If a cohesionless soil is saturated, excess pore
pressures may accumulate during seismic shearing and lead to liquefaction. Liquefaction is most
commonly observed in shallow, loose, saturated deposits of cohesionless soils subjected to
strong ground motions in large-magnitude earthquakes. Unsaturated soils are not subject to
liquefaction because volume compression does not generate excess pore pressures. Liquefaction
and large deformations are more likely with contractive soils while cyclic softening and limited
deformations are associated with dilative soils. The steady-state concept demonstrates how the
initial density and effective confining stress affect the liquefaction characteristics of a particular
soil.
The model presenting demonstrates Soil Liquefaction conditions in a laboratory. The model is
capable of measuring the pore water pressure at which any given soil layer can liquefy. Thus, the
liquefaction theory and equations can be proved and executed with the help of the model.
Furthermore, the time required for different water pressure to liquefy sand can also be calculated
by varying the pressure. The resultant study and a theory are deduced to calculate Liquefaction
potential of any place having cohesionless soil.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
No.

CONTENT

PAGE No.

CERTIFICATE

B.E. PROJECT REPORT APPROVAL SHEET

ii

DECLARATION

iii

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

iv

ABSTRACT

TABLE OF CONTENTS

vi

INTRODUCTION
1.1

General

1.1.1

Liquefaction-Definition

1.1.2 Scope of Work Presented

1.1.3

Scope of Future Work

1.2

Review of Literature

1.2.1

General

1.2.2

Paleoseismic Behaviour of Soils

1.2.3

Liquefaction in Silty Soils

1.2.4

Liquefaction Susceptibility

1.3

Concept of Soil Liquefaction

1.3.1

General

1.3.2

Fundamentals of Soil Liquefaction

1.4

Concept of Piezometer

1.5

Girgaum Beach

AIMS AND OBJECTIVE

2.1

Aim

9
vi

2.2
3

Objective

10

METHODOLOGY
3.1

Soil Testing

11

3.1.1

Specific Gravity by Density Bottle Method

11

3.1.2

Sieve Analysis

13

3.1.3

Void Ratio

16

3.2

Setup For Soil Liquefaction Demonstration

17

3.2.1

Apparatus

18

3.2.2

Procedure to Perform the Experiment

20

PARAMETRIC STUDY
4.1

Introduction

21

4.2

Observations and Calculations

22

4.2.1

Specific Gravity by Density Bottle Method

22

4.2.2

Grading of Soil

23

4.2.2.1 Conclusion of Grading of Soil

24

4.3

Pressure Head at Liquefaction

24

4.3.1

Theoretical Calculation

24

4.3.2

Observation

25

4.3.3

Conclusion

25

4.4

Time Taken For Liquefaction by Varying Discharge

26

4.4.1

Procedure

26

4.4.2

Observation

26

4.4.3

Conclusion

27

GROUND IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUES

5.1

Vibroflotation

28

5.2

Stone Columns

28

5.3

Compaction

30
vii

5.4

Compaction Grouting

30

5.5

Dynamic Compaction

31

5.6

Vibrocompaction

32

5.7

Drainage Techniques

33

5.7.1

Need For Improvement

34

5.7.2

Classification of Ground Modification Techniques

34

5.7.3

Suitability & Feasibility

35

5.8

Wick Drains

36

5.9

Deep Soil Mixing

37

5.10

Scope of Future Work

38

5.10.1 Potential of Liquefaction of Other Areas

38

5.10.2 Earthquake vs. Pressure Relation

38

5.10.3 Implementation of Shake Table

38

CONCLUSION

39

REFERENCES

41

APPENDIX

43

viii

CONTENT OF TABLES
TABLE No.

CONTENT

PAGE No.

3.1

Weight of Soil and Size

14

4.1

Observation Table for Density Bottle method

22

4.2

Grading of Soil

23

4.3

Observation Table for Time Measured

26

ix

CONTENT OF FIGURES

FIGURE No.

CONTENT

PAGE No.

1.1

Stresses in Soil Element

1.2

Scheme of Piezometer

1.3

Photograph Showing Girgaum Beach

3.1

Density Bottle

11

3.2

Grain Size Distribution Curve

14

3.3

Photograph Showing Laboratory Model

17

3.4

Scheme of Laboratory Model

19

4.1

Grain Size Distribution Tested Curve of Soil

23

4.2

Pressure vs Time Curve

27

5.1

Vibroflotation

28

5.2

Stone Columns

29

5.3

Compaction Grouting

31

5.4

Dynamic Compaction

32

5.5

Vibro Compaction

33

5.6

Wick Drains

36

5.7

Deep Soil Mixing

37

ABBREVIATIONS, NOTATION AND NOMENCLATURE

Symbols

Nomenclature
Bulk Unit Weight of Soil

Unit Weight of Water

sat

Saturated Unit Weight of Soil

Dry Unit Weight of Soil

Submerged Unit Weight of Soil

Angle of Shear Failure

'

Effective Stress

Density of Water

ud

Pore Water Pressure

Acceleration due to gravity

Specific gravity of Soil

Void Ratio

Porosity

xi

Introduction

Chapter-1

Introduction
1.1 General
1.1.1 Liquefaction Definition
During an earthquake, a building may collapse due to various factors, namely, structural failure
of building, failure of foundation of the building or collapse of some other structure on the
building. In addition to these, the building which structurally sound, may fail due to liquefaction
of the soil below its foundation.

Soil Liquefaction is a phenomenon similar to quick sand, the only difference being that
liquefaction takes place during an earthquake. Liquefaction is defined as the phenomenon of loss
of shear strength of a saturated cohesionless soil due to increase in pore-water pressure as a result
of an earthquake. When a soil liquefies, any object placed on it having density mare than
liquefied soil, sinks into the soil as the soil has no shear strength. Therefore, all the structures
1

Chapter No: 1
standing on such a soil are prone to damage. The foundations of the structure sinks and the
structure may collapse. It is, hence, necessary to check the strata for probability of liquefaction
before designing the foundation of structures.

