Winter and Heavy Weather Presentation - Presentation - Rev.0-Dd - Mm.yy

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03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Simulation and Training, Inc.
Course Scope
Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Simulation and Training, Inc. 2
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Course Objective
At the end of the course the participants

will be able to demonstrate acquired on
Ship Handling in Heavy Weather
Condition based on IMO guidance
through simulation

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Course Content

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Course Content

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I. Introduction to Winter and

Heavy Weather Maneuvering
The mariner that neglects the weather factor will

undoubtedly pay the price, sooner or later. Whether in
ship handling or in the protection of cargo meteorology
has always been an essential consideration to the
prosecution of the voyage. In the days of sail the wind
was all important. Favorable winds and currents will
remain basic elements of passage planning and the
successful execution of the ships endeavors.

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To know the subject is to
avoid heavy weather and all
that goes with it. Heavy rolling
or heavy pitching is at the
very least uncomfortable. If
and when it causes damage
to ship or cargo then it should
have been avoided if at all
possible. Such avoidance
cannot take place unless
seafarers know their enemy
and respect it across the
waters of the planet.
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Ship in rough Sea
03/09/10
Click image to play
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Winter
Winter is one of the four seasons of
temperate zones.
From a meteorological perspective,

winter is the season with the shortest
days and the lowest average
temperatures. It has colder weather
and, especially in the higher latitudes
or altitudes, snow and ice. The
coldest average temperatures of the
season are typically experienced in
January in the Northern Hemisphere
and in July in the Southern
Hemisphere. Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime
03/09/10
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METEOROLOGICAL TERMS
Anabatic

This term refers to the upward
movement of air due to convection.
An anabatic wind ascends a hillside or
blows up a valley.

Anemometer

This is an instrument used to register
and determine the velocity of the
wind.

Aneroid Barometer
A dry mechanical instrumentPhilippine

03/09/10 for Center for Advanced Maritime
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Anti-cyclone

An area of high pressure, with clockwise calculation of air in
the northern hemisphere, and anti-clockwise in the southern
hemisphere, defuses an anti-cyclone Winds are generally light
to moderate.

Aurora

This shimmering area of light is caused by an electrical
discharge in the atmosphere over high northern and southern
latitude...The Northern Lights are called the Aurora Borealis
and the Southern Light the Aurora Australia

Backing

Thins means a change in the direction of the wind in an anti-
clockwise sense, e.g. from north through west to south and
then east. This is the opposite of veering, which occurs when
the wind direction changes in a clockwise
03/09/10 direction.
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Bar

An international unit of atmospheric pressure, at sea level a
bar is equal to the pressure of a column of mercury 20.53in
high at a temperature of 32°F at latitude 45'

Barograph

This instrument provides a permanent recant, in graphical
form, of the continuous changes in atmospheric pressure. It
may be described as a continuous recording aneroid
barometer

Barometer

This is au instrument for measuring barometric pressure.
Corrections are made to the readings for latitude,
temperature, and height above sea level.

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Doldrums

Thu area of calm, variable winds Les between the NE and
SE Trades. Occasional squalls and torrential rain may be
encountered within the area.

Etesian

A northerly wind encountered among the Greek islands the
Etesian is of katabatic organ 'Katabatic wind.

Evaporation

In this process water or ice air convened into an aqueous
vapour.


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Fog

It is defined as visible vapour at the earth's surface Mists may he
similarly defined except that may tends not to impede navigation
to the same degree as fog. A state of fog clam when visibility n
less than 1000 yd (914,4 m).

Gale

A strong wind in excess of 40 knots and represented by forces 8
and 9 on the Beaufort Wind Scale constitutes a gale. Cone-shaped
signals exhibited by coastal stations give warning of the approach
and direction of a gale.
Gulf Stream

This warm water current flows front the Gulf of Mexico sip the cast
coast of the United States" and then moves m an easterly
direction as the North Manor Drift Current, towards the European
continent
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Hail

A hard ice pellet, which generally falls from cumulonimbus
cloud, had is usually associated with thunderstorm Hailstones
vary in sire. They are built up by concentric lawn of ice
forming on top of each other. One theory is that the nucleus
is a particle of dust which attracts moisture, and the moisture
subsequently freezes.

Halo

A circle of light caused by retraction which forms about the
sun or moon

Haze

A reduction of visibility caused by dust or smoke in the
atmosphere, limiting the range to about 1.25 miles (2km),
and haze is not to be confused with
03/09/10 mist,
Philippine which
Center is
for Advanced brought
Maritime
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Horse Latitudes

This term is given to the area of calm and light, variable winds
between the 30th and 4.0th parallels. In general, they lie
between the trade vs. mils and the prevailing westerly winds.

Mirage

Abnormal refraction and reflection of light rays may cause a
false horizon in the burr Lavers of the atmosphere because of
the differing densities of the layers. When a mirage is seen over
water, distant ships may appear, sometimes upside down.

Monsoon

This seasonal wind blows over much of SE Asia, sometimes from
the land and sometimes from the sea. In fact, it may be
compared to the definition for land and sea breezes above,
except that the occurrence is seasonal rather than daily, and
over a much larger area
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Phosphorescence

This luminous effect on the surface of the water, showing
bluish points of light, has never been explained
satisfactorily.

Polar Front

This is the line of demarcation between a cold polar air mass
and warmer air from more temperate latitudes.

Precipitation

The conversion of water vapour into visible rain, snow, sleet,
hail, dew etc. is called precipitation.

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Radiation

This is the process of heat being transferred by wave
energy.

Rain

This comprises water droplets, formed by the condensation
of water Vapour. The maximum size of each droplet will not
exceed 5.5 mm, and its maximum velocity, depending on
sire, when falling will nut exceed 17.9 mph (29 kmph)

Rainbow

An arc formed by refracted and reflected light from water
droplet in the atmosphere, it can only be seen when the
observer is looking into a rain cloud or shower of rain with
the sun at his back.
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Recurvature of Storm

Often referred to as the vertex of the path of the storm, the
recurvature represents that point which is as far west as the
centre of the tropical storm will reach. Also known as the
'cod'

Refraction

This is the bending of a ray of light when passing from one
medium to another of different density.

Ridge

The term may be applied to a 'ridge of high pressure',
indicating a bulge or extension of a high pressure area
between two lows.

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Sleet

A mixture of rain and snow or partially melted snow
becomes sleet.

Snow

Light ice crystals fall as snow.

Squall

This is a sudden change in wind velocity.., often increasing
considerably over a short period of time, with little warning.
It can consequently cause serious damage, especially to
small craft.


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Stratosphere

This is the region of the atmosphere above the troposphere in
which the lapse rate is about tern and in which the phenomena
comprising 'weather' do not occur. The stratosphere begins at a
height of sonic 11 mile at the equator.
Temperature

A condition which determines heat transfer from a hot to a colder
body. Temperature may be expressed in degrees Fahrenheit (oF
Celsius (°C), Kelvin (°K) or Absolute (°A).

