e is no source for lean hydrocarbon gas, then possibly flue gas (88% N2, 12% CO2

) or nitrogen might be used. Both of these options require that a plant be const
ructed at the field to generate these gases in the large volumes needed. This ap
proach requires the economics of the project to justify the large capital expend
iture for such facilities, additional operating costs, and future impact of the
produced gas becoming increasingly contaminated with nonhydrocarbon components w
ith time.
Sometimes, the solution to the gas supply problem is to use a combination of sou
rces to provide the required volume of gas. At the Hawkins field, both residue h
ydrocarbon gas and flue gas initially were injected. More recently, nitrogen fro
m a cryogenic nitrogen rejection plant has been injected.[4][7][8]
Immiscible gas injection techniques
Immiscible gas injection is usually classified as either crestal or pattern, dep
ending on the location of the gas injection wells. The same physical principles
of oil displacement apply to either type of operation; however, the overall obje
ctives, type of field selected, and analytical procedures for predicting reservo
ir performance vary considerably by gas injection method. This pages discusses t
he general technical features of the various immiscible gas injection projects.
Crestal gas injection
Crestal gas injection, sometimes called external or gas-cap injection, uses inje
ction wells in higher structural positions, usually in the primary or secondary
gas cap. This manner of injection is generally used in reservoirs with significa
nt structural relief or thick oil columns with good vertical permeability. Injec
tion wells are positioned to provide good areal distribution and to obtain maxim
um benefit of gravity drainage. The number of injection wells required for a spe
cific reservoir depends on the injectivity of individual wells and the distribut
ion needed to maximize the volume of the oil column contacted.
Crestal injection, when applicable, is superior to pattern injection because of
the benefits of gravity drainage. In addition, crestal injection, if conducted a
t gravity-stable rates e.g., less than the critical rate (see Eq. 1 in Immiscible
gas injection performance) will result in greater volumetric sweep efficiency than
pattern injection operations. There are many examples of ongoing crestal inject
ion projects throughout the world, including some very large projects in the Mid
dle East.
Pattern gas injection
Pattern gas injection, sometimes called dispersed or internal gas injection, con
sists of a geometric arrangement of injection wells for the purpose of uniformly
distributing the injected gas throughout the oil-productive portions of the res
ervoir. In practice, injection-well/production-well arrays often vary from the c
onventional regular pattern configurations e.g., five-spot, seven-spot, nine-spot
(see Waterflood design for more description of these patterns) to irregular inject
ion-well spacing. The selection of an injection arrangement is a function of res
ervoir structure, sand continuity, permeability and porosity levels and variatio
ns, and the number and relative locations of existing wells.
This method of injection has been applied to reservoirs having low structural re
lief, relatively homogeneous reservoirs with low permeabilities, and reservoirs
with low vertical permeability. Many early immiscible gas-injection projects wer
e of this type. The greater injection-well density results in pattern gas inject
ion, rapid pressure and production response, and shortened reservoir depletion t
imes.
There are several limitations to pattern-type gas injection. Little or no improv
ement in recovery is derived from structural position or gravity drainage becaus
e both injection and production wells are located in all areas of the reservoir.

Low areal sweep efficiency results from gas override in thin stringers and by v
iscous fingering of gas caused by high flow velocities and adverse mobility rati
os. High injection-well density increases installation and operating costs. Typi
cal results of applying pattern injection in low-dip reservoirs are:
Rapid gas breakthrough
High producing GORs
Significant gas compression costs to reinject the gas into the reservoir
An improved recovery of < 10% of original oil in place (OOIP)
Note that gas inefficiently displaces oil in gas-swept areas. Attempts to subseq
uently waterflood such areas result in rapid water breakthrough and little, if a
ny, additional oil displacement.
Few pattern gas injection projects have been implemented in recent years because
this method is not as attractive economically as alternative methods for increa
sing oil recovery.
Optimum time to initiate gas injection operations
The optimum time to begin gas injection is site specific and depends on a balanc
e of risks, gas market availability, environmental considerations, and other fac
tors that affect project economics. When only oil recovery and improvements in r
eservoir producing characteristics are considered, reservoir conditions for gas
injection operations are usually more favorable when the reservoir is at or slig
htly below the oil bubblepoint pressure, unless the bubblepo