1.1.2 Scope of Work Presented

There is no direct relation between earthquake intensity and the pressure developed in the soil.
This project is based on establishing a discreet relationship between earthquake and pressure.
The magnitude of pressure and time taken by soil strata for liquefaction can be depicted. Efforts
can be made to match the inlet pressure to the magnitude of earthquake.

Comparisons can be made between the pressure readings obtained for same soil by implementing
various remedial measures. Also, a suitable remedy can be suggested for a particular soil
according to the site conditions and strata of the region. This model can also give liquefaction
potential of different soils from different regions.

1.1.3 Scope of Future Work

There is scope to connect a shake table to the current model and obtaining the pressure reading
without pumping, design a stable structure and implement compaction and drainage techniques
in model for densifying the soil. We also wish to have a comparative study of different soils of
Mumbai and classify regions into various zones of liquefaction.

1.2 Review of Literature

1.2.1 General
Any structure whether a building or a bridge ultimately rests on soil. Hence the stability of the
structure is largely influenced by type of soil. Soil is broadly classified as sand and clay. Clayey
soils have cohesion which influences shear strength of the soils. However, sand is cohesionless.
Hence the chance of collapse due to foundation failure is a possibility for construction in sandy
2

Introduction
soils.

1.2.2 Paleoseismic Behaviour of Soils

Considering the limited knowledge on the liquefaction behaviours in the Wenchuan 8.0
earthquake, the liquefaction characteristics are discussed through detailed site investigation and
analyses of corresponding hydrological, geologic and in-situ tests for the specific sites. The
analytical results indicate that the distribution of the liquefaction phenomena in the event is vast
with the region covered by length of 500 km and width of 200 km, but the liquefaction
distribution is rather non-uniform. The liquefaction is mainly located in the area of a rectangle
with 160 km in length and 60 km in width; and it is distributed principally in the 6 belts, which
are consistent with the local hydrological and geotechnical conditions. Moreover, three salient
characteristics of the liquefaction behaviours that are different from the previous earthquakes are
discovered by the investigation. It is shown that:(1) Liquefaction phenomena are observed within
the regions of seismic zone with intensity VI, which has not been documented previously in
Mainland of China.10 such liquefaction sites in 5 different areas are confirmed and in 2
liquefaction sites among which the buildings are damaged directly due to the liquefaction. (2)
The liquefaction phenomena in deep soils, i.e. more than 20 m in depth, occur in the shock, and
the macro-phenomena of more than 10 m water ejection in 4 different villages are observed; and
the in-situ tests for the specific sites verify the judgment. (3) The characteristics show that the
gravel soils liquefy in the shock; and the in-situ tests for the specific sites verify the reality of
such behaviours. Also the synthetic analyses of sand ejection, duration of waterspout and
corresponding geotechnical information all demonstrate that the gravel soil liquefaction
behaviours are considerable in this earthquake.

Liquefaction features can be used in many field settings to estimate the recurrence interval and
magnitude of strong earthquakes through much of the Holocene. These features include dikes,
craters, vented sand, sills, and laterally spreading landslides. The relatively high seismic shaking
level required for their formation makes them particularly valuable as records of strong paleoearthquakes. This state-of-the-art summary for using liquefaction-induced features for
paleoseismic interpretation and analysis takes into account both geological and geotechnical
engineering perspectives.
3

Chapter No: 1
Two independent methods for estimating prehistoric magnitude are discussed briefly. One
method is based on determination of the maximum distance from the epicenter over which
liquefaction-induced effects have formed. The other method is based on use of geotechnical
engineering techniques at sites of marginal liquefaction, in order to bracket the peak
accelerations as a function of epicentral distance; these accelerations can then be compared with
predictions from seismological models.

1.2.3 Liquefaction in Silty Soils

According to Desmond Andrews and Geoffrey Martins, simple criteria based on key soil
parameters that help partition liquefiable and non-liquefiable silty soils. A brief review of the
physical characteristics of silts and clays is first given to help clarify some misconceptions about
silty soils. Clay content and liquid limit are then considered as two key soil parameters that
help partition liquefiable and non-liquefiable silty soils. Several case histories are presented that
illustrate the applicability of using clay content as a key soil parameter. Attention is drawn to
an analogy between the liquid limit and the shear strength of a soil. This analogy is expanded to
show that the liquid limit can be regarded as a key soil parameter that gives a relative measure
of liquefaction susceptibility. Inadequacies of basing criteria for liquefaction of silty soils on just
one key parameter are finally discussed, leading to the promotion of simple criteria for
liquefaction of silty soils, utilising together both the clay content and the liquid limit soil
parameters.

1.2.4 Liquefaction Susceptibility

Aminaton Marto and Tan Choy Soon state that liquefaction susceptibility of a cohesionless soil
is based on the complex structure of soil and the behaviour of loading on that soil. The
developments of liquefaction susceptibility evaluation in last 40 decades are included. Modified
Chinese Criteria is the best known indicator which globally recognized. Due to the existing
literature gaps of liquefaction susceptibility of fine soils and the deviation of actual liquefaction
cases in past earthquake, re-examination and modification is essential to ensure the usability of
Modified Chinese Criteria. The controversy and confusion of the fine grained soils behaviour
4

Introduction
after being disturbed by cyclic load is complex. The use of clay fraction as a controlling
parameter is the main contribution of inaccurate in the evaluation. Plasticity index is the most
suitable controlling parameter to replace the clay fraction in Modified Chinese Criteria. Plasticity
index can confidently distinguish the fine grained soils behavior for the ease of assessment.
Fine grained soil could be either clay-like which expected to be cyclic softening or sand-like
that susceptible to liquefaction phenomena. With this the cyclic behavior of fine grained soils are
well understood and this lead to a more precise and confident output. Thus, Chinese Criteria
should replace fine percentage with plasticity index in the assessment.

1.3 Concept of Liquefaction

1.3.1 General
The term Soil Liquefaction was introduced by Arthur Cassagrande. Liquefaction is a state of
saturated cohesionless soil when its shear strength is reduced to zero due to pore water pressure
caused by the vibration during an earthquake. The soil starts behaving like a liquid.