Thunder

This is a violent report caused by the expansion of air as it
becomes heated along the path of a lightning flash.
Rumbling thunder is experienced at a distance from the lightning,
and may be accentuated by echoes. As sound travels through the
air at 1100 ft per second and light travels at the rate of 186.000
miles per second, there is always a delay
03/09/10
afterCenter
Philippine a lightning flash
for Advanced Maritime
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Tornado

A violent whirlwind about an area of low pressure, the tornado is most

common in the United States, where they have been known to create
considerable damage. The diameter of the whirlwind area is small, usually
5O-200m, but wind speed, may be in excess of 200 knots about the
centre. Actual wind speed in the centre is zero, but updraft may lift objects
into the air.

Trade Winds

Permanent winds which blow toward the equator, trade winds usually
measure between 3 and 5 on the Beaufort Scale. They are generally
referred to as NE Trades when they blow over the North Atlantic and North
Pacific from below latitude 30°N towards the equator, and SE Trades when
they

Wedge

A ridge of relatively high pressure, sutured between two low pressure
areas, it is often toughly wedge-shaped,

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Tornado

A violent whirlwind about an area of low pressure, the tornado is
most common in the United States, where they have been known
to create considerable damage. The diameter of the whirlwind
area is small, usually 5O-200m, but wind speed, may be in excess
of 200 knots about the centre. Actual wind speed in the centre is
zero, but updraft may lift objects into the air.

Trade Winds

Permanent winds which blow toward the equator, trade winds
usually measure between 3 and 5 on the Beaufort Scale. They are
generally referred to as NE Trades when they blow over the North
Atlantic and North Pacific from below latitude 30°N towards the
equator, and SE Trades when they

Wedge

A ridge of relatively high pressure, sutured between two low
pressure areas, it is often toughly wedge-shaped,
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Wind

The movement of air parallel or nearly
parallel to the surface of the earth, the
wind is named after the direction from
which it comes.


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FORECAST AREAS
Fig. 12.1 UK coastal

forecast areas

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WEATHER SCALES

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WEATHER SCALES
Table 12.2 Beaufort Weather Notation

Symbols Meaning
b • Blue sky with clear or hazy atmosphere, with less
than one quarter of the sky area clouded
C • Cloudy with detached opening cloud, where more
than three-quarters of the sky area is
clouded
bc • Sky area clouded over between one-quarter and
three-quarters of the total area
d • Drizzle or fine rain
e • Wet air with no rain falling
f • Fog
fe • Wet fog
g • Gloomy
h • Hail
kq • Line Squall
l • Lightening
m • Mist
o • Overcast Sky
p • Passing Showers
q • Squalls
r • Rain
n • Sleet
s • Snow
t • Thunder
tl • Thunderstorm
u • Ugly threatening sky
v • Unusual Visibility
w • Dew
z • Dust haze

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WEATHER SCALES
Table 12.3 Wave Scale
State of Sea Height in meters
Calm – glassy 0
Calm – rippled 0-0.1
Smooth wavelets 0.1-0.5
Slight 0.5-1.25
Moderate 1.25-2.5
Rough 2.5-4.0
Very rough 4.0-6.0
High 6.0-9.0
Very High 9.0-14.0
Phenomenal Over 14.0

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WEATHER SCALES
Length of swell Height in meters
Short 0-100
Average 100-200
Long Over 200
Height of Swell Height in meters
Low 0-2.0
Moderate 2.0-4.0
Heavy Over 4.0

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WEATHER SCALES

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WEATHER SCALES

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WEATHER SCALES

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WAVY WEATHER PRECAUTIONS (GENERAL CARGO VESSEL)
OPEN WATER CONDITIONS

Stability

Improve the 'GM' of the scud (if
appropriate).
Remove tire surface elements if possible.
Ballast the vessel down
Pump out any swimming pool
Inspect and check the freeboard deck seal.
Close all water tight doors.
Clear decks of all surplus gear.
Slack off whistle and signal halyards.
Warn all heads of departments of impending
heavy weather.

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EFFECTS OF HEAVY WEATHER ON VESSEL AT
SEA

To describe the behavior of any vessel in a heavy sea the mariner

should first be aware that every vessel, depending on her build,
GM, state of loading etc. will perform differently
Stiff and link
A large GM will render a vessel stiff. i.e. give her a short period of
roll and subsequent damage may be sustained by rapid rolling. A
small GM will render the vessel tender, i.e. she will have a long
slow roll motion. The two conditions, usually brought about by
incorrect loading or ballasting, should be avoided, so that
unnecessary stress in the structure of the vessel when in a
seaway is avoided.

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SEA

Periods of Roll and Encounter

Period of roll may be defined as that time taken by a ship to roll
from port to starboard, or vice-versa, and back again. The 'period
of roll' will be to a great extent controlled by the GM of the vessel
and by the disposition of weights away from the fore and aft line.

Period of encounter may be defined as that time between the
passages of two successive wave crests under the ship.
Figure 12.6 Vessel with short

period of roll compared to period
encounter
Figure 12.7 Vessel with long

period of roll compared to period
of encounter

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SEA

Synchronism
This is most dangerous and a highly undesirable

condition for a vessel to experience and occurs
when the period of roll is equal, or nearly equal,
to the half period of the waves.
Synchronized pitching - when the period of

encounter is similar to the vessel's period of pitch
- may also occur.

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GENERAL BEHAVIOUR OF VESSEL IN HEAVY 'WEATHER
The options available to a vessels running into

heavy weather can be restricted to five main
categories:
1.Head to sea, or with wind and sea fine on the

bow, running at reduced speed.
1.Stern to sea. at reduced speed, running before

the wind.
1.Heaving to, preferably in the lee of a land nun.

to allow the weather to pass

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GENERAL BEHAVIOUR OF VESSEL IN HEAVY 'WEATHER
1. Heaving to
2. Use of Anchors
3. Use of Sea Anchor
4. Abnormal Waves
5. Tropical Revolving Storm

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Anchor Lee

Submerged ice attached or secured to the
bottom is known as anchor ice.

Bar Ice

Ice without any snow covering.

Bergy Bit

A large piece of floating ice, this is between 1 in
and 5 m above the surface of the water.
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Brash Ice

An accumulation of broken, floating ice, this contains
pieces up to approximately 2 m across.
Compact Pack Ice

A heavy concentration of pack ice, where no water is
visible

Computed Ice Edge

A clear cut ice edge this is generally found on the
windward side of an area of pack ice, compacted by
the action of wind or current.

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Concentration

A ratio expressing the density of ice
accumulation, concentration is expressed in
tenths of the total area.

Consolidated Pack Ice

A concentration of 10/10, where the ice flows are
frozen together

Crack

This is a splint or fracture in the ice surface,
which has not parted. Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime
03/09/10
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Difficult Area

A general term used to describe the area as difficult for
purpose of navigation.

Easy Area

A general term used to describe the area as not too difficult
tin the purpose of navigation.
Fast Ice

This is sea ice which has become 'fast' to the shore, ice wall
or other similar surface. It may be formed by the freezing
of sea water close inshore or by pack ice freezing to the
shore or other surfaces. Should its height extend more than
2 m. it would be referred to as an ice shelf.
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
First Year Ice

A term derived from young ice, being sea ice of not mote
than one winter's growth, this ice is between 30cm and 2m
thick.

Flaw

A narrow dividing section between the pack ice and fast
ice, a flaw is formed by the shearing of the former from the
latter

Floating Ice

This general term is also used with regard to grounded or
stranded ice.
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Floe

This is a flat piece of ice more than 20m across. Floes are
sub-divided according to size as giant, vast, big, medium
and small.