1.3.2 Fundamentals of Soil Liquefaction

To understand the liquefaction phenomenon, let us consider a soil element of soil deposit at a
depth of z below the ground surface (G.S.). Let the depth of water table (W.T.) be h below the
ground surface.

Fig 1.1 Stresses in Soil Element

5

Chapter No: 1
Effective stress at a depth z below the ground surface is given by:

' = h + sat (z-h) w (z-h)

' = h + (z-h)
where, is submerged density = sat w
The shear strength of a cohesionless soil is due to internal friction and is given by:
S = tan
When the soil deposit is subjected to ground vibrations, it tends to compact and decrease in
volume. However if the drainage of pore water is prevented, this tendency to decrease in volume
results in an increase in pore water pressure.

Let ud be the excess dynamic pore water pressure developed due to ground
vibration. Dynamic shear strength is expressed as:

Sd = (-ud) tan

Dynamic shear strength will become zero when

= ud
Thus, liquefaction occurs when dynamic pore water pressure is equal to effective stress.
It may be noted that the rise of pore water pressure reduces the shear strength of the soil. If the
soil loss in shear strength is not complete, partial liquefaction is said to have taken place. In this
case, the shear strength of soil is not completely zero but is very less. In either case, the
structures made on the soil are vulnerable to failure.

Large settlements occur after liquefaction and the structure resting on the sand starts sinking.
This sinking continues to take place until the sand remains liquefied. It may be summarised that
for liquefaction to occur, all the following five conditions must be satisfied: 1) The soil is cohesionless
2) The soil is loose
6

Introduction
3) The soil is saturated
4) There is shaking of ground of required intensity and duration
5) The undrained conditions are developed due to its limited permeability

It is worth noting that liquefaction can occur in soil deposits at any depth where these conditions
are satisfied. Once liquefaction occurs at a particular depth, the flow of water occurs in upward
direction, and it may cause an indirect liquefaction in the soil layers above.

1.4 Concept of Piezometer

Piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is tapped into wall of pressure conduit for
the purpose of measuring pressure. Though effective in many purposes, piezometer is not
practical use to lighter liquids with large pressure and cannot be used to measure gas pressure. A
piezometer is a device used to measure liquid pressure in a system by measuring the height to
which a column of the liquid rises against gravity.

Fig 1.2 Scheme of Piezometer

From the figure 1.2, three piezometers A, B and C are attached to a pressure conduit at bottom,
top and side respectively. The column of liquid at A, B and C will rise at same level above A
indicating a positive pressure at M. Also, the piezometer D measures the negative pressure at N.
7

Chapter No: 1
The pressure is calculated by the equation:
P=gh
Where, P is pressure by which fluid is flowing,
is density of liquid used,
g is acceleration due to gravity &
h is height of water in water column from centre of the conduit.
If experiment is conducted using water then = 1000 kg/m3

If another fluid of different specific gravity (s) is then pressure is given by

P=sgh

1.5 Girgaum Beach

Fig 1.3 Photograph showing Girgaum Beach

Girgaum Beach, commonly known as just Chaupati (pronounced as chow-patty), is one of the
most famous public beaches adjoining Marine Drive in the Girgaum area of Mumbai, India. It
has a 4.3 km long coast line. The beach is famous for Ganesh Chaturthi celebrations when
8

Introduction
hundreds of people from all over Mumbai come to immerse the idols of Lord Ganapati in the
Arabian Sea. It is also one of the many places in the city where the Ramlila is performed on a
stage every year. An effigy of Ravan, erected on the sand, is burnt by the end of the 10-day
performance. One can find several bhelpuri, panipuri, ragda patties and pav bhaji vendors on
the beach. It is also a tourist spot all around the year. Youngsters from schools and colleges often
visit the place to enjoy the cool breeze and the paraphernalia. Many foreign tourists also visit this
place as an attraction.

It is in one of the most expensive parts of the city of Mumbai as it is a sea-facing neighbourhood.
There are many expensive houses along the sea coast. It is also a host to numerous expensive and
grand hotels. Saifee Hospital, one of the finest hospitals in Mumbai, is also along this coastline.
Mumbai Police Gymnasium and Tarapoor Aquarium are also in the vicinity of this area.

Being a beach it is highly susceptible to the issue studied in this project. The buildings and
structures near this beach are vulnerable to Liquefaction during an earthquake. Since the beach is
an integral part of Mumbaikars, we have considered studying the Liquefaction potential of this
place. Thus the case has been studied considering the culture of Mumbai and grandeur of the
beach.

Girgaum Beach was selected as it had numerous other advantages too. It is located very close to
the college. Access to sand of the beach is very easy. Also, the permissions required to perform
the experiment on the beach or on the sample of soil for purpose of project from the concerned
authorities are relatively less tedious because of close affinity.

Chapter No: 2

Chapter-2

Aims & Objectives

2.1 Aim
This project demonstrates soil liquefaction phenomenon in a laboratory. This is the working
model depicting this phenomenon. The model is made with an objective of testing cohesionless
soil from any region so as to obtain the pressure reading at which the given soil liquefies. The
pressure obtained will be used to comment on the stability of existing structures as well as
constructing new structures.

2.2 Objective
This project is aimed at knowing the liquefaction probability of soils in South Mumbai. South
Mumbai is a lavish area with lot of sand as its strata. Hence, during an earthquake, it has got
the highest likelihood of liquefaction. This project is an attempt to find the odds at which the
soil in South Mumbai is safe and the earthquake at which it will liquefy.

10

Methodology

Chapter-3

Methodology
3.1 Soil Testing
3.1.1 Specific Gravity by Density Bottle Method
Aim: To find Specific gravity of soil sample by density bottle
method as per IS:2720 Part II (1980).
Apparatus: Density bottle of capacity 100 mL, Soil sample,
water and weighing machine with sensitivity of 0.01 g.
Theory: Specific Gravity of solid particles is the ratio of the
mass density of solids to that of water. It is determined
in the laboratory using the relation

Fig 3.1 Density Bottle

G=

Where, M1 = Mass of empty density bottle.

11

Chapter No: 3
M2 = Mass of density bottle + Soil grains.
M3 = Mass of empty density bottle + Soil grains + water.
M4 = Mass of empty density bottle + water.
Procedure:
1) Take the Weight of clean and dry density bottle.
2) Keep about 10 15 gm of oven dried cool soil in bottle and weight (M2).
3) Cover the soil with air free distilled water from the plastic wash bottle. Give some time of
socking. A gentle heating may be required to dispel any air inside the soil. Gently stir the
soil in the density bottle by clean glass rod. Observe the temperature of the contents (oC)
in the bottle and record. Insert the stopper in the density bottle, wipe and weight (M3).
4) Empty the content of bottle, rinse thoroughly, fill it with distilled water at the same
temperature, insert the stopper, wipe dry from outside and weight it (M4).
5) Note the ridings as given in Table and at least three such observation and Calculate the
Specific Gravity using stated equation.
Precautions:
1) The soil grains whose specific gravity is to be determined should be completely dry.
2) Inaccuracies in weighting and failure to eliminate the entrapped air are the main source of
error. Both should be avoided by careful working.
3) If pycnometer is used, the cap of the pycnometer should be screwed up to the same mark
for each test.

12

Methodology

3.1.2 Sieve Analysis

Aim: To grade soil depending upon their size by sieve analysis as per IS:1498 1970.
Theory: Dry sieve analysis is suitable for cohesionless soil, with little or no fines. If the sand is
sieved in wet conditions, the surface tension may cause a slight increase in the size of the particle
and the particles smaller than the aperture size may be retained on the sieve and results would be
erroneous.
Soil is sieved through a set of sieves. The material retained on different sieves is determined. The
percentage of the material retained on any sieve is given by
Pn =
Where Mn = Mass of soil retained on sieve n
M = total mass of sample.
The cumulative percentage of the material retained,
Cn = p1 + p2 + pn
Where p1, p2 etc., are the percentage retained on sieve 1, 2 etc. respectively which are coarser
the sieve n. The percentage finer than the sieve n,
Nn = 100 Cn
A graph is plotted between particle size () on X-axis and % finer on Y-axis on a semi-log graph
paper. Grading of soil is done on the basis of following chart.

13

Chapter No: 3

Fig 3.2 Grain Size Distribution Curve

The uniformity of a soil is expressed qualitatively by a term known as uniformity coefficient, Cu,
given by
Cu =
Where, D60 is particle size such that 60% of soil is finer than this size, and
D10 is particle size such that 10% of soil is finer than this size.
The general shape of particle size distribution curve is described by another coefficient known as
the coefficient of curvature (Cc)
Cc =
Where, D30 is particle size such that 30% of soil is finer than this size.
Sand with Cu of 6 or more and Cc between 1 to 3 are well graded soil.
The total weight of soil to be tested is determined by the following chart.
Table 3.1 Weight of Soil and Size
Sr. No.

Maximum Size

Quantity in kg

80 mm

60

20 mm

6.5

4.75 mm

0.5
14

Methodology
Apparatus:
1) Set of fine sieves 425, 300, 212, 150 and 75
2) Weighing balance, with accuracy of 0.1% of the mass of sample
3) Oven
4) Mechanical shaker
5) Trays
Procedure:
o

1) Take the portion of soil passing through 4.75 mm IS sieve. Oven dry it at 105 C to 110 C.
Weigh it to 0.1% of the total mass.
2) Sieve through the nest of fine sieves. A minimum of ten minutes of sieving is required if
mechanical shaker is used. The sieves should be agitated so that the sample rolls in
irregular motion over the sieves. However, no particles should be pushed through the
sieve.
3) Take the material retained on each sieve and weigh them.
4) Calculate the % weight retained, % cumulative weight retained and % finer in a tabular
manner.
5) Plot a graph as mentioned in the theory.
6) Calculate Cu & Cc by plotting D10, D30 and D60.
7) Determine the grading of soil.

15

Chapter No: 3

3.1.3 Void Ratio

The void ratio of soil is defined as ratio of total volume of voids to total volume of solids, i.e.
We know,
e=

Or

e=

Now, e =
Vv = e.Vs
V = Vv + Vs = e.Vs + Vs
Vs =
Porosity n is ratio of volume of voids to total volume
n=
n=

=
e=

16

Methodology

3.2 Setup for Soil Liquefaction Demonstration

Fig 3.3 Photograph Showing Laboratory Model

17

Chapter No: 3

3.2.1 Apparatus
1) A cubical container of inner dimensions 50 cm x 50 cm x 60 cm having no top and a
square bottom. The cube is made of Galvanized Iron (G.I.) having thickness of 1.2 mm.
One hole is made on one of the sides of dimension 35 cm x 45 cm exactly at the centre.
The hole is closed using an acrylic plate of thickness 10mm.
Description
On left hand side face of the cube a hole should be present with its centre at
a height of 5 cm from bottom for connecting a piezometer.
On back face of the cube at the bottom an arrangement should be made for
inlet/outlet of water.
2) Pressure distribution table. (PDT)
A wooden frame of dimensions exactly equal to inner dimensions of the cube is placed
inside the container at the bottom. In case some voids are present around the frame, they
are filled with white cement or any other sealing material. Section of wooden frame is
50mm x 50 mm. The hole for piezometer must pass through the frame as well. An acrylic
sheet of dimensions 49 cm x 49 cm with uniformly distributed holes of 5 mm diameter at
2 cm C/C from each hole. Thickness of acrylic sheet is 10 mm.
2) Silicon Tubes, Meter scale & Piezometer.
3) Water pump of power 0.25 to 0.5 HP and water pipes and water tanks.
4) Dummy buildings and roads made of materials having specific density more than that of
water.
5) Cohesionless sand sample which is to be tested.
6) Packing material (Eg. Wax, Thermocol, Sponge etc.)
7) Plumbing arrangement, Filter Paper and Miscellaneous.
8) Pressure Gauge of capacity to read pressure of 1 Pascal.
9) Stopwatch.