Floeberg

A massive piece of sea ice, a floeberg made up of one or
more hummocks frozen together, the whole being
separated from any other surrounding ice.

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Fracture

This general term is used to describe any fracture/break of

unspecified length. The width of the Freak a called:

large when over 500m.
medium when 200-500m,
small when 50-200 m. and
very small when less than 50m.

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Growler

This piece of ice shows less dun I m above the surface of the
water. Its volume is less than that of a bergy “bit", and it usually
has an area of approximately 20 sq. m. As a growler makes a very
poor radar target, it is often very dangerous to navigation.

Hummock

A build-up of Ice forced up by pressure is called a hummock, and a
similar build-up of broken ice forced downwards by pressure is
referred to as a 'hummock'.

Ice Belt

A long pack ice feature, an ice belt is longer than it’s wide. Length
will vary from about half a mile (1 km approx.) to more than 62
miles (100km).

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Iceberg

An enormous piece of ice more than 5 mint height
above the surface of the water, an iceberg originate,
from a glacier and may be afloat or aground. When
afloat, the greatest volume of the iceberg the beneath
the surface.
Ice Bound

When navigation in or out of a harbour is restricted by
an accumulation of ice, the harbour is said to be 'ice
bound'.

lce Cake

A flat piece or cake of sea ice, Ins
03/09/10 than 20 mandacross.
Simulation Training, Inc.
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Ice Edge

This may be described as the dividing line between the
open sea and the limit of sea ice (ice boundary).

Pancake Ice

Circular pieces of ice up to 3m in diameter and about 10
cm in thickness, pancake ice curls up at the edges when
pieces crash into each other.

Rafted Ice

This is deformed ice caused by layer riding on top of each
other. Pressure changes cause the overriding, which is
more often found in young ice.
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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Rotten Ice

This is ice in an advanced state of decomposition, usually
consisting of light small pieces breaking up continuously.

Sea Ice

Ice formed from freezing sea water, found at sea, is called
sea ice.

Stranded Ice

This is ice left ashore by a falling tide.

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ICE TERMINOLOGY
Tabular Berg

A flat-topped iceberg in the southern hemisphere.

Very Clue Park Ice

A concentration of pack ice between tune- and ten-tenths
coverage is described by this term.

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ICE NAVIGATION
In general, when a vessel has to advance through ice

areas, the progress of the ship will be dependent on:
a.The nature of the ice.
b.The qualities of the vessel, scantlings, ice breaker bow
c.construction, and motive power of machinery
d.Expertise and experience of the Master.
e.Operational qualities of navigational instruments.
f.Assistance of tugs or ice breaker vessels.
g.Ice convoy facilities.

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ICE NAVIGATION
Operating in Ice


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SINGLE-LETTERS SIGNALS BETWEEN ICE-BREAKER ASSISTED
VESSELS
The following single-letter signals, when nude

between an ice-breaker And assisted vessels, have
only the modifications given in this table and arc
only to be made by sound visual or radiotelephony
signals.

WM Ice-breaker support is now commencing. Use
special ice-breaker support signals and keep
continuous watch for sound, visual or
radiotelephony

WO Ice-breaker support is finished. Proceed to
your destination.
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VESSELS

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Ice Damage
The extent of any damage will depend on the

condition the Ice the vessel is passing through. The
mariner should be prepared to accept some
damage to the vessel, while limiting the amount as
much as possible.

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VESSELS
The following single-letter signals, when nude

between an ice-breaker And assisted vessels, have
only the modifications given in this table and arc
only to be made by sound visual or radiotelephony
signals.

WM Ice-breaker support is now commencing. Use
special ice-breaker support signals and keep
continuous watch for sound, visual or
radiotelephony

WO Ice-breaker support is finished. Proceed to
your destination.
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II. Accident Case Studies Involving

Heavy Weather

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Heavy Weather
Heavy weather is any weather condition that

results in high winds, extreme sea states, and
heavy rain, snow and/or hail.
Click image to play

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Maneuvering To Avoid The Storm
Center

The safest procedure with respect to tropical

cyclones is to avoid them. If action is taken
sufficiently early, this is simply a matter of
setting a course that will take the vessel well to
one side of the probable track of the storm,
and then continuing to plot the positions of the
storm center as given in the weather bulletins,
revising the course as needed.

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Center

In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right of the

storm track (facing in the direction toward which the
storm is moving) is called the dangerous semicircle. It
is considered dangerous because;
•the actual wind speed is greater than that due to the

pressure gradient alone, since it is augmented by the
forward motion of the storm, and
• the direction of the wind and sea is such as to carry a

vessel into the path of the storm (in the forward part of
the semicircle).

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Center

Northern Hemisphere
Right or dangerous semicircle
Bring the wind on the starboard bow (045° relative), hold course and
make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with head to the
sea.
Left or Less Dangerous Semicircle
Bring the wind on the starboard quarter (135° relative), hold course and
make as much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with stern to the
sea.
On Storm Track, Ahead of Center
Bring the wind 2 points on the starboard quarter (135° relative), hold
course and make as much way as possible. When well within the less
dangerous semicircle, maneuver as indicated above.
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Center

On Storm Track, Behind Center
Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind the
tendency of tropical cyclones to curve northward and eastward.
Southern Hemisphere
Left or Dangerous Semicircle
Bring the wind on the port bow (315° relative), hold course and make as
much way as possible. If necessary, heave to with head to the sea.
Right or Less Dangerous Semicircle
Bring the wind on the port quarter (225° relative), hold and make as much
way as possible. if necessary, heave to with stern to the sea.

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Center

On Storm Track, of Center
Bring the wind about 2000 relative, hold course and make as much way
as possible. When well within the less dangerous semicircle, maneuver
as indicated above.
On Storm Track, Behind Center
Avoid the center by the best practicable course, keeping in mind the
tendency of tropical cyclones to curve southward and eastward.

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NAVIGATING IN OR NEAR ICE
Experience has shown that ships that are not ice strengthened and with
a speed of 12 knots often become firmly beset in light ice conditions
Whereas an adequately powered ice strengthened, ship should be able

to make progress through 6/10 to 7/10 first year ice.
The engines and steering gear of any ship intending to operate in ice
must be reliable and capable of quick response to maneuvering orders
Navigational and communications equipment must be equally reliable

and particular attention should be paid to maintaining radar at peak
performance.

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NAVIGATING IN OR NEAR ICE
 Ship's operating in ice should be ballasted and trimmed so

that the propeller is completely submerged and as deep as
possible, but without excessive stern trim which reduces
maneuverability.
 If the tips of the propeller are exposed above the surface or

just under the surface, the risk of damage due to the propeller
striking ice is greatly increased.
 Ballast and fresh water tanks should be kept not more than
90% full to avoid risk of damage to them from expansion if the
water freezes.
 Good searchlights should be available for night navigation,

with or without ice breaker report.

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PASSAGE THROUGH ICE
The ice should be entered from leeward, if possible. The

windward edge of an ice field is more compact than the leeward
edge, and wave action is less on the leeward edge.
The ice edge often has bights separated by projecting tongues.

By entering at one of the bights, the surge will be found to be
least.
Ice should be entered at very low speed and at right angles to

the ice edge to receive the initial impact, and once into the ice
speed should be increased to maintain headway and control of
the ship.