18

Methodology

Fig 3.4 Scheme of Laboratory Model

19

Chapter No: 3

3.2.3 Procedure to Perform the Experiment

1) The container is placed on a table.
2) The Pressure Distribution Table (PDT) is placed inside the container at the centre. The void
space around it is packed with packing material. Over the table Wattmans filter paper is
attached. It is made sure that all the holes are covered properly. The filter paper is placed on
the table to make sure that while the apparatus is being emptied the sand grains do not enter
the lower chamber.
3) The piezometer is connected to the box using silicon tubes. It is attached on a stand which is
placed besides the container on the table. It could also be attached to the box itself. A metre
scale is attached alongside the piezometer at a height of 5 cm from table.
4) Fill dry sand in container. Sand is filled in layers. In each layer 4 trowels of sand is filled.
After each layer the sand is tamped using tamping rod. Each layer is tamped 50 times. It can
be filled up to any height. However it is necessary to know the weight of sand filled in the
container (eg. 60 kg of sand filled up to a height of 20 cm.). Spirit level is used to make sure
the sand layer is completely level.
5) Dummy building and roads are now placed inside the box on the sand layer.
6) Water pump is connected to the box at the inlet point provided at the bottom of the box.
Pump is kept on the ground.
7) The setup is now ready for checking the liquefaction potential of soil layer.
8) The pump is started and water starts flowing inside the setup. Stop watch is started as well.
Pressure is noted on the gauge. When the dummy buildings start collapsing, sinking or
tilting the water level in the piezometer is noted immediately. As this phenomenon is
instantaneous it is very necessary to keep keen observation.
9) The pump and stop watch are turned off. Time is noted. The setup is emptied.
10) The pressure is changed with the help of regulator and the same experiment is performed
again.

20

Parametric Study

Chapter-4

Parametric Study
4.1 Introduction
The parametric study was carried out as per Indian Standard Codes. The results of the parametric
studies were compared with the conditions given in codes. The results of the experiments and tests
performed on the soil are compiled as shown below. The results and conclusions drawn are within
the prescribed code limits.

21

Chapter No: 4

4.2 Observations & Calculations

4.2.1 Specific Gravity by Density Bottle Method
Table 4.1

M1

M2

M3

M4

Specific Gravity

No.

(Mass
of
empty
density
bottle.)

(Mass of
density
bottle +
Soil
grains)

(Mass of
empty
density
bottle +
Soil grains
+ water)

32

44

88.38

81

2.597

32

46

89.62

81

2.602

32

45

89.00

81

2.600

Sr.

(Mass of
empty
density
bottle +
water.)

Average
G

2.6

Result:
The Specific Gravity of the soil sample is 2.6

22

Parametric Study

4.2.2 Grading of Soil

Observation:
Table 4.2
Weight
Retained

%weight
Retained

425

105.0

21.06

21.06

78.94

300

189.5

38.01

59.08

40.92

212

160.0

32.10

91.17

8.83

150

25.5

5.11

96.29

3.71

75

16.0

3.21

99.50

0.50

0.1

2.5

0.51

100.00

498.5

100.00

Sieve Size ()

% cumulative

% finer

The graph as per the observed readings:90

80
70
% finer

60
50
40

Series1

30
20
10
0
0.1

10

100

1000

Particle Size ()

Fig. 4.1 Grain Size Distribution Curve of Tested Soil

23

Chapter No: 4
D10 = 0.218

D30 = 0.272
Cu =

Cc =

D60 = 0.361

= 1.656

= 0.94

4.2.2.1 Conclusion of Grading of Soil

More than 50% of the weight of sample passes through IS sieve 4.75 mm. Also, more than 50% of
the weight of sample is retained on IS sieve of 75. Hence, it can be concluded that the sample is
coarse grained sand.
The Particle Size Distribution Curve is plotted as per procedure given in IS: 1498 1970. The
distribution curve has a very small slope at the start of the curve. However, after it crosses a particle
size of 100 m, the slope rapidly increases. This means that the soil sample contains large amount
of soil of same grading. This graph concludes that the soil is uniformly graded or made of particles
of the same size.
Moreover, Cu = 1.656 and Cc = 0.94. Hence, the soil is poorly graded.
Hence the given sample is poorly graded sand.

4.3 Pressure Head at Liquefaction

4.3.1 Theoretical Calculation
Calculation of theoretical value of Hw.
Now,
Z = 20 cm
Dry density is weight of sample divided by the volume covered by the soil sample.
73.3 kg of sample is used and dimensions of sample filled would be 49 x 49 x 20 cu.cm.
Dry density d =
3

= 14.97 kN/m .
24

Parametric Study
For the given sample G = 2.6

e = 1.704
r

sat

sat

sat

= 15.615 kN/m

satz=

g
3

wHw

Hw = 31.83 cm.

4.3.2 Observation
Height of water in the piezometer obtained from the experiment performed is 32.2 cm.

4.3.3 Conclusion
The pressure reading obtained in the model is in congruence with the theoretical reading derived
from the principle of Soil Liquefaction. The observed reading is, however, less than the
contemplated reading. This can be justified by the fact that there are certain losses due to leakage of
water from the pipe-piezometer connection and the pipe-model boundary.
The soil of Girgaum Chowpatty is susceptible to liquefaction if the above pressure is established. If
the magnitude of earthquake, at which there is a possibility of establishing this pressure, can be
found out, we can suggest weather the buildings and other structures near Girgaun Chowpatty are
safe from Liquefaction.

4.4 Time Taken For Liquefaction by Varying Discharge

4.4.1 Procedure
The pressure head of the given soil strata for liquefaction is known. It was calculated theoretically
25

Chapter No: 4
and subsequently verified by the model. So,
Head at Liquefaction (h) = 31.8 cm
Now, the discharge of water which is pumped into the soil strata is varied. The pressure gauge is
used to indicate the pressure of discharge, in kg/cm2.
Time is measured, in seconds, with the help of a stopwatch from the point of start of motor to the
point when pressure head equal to 31.8 cm is reached in the piezometer.
Three readings are taken for every 0.5 kg/cm2 variation.