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USE OF ENGINES AND RUDDER IN
ICE
Engines must be prepared to go full astern at any time.
Propellers are the most vulnerable part of the ship.
Propellers are the most vulnerable part of the ship.
Ships should go astern in ice with extreme care, and always

with the rudder amidships.
If a ship is stopped by a heavy concentration of ice, the rudder

should be put amidships and the engines kept turning slowly
ahead. This will wash the ice astern clear.

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USE OF ENGINES AND RUDDER IN
ICE
 Violent rudder movements should only be used in

emergency. They may swing the stern into the ice.
 Frequent use of the rudder, especially in the hard

over position, has the effect of slowing down the
vessel's passage through ice.
 Too much rudder when pushing through the ice or

following an ice breaker may bring the vessel to a
complete stop.

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ANCHORING NEAR ICE
 In a heavy concentration of ice anchoring should be

avoided.
 If ice is moving, its tremendous force may break the

cable.
 When conditions permit anchoring, the windlass

and main engine should be kept at immediate
notice, and the anchor weighed as soon as wind
threatens to move ice on to the ship.

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BEAUFORT SCALE

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BEAUFORT SCALE

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Accidents at Sea Involving Heavy
Weather
1992 - Aegean Sea
On 3 December 1992, the 114,000 tonne Greek-flagged OBO carrier Aegean

Sea, carrying 80,000 tonnes of crude oil, grounded in bad weather while
entering La Coruna, Spain.
The pilot was just about to board the ship when she grounded. The impact
fractured the hull spilling about 74,000 tonnes which subsequently caught fire
and the ship exploded. Being an OBO ship Aegean Sea had a double hull.
The cause of the accident was again human error caused by faulty
navigation in bad weather conditions.

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Weather
1993 – Braer
Following engine failure, Braer ran aground in

severe weather conditions on Garth's Ness,
Shetland on 5 January 1993. Over a period of
12 days the entire cargo of 84,700 tonnes of
Norwegian Gullfaks crude oil, plus up to 1,500
tonnes of heavy bunker oil, were lost as almost
constant storm force winds and heavy seas
broke the ship apart.
Weather conditions prevented the use of

mechanical recovery equipment at sea, although
about 130 tonnes of chemical dispersant was
applied from aircraft during periods when the
wind abated slightly and some oil remained on
the surface. Oiling of shorelines was minimal
relative to the size of the spill and cleanup
involved the collection of oily debris and
seaweed by a small workforce.
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Weather
MV Princess of the Stars
The MV Princess of the Stars, flagship of the

Sulpicio Lines fleet, left the port of Manila on
June 20, 2008 on its way to Cebu City. The
number of passengers is variously reported
between 700and 800. The ferry sent a distress
signal at midday on June 21 when its engines
allegedly stalled in rough seas near Sibuyan
Island. San Fernando mayor Nanette Tansingco
sent a speedboat and confirmed that the ferry
had a hole in the hull, was partially submerged
and that several bodies had been found nearby.
Later reports revealed that the hole in the hull
was actually the ship's bow thruster.

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Weather
Accident at Sea involving Heavy Weather
Click image to play

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III. Drifting Pattern of Disabled

Ship in Heavy Weather

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Drifting Pattern of Disabled Ship in
Heavy Weather
Prediction technology of the drift speed and direction of

disabled ships which include extraordinary ship forms due to
shipwrecked, broken, capsized situations has to be
established. The hydrodynamic force has been estimated by
the experimental results using the tanker model divided into
10 parts. The drifting experiment using broken ship model
was carried out to estimate the drift speed and direction.

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Heavy Weather

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Heavy Weather
Figure 2. shows an
example of steady drift
simulation results on the
certain sea condition. It
can be found that we have
5 solutions in this case.
This image is the graphic
expression of Optimum
Towing Support System
(OTSS). Theoretical
calculation method of
wave drifting speed was
derived from the analysis
of measured drifting
speed of a buoy

80
Heavy Weather
Drift motion simulation
Figure 1 shows the drift motion of the tanker model in

regular waves. This shows the trajectory of the ship with
different initial wave incident angle. It is found that the plural
drift condition can be confirmed experimentally in certain
wave condition.

81
Heavy Weather

82
Heavy Weather
Figure 3 shows the relation between wave slope and

drifting speed and Figure 4 shows the linear
coefficient of wave drifting speed of the buoy. In long
wave range, drifting speed is decided by wave
induced current speed, and it is proportional to the
square of wave slope. Taking this wave drifting
mechanism, the estimation method covering entire
wave range was proposed.

83
Heavy Weather

84
Heavy Weather
Figure 5 shows the flow of the estimation method of

drift resistance. This method can treat every shaped
bodies. Starting from the estimation of 2-D case with
different dimension and flow direction, 3-D effect of
depth can be considered. It can also include the round
corner effect.

85
Heavy Weather

86
Heavy Weather

87
Heavy Weather

88
IV. Freak Waves

89
Freak Waves
It is well known that extreme waves often occur in

areas were waves propagate into a strong opposing
current.
A well known example where many large ships have

encountered difficulties is the Agulhas current outside
South Africa. The strong current going south meets
strong swell from storms in the Antarctic Ocean.

90
Freak Waves

91
Freak Waves
In areas where waves from storms in the open ocean approach

shallower waters (e.g. several locations along the Norwegian coast),
the waves will be refracted and diffracted as shown in the picture
below (Aerial photo of an area near Kiberg on the coast of Finnmark,
taken 12 June 1976 by Fjellanger Widerøe A.S.)

92
Freak Waves
On January 1st 1995 an extreme wave was measured under the

Draupner platform (16/11-E) in the North Sea providing indisputable
evidence that such waves do indeed exist.
This wave has been known in the international scientific community as

the "new year wave". The maximal amplitude of 18.5 m is more than
three times the significant amplitude for the wave train! The maximal
wave height of 25.6 m is much more than twice the significant wave
height of about 10.8 m. The time series is reproduced below with the
surface elevation in meters as a function of the time in seconds.

93
Freak Waves

94
Freak Waves
Analysis of the ocean state around this waves shows that the wave
train as a whole is weakly nonlinear and has relatively small
bandwidth. This justifies the use of nonlinear Schrödinger equations as
simplified mathematical models for wave description.
If we suppose that the wave above is long crested, we can simulate it

numerically forward and backward in space. Below we show how the
time series develops upstream (left figure) and downstream (right
figure) in intervals of 50 meters. One characteristic wave length is
about 260 meters.

95
Freak Waves

96
Freak Waves
The following important observations can be made from the

numerical simulation above:
A group of a couple of large waves is visible up to several

wavelengths upstream.
Close to the extreme wave crest there is an almost equally

dramatic wave trough.
An observer on the platform would have seen a wall of water,

twice as high as all other waves, approaching during about one
minute.

97
Rogue Waves
Rogue waves (also known as freak waves, monster

waves, killer waves, and extreme waves) are relatively
large and spontaneous ocean surface waves that are a
threat even to large ships and ocean liners.
Rogue’ is a generic term given to an unusually large wave

appearing in a smaller set of waves. Trip reports often talk
about the biggest wave (or set of waves) seen that day
arriving during a beach launch or exit, damaging boats and
threatening life and limb.