4.4.2 Observation
The readings taken are tabulated below.
Table 4.3
Pressure
(kg/cm2)
2

1.5

0.5

Time
(sec)
26.03
25.56
26.81
33.2
30.18
30.77
41.56
39.85
39.65
54.73
54.11
56.31

Average
Time
(sec)
26.13

31.38

40.35

55.05

The graph of Pressure vs. Time in plotted.

26

Parametric Study
7

Pressure (kg/cm2)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Time (Sec)
Fig 4.2 Pressure vs. Time Curve

4.4.3 Conclusion
Greater the pressure, less is the time taken for liquefaction. In other words, the time taken for
liquefaction of the strata is inversely proportional to the pressure of inlet discharge of water.
The pressure can be linked with magnitude of earthquake. Greater pressure implies higher
magnitude of earthquake. The observations state that the soil strata will liquefy faster for an
earthquake of greater magnitude.
When depth of strata changes, these values will change and well get another Pressure vs. Time
curve. Similarly, for different density of soils, different Pressure vs. Time curves can be expected.
If the pressure can be matched to the horizontal acceleration produced by an earthquake, it might be
possible to determine the magnitude of earthquake on a Richters Scale. For this, a shake table is
needed and the model must be analyzed for dynamic effects.

27

Chapter No: 5

Chapter-5

Ground Improvement Techniques

5.1 Vibroflotation
Vibroflotation involves the use of a vibrating probe that can penetrate granular soil to depths of
over 100 feet. The vibrations of the probe cause the grain structure to collapse thereby densifying
the soil surrounding the probe. To treat an area of potentially liquefiable soil, the vibroflot is raised
and lowered in a grid pattern. Vibro Replacement is a combination of vibroflotation with a gravel
backfill resulting in stone columns, which not only increases the amount of densificton, but
provides a degree of reinforcement and a potentially effective means of drainage.

Fig 5.1 Vibroflotation

5.2 Stone Columns

As described above, stone columns are columns of gravel constructed in the ground. Stone
columns can be constructed by the vibroflotation method. They can also be installed in other
28

Ground Improvement Techniques

ways, for example, with help of a steel casing and a drop hammer as in the Franki Method. In this
approach the steel casing is driven in to the soil and gravel is filled in from the top and tamped
with a drop hammer as the steel casing is successively withdrawn.
This method can be applied to different site conditions and is still widely used due to its high
tensile load capacity, and relatively low noise and ground vibration levels.
A charge of zero-slump concrete is poured into the bottom of a steel driving pipe that is placed
vertically on the ground. A diesel-operated drop hammer is then driven on the concrete, forming a
watertight concrete plug.
The concrete plug is driven into the ground by the drop hammer. The pipe is also dragged into the
ground due to friction developed between the steel and the concrete. When the desired depth is
reached, the pipe is held in position by leadsstructures which guide and align the pile and
hammer. The hammer is then applied to the concrete, driving it outwards through the bottom of the
pile and forming a mushroom-shaped base.
At this point, a cylindrical rebar cage can be driven into the concrete if supplementary
reinforcement is desired. Additional charges of concrete are added and driven while the steel casing
is simultaneously pulled up until the shaft of the pile is formed.

Fig 5.2 Stone Columns

This particular system can also be used to enhance stability of the land around a preexisting
structure thus making it safe.

29

Chapter No: 5

5.3 Compaction
In geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a soil
causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. When stress is
applied that causes densification due to water (or other liquid) being displaced from between the
soil grains then consolidation, not compaction, has occurred. Soil compaction is usually a
combination of both engineering compaction and consolidation so may occur due to a lack of
water in the soil, the applied stress being internal suction due to water evaporation as well as due
to passage of animal feet.
The main goal of most soil improvement techniques used for reducing liquefaction hazards is to
avoid large increases in pore water pressure during earthquake. This can be achieved by
compaction in following ways.

5.4 Compaction Grouting

Pressure grouting involves injecting a grout material into generally isolated pore or void space
of which neither the configuration nor the volume are known, and is often referred to simply as
grouting. The grout may be a cementitious, resinous, or solution chemical mixture. The
greatest use of pressure grouting is to improve geomaterials (soil and rock). The purpose of
grouting can be either to strengthen or reduce water flow through a formation. It is also used to
correct faults in concrete and masonry structures. Since first usage in the 19th century,
grouting has been performed on the foundation of virtually every one of the worlds large
dams, in order to reduce the amount of leakage through the rock, and sometimes to strengthen
the foundation to support the weight of the overlying structure, be it of concrete, earth, or rock
fill. Although very specialized, pressure grouting is an essential construction procedure that is
practiced by specialist contractors and engineers around the world. Compaction grouting is a
technique whereby a slow-flowing water/sand/cement mix is injected under pressure into a
granular soil. The grout forms a bulb that displaces and hence densifies, the surrounding soil.
Compaction grouting is a good option if the foundation of an existing building requires
improvement, since it is possible to inject the grout from the side or at an inclined angle to reach
beneath the building.

30

Ground Improvement Techniques

Fig 5.3 Compaction Grouting

5.5 Dynamic Compaction

Dynamic compaction is a method that is used to increase the density of the soil when certain
subsurface constraints make other methods inappropriate. It is a method that is used to increase
the density of soil deposits. The process involves of dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the
ground at regularly spaced intervals. The weight and the height determine the amount of
compaction that would occur. The weight that is used, depends on the degree of compaction
desired and is between 8 tonne to 36 tonne. The height varies from 1m to 30m.
The impact of the free fall creates stress waves that help in the densification of the soil. These
stress waves can penetrate up to 10m. In cohesionless soils, these waves create liquefaction that
is followed by the compaction of the soil, and in cohesive soils, they create an increased amount
of pore water pressure that is followed by the compaction of the soil. Pore water pressure is the
pressure of water that is trapped within the particles of rocks and soils.
The degree of compaction depends on the weight of the hammer, the height from which the
hammer is dropped, and the spacing of the locations at which the hammer is dropped. The initial
weight dropping has the most impact, and penetrates up to a greater depth. The following drops,
if spaced closer to one another, compact the shallower layers and the process is completed by
compacting the soil at the surface.

31

Chapter No: 5

Fig 5.4 Dynamic Compaction

Densification by dynamic compaction is performed by dropping a heavy weight of steel or
concrete in a grid pattern from heights of 30 to 100 ft. It provides an economical way of
improving soil for mitigation of liquefaction hazards. Local liquefaction can be initiated beneath
the drop point making it easier for the sand grains to densify. When the excess pore water
pressure from the dynamic loading dissipates, additional densification occurs. As illustrated in
the photograph, however, the process is somewhat invasive; the surface of the soil may require
shallow compaction with possible addition of granular fill following dynamic compaction.

5.6 Vibro Compaction

Vibro compaction is a ground improvement technique that densifies clean, cohesionless granular
soils by means of a downhole vibrator.
The vibrator is typically suspended from a crane and lowered vertically into the soil under its
own weight. Penetration is usually aided by water jets integrated into the vibrator assembly.
After reaching the bottom of the treatment zone, the soils are densified in lifts as the probe is
extracted. During vibro compaction, clean sand backfill is typically added at the ground surface
to compensate for the reduction in soil volume resulting from the densification process. The
vibratory energy reduces the inter-granular forces between the soil particles, allowing them to
move into a denser configuration, typically achieving a relative density of 70 to 85 percent. The
treated soils have increased density, friction angle and stiffness. Compaction is achieved above

32

Ground Improvement Techniques

and below the water table.

The improved soil characteristics depend on the soil type and gradation, spacing of the
penetration points and the time spent performing the compaction. Generally, the vibro
compaction penetration spacing is between 6 feet and 14 feet, with centers arranged on a
triangular or square pattern. Compaction takes place without setting up internal stresses in the
soil, thus ensuring permanent densification.
Installing compaction piles are a very effective way of improving soil. Compaction piles are
usually made of prestressed concrete or timber. Installation of compaction piles both densifies
and reinforces the soil. The piles are generally installed in a grid pattern and are generally driven
to depth of up to 60ft.

Fig 5.5 Vibro Compaction

5.7 Drainage Techniques

Liquefaction hazards can be reduced by increasing the drainage ability of the soil. If the pore
water within the soil can drain freely, the build-up of excess pore water pressure will be reduced.
Drainage techniques include installation of drains of gravel, sand or synthetic materials.

33

Chapter No: 5

Synthetic wick drains can be installed at various angles, in contrast to gravel or sand drains that
are usually installed vertically. Drainage techniques are often used in combination with other
types of soil improvement techniques for more effective liquefaction hazard reduction.

5.7.1 Need for Improvement

When a project encounters difficult foundation conditions, possible alternate solutions are:
Avoid the particular site
Design the planned structure accordingly.
Use a soft foundation supported by piles, design a very stiff structure which is not
damaged by settlements
Remove and replace unsuitable soils.
Attempt to modify the existing ground.

5.7.2 Classification of Ground Modification Techniques

Mechanical Modification:
Soil density is increased by the application of mechanical force, including compaction of
surface layers by static vibratory such as compact roller and plate vibrators.
Hydraulic Modification:
Free pore water is forced out of soil via drains or wells. Course grained soils; it is
achieved by lowering the ground water level through pumping from boreholes, or
trenches. In fine grained soils the long term application of external loads (preloading) or
electrical forces (electrometric stabilization)
Physical and chemical modification:
Stabilization of the soil is done by physical mixing of adhesives with surface layers or
columns of soil. Adhesives may include natural soils, industrial byproducts or waste,
materials, cementations or other chemicals which react with each other and/or the ground.
When adhesives are injected via boreholes under pressure into voids within the ground or
between it and a structure the process is called grouting.

34

Ground Improvement Techniques

Soil stabilization by heating and by freezing the ground is considered thermal methods of
modifications.
Modification by inclusions and confinement:
Reinforcement by fibers, strips bars meshes and fabrics imparts tensile strength to a
constructed soil mass.
In-situ reinforcement is achieved by nails and anchors. Stable earth retaining structure
can also be formed by confining soil with concrete, steel or fabric elements.
5.7.3 Suitability &Feasibility

The choice of a method of ground improvement for a particular object will depend on the
following factors.
Type and degree of improvement required
Type of soil, geological structure, seepage conditions
Cost
Availability of equipment and materials and the quality of work required
Construction time available
Possible damage to adjacent structures or pollution of ground water resources
Durability of material involved ( as related to the expected life of structure for a given
environmental and stress conditions)
Toxicity or corrosivity of any chemical additives.
Reliability of method of analysis and design.
Feasibility

of

construction

control

and

performance

measurements (If soil is moist, freezing is applicable to all type of

soil.)

35

Chapter No: 5

5.8 Wick Drains

(Prefabricated Vertical Drains, Vertical Strip Drains)
Wick drains, also known as Prefabricated Vertical Drains (PVD) and Vertical Strip Drains
(VSD), are a ground improvement technique that provides drainage paths for pore water in soft
compressible soil, using prefabricated geotextile filter-wrapped plastic strips with molded
channels. A hollow mandrel is mounted on an excavator or crane mast. The wick drain material,
contained on a spool, is fed down through the mandrel and connected to an expendable anchor
plate at the bottom of the mandrel. A vibratory hammer or static method is used to insert the
mandrel to design depth. The mandrel is then extracted leaving the wick drain in place. The wick
drain is then cut at the ground surface, a new anchor plate is connected to it and the mandrel
moved to the next location. A pattern of installed vertical wick drains provides short drainage
paths for pore water, thereby accelerating the consolidation process and the construction
schedule.