98
Rogue Waves
Click image to play

99
Rogue Waves
Some of the characteristics of

rogue waves are:
they are greater than twice the

size of the ‘significant wave
heights’ of surrounding waves,
they are often deep water
waves,
they may be associated with a
very deep trough and other
uncommonly large waves
moving in a set or ‘train’,

100
Rogue Waves
 they often come

unexpectedly from
directions other than
prevailing wind and
waves,
 they probably last only a
short time or distance
(minutes or a few hundred
metres), and
 they are unpredictable -
though they do occur more
frequently in some places
in the world.

101
Rogue Waves
SO HOW DO THESE
MONSTER WAVES
FORM?
There are a number of

factors that generate
waves. Underwater seismic
movements and other
natural phenomena can
generate huge waves
(called tsunamis), but most
waves are generated by
wind.

102
Rogue Waves
Causes
The phenomenon of rogue waves is still a matter of active

research, so it is too early to say clearly what the most
common causes are or whether they vary from place to
place. The areas of highest predictable risk appear to be
where a strong current runs counter to the primary
direction of travel of the waves

103
Rogue Waves
Suggested mechanisms for freak waves include the

following:
Diffractive focusing — According to this hypothesis,

coast shape or seabed shape directs several small waves
to meet in phase. Their crest heights combine to create a
freak wave.
Focusing by currents — Storm forced waves are driven

into an opposing current. This results in shortening of
wavelength, causing shoaling (i.e., increase in wave
height), and oncoming wave trains to compress together
into a rogue wave.

104
Rogue Waves
 Nonlinear effects — It seems possible to have a rogue

wave occur by natural, nonlinear processes from a
random background of smaller waves.
 Normal part of the wave spectrum — Rogue waves are

not freaks at all but are part of normal wave generation
process, albeit a rare extremity

105
Rogue Waves
 Wind waves — While it is unlikely that wind alone can

generate a rogue wave, its effect combined with other
mechanisms may provide a fuller explanation of freak
wave phenomena.

106
Rogue Waves
There are three categories of freak waves:
"Walls of water" travelling up to 10 km (6.2 mi) through

the ocean
"Three Sisters", groups of three waves
Single, giant storm waves, building up to fourfold the

storm's waves height and collapsing after some seconds.

107
IV. Intact Stability and

Wind/Weather Criteria

108
Intact Stability and Wind/Weather
Criteria
The aim of this topic is to introduce dynamic criteria for the

intact stability of ships which cover the phenomena of
parametric roll and pure loss of stability on the wave crest.
These phenomena can be related to alterations of the
righting levers in wave crest and wave trough condition.
The dynamic criteria proposed in this report shall be seen

as additional criteria to the existing intact stability criteria
and they should be applied for all types of ships covered
by IMO- instruments.

109
Criteria
Principle of the Criteria
Figure 1: Righting levers of a (RoRo) ship in still water, crest and trough
conditions at the actual limiting GM according to the Intact Code (left) and
for the same ship according to the Damage Stability Limit
(right).
110
Criteria
The dynamic criteria reflect on the following two

phenomena which may occur in rough weather:
Pure loss of stability on the wave crest
Excessive roll angles due to parametric excitation

111
Criteria
Figure 2: Areas below still water righting levers (left) and the area
difference trough- crest (right) for the same ship as above.

112
Criteria
Structure of the new Criteria
Dynamic Criteria for Pure Loss and Parametric Rolling
The areas under the still water righting lever from 0 Degree to 15 Degree
(A15Still ) and from 0 Degree to 40 Degree (A40Still ) shall take at least the
following value:
A15Still = [0.5](A15Trough − A15Crest ) (1)

A40Still = [0.75](A40Trough − A40Crest ) (2)

113
Criteria
where:
• A15Still means the area under the still water righting lever up to an
angle of 15 Degree
• A15Trough means the area under the wave trough righting lever up to
an angle of 15 Degree
• 40Still means the area under the still water righting lever up to an angle
of 40 Degree
• 40Trough means the area under the wave trough righting lever up to an
angle of 40 Degree
• 40Crest means the area under the wave crest righting lever up to an angle of 40
Degree

114
Criteria
Determination of the righting levers
Figure 3: Determination of the critical wave for crest and trough

condition. Note that the critical wave has to be determined for the
ship in full equilibrium with respect to draft, trim and heel which has
been omitted in this figure for simplification reasons.
115
Criteria
Calculation procedure, summarized
The following procedure should be applied for each draft which is relevant for
the limiting GM- required or KGMAX- Curve:

116
Criteria
The picture below shows a calculation example for the A40Crest (left) and the
final righting levers of the same ship as in the figures above which fulfill the
dynamic criteria suggested (right)
Figure 4: Calculation example for the determination of A40Crest (left). The

resulting area is a1+a2=-0.004 mrad. The area must be calculated to 40
Degree and not be limited by the angle of down flooding.
117
Criteria
Severe wind and rolling criterion (weather criterion)
Weather criterion
Assumptions
he ability of a ship to withstand the combined effects of beam wind and rolling
is to be demonstrated for each standard condition of loading, with reference to
Fig 1 as follows:
Figure 1 : Severe wind and

rolling

118
Criteria

119
Criteria
Heeling levers
The wind heeling levers lw1 and lw2 , in m, are constant values at all angles of
inclination and are to be calculated as follows:

120
Criteria

121
Criteria
Angles of heel

122
Criteria
Angles of heel

123
Criteria
Note 1 : The angle of roll q1 for ships with anti-rolling devices is to be

determined without taking into account the operations of these devices.
Note 2 : The angle of roll q1 may be obtained, in lieu of the above formula,
from model tests or full scale measurements.The rolling period TR, in s, is
calculated as follows:
where:

124
Criteria

125
Criteria

126
1.6 Basic Ship’s Motion in a

Seaway and Wave Theory

127
Basic Ship’s Motion in a Seaway and
Wave Theory
The response of a ship to waves is very complex. Having

a certain velocity of advance, a ship experiences the
wave excitation at an encounter frequency. As we will
see, this frequency is not related linearly to the wave
frequency, as seen from a fixed point, but varies with ship
speed and predominant direction between waves in a
nonlinear fashion.