Fig 5.6 Wick Drains

36

Ground Improvement Techniques

5.9 Deep Soil Mixing

An effective way to conduct Soil liquefaction mitigation is through seep soil mixing (DSM) or
increasing the height of strata. The DSM method involves boring through the soil with a
specialized, large-diameter auger (between three and 12 feet) equipped with mixing paddles.
Once the auger reaches the appropriate depth, it is filled with cement that is released through
holes on the core of the auger. As the cement fills the hole, the mixing paddles combine it with
the surrounding soil to create a solidified, underground column.
In addition to its uses in building construction, DSM is also utilized in projects that require
sludge stabilization such as Brownfield redevelopment and industrial cleanup. In these cases,
DSM technicians can use soil reagents such as fly ash or harder, less porous soil types to reduce
the moisture level of the sludge.
DSM can also be used for chemical remediation. By solidifying contaminated soil with either
cement or other binders, the contaminants in the soil are isolated and solidified, preventing them
from seeping into nearby water supplies. New developments include the use of zero-valet iron,
carbon and special clays to create solid soils and reduce the impact of liquefaction. Traditional
cement columns and solidifying agents are both effective methods of barrier construction to
protect environmentally sensitive areas from infiltration, or to stabilize areas prone to soil
erosion.

Fig 5.7 Deep Soil Mixing

37

Chapter No: 5

5.10 Scope of Future Work

5.10.1 It is aimed to study liquefaction potential of cohesion less soils in South Mumbai.
Similarly, the liquefaction potential of other areas can also be studied.

5.10.2 Comparison of results obtained using mathematical technique and experimental findings.
Establishing relationship between inlet pressure and magnitude of earthquake. Comparing
Static and Dynamic Analysis.

5.10.3 To model the liquefaction phenomenon under the action of earth motion during an
earthquake, it is also aimed to run the model on shake table. The shake table
demonstration is aimed to be performed at the heavy structural engineering laboratory,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai or Sardar Patel College of Engineering,
Andheri, Mumbai.

38

Conclusion

Chapter-6

Conclusion
Liquefaction is a state of saturated cohesionless soil when its shear strength is reduced to zero
due to pore water pressure caused by the vibration during an earthquake. The soil starts behaving
like a liquid. During an earthquake, the upward propagation of shear waves through the ground
generates shear stresses and strains that are cyclic in nature. If a cohesionless soil is saturated,
excess pore pressures may accumulate during seismic shearing and lead to liquefaction.
Liquefaction is most commonly observed in shallow, loose, saturated deposits of cohesionless
soils subjected to strong ground motions in large-magnitude earthquakes. Unsaturated soils are
not subject to liquefaction because volume compression does not generate excess pore pressures.
Liquefaction and large deformations are more likely with contractive soils while cyclic softening
and limited deformations are associated with dilative soils. The steady-state concept
demonstrates how the initial density and effective confining stress affect the liquefaction
characteristics of a particular soil.

39

Chapter No: 6

In the previous study, model which demonstrates Soil Liquefaction conditions in a laboratory
was successfully developed.
The model is capable of measuring the pore water pressure at which any given soil layer can
liquefy. A piezometer attached to the model gives the exact reading of pressure at which the soil
liquefies. Thus, the liquefaction theory and equations can be proved with the help of our model.
The model is basically static demonstration of liquefaction with simulation of the effect of
earthquake. However, dynamic behavior of the model is yet to be tested.
In the present study, the model was enhanced to elicit more information about the phenomenon
of liquefaction. The developed model has the attribute of varying pressure of influent liquid. A
pressure gauge affixed to the model measures the exact pressure of the flow in kg/cm 2. This can
help comprehend the effects of earthquakes of different magnitude on the same soil strata.
Higher the pressure of inflowing liquid, higher is the magnitude of earthquake which is
simulated. It is also possible to measure the time taken by the soil to liquefy. With the help of a
stopwatch, time can be recorded when the pore water pressure at liquefaction is reached in the
piezometer. Greater the magnitude of the earthquake, lesser will be the time taken for
liquefaction.
Using this data, it is possible to contemplate whether the given soil will liquefy or not for a
particular magnitude of earthquake.

40

References

Chapter-7

References
Bureau of Indian Standards
1. IS: 2720 Part 3 1980, Determination of Specific Gravity for fine-grained soils.
2. IS: 1498 1970, Classification and identification of soils for general engineering
purposes.
3. Arora K. R., Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering.
International Publications
1. Kaplan Alisha, Soil Liquefaction, Ph. D Thesis, Georgia Institute of Technology, USA.
2. Yuan Xiaoming, Cao Zhenzhong, Sun Rui, Preliminary Research on Liquefaction,
Institute of Engineering Mechanics, China.
3. Stephen F. Obermeier, Paleoseismic Analysis of Liquefaction, USA.
4. Desmond C. Andrews, Geoffrey R. Martin, Liquefaction Criteria of Silty Soils,

41

Chapter No: 7

University of South California, USA.

6. Wei F. Lee, Kenji Ishihara, Chun Chi-Chen, Liquefaction of Silty Sand Taiwan Case
Study, Japan.
7. Aminaton Marto,Tan Choy Soon, Liquefaction Susceptibility, Malaysia.
Website
1. http://nptel.ac.in
Website of webinars by Professors of Indian Institute of Technology, India.

42

Appendix

Chapter-8

Appendix
Technical Terms
Cohesion: It is the attraction or bonding force between fine grained soils that creates shear
strength.
Consolidation: The compression of a saturated soil under steady state pressure due to expulsion
of water from soil.
Effective size: The size of the particle elements such that only 10% particles are finer than this
size.
Effective stress: It is the nominal stress transmitted through the particle to particle in contact
with the soil. It controls the shear strength of the soil.
Grouting: It is a process in which holes are drilled in soil or rock and grout (mixture of cement
and water) is injected in the hole.
Pore pressure: It is the water pressure developed in voids of a soil mass. The shear strength is

43

Chapter No: 8

reduced due to increase in pore pressure.

Shear Strength: It is the ability of the soil to resist the stresses developed within a soil mass as a
result of loading imposed onto the soil. It is the maximum resistance offered just before failure of
structure.
Sieve: It is a pan having a screen or mesh bottom. It is used to separate particles of soil into
various sizes.
Soil: Refers to sand which is a coarse grained soil whose particles range from 0.075mm to
4.75mm.
Void ratio: It is the ratio of volume of voids to volume of soils.

44