128
Wave Theory
Ship Motions in a Seaway
Encounter frequency / period
as far as ship motions are concerned, it is the period of encounter

with the waves that is important rather than the absolute period of the
wave
the ship is moving relative to the waves and it will meet successive
peaks and troughs in a shorter or longer time interval depending on
whether it advances into the waves or is travelling in the same
direction as the waves

129
Wave Theory
 the situation can be generalized by considering the ship at an

angle to the wave crest line as shown:

130
Wave Theory
 measured at a fixed point, the wave period is:
T = Lw / Vw
 if the ship travels at Vs at a to the direction of wave

advance, in time TE (encounter time), the ship will
have travelled distance TEVs cos a in the wave
direction and the waves will have traveled TEVw

131
Wave Theory
 if TE is the period of encounter, then:
 if the ship travels in the same direction as the waves,

the period of encounter is greater than the wave
period, if it is running into the waves, the period of
encounter is less
 this is the frequency / period that would be seen in the

spectrum of the ship motions, not the actual frequency
of the wave as it would appear in an inertial reference
frame

132
Wave Theory
encounter
spectra in head
seas

133
Wave Theory
Synchronous roll
when the encounter period is

the same or nearly the same as
the natural period of the ship, a
superposition of inclining
energies exists, and the result is
very heavy roll
this is analogous to an
elastically mounted rigid mass
being forced at its natural
frequency

134
Wave Theory
 such heavy rolling is not uncommon and it can

be clearly distinguished from rolling due to a lack
of stability
 synchronous rolling is NOT due to a lack of

stability
 ship of large GM or large static righting moments

are those that are more apt to encounter
synchronous roll
 ship of low GM are much less frequently subject

to such rolling

135
Wave Theory
 follows from, rolling in a seaway:
 WHERE:
 C is an empirical constant (0.38- 0.55, depending upon ship

and loading)
 B is extreme beam (ft)

136
Wave Theory
 the roll period varies inversely as the root of the metacentric height
 therefore, the greater the GM for the same ship beam, the shorter is
the natural roll period
 at the same time, for larger vessels, the shorter the period of roll (12
seconds and lower), the greater the probability for synchronizing with
the wave period e.g. large Atlantic storm waves are 500 – 600 ft in
wavelength and have a period of 10 – 11 seconds
 under such conditions, a large ship of low GM would have a period in

excess of the period of these waves and would be safe from
synchronous roll
 on the other hand, a similar ship of large GM with a period of about

10 – 11 seconds would be susceptible to synchronous roll

137
Wave Theory
Coupled pitching and heaving

pitch considered analogous to roll except that the
axis of rotation is 90 degrees to the roll axis in the
same plane
undamped natural pitch is typically between 1/3 and

2/3 of the natural period of roll
with pitch, yaw, and heave, more difficult to describe

ship motion as an isolated phenomenon as you can in
roll

138
Wave Theory
 pitch and heave are inter-related and affected by

roll, yaw, sway and surge
 pitch and heave motion in a real sea are coupled

and produces undesirable ship operation
conditions, namely: speed reduction, slamming,
and wet decks and their interference with human
and machinery functions
 more convexity in the forward and after sections of

a ship can reduce these undesirable effects
 these requirements often conflict with those for high

cruising speeds
139
Wave Theory
 Yawing
 ship yaw is the result of three possible

mechanisms:
 inequality of static pressures on the hull

 orbital motions of the water in a seaway
 gyroscopic action

140
Wave Theory
 in general, the wave profile on the port and starboard sides of

the ship are not the same therefore, the longitudinal position
of the center of pressure on one side of the submerged
portion of the ship is offset longitudinally and vertically from
that on the other side
Yawing is motion around the

ship's vertical axis.

141
Wave Theory
 this creates a rotating couple about the vertical axis

– this manifests as a yawing and heeling moment
 as the wave profiles change with the seas, the

yawing couple changes in magnitude and direction,
producing an oscillation
 this oscillation occurs at the apparent period of the

waves passing the ship could correct by
anticipating the motion and then
 compensating with appropriate rudder action

142
Wave Theory
 dynamic yawing action also produced by the orbital rotation of

the water in a wave
 as shown in the diagram, a ship moving in quartering sea or

the sea at an angle to the bow is subjected to a yawing
couple
 as the wave passes the ship, changing form the crest to the
trough at the bow and from the trough to the crest in the after
portions of the ship, the couple direction is reversed
 net result is a yawing oscillation with the same period as the

period of encounter of the waves
 rudder compensation for dynamic yaw and orbital motions is

difficult – every half wavelength, the water in the vicinity of the
rudder will be moving in the same direction as the ship and a
reduced turning couple is the result
143
Wave Theory
 Why roll mitigation
 small waves of frequency equal to the ship's natural

frequency cause the ship to roll heavily

144
Wave Theory
Motion-damping devices
all stabilization systems depend on the motion of mass and can

be classified as follows:
1.type of force used
a. counterweight – gravitational force

b. acceleration – inertial force
2.location of system
a. internal
b. external
3.type of mass
a. solid
b. liquid

145
Wave Theory
 only those devices that are frequently used

are discussed next for anti-roll:
 bilge keels
 controllable fins
 anti-rolling tanks
 active gyrostabilitizers

146
Wave Theory
 Bilge keels
model of design with twin bilge

keels

147
Wave Theory
 long fin-like projects attached to ships along the turn

of the bilge and extending from ½to 2/3 of the
length
 simple, well tested, economical, successful for anti-

roll
 continuous attachment of a single, heavy steel plate

structure that projects 2 – 4 ft form the hull and
roughly perpendicular to the hull surface
 on large ships may be a v-shape cross-section and

fitted solidly to prevent damage when docking or
grounding
148
Wave Theory
 regardless of shape or fitting, bilge keels operate according to

a simple theory, recall:
where kx = radius of mass gyration
 with bilge keels projecting from the sides of the ship, have an
increased mass of water to roll with the ship, value of kx in above
equation is increased
 period of roll is increased

149
Wave Theory
 under forcing by waves, with the increased natural

period the amplitude of roll is decreased overall
 major effect of bilge keels is the increased resistant

to roll
 bilge keels more effective when moving ahead

through waves than when stopped (i.e. sitting in
water)
 there is hydrodynamic lift created on the forward

section of the bilge keels which resists the lateral
forces of roll and adds stability to the ship – i.e. a
special case of fixed stabilizing fins
150
Wave Theory
 will not get complete elimination of roll
 disadvantage: added drag in forward motion
 if dynamically suppressed roll is desired should use

active stabilizing fins

151
Wave Theory
 Active stabilizing fins

152
Wave Theory
 used on some large ships and pleasure craft
 consists of a projecting fin – one on each side at

the bilge line and forward of amidships
 some fins are retractable (axially or radially) and

when fully extended can rotate within a limited arc
in a similar manner to a stabilizing fin on an aircraft
of the dive planes on a sub
 fin angle-of-attack is controlled

153
Wave Theory
 a gyroscopic sensing device actuates the motors,

which creates a response to, and anticipates, the
wave roll force
 transmission of motion to the fins produces, at the

right time, the desired angle and results in a force
at the fins that opposes the heeling or rolling wave
forces
 port and starboard fins operate simultaneously with

a 180 degree phase relationship to produce a
correcting roll moment (i.e. one that is opposite to
that created by the waves)
154
Wave Theory
 Effect of employing active stabilizing fins

155
Wave Theory
 Anti-rolling tanks

156
Wave Theory
 the Frahm anti-rolling tank consists of a U-shaped tank

system transversely arranged from side to side (e.g.
port to starboard)
 when the system is half-filled with water, it is designed

so that the natural period of oscillation of the water (the
sloshing) is approximately equal to that of the ship (or
slightly less)
 motion of ship is transferred to the water which then

dissipates it
 located above the ship CG
 effectiveness of anti-rolling tanks

157
Wave Theory
 success of the anti-roll tank is that the

motion of the water should always be
in harmony with the wave excitation
 only happens if frequency of the

exciting waves is equal to the natural
frequency of the tank
 at other frequencies motion of water

can even cause an increase in roll
motion; in the following graph it is
evident that the roll motion has in fact
doubled at 0.4 rad/s.
158
1.7 Accident Case Study on

Parametric Rolling

159
Accident Case Study on Parametric
Rolling
Parametric Roll - vessel motion
The head sea parametric roll is a recently identified phenomenon and

seems especially likely to affect large container ships. Its occurrence
depends on the wave conditions in relation to the dimensions of the
ship, and leads to especially pronounced variations in stability as the
ship sails through critical head or following seas.

160
Rolling
Critical vessels
Parametric rolling occurs in large vessels characterized by the

following:
large flare in the fore and aftship,
flat aftership,
slim fore and aft body,
righting arm varies significant with draft
Critical conditions

161
Rolling
In general parametric rolling occurs only under the

following critical conditions:
head/stern sea conditions
when the natural period of roll is nearly twice the wave

encounter period, resulting in two pitch cycles per roll cycle
wavelength in relation to ship’s length
wave height exceeds critical values
the roll damping is low

162
Rolling
Possibilities to increase the safety
A solution to increase the safety of cargo could be the use

of open-top container vessels.
These have a higher freeboard and the containers are

secured in cell guides.
More realistic provisions to increase the safety of

cargo and vessel in practice could be:
the application of higher lashing levels and optimized

lashing angles
the prevention of parametric rolling in service
163
Rolling
Parametric rolling--the why and wherefore: parametric

rolling has become a major problem for...
Excitation of roll motion caused by wave slope is well known and

comparatively easily explained, especially when the ship is under way
or drifting in beam seas. This excitation can lead to considerably
greater roll angles in case of resonance, ie when the wave period is
approximately equal to the ship's period of roll. However for the latest
container ships and passenger vessels, with their typical hull shape, a
physically different cause of roll motion becomes more and more
relevant to ship operation. This occurs in longitudnal seas where the
wave slope is of negligible influence--it is parametric excitation of roll.

164
Rolling
The meaning of "parametric“
The stability moment of a ship is the product of the righting lever

and its total weight. Both are values which have an influence on
the stability moment. Such values are called "parameters".
In longitudinal waves both parameters oscillate, which causes a

periodic variation of their product, namely the stability moment.
This can trigger roll if it occurs with an appropriate period.
Weight varies only within a limited range but the righting lever
can undergo periodic variations to a large extent. This is the
predominant cause of possible roll excitation, hence the terms
"parametric excitation" and "parametric roll".

165
Rolling
Parametric roll is a serious, but rare phenomenon that can

cause major property damage, up to millions of dollars per
incident.

166
Rolling
Parametric Roll
Click image to play

167
Rolling
Parametric resonance
- occurs when long waves hit the bow or stern of the ship,
with a frequency of about twice the natural roll frequency.
APL China after parametric roll

168
Rolling
Head-sea parametric rolling of container ships

169
1.8 Revised Guidance to Master for

Avoiding Dangerous Situation in
Adverse Weather Conditions

170
Revised Guidance to Master for Avoiding Dangerous
Situation in Adverse Weather Conditions
1. The Maritime Safety Committee, at its eighty-second

session (29 November to 8 December 2006), approved
the Revised Guidance to the master for avoiding
dangerous situations in adverse weather and sea
conditions, set out in the annex, with a view to providing
masters with a basis for decision making on ship
handling in adverse weather and sea conditions, thus
assisting them to avoid dangerous phenomena that they
may encounter in such circumstances.

171
2. Member Governments are invited to bring the annexed

Revised Guidance to the attention of interested parties
as they deem appropriate.
3. This Revised Guidance supersedes the Guidance to the

master for avoiding dangerous situations in following
and quartering seas (MSC/Circ.707).

172
ANNEX
REVISED GUIDANCE TO THE MASTER FOR AVOIDING

DANGEROUS
SITUATIONS IN ADVERSE WEATHER AND SEA
CONDITIONS

173
1. GENERAL
1.1 Adverse weather conditions, for the purpose of the

following guidelines, include wind induced waves or
heavy swell. Some combinations of wave length and
wave height under certain operation conditions may
lead to dangerous situations for ships complying with
the IS Code. However, description of adverse weather
conditions below shall not preclude a ship master from
taking reasonable action in less severe conditions if it
appears necessary.

174
1.2 When sailing in adverse weather conditions, a ship is

likely to encounter various kinds of dangerous
phenomena, which may lead to capsizing or severe roll
motions causing damage to cargo, equipment and
persons on board. The sensitivity of a ship to dangerous
phenomena will depend on the actual stability
parameters, hull geometry, ship size and ship speed.
This implies that the vulnerability to dangerous
responses, including capsizing, and its probability of
occurrence in a particular sea state may differ for each
ship.

175
1.3 On ships which are equipped with an on-board

computer for stability evaluations, and which use
specially developed software which takes into account
the main particulars, actual stability and dynamic
characteristics of the individual ship in the real voyage
conditions, such software should be approved by the
Administration. Results derived from such calculations
should only be regarded as a supporting tool during the
decision making process.

176
1.4 Waves should be observed regularly. In particular, the

wave period TW should be measured by means of a
stop watch as the time span between the generation of
a foam patch by a breaking wave and its reappearance
after passing the wave trough. The wave length λ is
determined either by visual observation in comparison
with the ship length or by reading the mean distance
between successive wave crests on the radar images of
waves.

177
1.4 Waves should be observed regularly. In particular, the

wave period TW should be measured by means of a
stop watch as the time span between the generation of
a foam patch by a breaking wave and its reappearance
after passing the wave trough. The wave length λ is
determined either by visual observation in comparison
with the ship length or by reading the mean distance
between successive wave crests on the radar images of
waves.

178
1.5 The wave period and the wave length λ are related as follows:
1.6 The period of encounter TE could be either measured as the period of

pitching by using stop watch or calculated by the formula:
Where V = ship’s speed [knots]; and

α = angle between keel direction and wave direction (α = 0° means head
sea)

179
1.7 The diagram in figure 1 may as well be used for the determination of the
period of encounter.
1.8 The height of significant waves should also be estimated.

180
2. CAUTIONS
2.1 It should be noted that this guidance to the master has

been designed to accommodate for all types of merchant
ships. Therefore, being of a general nature, the guidance
may be too restrictive for certain ships with more
favourable dynamic properties, or too generous for certain
other ships. A ship could be unsafe even outside the
dangerous zones defined in this guidance if the stability of
the ship is insufficient. Masters are requested to use this
guidance with fair observation of the particular features of
the ship and her behaviour in heavy weather.

181
2.2 It should further be noted that this guidance is restricted

to hazards in adverse weather conditions that may
cause capsizing of the vessel or heavy rolling with a risk
of damage. Other hazards and risks in adverse weather
conditions, like damage through slamming, longitudinal
or torsional stresses, special effects of waves in shallow
water or current, risk of collision or stranding, are not
addressed in this guidance and must be additionally
considered when deciding on an appropriate course
and speed in adverse weather conditions.

182
2.3 The master should ascertain that his ship complies with
the stability criteria specified in the IS Code or an
equivalent thereto. Appropriate measures should be
taken to assure the ship’s watertight integrity. Securing
of cargo and equipment should be re-checked. The
ship’s natural period of roll TR should be estimated by
observing roll motions in calm sea.

183
3. DANGEROUS PHENOMENA
3.1 Phenomena occurring in following and quartering seas A ship

sailing in following or stern quartering seas encounters the waves
with a longer period than in beam, head or bow waves, and
principal dangers caused in such situation are as follows:
3.1.1 Surf-riding and broaching-to
When a ship is situated on the steep forefront of a high wave in

following or quartering sea conditions, the ship can be accelerated
to ride on the wave. This is known as surf-riding. In this situation
the so-called broaching-to phenomenon may occur, which
endangers the ship to capsizing as a result of a sudden change of
the ship’s heading and unexpected large heeling.

184
3.1.2 Reduction of intact stability when riding a wave crest amidships
When a ship is riding on the wave crest, the intact stability can be
decreased substantially according to changes of the submerged hull
form. This stability reduction may become critical for wave lengths
within the range of 0.6 L up to 2.3 L, where L is the ship’s length in
metres. Within this range the amount of stability reduction is nearly
proportional to the wave height. This situation is particularly dangerous
in following and quartering seas, because the duration of riding on the
wave crest, which corresponds to the time interval of reduced stability,
becomes longer.

185
3.2 Synchronous rolling motion
Large rolling motions may be excited when the natural rolling period of
a ship coincides with the encounter wave period. In case of navigation
in following and quartering seas this may happen when the transverse
stability of the ship is marginal and therefore the natural roll period
becomes longer.
3.3 Parametric roll motions
3.3.1 Parametric roll motions with large and dangerous roll amplitudes
in waves are due to the variation of stability between the position on the
wave crest and the position in the wave trough.

186
Parametric rolling may occur in two different situations:
.1 The stability varies with an encounter period TE that is about equal

to the roll period TR of the ship (encounter ratio 1:1). The stability
attains a minimum once during each roll period. This situation is
characterized by asymmetric rolling, i.e. the amplitude with the wave
crest amidships is much greater than the amplitude to the other side.
Due to the tendency of retarded up-righting from the large amplitude,
the roll period TR may adapt to the encounter period to a certain
extent, so that this kind of parametric rolling may occur with a wide
bandwidth of encounter periods. In quartering seas a transition to
harmonic resonance may become noticeable.

187
.2 The stability varies with an encounter period TE that is approximately

equal to half the roll period TR of the ship (encounter ratio 1:0.5).
The stability attains a minimum twice during each roll period. In
following or quartering seas, where the encounter period becomes
larger than the wave period, this may only occur with very large roll
periods TR, indicating a marginal intact stability. The result is
symmetric rolling with large amplitudes, again with the tendency of
adapting the ship response to the period of encounter due to
reduction of stability on the wave crest. Parametric rolling with
encounter ratio 1:0.5 may also occur in head and bow seas.
3.3.2 Other than in following or quartering seas, where the variation of

stability is solely effected by the waves passing along the vessel,
the frequently heavy heaving and/or pitching in head or bow seas
may contribute to the magnitude of the stability variation, in
particular due to the periodical immersion and emersion of the
flared stern frames and bow flare of modern ships.
188
This may lead to severe parametric roll motions even with small wave
induced stability variations.
3.3.3 The ship’s pitching and heaving periods usually equals the
encounter period with the waves. How much the pitching motion
contributes to the parametric roll motion depends on the timing
(coupling) between the pitching and rolling motion.
3.4 Combination of various dangerous phenomena
The dynamic behaviour of a ship in following and quartering seas is

very complex. Ship motion is three-dimensional and various detrimental
factors or dangerous phenomena like additional heeling moments due
to deck-edge submerging, water shipping and trapping on deck or
cargo shift due to large roll motions may occur in combination with the
above mentioned phenomena, simultaneously or consecutively. This
may create extremely dangerous combinations, which may cause ship
capsize.
189
4. OPERATIONAL GUIDANCE
The shipmaster is recommended to take the following procedures of

ship handling to avoid the dangerous situations when navigating in
severe weather conditions.
4.1 Ship condition
This guidance is applicable to all types of conventional ships navigating

in rough seas, provided the stability criteria specified in resolution
A.749(18), as amended by resolution MSC.75(69), are satisfied.

190
4.2 How to avoid dangerous conditions
4.2.1 For surf-riding and broaching-to

Surf-riding and broaching-to may occur when the angle of encounter is

in the range 135°<α<225° and the ship speed is higher than (1.8 √L)
cos (180 −α ) (knots). To avoid surf riding, and possible broaching the
ship speed, the course or both should be taken outside the dangerous
region reported in figure 2.

191

192
For successive high-wave attack

4.2.2.1 When the average wave length is larger than 0.8 L and the
significant wave height is larger than 0.04 L, and at the same time
some indices of dangerous behaviour of the ship can be clearly seen,
the master should pay attention not to enter in the dangerous zone as
indicated in figure 3. When the ship is situated in this dangerous zone,
the ship speed should be reduced or the ship course should be
changed to prevent successive attack of high waves, which could
induce the danger due to the reduction of intact stability, synchronous
rolling motions, parametric rolling motions or combination of various
phenomena.

193
4.2.2.2 The dangerous zone indicated in figure 3 corresponds to such

conditions for which the encounter wave period (TE) is nearly equal to
double (i.e., about 1.8-3.0 times) of the wave period (TW ) (according to
figure 1 or paragraph 1.4).
4.2.3 For synchronous rolling and parametric rolling motions

4.2.3.1 The master should prevent a synchronous rolling motion which
will occur when the encounter wave period TE is nearly equal to the
natural rolling period of ship TR.

194
4.2.3.2 For avoiding parametric rolling in following, quartering,

head, bow or beam seas the course and speed of the ship
should be selected in a way to avoid conditions for which
the encounter period is close to the ship roll period (TE ≈ TR
) or the encounter period is close to one half of the ship roll
period (T E ≈ 0.5 ⋅T R ).
4.2.3.3 The period of encounter TE may be determined from figure

1 by entering with the ship’s speed in knots, the encounter
angle α and the wave period TW .

195

196


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03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

At the end of the course the participants

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

I. Introduction to Winter and

The mariner that neglects the weather factor will

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

I. Introduction to Winter and

I. Introduction to Winter and

I. Introduction to Winter and

From a meteorological perspective,

A dry mechanical instrumentPhilippine

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

A violent whirlwind about an area of low pressure, the tornado is most

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Fig. 12.1 UK coastal

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Table 12.2 Beaufort Weather Notation

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Table 12.3 Wave Scale

State of Sea Height in meters

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Length of swell Height in meters

Height of Swell Height in meters

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

To describe the behavior of any vessel in a heavy sea the mariner

Stiff and link

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Periods of Roll and Encounter

Figure 12.6 Vessel with short

Figure 12.7 Vessel with long

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

This is most dangerous and a highly undesirable

Synchronized pitching - when the period of

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

GENERAL BEHAVIOUR OF VESSEL IN HEAVY 'WEATHER

The options available to a vessels running into

1.Head to sea, or with wind and sea fine on the

1.Stern to sea. at reduced speed, running before

1.Heaving to, preferably in the lee of a land nun.

GENERAL BEHAVIOUR OF VESSEL IN HEAVY 'WEATHER

3. Use of Sea Anchor

5. Tropical Revolving Storm

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

Compact Pack Ice

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

First Year Ice

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

This general term is used to describe any fracture/break of

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

03/09/10 Philippine Center for Advanced Maritime

In general, when a vessel has to advance through ice